Chapter 14

Earth Retaining Structures
14.1 INTRODUCTION
14
Earth retaining structures retain soil and resist lateral earth pressures. They ensure stability to an
area where the ground level is quite different on both sides of the structure (see Figure 10.1), even
to height differences in excess of 10 m. Some major types of earth retaining structures arc:
 Gravity retaining walls

 Cantilever retaining walls
 Sheet pile walls
 Gabion walls
 Diaphragm walls
 Crib walls
 Reinforced earth walls
Gravity retaining walls arc bulky and are made of plain concrete or masonry. They rely on their
selfweight for their stability. They are often unreinforced or nominally reinforced, and become
semigravitywalls. A cantilever retaining wall (Figure 10.1 a) has a smaller cross section and is
made of reinforced concrete. With a vertical wall, often with a slight batter, fixed to a horizontal
base, the retaining wall acts like a vertical cantilever fixed at the bottom. The base width is
generally about 50- 70% of the height. Figure 14.la shows a steel sheet pile wall being driven into
the ground, isolating an area for excavation. Figure 14.lb shows a close-up view of interlocking
segments of a steel sheet pile.
A crib wall (Figure 14.1c) can be constructed relatively fast and can tolerate large differential
settlements due to its flexible nature. Centuries ago, crib walls were made from tree trunks and
branches in the Alpine areas of Austria. Today, they are made of interlocking precast concrete,
timber, or steel elements that are filled with free-draining, granular soils such as gravels or
crushed rocks. The self-weight of the granular fill within the interior of the crib wall contributes
to the stability of the wall. The width of the wall is typically 50-100% of the height reaching as
high as 6 m. They are often tilted toward the backfill with a slope of 6: 1 or less. They are
generally designed as rigid retaining walls, using Rankine's or Coulomb's theories.
377
Figure 14.1d shows a riverbank slope being stabilized through soil nailing. Here, 75-150 mm
diameter holes are made in the soil, where a 20-30 mm-diameter steel bar is placed and the
annular area filled with cement grout, injected under pressure. This is repeated at other locations,
with the soil
378 Geotechnical Engineering
Figure 14.1 Earth retaining structures: (a) steel sheet pile walls (b) interlocking sections of sheet piles(c) crib wall (d)
soil nailing (e) diaphragm wall (f) MSE wall
Earth Retaining Structures 379
nails spaced at certain intervals. On completion of the nail installation, the face of the slope can be
shotcreted. The early applications of soil nailing were limited to temporary earth-retaining
systems, but today they are also used as permanent structures. Tiebacks are similar to soil nails,
but are prestressed.
A diaphragm wall is a relatively thin, reinforced concrete wall, cast in place in a trench to
a depth as high as 50 m. Figure 14.1e shows a diaphragm wall built several meters below the
ground during the construction of an underground transport facility. A trench is excavated and
filled with bentonite slurry as the excavation proceeds. During excavation, the slurry provides
lateral support to the walls of the excavation. On completion of excavation, the trench is full of
slurry, which has thixotropic properties (it hardens when undisturbed and liquefies when
agitated). A reinforcement cage is placed into the slurry-filled trench and the n concreted using
trernie pipes. The trernie pipe has a funnel at the top and is used to place concrete under water.
Diaphragm walls are a structural element that can also become a part of the permanent structure.
They are generally constructed in short alternating panel widths, giving sufficient time for the
concrete between the panels to cure. Without the reinforcement and concrete, the slurry wall can
be used as an impervious barrier in landfills and excavations.
Gabions are large steel wire cages filled with gravels or cobbles. They are assembled like
building blocks and are tied to the adjacent cages (Figure 1.1e). They are analyzed like gravity
walls. They are used as retaining walls along highways, and for erosion protection along
riverbanks.
Figure 14.l if shows a mechanically stabilized earth wall, often known as an MSE wall.
This is a special case of reinforced earth walls where tensile elements such as metal strips,
geofabrics, or geogrids are placed within the soil at certain intervals to improve stability.
Relatively thin precast concrete panels are used in the exterior of the wall.
The designs of retaining walls, sheet piles, and braced excavations arc discussed in detail
in the sections that follow. The lateral earth pressure theories covered in Chapter 10 will be used
to compute the lateral loads on the retaining structures. Due to its simplicity, Rankine's earth
pressure theory is preferred over Coulomb's in the designs of retaining walls and sheet piles. It is
assumed that the active and passive states are fully mobilized on both sides of the walls.
14.2 DESIGN OF RETAINING WALLS

The two major types of retaining walls, the gravity retaining wall and the cantilever retaining
wall, are shown retaining granular backfills in figure 14.2. To ensure free draining, thus
minimizing problems due to the buildup of pore water pressures, the backfills behind retaining
walls are generally granular. The retaining wall can fail in three different modes:
a. Sliding—By sliding along the base of the wall

b. Overturning—By overturning or toppling about the toe
c. Bearing capacity—By failing beneath the base of the wall (within the soil)
Of the three failure modes, the first two are the most critical, and it is often assumed that the
bearing capacity failure does not occur. Nevertheless, it is a good practice to check.
Figure 14.2 Free body diagram for equilibrium considerations of gravity and cantilever
retaining walls
The equations developed in Chapter 10 under Rankine's earth pressure theory assume a
smooth vertical wall. This is not the case with the retaining walls in figure 14.2 where the walls
are inclined. Let's make a simplification here by considering the two dashed vertical lines passing
through the toe and the heel as the smooth vertical walls of heights h and H, and treating the soil
and concrete enclosed with in them to act as a monolithic rigid body. The soil and concrete within
the rigid block are broken into triangular or rectangular zones (numbered l, 2,…,6) for ease in
computing their weights
W i and horizontal distances x i of the centroids from the toe.
Assuming that the active and passive states arc fully mobilized,
PA and
PP can be
computed using Rankine's earth pressure theory. They are given by:
(10.10)
1
PA  K A γH 2
2
1
PP  K P γh 2 (10.11)
2
The ground level being horizontal on the passive side,
K P can be computed as:
1+sin {φ '
K P=
( 1−sin { φ '¿ )
¿ =tan2 ( 45+φ' /2 )
In the active side, since the ground is inclined at an angle of β to horizontal,

K A must be
calculated from Equation 10.12 given below:
cos   cos 2   cos 2  

K A  cos  (10.12)
cos   cos 2   cos 2  
The retaining wall is in equilibrium under the following forces:
•
W 1 , W2 ,...,W n
• Active thrust
PA
• Passive thrust
PP
• Vertical reaction at the base R
• Shear resistance to sliding S
a. Stability with respect to sliding:
When
PA is substantially larger than P
P , there is a possibility that the wall may slide along
the base and become unstable. The stability is threatened by
P A , which is the driving force.
Any attempt to make the wall slide is resisted by
P P and S. The maximum possible value for
the shear resistance S is given by:
 n

sin    Wi  tan δ
S max   PA(14.1)
 i 1 
where δ is the wall friction angle discussed

2
in Section 10.4. For a soil-concrete interface, δ
' φ
'
can be taken as 0.5-0.8 φ , with 3 being a popular choice. The safety factor with respect
to sliding is defined as:
Maximum resistance available PP  S max

Fsliding  
Driving force PAcos  (14.2)
which
'
has to be greater than l.5. If the soil is cohesive (e.g., clayey sand), the adhesion term b
c a has to be included in the numerator; its contribution improves the stability, and hence
'
increases the safety factor. Here, b is the width of the base c a is the adhesion, which is about
'
0.5-0.7 times the cohesion c (see Section 10.4).
b. Stability with respect to overturning:
When
PA is substantially larger than P
P , there is the possibility that the wall can overturn
about the toe. For equilibrium, the moment about the toe has to be zero. Therefore:
 n  h H
  Wi xi   PP  P(14.3)
A cos β b R x 0
 i 1  3 3
 n  h H
R x    Wi xi   PP  PA sin β b  PA cos  (14.4)
 i 1  3 3
For no overturning to occur, there has to be contact between the base and the soil. Implying that
RX is positive:
 n  h H
   Wi xi   PP  PA sin β b  PA cos 
 i 1  3 3
The right side of the above inequality is the
driving moment (counterclockwise) that attempts to cause the overturning. The left side of the
inequality is the resisting moment (clockwise) that resists any attempt for instability. Therefore,
the safety factor with respect to overturning is defined as:
 n  h
  Wi xi   PP  PA sin β b
Resisting moment
(14.5)  i 1  3
Foverturning  
Driving moment H
PA cos 
3
which has to be greater than 2.0.

