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African Journal of
Agricultural Research
Volume 9 Number 39 25 September 2014
ISSN 1991-637X

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African Journal of Agricultural Research

Table of Contents: Volume 9 Number 39 25 September, 2014

ARTICLES

Preliminary studies on termite damage on rural houses in the Central
Rift Valley of Ethiopia 2901
Daniel Getahun Debelo1 and Emana Getu Degaga2*

Major pearl millet diseases and their effects on‐farm grain
yield in Uganda 2911
Lubadde G.1*, Tongoona P.2, Derera J.2 and Sibiya J.2

Morphophysiological characteristics of maize inoculated with
Azospirillum brasilense and Herbaspirillum seropedicae as seed
treatment, cultivated in different types of soil 2919
Vandeir F. Guimarães1*, Elizeu A. Menegus1, André S. L. Silva1,
Artur S. P. Junior1, Jeferson Klein2, Leandro Rampim1,
Daniel Schwantes1, Andréia C. P. Rodrigues‐Costa3,
Débora Kestring1, Adriano M. Inagaki1, Andre G. Battistus1,
Luiz C. Offemann1, Lucas G. Bulegon1 and Aline K. P. de Souza1

Study on diversity of Phaseolus spp. landraces with reference to
global climate change 2925
Tzvetelina Stoilova1,3*, Malgorzata Berova2, Kalinka Kouzmova2 and
Stanislav Stamatov1

Impacts of wetland cultivation on plant diversity and soil fertility in
South‐Bench District, Southwest Ethiopia 2936
Kassahun Mulatu1*, Debela Hunde2 and Endalkachew Kissi2

Assessment of on‐farm diversity of wheat varieties and landraces:
Evidence from farmer’s fields in Ethiopia 2948
Zewdie Bishaw1*, Paul C. Struik2 and Anthony J. G. van Gastel3

African Journal of Agricultural Research

Table of Contents: Volume 9 Number 39 25 September, 2014

The effect of harvest conditions and drying temperature on
drying kinetics of two popcorn genotypes 2964
Fernanda Machado Baptestini1*, Paulo Cesar Corrêa1,
Gabriel Henrique Horta de Oliveira2, Aline Almeida da Paixão1
and Patrícia Fontes Machado1

Vol. 9(39), pp. 2901-2910, 25 September, 2014
DOI: 10.5897/AJAR2014.8670
Article Number: AA1919847521
ISSN 1991-637X
African Journal of Agricultural
Copyright © 2014 Research
Author(s) retain the copyright of this article
http://www.academicjournals.org/AJAR
Full Length Research Paper
Preliminary studies on termite damage on rural houses

