LIGHT DETECTION USING NAND GATE

ECE-484 OPTICAL COMMUNICATION LABORATORY

A LABORATORY WITH PROJECT REPORT

Submitted by

P.SOMASEKHAR REDDY (9916005191)

G.VAMSHI KRISHNA (9916005186)
S.SHIVA SAI (9916005193)
S.K.HANEEF (9916005183)

In partial fulfillment for the award of the degree

of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY

IN
ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

Academic Year (2019-2020)

KALASALINGAM ACADEMY OF RESEARCH AND EDUCATION

(DEEMED TO BE UNIVERSITY)

KRISHNANKOIL 626 126

i
 DECLARATION BY THE STUDENT

SCHOOL OF ELECTRONICS AND ELECTRICAL TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

We here by declare that this project “LIGHT DETECTION USING NAND GATE” is our
genuine work and no part of it has been reproduced from any other works.

REGISTER. No: STUDENT NAME STUDENT SIGNATURE

9916005191 P.SOMASEKHAR REDDY

9916005186 G.VAMSHI KRISHNA

9916005193 S.SHIVA SAI

9916005183 S.K.HANEEF

Date:

ii
 KALASALINGAM ACADEMY OF RESEARCH AND EDUCATION
(DEEMED TO BE UNIVERSITY)

SCHOOL OF ELECTRONICS AND ELECTRICAL TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this project report on “LIGHT DETECTION USING NAND GATE” is
theworkof“P.SOMASEKHARREDDY(9916005191).,G.VAMSHIKRISHNA(9916005186).,S
.SHIVASAI(9916005193).,S.K.HANEEF(9916005183).”who carried out the project work under
my supervision.

SIGNATURE SIGNATURE
Mr.G.Ramesh.,M.E.,Ph.D., Mr.Muneeswaran
STAFF INCHARGE STAFF INCHARGE
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR- III ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
Department of ECE Department of ECE
Kalasalingam Academy of Kalasalingam Academy of
Research and Education Research and Education
Krishnankoil-626126. Krishnankoil-626126.

SIGNATURE
Dr.M.KALPANA.,M.E.,Ph.D.,
HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT
ASSISTANTPROFESSOR
Department of ECE
Kalasalingam Academy of
Research and Education
Krishnankoil-626126.

Project Final Review Viva-voce held on ………………

Internal Examiner External Examiner

iii
B. TECH.ELETRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
PROGRAMME OUTCOMES:

At the end of the programme, the students will be able to:

1. Apply knowledge of Mathematics, Science, Engineering fundamentals and specialization
in Electronics and Communication Engineering to the conceptualisation of Engineering
models
2. Identify, formulate and solve complex problems in the domains of analog/digital
electronics, signal processing and communication engineering, reaching substantiated
conclusions using first principles of Mathematics and Engineering Sciences
3. Design/develop Microprocessor, Microcontroller based systems, Communication and
Networking systems, Algorithms for signal processing and VLSI circuit components to
meet desired specifications with realistic constraints such as manufacturability and
sustainability
4. Design and conduct experiments in analog/digital systems, signal processing and
communication and networking systems, analyse and interpret data, and synthesise
information to provide valid conclusions using simulation techniques and/or numerical
methods, graphics
5. Select and apply necessary engineering instruments, equipment’s, like Digital Storage
Oscilloscope, Microprocessors and Microcontrollers, DSP and FPGA kits, and modern
CAD tools, for Digital Signal Processing, Communication Engineering, Networking and
VLSI Engineering practices with an understanding of their limitations
6. Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to assess societal, safety, legal
and cultural issues, and the consequent responsibilities relevant to the professional
engineering practice
7. Demonstrate the knowledge of contemporary issues in the field of Electronics and
Communication Engineering
8. Commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and norms of engineering practice
9. Work effectively as an individual, and also as a member or leader in multicultural and
multidisciplinary teams
10. Effectively communicate about their field of expertise on their activities, with their peer
and society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and write effective reports and
design documentation, make effective presentations
11. Manage projects by applying gained knowledge on Engineering and Management
principles
12. Adapt themselves completely to the demands of the Electronics and Communication-
related Engineering by life-long learning