c. Stability with respect to bearing capacity:
The walls are designed such that the resultant vertical force R acts within the middle third of the
base so that the entire soil below the base is in compression. The base can be treated as a strip
footing of width b in computing the ultimate bearing capacity
q ult . The eccentricity and
inclination of the applied load should be incorporated in the bearing capacity equation (Equation
q
12.7) in computing ult . The footing depth
Df in the hearing capacity equation can be taken
as h.
For equilibrium:
 n 
R    Wi   PA sin  (14.6)
 i 1 
S=P A cos β −P P (14.7)
What happens if the computed value of

P p exceeds A P cos β ? Obviously, S is not going
to reverse ts direction. It just means that the passive resistance is not fully mobilized and the
design is conservative. Remember that active resistance has to be fully mobilized first . The
inclination a of the applied load to vertical is given by:
S
α=tan−1
R (14.8)
which should be used in Equations 12.12 and 12.13 in computing the load inclination factors. A
conservative approach is to ignore the passive resistance and overestimate both S and α .
Otherwise,
P A cos β has to be distributed betweenP and S in some sensible way (e.g., the same
p
level of mobilization of passive and sliding resistances).
From Equation 14.4:
 n  h H
  Wi xi   PP  PA sin β b  PA cos 
3 3
x   i 1 
(14.9)
R
The eccentricity of the applied load is given by:
e  x  (14.10)
0.5b
It is a common practice to ensure that the load acts within the middle third of the base width (I.e.,
e < b/6) so that the soil beneath the entire base is in compression. Computation of the pressure
distribution beneath the base can be carried out as shown in Section 12.4, where the maximum
applied pressure is given by:
Q  6e 
qmax  1  
(12.20)
B B
The safety factor with respect to bearing capacity can be determined as:
q
Fbearing capacity  ult,net
qmax (14.11)
which has to be greater than 3.0.

If there is a likelihood that all or part of the soil in front of the wall on the passive side may
be removed, the designer should not rely on the passive resistance and assume
Pp = 0 or use a
Pp
reduced value of .
Example 14.1: Evaluate the stability of the retaining wall shown on the top of page 384 with
respect to sliding, overturning, and bearing capacity.
Solution:
φ' = 33º → K A =tan2 45- ( φ2 )=0 . 295 and K = tan ( 45+ φ2 )=3 . 392
p
2
P A=0. 5 K A γH 2 =0 . 5 × 0 .295×18 × 52 =66 . 4 kN per m width

2 2
P p =0 .5 K A γH =0 .5 × 3 .392×18 × 1 =30.5 kN per m width
Example14.1: Continued
2 '
δ= φ =22°
Let's assume 3 :
P P+ S max 30 .5+ ( 180×tan 22 )

∴ F sliding = = =1. 55>1 .5
PA 66 . 4
Resisting moment ( 180×0 . 75 ) + ( 30 .5×0.33 )

Foverturning = =
Driving moment 66 . 4×1 .667
The wall is safe with respect to sliding, but unsafe with respect to overturning.
Bearing capacity:
S=P A −P P=66 . 4−30 .5=35 .9 kN ; R=W=180 . 0 kN
From Equation 14.8:
S 35 . 9
α=tan−1 =tan−1 =11. 3 °
R 180
When one of the three safety factors is less than the minimum suggested values, the section of the
retaining wall has to be modified. When
Fsliding is low, it can be improved by providing a key
Figure 14.3 Key at the
base of a retaining wall
at the base of the wall. A key is simply an extended wall that protrudes into the soil beneath the
base as shown in Figure 14.3.
The soil enclosed within the dashed lines is assumed to act as a rigid body along with the key
PP PA
and the rest of the wall. This increases the values of hand H, and hence and . Since
KP PP
is an order of magnitude greater than , the increase in is very much greater than that
in P Io This significantly increases the safety factor with respect to sliding.
14.3 CANTILEVER SHEET PILES

When it is required to carry out wide and deep excavations, it is required to support the sides
against any possible instability. For up to about 6 m of excavations, cantilever sheet piles are quite
effective. For larger depths, they become uneconomical, and it becomes necessary to use
anchored sheet piles, which are disc used in Section 14.4. Sheet piles are made of interlocking
sheets of timber, steel (Figure 14.1a and 14.l.b), or concrete, making a continuous flexible wall. A
typical cantilever sheet pile arrangement is shown in Figure 14.4, where the depth of
Figure 14.4 Cantilever sheet pile: (a) original ground (b) sheet pile driven in prior
to excavation (c) after excavation
excavation is h and the depth of embedment is d. Here, a sheet pile is driven into the in situ soil
(Figures 14.4a and 14.4b), which is followed by excavation to the desired level (Figure 14.4c).
The sheet pile acts like a vertical cantilever, fixed at the bottom and loaded horizontally; hence
the name. A cantilever sheet pile relies on the passive resistance developed in the embedded
portion for its stability.
14.3.1 In Granular Soils
Let's consider the situation in granular soils, and assume that the water table is below the tip of
the sheet pile. When the sheet pile wall deflects left as a result of the excavation, it rotates about a
point O near the tip (Figure 14.5a), which is at a depth of
d 0 below the excavation level The
top of the sheet pile moves from A to A' and the bottom lip moves from B to B'. Assuming that
there is enough movement to mobilize active and passive resistance in the surrounding soil, it is
possible to define these zones as shown in Figure 14.5b based on the directions of wall
movements. The lateral pressure distribution on both sides of the sheet pile is shown in Figure
14.5c.
Figure 14.5 Analysis of cantilever sheet pile: (a) original and deflected positions
(b) active and passive zones (c) lateral pressure distribution
Method I: Simplified analysis
In an attempt to simplify this further, it can be assumed that the point of rotation O is close to the
tip of the sheet pile B (Figure 14.6a) and the lateral pressure distribution below O is replaced by a
horizontal force R acting at O. With this Simplification, the lateral pressure distribution reduces to
the one shown in Figure 14.6b, which is the basis for the design of cantilever sheet piles. Here, the
sheet pile is in equilibrium under three forces: active thrust PA , passive thrust PI» and horizontal
2
reaction R where PA  1 2 K A γ(h + d. 0 ) 2 and PP  1 2 K P γd 0
Figure 14.6 Simplified analysis: (a) original and deflected

positions (b) approximate lateral pressure distribution
Taking moment about O:

h  d0 d
PA   PP  0
3 3
1 h  d0 1 d
K A γ h  d 0  
2 2
 K P γd 0  0
2 3 2 (14.12)
3
h
d0 
KP
3 1
KA
From the friction angle of the granular soil and h,
d
0 can be determined. The maximum
bending
moment occurs below the excavation line where the shear force is zero. This depth z¿ below
the
excavation line can be computed as follows, by equilibrium consideration of horizontal forces:
1 1
K P γz   K A γ  h  z  
2
2 2
(14.13)
h
z 
KP
1
KA
The maximum bending moment can be computed as:
M max 
1
6

γ K A  h  z    K P z
3 3
 (14.14)
From the theory of bending:

M max
 allowable  y
I
The section modulus S required for the cross section of the sheet pile is defined as:
M max I
S 
 allowable y (14.15)
where I is the moment of inertia about the axis of bending and y is the distance to the edge from
the neutral axis. The required sheet pile can be selected on the basis of the section modulus, which
is generally provided in the sheet-piling catalogues.
With all the approximations made, we have not yet incorporated any safety factor in the
analysis. It can be done in two ways:
d
a. Increase the value of 0 computed by 20- 40%; or
b. Provide a safety factor F of 1.5-2.0 on the passive resistance and use
K P /F . Here we
assume that only a fraction of passive resistance is mobilized, and hence do not rely on the full
passive resistance for stability.
Example 14.2: Develop an expression for

d 0 similar to Equation 14.12 with a safety factor
F on the passive resistance.
Solution:
h+ d 0 d0
P A× =P P ×
3 3
1 2 h+ d 0 1 d0
K A γ ( h+d 0 ) × = K P γd 2 ×
2 3 2 0 3
h+d 0 3 K P
( ) d0
=
K AF
h
d 0=
KP
√
3
KA
−1
Method 2: Using the net lateral pressure diagram
A better and more realistic method, but one that is a little more complex, is described below. Here
we will draw the net horizontal' pressure diagram as shown in Figure 14.7. To the right of
C , {σ 'v=γh¿ '
, and therefore, σ h=K A γh=σ 1 .
Let's measure z downward from the excavation level. At a depth of z below the excavation
level, there is active pressure on the right and passive pressure on the left, given by:
  K A v  K A γ h  z 
 ha
  K P v  K P γz
 hp
The net pressure, from right to left , is given by:
   ha
 hn    hp  K A  K P  γz   1   K P  K A  γz
  K A γh (14.16)
z0
At a depth of below the excavation, the net pressure becomes zero. This depth is given by:
 1 KA
z0   h
 KP  K A   KP  K A 
Figure 14.7 Net lateral pressure diagram for a cantilever sheet pile
in dry granular soils
From Equation 14.16, it can be seen that for every unit depth increase below the excavation level,
σ
'
K −K Α ) γ
the net pressure hn decreases by ( P . Therefore, the slope of the line GH is 1
( K P−K A ) γ
vertical to horizontal:
 2  HB  z 2  K P  K A   K Pd  K A  h  d  (14.18)
At the bottom of the sheet pile, there is active earth pressure on the left and passive earth pressure
on the right. They are:
  K A γd
 ha
  K P γ h  d 
 hp
Therefore, the net lateral earth pressure from right to left is given by:
   hp
 hn   K P γ h  d  γz  K A γd
   ha
'
i.e., σ 3=K P γh−( K P−K A )γd .
Substituting
d = z 0 + z2 :
 3  K A γh   K P  K A  γz0   K P  K A  γz 2   4   K P  K A  γz 2 (14.19)
where is4 aknown

K P γh quantity,
( K P  Kgiven
A )γz 0by:
 4  K P γh  ( K P  K A )γz0 (14.20)
Let's have a close look at the net pressure diagram in Figure 14.7. There are two unknowns, l z
and
z2 . These can be determined from equilibrium equations. Let's include the area IHBF on
both sides so that the computations are simpler. Adding up the horizontal forces for equilibrium:
1 1
P z1   2   3   z 2 2  0 (14.21)
2 2
where P is the area of the pressure diagram AGD. From Equation 14.21:
 2 z2  2 P
z1 
 2   3 (14.22)
Taking moment about B:

1
P  z1  z     2   3  z1 z1  1  2 z2 z2  0 (14.23)
2 3 2 3
From Equations 14. 18, 14.1 9, 14.20, 14.22, and 14.23, it can be shown that:
z 24  A1 z 23  A2 z22  A3 z2  A4  0 (14.24)
where:
A1 
 4
; A2 
8P
; A3 

6 P 2 z γ  K p  K A    4  P  6 z  4  4 P 
; and A4  2

 Kp  KA  
 Kp  KA 
2
γ Kp  KA 
2
  Kp  KA 
2

Equation 14.24 can be solved by a trial-and-error iterative process, and 2 can be found. To z
d ( =z 0 + z2 )
incorporate the safety factor, the penetration can be increased by 20-40%, or a
K P /F
safety factor F of 1.5-2.0 can be provided on passive resistance (i.e., use ). The
maximum bending moment occurs at the point of zero shear that can be easily located.
'
Example 14.3: A 4 m-deep
3
excavation is to be carried out in dry sands where φ = 34°
and γ= 18 kN/m . Determine the sheet pile's required depth of penetration using (a) a
net lateral pressure diagram, and (b) Equation 14.1 2.
'
Solution: φ = 34°→ K A =0. 283 and K p =3. 537
a. Net pressure diagram approach:
σ '1=K A γh= 0 . 283× 18 × 4 = 20 . 4 kPa
( K P−K A ) γ =( 3 .537−0 . 283 )×18=58 .6 kpa m depth

KA 0 .283
z0 = h= ×4=0 .35 m
( K P−K A ) 3 .537-0 . 283
P=0.5 × 20. 4 × 4 + 0.5 ×20.4 × 0 .35 = 40.8 + 3 .57 =44.37 kN per m

40 .8× 1 .683+3.57 ×0. 233
z̄ = =4.70
44 .37
'
σ 4 =K P γh−(K P−K A )γz 0 =3 . 537 × 18 × 4 + (3 . 537−0. 283 ) × 18 × 0. 35 =275 .16
σ '4
A1 = ¿¿¿
γ ¿ ¿¿
8P 8×14 . 37
A 2= = =6 . 06 m 2
γ ( K p −K A ) 18 ( 3 .537−0 . 283 )
A3 =6 P ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿
P ( 6 z̄ σ '4 +4 P ) 44 .37 ( 6×1 .57 ×275. 16+ 4× 44 . 37 )
A 4= = =35 .82 m4
γ 2 ( K P −K A )2 182 ( 3 .537−0 . 283 )2
Continues
Example 14.3: Continued
Equation 14.24 becomes:
f ( z 2 )=z42 + 4 .70 z32 −6 .06 z22 −35 .62 z2 −35.82=0
By trial and error

f ( 2 . 93 )=0 → z 2 =2. 93 m d=z 2 + z 0= 2 . 93+0 .35 =3 .28 m
b. Using Equation 14. 12:
h 4
d=d 0 = =
KP 3 .537
√
3
KA
−1 √
3
0 . 283
−1
The above d from both methods must be increased by 20-40%.
When either the water table or more than one soil layer is present, there will be breaks in the
lateral pressure diagram, but the concepts remain the same. In dredging operations where
excavation takes place below the water table, sheet piles can be used to support the walls of the
excavation as shown in Figure 14.8. The depth of excavation is h where the water table is at a
h1 ( ¿ h )
depth of . The water pressure is the same on both sides and will not be considered in
the analysis.
'
At the water table level to the right of the wall, σ 'v =γ m h1 , hence {σ h=K A γh1 . ¿
Figure 14.8 Net lateral pressure diagram for a cantilever sheet pile in partially
submerged granular soils

' ' '

At the excavation level to the right of C , σ v =¿ γ m h1 , hence {σ h =¿ K A ( γ m h1 + γ h 2 ) . ¿
At a depth of z below the excavation level:
' '
σ 'ha =¿ K A ( γ m h1 +γ ' h 2 +γ ' z ) and { σ hp =K P γ z
σ 'hn=σ 'ha =σ 'hp= K A ( γ m h1 +γ ' h 2 ) + ( K A − K P )

The net pressure from right to left is given by:
γz   1   K P  K A  γz.
z0
The depth where the net pressure becomes zero (point D) is given by:
 1
z0 
 K P  K A  γ (14.25)
'
For every unit depth increase below the excavation level, the net pressure σ hn decreases by
 K P  Therefore,
K A  γ the slope of the line GH is 1 vertical to  K P  K A  γ
horizontal:
∴ σ '2 =HB =¿ z 2 ( K P −K A ) γ ' ¿ (14.26)
At the bottom of the sheet pile, there is passive earth pressure on the right and active earth
pressure on the left. They are:
σ 'ha=K A γd
' '
σ 'ha =¿ K P ( γ m h1 + γ h2 + γ d ) ¿
' ' ' ' ' '