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COURSE OUTCOMES FOR PROJECT COMPONENT:
At the end of the course project, students would be able to:

CO1: Formulate and compose solutions for open-ended, real-life, various small to large scale
problems
CO2: Value the concept of applying theory to practice
CO3: Design, conduct experiments and interpret the results using various tools and equipment to
make a conclusion on the system’s working
CO4: Describe and practice professional and ethical responsibility
CO5: Improve written and verbal presentation
CO6: Demonstrate the ability to function in interdisciplinary teams and individually
CO7: Incorporate engineering standards and realistic constraints while working on a societal
project. Some of the engineering standards may include:
a. Economic analysis
b. Environmental analysis
c. Sustainability analysis
d. Ethical issues
e. Health and Safety analysis
f. Social Issues
g. Political issues

CO and PO Mapping:

PO PSO
CO / PO
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3

CO1 H H

CO2 H H H L

CO3 H H M M

CO4 H H H L L H H

CO5 L L H H L

CO6 L H M H

CO7 L L L H H H H H H H M H H

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

With warm heart and immense pleasure, I think the almighty for his grace and blessings,
which drove me to the successful completion of the project. I take this opportunity to
express by sincere thanks to the respected chancellor “THIRU. K. SRIDHARAN” who
is the guiding light for all the activities in our university.

We express our sincere thanks to Dr.M.KALPANA., Ph.D., professor and head for his
valuable suggestions and continuous encouragement in the of the project work.

We extremely great full to our supervisor Mr.G.Ramesh.M.E.(PhD)., ASSISTANT

PROFESSOR and Mr.Muneeswaran.,M.E., Ph.D., ASSISTANT PROFESSOR for her
valuable suggestions that greatly influence constant
encouragement in the completion of the project.

Last but not least I think all my parents, teaching staff, non-teaching staff and my friends for
their moral support

P.SOMASEKHAR REDDY

G.VAMSHI KRISHNA

S.SHIVA SAI

S.K.HANEEF

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 ABSTRACT

A Light Detector or Light Sensor is a device or circuit that detects the intensity of the light
incident on it. Different types of light detectors are LDRs (or Light Depended Resistors), Photo Diodes
, Photo Transistors, ectc. All these devices are called as Photoelectric Devices as they convert light
energy to electric energy. These Light Detectors or Sensors can detect different types of light like
visible light, ultraviolet light, infrared light etc.
In this project, we have designed a simple Light Detector using LDR. When the light falls on
the LDR, the light stays off and when the light stops falling on LDR, the LED glows. We have
designed two types of circuits: one using an OP-AMP(Operational Amplifier) and other using just
transitors.

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 LIST OF FIGURES

TITLE
FIG.NO PAGE NO
1 EQUIVALENT GATE CIRCUIT
xii

2 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM xv
3 IC-7400 CHIP xvi

4 LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTOR xvii

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE NO

NO
ABSTRACT vii
LIST OF FIGURES viii
1 INTRODUCTION x
2 BUILD A LIGHT DETECTOR CIRCUIT USING xi
NAND GATE

2.1 IC-7400 CHIP xi

2.2 2- INPUT NAND GATE xii

3 COMPONENTS REQUIRED AND ITS SPECIFICATION xiv

3.1 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM xv

3.2 LIGHT DEPENDED RESISTOR xvi

4 CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING xviii

4.1 CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING xviii

4.2 WORKING OF THE CIRCUIT xviii

4.3 APPLICATIONS xix

5 CONCLUSION xx

6 REFERENCES xxi

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 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
The light detector is the component used to detect the light produced by the light source.
They are commonly known as photodiode or photo transistor. ... The spectral response of the
light detector determines its sensitivity to different wavelengths in light spectrum.
The light detector is the component used to detect the light produced by the light source.
They are commonly known as photodiode or photo transistor. ... The spectral response of the
light detector determines its sensitivity to different wavelengths in light spectrum.
A light Detector essentially is an optical receiver that is paired with an optical transmitter
both which are connected to electrical based services or systems.