σ 'hn = σ hp − σ ha =¿ K P ( γ m h1 + γ h 2 + γ d )−¿ K A γ d = σ 3 =BJ . ¿ ¿
The net pressure
d = z0 + z 2
Substituting :
σ '
3 =¿ K P ( γ m h1 + γ ' h 2) +¿ ¿ ¿ ¿
(14.27)
'
where σ 4 is a known quantity given by:
'
σ '4 = ¿ K P ( γ m h1 + γ h2 ) +¿ ¿ ¿ ¿
(14.28)
A
From equilibrium considerations, Equations 14.21 through 14.24 still hold. The values of 1
A
through 4 are slightly different, replacing the bulk unit weight with the submerged unit weight
(see Worked Example 5)
.
14.3.2 In Cohesive Soils
Let's consider a situation where the water level is above the excavation line, and the soil beneath
the excavation line is cohesive, as shown in Figure 14.9. Immediately after the installation of the
φ u =¿ 0 ¿ ¿ ¿
sheet piles, we will treat the day as undrained with and work
in terms of total stresses in the clay. As before, we will neglect the water pressure, which is the
same on both sides.
Figure 14.9 Net lateral pressure diagram in cohesive soils
In the granular soil layer to the right of the .sheet pile, the active pressures can be computed
as before and P and z̄ can be determined. For example, at the bottom of the granular soil:
'
p1 =K A , g ( γ m , g h1 + γ g h2 )
At a depth of z within the clay and above the point of rotation to the right of the sheet pile:
'
σ ha =¿ ¿ ¿
The subscripts g and c represent granular and cohesive soils respectively.
At a depth of z within the clay and above the point of rotation to the left of the sheet pile:
σ hp =¿γ sat,c z+¿2c u ¿¿

The net lateral pressure in the clay above the point of rotation, acting from left to right, is given
by:
' ' '
σ 'hn = σ hp − σ ha =¿ 4 c u −( γ m , g h1 + γ g h2 ) =¿ p 2 = HB. ¿ ¿
(14.29)
At the bottom of the sheet pile, the passive pressure from right to left is:
'
σ hp =¿ ¿ ¿
and the active pressure from left to right is:
σ ha =¿ γsat,c d+¿2c u ¿¿
Therefore, the net pressure from right to left is given by:

' ' '
σ 'hn = σ hp − σ ha =¿ 4 c u + ( γ m , g h1 + γ g h2 ) =¿ p 3 ¿¿
(14.30)
As before, let’s include the area IHBF on both sides of the pressure diagram to make the solution
simpler.
By equating the horizontal forces to zero:
1
P+ ¿¿
2
1 ' ' '
P+ [ 4 c u −( γ m,g h 1 + γ g h2 )+¿4 cu +(γ m,g h1 + γ g h 2 )]h4 −[4 c u−(γ m, g h 1 + γ g h 2 )]d =0 ¿
2
' −¿ P
∴ h4 =[( γm, g h1 + γ g h2 +¿γ sat,c d)]d ¿¿
4 cu (14.31)
where
h4 is obtained in terms of d. Taking moment about the bottom of the sheet pile and
equating this to zero:
2
1 h4 ' d2
P ( d + z̄ ) + 8 c u −[( γ m , g h 1 + γ g h2 ) ] =0
2 3 2 (14.32)
From Equations 14.31 and 14.32:
' 2
[ 4 c u−(γm, g h1 + γ g h2 )]d −¿2Pd−P¿¿¿¿¿¿ (14.33)
Solving Equation 14.33 by trial and error, d can be determined. In days, it is required to increase
the penetration depth by 40-60%.
14.4 ANCHORED SHEET PILES

When the excavations get deeper (i.e., h > 6 m), the loadings on the sheet piles increase
significantly, resulting in larger depths of embedment d and larger bending moments, making it
necessary to go for thicker sections. Both the depth of the embedment and the section can be
reduced by anchoring the sheet pile as shown in Figure 14.10a. Such anchored sheet piles or
anchored bulkheads are commonly used in waterfront structures. Here, the tie rod is attached to
the sheet pile and anchored at the other end using a deadman, braced piles, sheet piles, etc. A
deadman is simply a concrete block that provides anchorage to a tie rod. It can also be in the form
of a continuous beam 10 which all tie rods are connected.
Figure 14.10 Anchored sheet pile: (a) anchored by a deadman (b) free earth support (e) fixed earth
support
There are two different methods to design an anchored sheet pile: (a) the free earth support
method, and (b) the fixed earth support method. The free earth support method assumes that the
sheet pile is not deep enough to provide fixity at the bottom and allows rotation at the bottom tip
P ,P ,
of the sheet pile. It acts as a simply supported beam in equilibrium under A P and T. The
analysis is quite straightforward and is discussed below. The deflected shape of a sheet pile in the
free earth support method is shown by a dashed line in Figure 14.10b. The fixed earth support
method assumes that the sheet pile is driven deep enough to provide some fixity at the bottom of
the sheet pile, which introduces a reverse bend as shown by the dashed line in Figure 14.10c. The
analysis is more complex. The depth of penetration is more for the fixed earth support method.
but the maximum bending moment may be less; hence the cross section of the sheet pile can be
smaller.
14.4.1 Free Earth Support Method

Let's consider a simple situation where the anchored sheet pile is in dry granular soils, where the
lateral pressure distribution is as shown in Figure 14.10b. The active state is fully mobilized on
the right side and the passive state is only partially mobilized on the left. The resultant active and
A γ  h  d  EquatingPthe 2horizontal
P  1 FP γd 2 forces to zero:
2 K
passive thrusts are: PA  12 Kand
T + P P =¿ P A ¿
(14.34)

2
 h  d   a   PP  h  a  2 d 
PA  (14.35)
3   3 
d can be determined from Equation 13.35. T can be obtained by substituting for d in Equation
13.34. The safety factor F on passive resistance is generally 1.5-2.0, as in the case of a cantilever
sheet pile. As before, an alternate approach is not to use F and simply increase d by 20-40%. It is
also possible to use net pressure diagrams as before.
Example 14.4: Find the depth3 of embedment d3 for the anchored sheet pile in sands
( φ' =32 ° , γ m =¿16.0 kN/m ,γ sat =¿19.5 kN/m ¿¿ )as shown below, with a safety factor of
2.0 on passive resistance. Also, find the force on the tie rod, placed at 3 m horizontal
intervals.
φ ' =32° → K A =¿ 0. 307 and K P =¿3 .255 ¿ ¿
' ' '

The horizontal pressures σ 1 , σ 2 , and σ 3 are given by:
σ '1 =¿0 .307 [ 2×16. 0 ] =¿9 .82 kPa ¿¿
3. 255
σ '2 = [ 9.69d ] =¿15.77d ¿
2.0
σ '3 =¿0.307 [2 × 16.0 + ( 6 + d )× 9.69 ] =¿2.98d + 27.67 ¿¿
Block Hor. force (kN/m) Depth below O (m) Moment about 0 (kN-m/m)
1 0.5 ×9. 82 × 2 = 9 .82 0.33 3.24
2 9.82(6 + d) = 58.92 + 9.82d 4.0 + 0.5d 235. 7 + 68.74 d + 4 .91d 2
3 0.5(2.98d + 17.85)(6 + d) 5.0 + 0.67d d 3 + 19.42d 2 + 125 .23 d
2
= 1.49 d + 17.87d + + 267.75
53.55
4 0.5 × 15.77 d×d = 7 .89 d 2 7.0 + 0.67d 55.23 d 2 +5.29 d 3

3 2 2 3
3.24 + (235. 7 + 68.74 d + 4 .91d 2 ) +(d +¿19A2d +¿125.23d+ 267.75)=¿ 55 .23d +¿5.29d ¿¿¿¿
4.29d 3  30.9d 2  193.97  506.69  0
Solving the above equation by trial and error, d = 5.3 m.

For equilibrium,
2 2
T = P P−¿ P A =¿ 9.82+¿(58.92+¿98.2d)+¿(1.49d +¿17.87d+¿53.55)−¿(7.89d ) ¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿
If the tie rods are spaced at 3 m intervals, the load per tie rod is 267.9 kN.
14.4.2 Deadman Anchor—A Simplified Approach

The deadman anchor should be located far away from the sheet pile as shown in Figure 14.11a,
where the minimum distance is governed by the two dashed lines that define the active and
passive failure zones. This ensures that the passive wedge created by the anchor does not interfere
with the active wedge behind the sheet pile.
The anchor is designed for a higher load with a safety factor F of about 1.5-2. If the anchor is
b > 0.5 d a
near the ground surface with (see Figure 14.11 b), it can be assumed that the anchor
and the soil above the anchor act together as a rigid block, with active pressure on the right and
passive pressure on the left, acting over the entire depth of the anchor
d a (on DF and AC). In
the case of a continuous beam deadman, from equilibrium considerations:
1 1  1
F  T   K P γd a2  K A γd a2  s  ( K P  K A ) γd a2 s (14.36)
 2 2 2
where T is the tie rod force and sis the horizontal spacing of the tie rods. The depth of the anchor
can be determined from Equation 14.36. The same steps apply to isolated anchors as well.
Figure 14.11 Anchor: (a) location (b) force equilibrium
14.5 BRACED EXCAVATIONS

When narrow and deep trenches are excavated for the installation of pipelines or other services, it
is necessary to protect the walls against any potential failure. Here, sheet piles are driven into the
ground prior to the excavation. As excavation proceeds, wales and struts are placed from top to
bottom. Wales are the beams placed longitudinally along the length of the excavation. Struts arc
placed between the wales on the opposite sides of the wall to carry the earth pressure in
compression. To design the bracing system, it is necessary to know the lateral pressure
distribution along the walls of the excavation. Based on the in situ strut load measurements of
several excavations under different soil conditions in Chicago and in other areas, Peck (1969)
proposed pressure envelopes and suggested using them in designs. A schematic diagram of a
braced excavation and the pressure envelopes for three different soil conditions are shown in
Figure 14. 12.
The analysis of the bracing systems to determine the strut loads is a straightforward exercise.
It is assumed that all the wall-strut joints, except for those of the top and the bottom struts, act as
hinges. In Figure 14.12, joints B, C, D, and E act like hinges that do not carry any moments. The
pressure diagrams can be broken along each hinge into several blocks, and equilibrium equations
can be written for each block to solve for the unknown strut loads. At any hinge' where' ' the
pressure diagram is divided, the strut force is broken into two components (e.g., F2 and { F 2 ¿ ),
one acting on each adjacent ' block. ''
After these components are computed separately, they are
added together (i.e., F 2 =F 2 + F 2 ) to give the strut load.
F
igure 14.12 Pressure envelopes
Example 14.5: The braced excavation system shown in figure (a) at the top of page 401 is
proposed for a 12 m-deep excavation in clays where the unconfined compressive
strength is 90 kPa and saturated unit weight is . Estimate the strut loads if
the struts are spaced at 3.5 m intervals horizontally.
γH
H =12 m,cu ¿ 45 kPa, γ =¿ 18. 9 kN/m 3 )→c u < soft-medium clay ¿
Solution: 4
The pressure diagram is shown in figures band c on page 401:
γH − 4 c u =¿ 18.9×12−¿4¿ 45 =¿46.8 kPa; 0.31γ H =¿0.3 ¿ 18.9¿12=¿68.0 kPa ( larger) ¿¿¿¿¿
The wall-strut joints for struts 2 and 3 at Band C are taken as hinges, and the lateral
pressure diagram is divided (represented by dashed lines) through these hinges into
blocks 1, 2, and 3 (see figure c on page 401). The strut loads
F2 and F3 are split into
two components.
For equilibrium of block 1:
1
( )
∑ MomentB =¿ 0→ F1 ¿3 . 0= 2 ¿68¿3 .0 ¿3. 5 ¿3 . 0 +¿(68 ¿ 2¿3 .5 )¿1. 0 ¿¿
Fl =¿ 515.7 kN ¿
Continues
1
( )
∑ Hor .forces=0→F 1 + F'2 = 2 ¿68 ¿3 .0 ¿3 . 5 +¿(68 ¿ 2 ¿3 .5)=¿ 833 .0 kN ¿¿
∴ F '2 =¿317.3 kN ¿
For equilibrium of block 2, and by symmetry:
' 1
F'2' + F 3 = ¿68 ¿3.0¿3.5=¿57.0 kN ¿
2
For equilibrium of block 3:
∑ MomentC =¿0→F 4 ¿ 3.0 =¿(68 ¿ 4¿3.5)¿2.0→F 4 =¿ 634.7 kN ¿¿¿

∑ Hor .forces =0→ F 4 +¿ F ''3 =¿68 ¿ 4 ¿3.5 =¿952.0 kN→ F'3' =¿ 317 .3 kN ¿¿¿¿
Strut load summary:
F1 =51 5.7 kN
F2 =¿ 317.3 +¿ 357.0 =¿ 674.3 kN ¿¿¿
F3 =¿357.0 +¿ 317.3 =¿674.3 kN ¿¿¿
F 4 =¿ 634.7 kN ¿
14.5.1 Bottom Heave in Soft Clays

When braced excavations are made in soft clays, there is a possibility of bottom heave. While the
wall and the bracing system remain stable, the self-weight of the soil next to the sheet pile and the
surcharge on the ground can push the soil at the base into the excavation, endangering safety. We
c
will analyze this problem by treating eb as the base of a footing in undrained days using u and
φ u=0.
In the case of a long cut, the base is assumed to be a strip footing. The width of the
excavation is B and the depth is H (see Figure 14.13).
The assumed failure surface abcd consists of straight lines (ab and cd) and circular arc bc as
shown by the dashed lines. The circular arc extends to the firm ground underlying the soft day.
φ u=0, α= 45°
When .
The net ultimate bearing capacity at eb is cuwhere N c,strip is N
the (  5.14)
bearing
c,strip capacity factor for
a strip footing in undrained clays. If the length L of the excavation is not long enough to assume
plane-strain conditions (i.e., strip footing), the net ultimate bearing capacity is:
 B  (14.37)
qult,net  cu N c ,strip 1  0.2 
 L
The net applied pressure at eb is:
Load BLHγ  qBL  cu HL H

qapp,net    γH (14.38)
q  cu
Area BL B
Figure 14.13 Bottorn heave in soft clays

Therefore the safety factor against bottom heave is given by:

 B 
cu N c, strip  1  0.2 
 L  (14.39)
Fbottom heave 
H
γH  q  cu
B
When the firm ground is near the bottom of the excavation with T≤B / 2 , de is less than B √
and B = T . When T exceeds B / 2 , de extends to the full width of the excavation, and the
√
'
circular arc failure surface be would not be tangent to the firm ground underneath. Here,
B ' =B / 2 . In other words. B' should be taken as the smaller of T and B / 2 in Equation
√ √
F
14.39, bottom heave should be greater than 1.5. When the safety factor is less, the sheet pile is driven
further into the ground.
Example 14.6: Is there a possibility of bottom heave in the braced excavation from Example
14.5? Assume that the width of the excavation is 4.0 m.
Solution: Assuming the firm ground is not in the vicinity (i.e., T is large):
' B 4
B= = =2. 83 m
√ 2 √2
F bottom heave =c u N c, strip ¿¿¿¿¿

Therefore the braced excavation is quite safe against any possible bottom heave.
 Rankine's earth pressure theories (rather than Coulomb's) are used in

the designs of retaining walls, sheet piles, and braced excavations.
 In designing retaining walls, always check for sliding, overturning,

and bearing capacity failures.
 For cantilever sheet piles, the method using the net pressure diagram
(Method 2) is slightly better, although it requires a little more. In
Α1 Α4,
calculating the constants through replace γ with
when the water level is above the excavation line. For any other
situation, go from the first principles or use the simplified method
(Method 1).
φ =0
 In days under undrained conditions, u and hence
K A =¿ K P =¿1 ¿¿
. Use
γ sat and analyze in terms of total stresses
WORKED EXAMPLES
1. The cantilever retaining wall shown on the left of3 the figure at the top of page 405 retains a
sandy backfill with φ =36° and γ =18 kN/m . Evaluate the stability of the wall against
'
sliding, overturning, and bearing capacity failure. Assume 3 that the same sand exists on the
passive side and below the wall. γ concrete =¿ 24 kN/m . ¿ Draw the pressure distribution
beneath the retaining wall.
'
K P =¿3.852 ¿
Solution: φ =36° → K A =¿ 0 . 260 ¿ and
The free body diagram is shown on the right of the figure on page 405:
P A =¿ 0.5 K A γH 2 =¿ 0.5 ×0.260 × 18 × 5.52¿70.8 kN ¿¿
per m width
2 2
P P =¿ 0.5 K p γh =¿0.5 × 3.852 ×8× 0.52 =¿8.7 kN ¿¿¿ per m width
W i , xi , Wi xi
Let's tabulate the values of and as below.
Wi xi Wi xi
Block Weight (kN per m) Hor. Distance (kN-m per m )
(m)
1 0 .5×5×24 =60 1.5 90.0
2 3.25 × 0 .5× 24 =39 .0 1.625 63.4
3 1 .5 ×5× 18 = 135.0 2.5 337.5
∑ W i =¿234.0 kN per m ¿ ∑ W i =¿234.0 kN per m ¿
Let's take δ as φ ' → δ =24 ° :
Maximum resistanceavailable PP  S max 8.7  234.0 tan 24