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 CHAPTER 2

BUILD A LIGHT DETECTOR CIRCUIT USING NAND GATE

In this project, we will build a light detector circuit using a NAND gate chip .A light
detector circuit is a circuit that can detect light. When a bright light shines on the circuit, such
as from a flashlight, we will make it so that a LED turns on.
The circuit is very basic. The component that will allow us to detect light is photoresistor. We
will use a photoresistor's light-sensing ability to detect whether circuit is exposed to darkness
or bright light. How this works is that a photoresistor's resistance changes in proportion to the
amount of light it is exposed to. In darkness, it has very high resistance. In bright light, its that
resistance drops dramatically. If placed in a voltage divider circuit with a fixed resistor, we can
exploit this resistance-altering behavior so that when connected to a NAND gate, we can a put
HIGH output when the photoresistor is exposed to bright light and a logic LOW output when a
photoresistor is exposed to darkness. All of this will be explained in detail below how exactly
this works. But realize that a photoresistor's resistance-changing ability allows us to distinctly
know whether it is exposed to darkness or bright light. Knowing this, we can effectively build
a light detector circuit.
The following chart shows NAND gate logic, which shows what output a NAND gate chip
produce for a set of given inputs.

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2.2. 2- INPUT NAND GATE

Figure 1: 2- INPUT NAND GATE

xii
This means that if one of the inputs are a 0, the NAND gate will output a logic HIGH
at its output, which means the output will be drawn up to VCC and the load will be a
powered. If both inputs feeding into the NAND gate are a 1, only then will the NAND
gate output a logic LOW at its output, which means the output will be drawn down to
GND, and the load will not be powered.
In our circuit, we will use both of these cases.The other component we need is an the
LED along with a 330Ω current-limiting resistor protect the LED from excess current.
The 6.8KΩ resistor that we will use in this circuit to form a voltage divider may have
to be adjusted depending on your photoresistor. Test it out. When you shine bright on
the photoresistor, make sure its resistance is below 6.8KΩ. If not, choose a resistor that
is greater than the resistance that the photoresistor has when bright light is flashed on it.
6.8KΩ may be too low if your photoresistor does not reach a resistance this low. But if
it is a GL5537, then it should go way below 6.8KΩ and you won't have to do any
adjustment.

xiii
 CHAPTER 3

COMPONENTS REQUIRED AND ITS SPECIFICATION

In the recent years there is a huge research activity developing communications

systems for underwater acoustic networks to mitigate its limitations of this environment such
as the available bandwidth, distance, or channel latency .Like terrestrial networks, UWSN
must present a flexible and scalable architecture to allow improvements and new additions,
which are necessary for future research ].In essence, an underwater modem consists of:
1) A power unit, which has a battery and a set of DC/DC converters,
2) a processing unit, which usually consists of a small processor and memory (sometimes, it
can be added as an external memory),
3) the physical hydrophone and loudspeaker,
4) circuitry (used to adapt the digital signals to the processor) and the analog to digital
converter and the digital to analog converter to adapt changes between the medium and the
electric circuit.

Data transmission range and data transmission rates should be carefully

studied. Thanks to the proprieties of the water, acoustic waves can be easily transmitted through
it. Devices can communicate from less than a meter to hundreds of meters. However, parameters
such as temperate, depth, water pressure can difficult the data transmission. More transmission
power means more energy consumption. For this reason network development strategies must be
focused on energy efficiency and should consider the number of wireless links,power
requirements, and fabrication cost. In regards to data transmission rates, it is important to know
that underwater environments are very dispersive mediums. This is the main reason because we
can work from a few bps to hundreds of bps. Obviously, its value will be inversely proportional to
the distance between devices. Finally, algae or barnacles building up on a transducer can block the
modem’s signal, so data may be corrupted. For this reason, it is very important to have a suitable
and waterproof packaging that should be resistant to bio-fowling. Data transmission range and data
transmission rates should be carefully studied. Thanks to the proprieties of the water,

Acoustic waves can be easily transmitted through it. Devices can

communicate from less than a meter to hundreds of meters. However, parameters such as
temperate, depth, water pressure can difficult the data transmission. More transmission power
means more energy consumption. For this reason network development strategies must be
focused on energy efficiency and should consider the number of wireless links, power
requirements, and fabrication cost. In regards to data transmission rates, it is important to know

xiv
that underwater environments are very dispersive mediums. This is the main reason because we
can work from a few bps to hundreds of BPS.