Fsliding     1.59  1.5
Driving force PA cos  70.8
 n W x   P h
Resisting moment  i 1 i i  P 3 490.0  8.7  0.17
Foverturning     3.80  20
Driving moment H 70.8  1.83
PA
3
Bearing pressures:
R=∑ W i =¿234.0 kN per m; S =¿ P A −¿ PP =¿70.8−¿8.7=¿62.1 kN per m ¿¿¿¿¿¿
Note: We are assuming that the passive resistance is fully mobilized while the sliding
resistance is only partially mobilized.
Inclination of the load to vertical:
S 62.1
  tan 1  tan 1  14.9
R 23.4
  h H
Wi xi   PP  PA
n
x
i 1  3 3  490.9  8.7  0.167  70.8  1.83  1.550 m
R 234
⸫eccentricity, e = 1.625－1.550 = 0.075 m or 75 mm ← well within the middle third of

the base
Q 6e  234  6  0.075 
qmax  1    1    82.0 kPa
B B  3.25  3.25 
Q 6e  234  6  0.075 
qmin  1    1    62.0 kPa
B B  3.25  3.25 
'
Bearing capacity calculations: B =B −2 e =3 . 25 −2×0 . 075=3 .10 m
Plane-strain correction:
φ ' =1.1×36=39. 6° → N q =¿60, N γ , Meyerhof ¿ 86 ¿
s q =¿sγ =¿ 1¿¿
Shape factors:
Depth factors:
Df   0.5
d q  d   1  0.1 tan 45    1  0.1   tan 64.8  1.04
B  2 3.25
Inclination factors:
2 2
     14.9 
iq   1    1    0.70
 90   90 
2 2
    14.9 
iγ   1     1    0.39
    39.6 
Applying Equation 12.7:
qult =¿s q d q iq γ 1 Df N q +¿ s γ d γ i γ 0.5Bγ 2 N γ ¿¿
qult,gross  1.0  1.04 0.70 18  0.5  60 + 1.0  1.04 0.39 0.5

 3.10 18  86  1366.3kPa
q ult,net =¿1366.3−¿0.5¿18=¿1357.3kPa ¿¿¿
From Equation 14.11:

1357.3
F bearing capacity = =¿16.6>3 ¿
82.0
The retaining wall is very safe with respect to sliding, overturning, and bearing capacity.
'
2. A gravity retaining wall shown on the left retains a sandy backfill with , φ = 34° and y =
3
18 kN/m3 . Analyze the stability of the wall. γ concrete =24 kN/m .
Solution: The free body diagram is shown on the right of the above figure.
KA
Since the backfill is inclined. Equation 10.12 will be used for computing .
cos   cos 2   cos 2   0.9848  0.98482  0.8290 2

K A  cos   0.9848   0.294
cos   cos   cos  
2 2 2
0.9848  0.9848  0.8290 2
H =6000 + 500 tan10 =6088 mm

2 2
P A =¿ 0.5 K A γH =¿ 0.5× 0.294×18 × 6.088 =¿ 98 . 1 kN per m width ¿¿¿
P P=0
Let's tabulate the values of

W i , x i , and W i x i as shown on page 408.
Wi xi Wi xi
Block Weight (kN per m) (m) (kN-m per m)
1 0.5×1×6×24 =720 0.667 48.0
2 1.0× 6× 24 =144 . 0 1.500 216.0
3 0.5 × 0. 5 × 6 .0 × 24 = 36.0 2.167 78.0
3 0 .5 ×0 .5× 6. 088×18= 27 .4 2.333 63.9
∑ W i =279.4 kN per m ∑ W i xi =405. 9 kN per m
2
φ ' → δ =22 . 7 °
Let's take δ as 3
PP  S max 0  (98 .1 sin 10  27 9.4 ) tan22.7

Fsliding    1.28  1.5
PAcos  98.1cos10
S max
above was obtained from Equation 14.l
  h
Wi xi   PP  PA sin β b
n
405.9 0  98.1sin 10  2.5

Foverturning   i 1  3   2.29 > 2
H 98.1cos10  2.029
PA cos 
3
Bearing pressures:
R    Wi   PA sin   279.4 98.1sin 10  296.4 kN per m

n
 i 1 
S =98. 1 × cos 10= 96.6 kN per m
Inclination of the load to vertical:
S 96.6
  tan 1  tan 1  18.1
R 296.4
Substituting in Equation 14.9:
 n  h H
  Wi xi   PP  PA sin β b  PA cos  3
3
x   i 1 
R
405.9  0  98.1sin 10  2.5  98.1cos10  2.029
  0.852m
296.4
⸫eccentricity e = 1. 25−0 .852 = 0. 398 m < B /6 ... lies within the middle third.
Q 6e  296.4  6  0.398
qmax  1    1    232.8kPa
B B 2.5  2.5 
Bearing capacity calculations: B ' =B −2 e = 2. 5 −2 ×0 .938 =1 .70 m
Plane-strain correction:
φ ' = 1.1 × 34 = 37 . 4° → N q =¿45, N γ,Meyerhof =¿57 ¿¿
s q =s γ =¿ 1 ¿
Shape factors:
Df =¿0, d q =¿ d γ =¿1 ¿¿¿
Depth factors: Since
Inclination factors:
2 2
    18.1 
iγ   1     1    0.27
    37.4 

q ult,gross =¿s γ d γ iγ 0.5Bγ 2 N γ =¿0.27 × 0.5 × 1.70 × 18× 57 =¿235.5 kPa ¿¿¿
Df =¿0, q ult,net =¿ 235.5 kPa ¿¿

Since
q ult,net 235.5
 Fbearing capacity    1.02 < 3.0
qmax 231.8
The wall is not safe with respect to sliding and bearing capacity; it is safe against overturning
failure.
3. It is proposed to drive a cantilever sheet pile to a depth of h + d into dry granular soil to support
excavation to a depth h. It is proposed to incorporate the safety factor by (a) increasing the
d0
computed depth of penetration by 30% and (b) providing a safety factor of 1.75 on the
passive resistance. Plot d/h against the friction angle for both cases (a) and (b) where d is the
final depth of penetration below the excavation line.
Solution: Let's use Equation 14.12 and the expression developed in Example 14.2. The values
KA K 0 d /h d /h computed by the two
of and P along with those of and
methods are given in the table and figure on page 410.
Friction angle (degrees)
(a) (b)
ϕ (deg) KA KP d 0 /h d/h d 0 /h d/h
28 0.361 2.770 1.029 1.337 1.571 1.571

29 0.347 2.882 0.975 1.268 1.469 1.469
30 0.333 3.000 0.926 1.204 1.377 1.377
31 0.320 3.124 0.879 1.143 1.293 1.293
32 0.307 3.255 0.836 1.087 1.216 1.216
33 0.295 3.392 0.795 1.034 1.145 1.145
34 0.283 3.537 0.757 0.984 1.079 1.079
35 0.271 3.690 0.720 0.937 1.019 1.019
36 0.260 3.852 0.686 0.892 0.962 0.962
37 0.249 4.023 0.654 0.850 0.910 0.910
38 0.238 4.204 0.623 0.810 0.861 0.861
39 0.228 4.395 0.594 0.772 0.815 0.815

40 0.217 4.599 0.566 0.736 0.772 0.772
41 0.208 4.815 0.540 0.702 0.732 0.732
42 0.198 5.045 0.515 0.670 0.694 0.694
43 0.189 5.289 0.491 0.639 0.658 0.658
44 0.180 5.550 0.468 0.609 0.625 0.625
45 0.172 5.828 0.447 0.581 0.593 0.593
4. The water table in a granular soil is 3.5 m below the ground level. It is required to excavate
the top 2.5 m. How deep would you drive the sheet pile providing a safety factor of 2 against
passive resistance? The unit weights of the granular soil above and below the water table are
17 kN/m3 and 20 kN/m) respectively, and the friction angle is 35°.
φ ' =35° → K A =¿ 0 .271 ¿ and K p =¿3.690 ¿

Solution:
Let's assume that the sheet pile has to be driven to a depth of x below the water table as
shown in the figure. At any depth, the active earth pressure and passive earth pressure in a
granular soil are given by:
' '
σ 'ha =¿ K A σ v ¿ and σ 'hp=K p σ v
Kp K p /F
where will be replaced by , with F = 2.
'
The values of σ ha and
σ 'hp thus are computed as follows.
'
On the right (active) side, at the water table, σ v =¿3.5 × 17 =¿59.5 kPa ¿¿
'
∴ σ 'ha =¿ K A σ v =¿0.271 × 59.5 =¿16.12 kPa ¿¿¿
On the right (active) side, at the bottom of the sheet pile,
σ 'v =¿3 . 5¿ 17 +¿ x ¿ (20−9 .81 )=59 .5+10. 19 x kPa ¿¿
'
∴ σ 'ha =¿ K A σ v =¿16.12 + 2.76 x kPa ¿¿
'
On the left (passive) side, at the water table, σ v =¿1.0 × 17=¿17.0 kPa ¿¿
'
∴ σ 'hp =¿ K A σ v / F =¿ 3.690 × 17.0/2=¿31.37 kPa ¿¿¿
On the left (passive) side, at the bottom of the sheet pile,
σ 'v =1 .0×¿17+¿ x¿ ( 20−9. 81 )= 17 .0 + 10. 19 x kPa ¿¿
'
∴ σ 'hp =¿ K p σ v / F = 31.37 + 18.80 x kPa ¿
The lateral pressure diagram is divided into six triangular and rectangular blocks as shown
in the figure on page 411. The horizontal load contribution from each block, the height of
its location above the base, and the moment about 0 are summarized below. The pore water
pressure acts equally on both sides, and hence is not considered in the analysis.
Block Force (kN) per m Height (m) above O Moment (kN-m) per m
1 0.5 ×16. 2× 3. 5 = 28.21 x + 1.17 28.21x + 32.92
2 16.12× x =16.12 x 0.5x 8.06 x 2
3 0.5×2. 76 x×x =1.38 x2 0.33x 0.46 x3
4 0 .5 ×31.37×1 =15. 69 x + 0.333 15.69 x + 5 . 23
5 31.37×x= 31.37 x 0.5x 15.69 x 2
6 0.5×18.80 x×x =9. 4 x2 0.33x 3.13 x 3
Taking moments about O:

3 2 3
28.21 x + 32. 92 + 8. 06 x2 +¿0.46 x −¿15.69 x−¿5.23 −¿15.69 x −¿3.1 3 x =¿0 ¿¿¿¿¿¿
2.67x3 +7.63x 2 −¿12.52x−¿27.69=0 ¿¿
Solving the above equation by trial and error, x = 2.02 m .
⸫The sheet pile has to be driven to 5.5 m to provide a safety factor of 2 on passive
resistance.
5. The figure on the top of page 413 shows a cantilever sheet pile driven into a granular soil
where the water table is 2 m below the top of the3 sand. The properties of the sand are:
φ ' =40°, γ m = 17.5 kN/m 3 , and γ sat =¿ 19 kN/ m ¿ . It is proposed to excavate to a depth of
6 m below the ground level. Determine the depth to which the sheet pile must be driven, using
the net pressure diagram.
'
K P −¿ K A ¿4.382 ¿
Solution: φ =40° → K A =¿0.217 , K P =¿ 4.599 , ¿¿ and
γ ' =19− 9. 8 1 =9.19 kN/m3
At the water table level to the right of the sheet pile:
σ 'h =¿0.217 ( 2× 17.5 ) =¿ 7.60 kPa. ¿¿
At excavation level to the right of the sheet pile:

'
σ 'h =¿0. 217 ( 2× 17 .5+4× 9. 19 ) =¿ 19 .45 kPa= σ 1 ¿¿
 1 19.45
z0    0.48 m
 K P  K A  γ 4.382 9.19
Let's compute P and z̄ :

P =( 0.5× 7 .60×2)+ (7.60 × 4 )+ (0.5 × 11. 85 × 4)+( 0.5× 19. 45× 0 .48)
=7.60 + 30. 40 + 23 .70 + 4 .67 =66 .37 kN/m
P z̄ = 7 .60 (0.67 + 4 + 0. 48 ) + 30. 40 (2+ 0. 48 )+ 23.70 (1.33 + 0. 48 )+ 4 .67 × 0.32
= 158.92 kNm/m
158 .92
∴ z̄ = =2.39
66.37
σ '4 = ¿ K P ( γ m h1 + γ ' h2 ) +¿ ¿ ¿ ¿
+ 4 .382×9 .19 × 0 .48 = 349.35 kPa
'
σ4
A1 = ¿¿¿
γ ¿ ¿¿
8P
A2 = ¿¿¿
γ ¿¿¿
6 P 2 z̄ γ ( K P−K A ) +σ '4
[ ] = 6×66 .37 [2× 2 .39 × 9. 19 × 4 . 382 + 349. 35 ] =133 . 05 m3
A3 = 2 2
γ ( K P−K A ) 9 .192 ×4 .3822
P  6 z  4  4 P  66.37 6  2.39 349.35+ 4  66.37

A4    215.89 m 4
γ  KP  KA 
2 2 2
2
19  4.382
Substituting in Equation 14.24:

z 42 + 8.68 z32 −¿13 . 18 z 22 −¿ 133. 05 z 2−215. 89=0 ¿ ¿
Solving the above equation by trial and error:

z2 ¿ 4 . 30m
d = z 2 + z 0 =¿ 4.30 + 0.4 8=¿ 4.78 m ¿¿
Increasing d by 30%, let's provide a total depth of 12.25 m below the original ground level.
6. The top 4 m at a site consists of sand, which is underlain by clay. The water table is 1 m
below the ground level. A sheet pile is to be driven into the ground to support an excavation
to the top of the day layer. How deep would you drive the sheet pile into the ground The soil
properties are as follows.
3 3 '
Sand: γ m =¿16.0 kN/m , γ sat =¿19.5 kN/m ,φ =¿ 32° ¿¿¿
3 '
Clay: γ sat =¿19.5 kN/m ,φ =0,c u =¿ 45 kPa ¿¿
Solution: In sand, φ ' =32° → K A ¿ 0 .307
Let's refer to Figure 14.9 and follow the procedure discussed in Section 14.3.2, with
h1 =¿1 m ¿ h =¿3 m ¿
and 2
'
At 1 m depth, σ ha ¿0.307×16 × 1=¿ 4.91 kPa . ¿
At the bottom of the sand,
σ 'ha ¿ p1 =¿ 0 .307 [ 1×16 × 3(19. 5−9. 81)] = 13. 84 kPa . ¿
From the net pressure diagram (see Figure 14.9):

P=0.5× 4 .91 ×1 + 4.91 × 3 + 0 .5 × 8. 93 ×3 =2.46 + 14 .73 + 13 .40 = 30. 59 kN per m
2.46 3.333+ 14.73 1.5 + 13.40 2.0
z  1.87 m
30.59
P  P  12cu z 
[4cu  ( γ m , g h1  γg h2 )]d 2  2 Pd  0
( γ m, g h1  γg h2 )  2cu
0.59(30.59+ 12  45  1.87)
[ 4  45  (16  1  9.69  3)]d 2  2  30.59d  0
(16  1 + 9.69 3) + 2  45
134.93 d2 −¿61. 18d−¿235.62¿0 ¿¿
By trial and error, d = 1.57 m. Substituting d = 1.57 m in Equation 14.31:
[ 4  45  (16  l + 9.69 3)]1.57  30.59

h4   1.01 m
4  45
'
p 2 =¿4c u −(γ m ,g h1 + γ g h2 )=¿ 4×45−(16 × 1 + 9.69 × 3)=¿134 .93 kPa ¿¿¿
From Equation 14.30: '

p 3 =¿4c u +(γ m,g h1 + γ g h2 )=¿ 4 ×45+(16 × 1 + 9.69 × 3)=¿225.07 kPa ¿¿¿
The net pressure diagram can be drawn from these.