3.1. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

The two main phenomenon that result in the loss of intensity or change in
direction of optical signal underwater are absorption and scattering, respectively. In order to
understand the absorption and scattering coefficients, a simple geometrical model considering
an elemental volume of water 1V with thickness 1r is shown in Fig. (4). When the water is
illuminated with a light beam of incident power Pi having a wavelength λ, then a small fraction
Of the light.

light is absorbed by the water denoted by Pa and other fraction is scattered denoted by Ps .
The remaining light power, Pt will be passing through the water unaffected.

Figure 2: Circuit diagram

Clearly, it shows that light propagation in turbid harbor is far more challenging than in
pure sea or clean ocean. The overall absorption in sea water is due to intrinsic absorption from
inorganic material (such as water molecules, suspended particles and dissolved salts) and an
absorption from organic substances (phytoplankton- small microscopic plant with chlorophyll,
gelbstoff - decaying marine matter or yellow substance from broken plant tissue). Hence, the
overall absorption coefficient in sea water is split into four factors.

xv
 Figure 3: Absorption spectra of different water types

3.2. LIGHT DEPENDED RESISTOR

Variation in the refraction index along the propagation path caused due to fluctuations
in the density, salinity and temperature of the underwater environment leads to large fluctuations
in the intensity of the signal at the receiver. This phenomenon is called scintillation and degrades
the performance of UOWC. There is as such no specific model for underwater turbulence like in
the case of free space optical (FSO) communication, due to the dynamic nature of underwater
environment. Since the physical mechanism of underwater turbulence is almost similar to FSO,
the classical Kolmogorov spectrum model of FSO can be applied to underwater environment.

Though very little work has been carried out to understand the fading characteristics due
to turbulence, however, recently some reports have been published to characterize the underwater
turbulence. Measurement of turbulence strength at varying depths inside water for analyzing its
impact on underwater imaging is carried out in UOWC channel model that takes into account
absorption, scattering and turbulence is Based on lognormal channel model, BER performance
was evaluated for SIMO UOWC system using Monte Carlo simulation. It was observed that SIMO
is effective to reduce the effect of channel fading and thereby increase the communication range.

The effect of aperture averaging was analyzed in for ocean water in case of weak
underwater turbulence which showed tremendous reduction in the value of scintillation index and
thereby, improving the system performance. It was shown that the effect is more pronounced in
plane waves than in spherical waves. The semi-analytical expression for on-axis scintillation index
of a partially coherent flat-topped laser beam has been derived in and its effect on underwater
oceanic turbulence has been investigated for varying turbulence profile. Reduction in scintillation
index has been observed for partially coherent flat-topped beam in comparison to Gaussian beam.

xvi
Figure4:Light Depended Resistor

xvii
 CHAPTER 4

CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING

4.1 . CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING

Firstly, we must give power to the NAND gate IC. We will feed it 5V of power,
so we give +5V to pin 14 and we connect pin 7 to GND. This establishes power to the IC.
The circuit is very basic. The component that allows us to detect light is a
photoresistor. We set up a voltage divider circuit composed of a photoresistor and a 6.8KΩ
fixed resistor. In a voltage divider circuit, voltage is distributed across the components in direct
proportion to the amount of resistance each component offers. The more resistance a component
offers in relation to the other, the more voltage that will fall across that component. This is
shown in the ohm's law formula, V= IR. You can see the direct relationship between voltage
and resistance in the formula. The greater the resistance a component offers, the more voltage
that falls across it. Conversely, the less resistance a component offers, the less voltage that falls
across it.
When a photoresistor is exposed to darkness, it has very high resistance, in the
order of a few megohms (MΩ). With resistance this high, most of the voltage from the power
supply feeding the voltage divider circuit falls across the photoresistor, with very little voltage
falling across the 6.8KKΩ fixed resistor. Thus, when connected to the inputs of NAND gate,
with voltage so high, the NAND gate will essentially interpret the voltage divider as if it were
HIGH (or 1). When the voltage feeding the inputs of a NAND gate are greater than half of the
power supply voltage, it will interpret it as a HIGH value. Since we will tie both inputs together,
the NAND gate will interpret this as two ones, so it will output a 0 (or LOW), which means the
output will be drawn down to GND and the load will not be powered.
Remember, NAND gate logic, two 1s gives a 0. This is the only time we get an
output value of 0 in NAND gate logic. If a 0 is present anywhere in the inputs, including twice,
the NAND gate will output a 1.
When a photoresistor is exposed to bright light, its resistance drops
dramatically, in order of 20-30KΩ, or less, depending on the type in use. With this resistance
this low, most of the voltage from the power supply falls across the 33KΩ resistor, and less
than half falling across the photoresistor. With voltage this low, the NAND gate will interpret
as a logic level of 0. Thus, the output will be drawn up to VCC and the load, the buzzer, will
be powered on.

xviii
So you can see how this voltage divider circuit allows us to get 2 different logic levels are
produced by the NAND gate chip in different lighting conditions.

4.3. APPLICATIONS

The controlling of outdoor and street lights, home appliances, etc.,causes wastage of power
to the negligence of operating personnel and also unusual conditions in monitoring these
electrical appliances. Hence, by using a light sensor circuit, we can easily operate to the
loads as it facilitates automatic switching of the loads. In this article, let us discuss in the
brief about how to make an automatic light sensor circuit.

xix
 CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION

In recent years, there have been lots of underwater devices such as sensors and
underwater modems. Such devices have very good acceptance in applications such as monitoring
of marine environments, animal tracking and military applications. Therefore, in this paper we
have studied the types of devices we can currently find on the market and the main quality
requirements they should present. Devices developed and tested by research groups have been
compared with commercial devices. As commercial devices can reach longer distances.

However, energy consumption is also much higher. Finally, we analyzed the

investigations made in regards to software and simulators of underwater acoustic networks. As we
have seen, researchers have mainly based their improvements on the Network simulator, adding
and modifying some parts to program features and protocols definitions to make the simulation
results more approximate to actual results. As future work, we would like to perform a new study
forcomparing the underwater acoustic communications and the devices used with this technology
and underwater communi-cations based on electromagnetic wave.

xx
 CHAPTER 6

REFERENCES

[1] R. Tan, G. Xing, J. Chen, W.-Z. Song, and R. Huang, “Fusion-basedvolcanic earthquake
detection and timing in wireless sensor networks,”ACM Trans. Sensor Netw., vol. 9, no. 2, p. 17,
Mar. 2013.

[2] J. Lloret, M. Garcia, D. Bri, and S.Sendra, “A wireless sensor networkdeployment for rural and
forest fire detection and verification,”Sensors,vol. 9, no. 11, pp. 8722-8747, Oct. 2009.

[3] A. R. Al-Ali, I. Zualkernan, and F. Aloul, “A mobile GPRS-sensorsarray for air pollution
monitoring,”IEEE Sensors J., vol. 10, no. 10,pp. 1666-1671, Oct. 2010.

[4] T. O. Arcas, R. Vilches, J. A. I. Segura, and M. Bajet, “Pervasivesensors network for wellness
based-on raspberry Pi,”Netw. ProtocolsAlgorithms, vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 1-17, 2014.

[5] A. Sanchez, S. Blanc, P. Yuste, and J. J. Serrano, “A low cost andhigh efficient acoustic modem
for underwater sensor networks,” inProc.IEEE-Spain OCEANS, Santander, Spain, Jun. 2011, pp.
1-10.

[6] P. Lacovara, “High-bandwidth underwater communications,”MarineTechnol. Soc. J., vol. 42,

no. 1, pp. 93-102, 2008.

[7] S. Matsumae, “Energy-efficient cell partition of 3D space for sensornetworks with location
information,”Netw. Protocols Algorithms,vol.2,no. 1, pp. 85-98, 2009.

[8] A. Pal, “Localization algorithms inwireless sensor networks: Currentapproaches and future
challenges,”Netw. Protocols Algorithms,vol.2,no. 1, pp. 45-73, 2010

xxi
OutPut of the project