Let's increase d by 50% to 2.35 m. The sheet pile has to be d riven to 6.2 m below the ground
level.
REVIEW EXERCISES
1. Write a 500-word essay on crib walls. Include pictures as appropriate.
2. Write a 500-word essay on diaphragm walls. Include pictures as appropriate.
3. The retaining wall shown in the figure at the top of page 416 is designed to retain a 4.5 m-
3
high sandy backfill that has a friction angle of 34° and a unit weight of 17 kN/m . The
base of the wall rests on the existing ground that consists of clayey sand having an effective
cohesion and a friction angle of 10 kPa and 35 ° respectively. The unit weights of the
3 3
clayey sand and concrete are 18 kN/m and 23 kN/m respectively. Find the safety factor
of the retaining wall with respect to sliding and overturning.
Does the eccentricity at the base exceed B/6?
What is the contact pressure beneath the toe of the wall?
Answer: 2.34, 2.20; No; 62 kPa
4. To retain the sandy backfill shown above (Review Exercise 3) and with the same ground
conditions, an alternate design is proposed where the same retaining wall is placed as the
mirror image as shown in figure. Find the safety factor of the wall with respect to sliding and
overturning.
Check the stability with respect to bearing capacity, making the necessary assumptions
regarding the mobilization of passive resistance and or sliding resistance, which may not be
fully mobilized.
Answer: 3.68, 3.78
5. Compare the safety factors in Review Exercises 3 and 4. Comment on how the backfill
contributes to the stability. What improvements would you suggest to these design alternatives?
6. The cantilever retaining wall shown in the figure retains a sandy backfill with a unit weight
3 3
of 17.2 kN/m and a friction angle of 35°. The unit weight of concrete is 23.0 kN/m .
Find
the safety factor of the wall with respect to sliding and overturning.
Answer: 2.1, 4.6
7. A cantilever retaining wall is proposed for retaining a loose granular backfill with
'
φ =29 ° as shown in the figure at the top of page 418. The existing ground consists of silty
' 3
sands where φ =32 °. Assuming an ave rage unit weight of 18 kN/m for both soils and 23
kN/m 3 for concrete:
a. Find the magnitudes and locations of the active and passive thrusts on both sides of the wall.
b. Find the safety factors with respect to sliding and overturning.
c. Suggest any improvements to the proposed design.
Answer: 75 kN per m at 1.72 m above the base of the wall, 29 kN per m at 0.33 m above the base of
the wall; 1.2, 2.7.
8. In a sandy soil, 'the water table lies at3 a depth of 5 In below the
3 ground level. The properties of
the sand arc: φ = 33 °, γ m =¿17 kN/m ¿ γ
, and sat =¿19 kN/m . ¿ It is required to excavate to a
depth of 4.0 m. Using method 1, estimate the depth to which the sheet pile must be driven;
assume a safety factor of 1.5 on passive resistance.
Answer: 8.8 m
9. Five meters of sand overlies a saturated clayey sand deposit, and the water table lies at the top
of the clayey
'
sand. The properties3 of the sand and clayey sand are given below.
Sand: φ = 33 °, γ m =¿ 18 .0 kN/m ¿
' ' 3
Clayey sand: c =10 kPa , { φ =31 °, γ sat =¿19. 5 kN/m .
How deep would you drive the sheet pile (use method 1)?
Answer: 10 m
10. In a medium-dense sand deposit where the water table is at a depth of 5 m, sheet '
piles have to be
driven to facilitate some excavation work. The properties of the sand are: φ = 34 °, γ m =¿7 . 5 ¿
3
3
kN/m and sat γ =¿19.0 kN/m . ¿ How deep should the sheet pile be driven into the sand to
excavate to the water table level with a safety factor of 1.5 on the passive resistance?
Use both methods (Method I-Simplified analysis, and Method 2-Net lateral pressure diagram) to
solve the problem.
Answer: Method 1: 12.3 m, Method 2: 11.4 m
11. An 8.0 m·deep excavation is made into a sandy soil using anchored sheet piles to support the
walls of the excavation. The water table is at a depth of 4 m. The sand has a friction
3
angle of 37°, bulk unit weight of 17.0 kN/m , and a saturated unit weight of
20.0 kN/m 3 . The tie rods are placed at a depth of 1.5 m and horizontal intervals of 2.0 m,
tied to a continuous deadman anchor. Assuming a safety factor of 1.5 on passive resistance,
estimate the depth to which the sheet pile must be d riven. What is the force on the tie rod?
Design a continuous anchor, giving a sketch.
Answer: 11.3 m, 152 kN
12. A 6.0 m-wide braced excavation shown '

in the figure is carried3 out in day having the
following properties: c u =¿20.0 kPa , { φ = 0, and γ sat =¿18.5 kN/m . ¿ The struts arc spaced
5.0 m center-to-center in plan. Determine the strut forces and the factor of safety against
bottom heave.
Answer: 413 kN, 546 kN, 557 kN; F = 1.07
13. A 3.0 m-wide braced excavation (see the figure at the top of page 420) is to be made to a
3
depth of 9.0 m in a saturated clay deposit having a saturated unit weight of 17.8 kN/m and
undrained shear strength of 30 kPa. The struts are spaced at 3.0 m horizontal intervals. Find
the strut forces and the safety factor with respect to bottom heave.
Answer: 83 kN, 257 kN, 286 kN, 277 kN, 224 kN; P = 4.7

Chapter 14

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What are the major types of earth retaining structures discussed in the document?

What are the major types of earth retaining structures discussed in the document?

What is soil nailing and what are its applications?

What is soil nailing and what are its applications?

Earth Retaining Structures

 Gravity retaining walls

14.2 DESIGN OF RETAINING WALLS

a. Sliding—By sliding along the base of the wall

In the active side, since the ground is inclined at an angle of β to horizontal,

cos   cos 2   cos 2  

The retaining wall is in equilibrium under the following forces:

• Vertical reaction at the base R

• Shear resistance to sliding S

a. Stability with respect to sliding:

where δ is the wall friction angle discussed

Maximum resistance available PP  S max

b. Stability with respect to overturning:

which has to be greater than 2.0.

S=P A cos β −P P (14.7)

What happens if the computed value of

which has to be greater than 3.0.

P A=0. 5 K A γH 2 =0 . 5 × 0 .295×18 × 52 =66 . 4 kN per m width

P P+ S max 30 .5+ ( 180×tan 22 )

Resisting moment ( 180×0 . 75 ) + ( 30 .5×0.33 )

From Equation 14.8:

Figure 14.3 Key at the

base of a retaining wall

14.3 CANTILEVER SHEET PILES

14.3.1 In Granular Soils

Method I: Simplified analysis

Figure 14.6 Simplified analysis: (a) original and deflected

Taking moment about O:

The maximum bending moment can be computed as:

From the theory of bending:

Example 14.2: Develop an expression for

Method 2: Using the net lateral pressure diagram

where is4 aknown

Taking moment about B:

σ '1=K A γh= 0 . 283× 18 × 4 = 20 . 4 kPa

( K P−K A ) γ =( 3 .537−0 . 283 )×18=58 .6 kpa m depth

P=0.5 × 20. 4 × 4 + 0.5 ×20.4 × 0 .35 = 40.8 + 3 .57 =44.37 kN per m

Example 14.3: Continued

Equation 14.24 becomes:

f ( z 2 )=z42 + 4 .70 z32 −6 .06 z22 −35 .62 z2 −35.82=0

By trial and error

b. Using Equation 14. 12:

The above d from both methods must be increased by 20-40%.

submerged granular soils

' ' '

σ 'hn=σ 'ha =σ 'hp= K A ( γ m h1 +γ ' h 2 ) + ( K A − K P )

∴ σ '2 =HB =¿ z 2 ( K P −K A ) γ ' ¿ (14.26)

' ' ' ' ' '

Figure 14.9 Net lateral pressure diagram in cohesive soils

σ hp =¿γ sat,c z+¿2c u ¿¿

Therefore, the net pressure from right to left is given by:

14.4 ANCHORED SHEET PILES

14.4.1 Free Earth Support Method

Taking moment about O:

φ ' =32° → K A =¿ 0. 307 and K P =¿3 .255 ¿ ¿