in the Central Rift Valley of Ethiopia
Daniel Getahun Debelo1 and Emana Getu Degaga2*
1
Department of Biology, Adama Science and Technology University, P. O. Box 1888, Adama, Ethiopia.
2
College of Natural Sciences, Addis Ababa University, P. O. Box 1176, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Received 7 March, 2014; Accepted 7 May, 2014
Termites are serious pests of agricultural crops and rural houses in Ethiopia. Some attempts were
made to control termites on crops. However, termite problem on rural houses is a neglected area
regardless of the intensity of the problem which at times results in total collapses of newly constructed
houses. To collect preliminary information on status of termite infestation to rural houses, surveys were
conducted in three districts of the Central Rift Valley of Ethiopia in 2012. Data were collected by direct
observations and through semi-structured interviews. A total of 58 houses were inspected in the three
districts of which 91% were termite infested at deferent levels. About 81% of the houses aged less than
10 years. Over half of the homeowners used pre-construction preventive measures such as plastic
sheet cover and painting with used engine oil. Even though termite infestation was common and
serious, only 35% of the homeowners took post construction preventive measures mainly because of
lack of knowledge on the problem. The post construction termite control methods used in the study
area were removing or scratching mud tubes from the infested parts and painting of the houses with
used engine oil. There was no evidence of using synthetic chemicals for the management of termites on
rural houses. The local government officials or Development Agents were not aware of termite
problems in rural houses as the problem was only seen as a secondary problem. Termite samples were
collected from houses, wooden fences and mounds built attached to the exterior walls of the houses.
The collected termites were only from the genera Macrotermes and Odontotermes where about 79%
was found to be from the former genus. This study explicitly indicated that termites have a great impact
on local houses leading to frequent repairing and rebuilding. This damage will eventually lead to
deforestation and environmental degradation in addition to its economic impact and spread of the
termites. According to key informants of the study areas termite resistant tree species became rare
and/or went extinct since they are used for all types of construction. In this study, preliminary
information which can clearly demonstrate the level of termite infestation on local houses was obtained
which can serve as an important input for the government both for awareness creation and developing
best termite management practices.
Key words: Macrotermes, Odontotermes, rural houses, survey, termites, termite control measures.
INTRODUCTION
Termites are social insects which belong to the insect (Abdel and Skai, 2011). They are the most important and
order Isoptera. Termites are an essential member of the most efficient lignocellulose decomposers. Though
soil ecosystem and are found throughout the world termites have beneficial values such as organic matter
2902 Afr. J. Agric. Res.
recycling, improving soil fertility and serving as food The Central Rift Valley of Ethiopia is among the termite
sources for other animals, they have also harmful effects prone regions of the country probably next to western
which include damage to crops, forestry and wooden Ethiopia. However, no information is available on the
structures (Changlu et al., 2009; UNEP, 2000). Damage severity of termites particularly on the local houses from
may extend to household furniture, paper products, many this part of the country. Hence, the current study was
synthetic materials and food items. Each year hundreds initiated with the following objectives:
of thousands of structures such as bridges, dams, decks,
homes, retaining walls, roads, utility poles, and (a) To survey termite damage to rural wooden houses;
underground cables and pipes require treatment against (b) To collect information on public opinion concerning
termites (UNEP, 2000). termite damage to local houses and control practices
Of about 2800 described species of termites, 185 used by the local people, and
species are known as pests of agricultural settings and (c) To identify termite species infesting local houses.
housing structures (Krishna and Weesner, 1970). The
number of species causing damage to building is
between 70 and 80 out of which 50 species are serious MATERIALS AND METHODS
pests that require management (Edwards and Mill, 1986;
Description of the study sites
Pearce, 1997).
More than 1,000 of the 2,600 recognized species of Surveys of termite infested houses were conducted in four Peasant
termites are found in Africa (UNEP, 2000). Some of the Associations (PAs) of three districts of the Central Rift Valley of
most economically important wood feeding species of Ethiopia. The PAS were Tuqa Langano (08°16'N, 38°55E,1686
termites found in the tropics, sub-tropics and temperate masl) in Bora District, Oda Boqota (08°10'N, 38°50'E, 1666 masl)
in Dugda District, Warja Washgula (07°56'N, 38°41'E, 1652 masl)
regions are in the genera Coptotermes, Odontotermes, and Garbi Widana Boramo (07°53'N, 38°41E, 1650 masl,) in Adami
Macrotermes, Microcerotermes, Microtermes, Tullu Jiddo Kombolcha District (Figure 1). The Central Rift Valley is
Reticulitermes Ancisrotermes, Schedorhinotermes and well-known for its biodiversity and the vegetation is characterized by
Pseudacanthotermes (Abdurahman, 2000; Ahmed and Acacia trees or species (Huib and Herco, 2006). The study sites
French, 2008). were characterized by semi-arid climates. The average annual
Within the wide limits of their geographical distribution, precipitation was about 700 mm of which 42% falls between June
and September. The monthly maximum temperature varies from 25
termites will destroy all unprotected timber used in to 30°C and the minimum temperature ranges between 10 and
construction work or as fittings, unless it has been 20°C (Huib and Herco, 2006). The mean annual temperature was
rendered toxic, unpalatable or is naturally resistant to 20°C. The driest months were November and December, while May
termites (Harris, 1971). Termites may attack timber is the hottest month with a mean maximum temperature of 28°C.
anywhere in a building from below floor level to the December is the coldest month with a mean minimum temperature
highest point in the roof. The workers of most of 10°C. The greatest proportion of the land is grown with maize
and haricot bean (Mengistu, 2008).
subterranean species enter from the soil, either directly The surveys were carried out from September 2012 to January
into timber, through cracks in concrete flooring or by 2013 just after the long rainy season which is said to be the highest
constructing shelter tubes over brick or concrete footings termite activities period. Selection of the districts was proposed by
and walls (Edwards and Mill, 1986). the Agricultural Bureau at zonal and district levels based on termite
The annual economic cost of structural damage to abundance and accessibility.
buildings from termites in urban areas is about $ 15-20
billion dollars worldwide (Geer, 2005; Abdel and Skai, Survey methods and data collection
2011).
In the majority of the local houses in developing country The surveys were conducted using an open-ended semi-structured
like Ethiopia, the wall is made of mud, while the roof is questionnaire and interviews with the homeowners, and
grass thatched which is conducive for termite infestation. observation of termite infested houses. The questionnaire was
dispatched to 51 farmers selected randomly from the four PAs of
Thatching in African houses can be expected to last 5 to the three districts and the respondents’ filled the questionnaire with
6 years (Pearce, 1997). The wood/straw thatch buildings, the help of Development Agents. Short training was also given to
characteristics of farming communities in Ethiopia and the farmers on how to fill the questionnaire. A total of fifty-eight
much of sub-Saharan Africa are susceptible to termite homeowners, different from those who filled the questionnaire, were
damage, particularly in the tropical savanna areas where selected randomly and their houses were assessed for termite
Macrotermitinae are abundant. Abdurahman (1990) infestation.Before carrying out the assessment and the interview,
each homeowner was asked whether his/her house was infested by
reported that in western Ethiopia thatched roof huts are termite or not. Termite infestation assessment to houses comprised
destroyed in less than five years and corrugated iron roof of visual observation of signs such as termite galleries (mud tubes)
houses in less than eight years. on walls, pores in walls, damaged parts such as roofs (wood and
*Corresponding author: E-mail: [email protected], Tel: +251 911 019166.

Author(s) agree that this article remain permanently open access under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution
License 4.0 International License
Debelo and Degaga 2903
Figure 1. Map of the study sites.
grass), window and door frames, wood in walls and wooden 3. Severely infested but not collapsed: Window, door frames, some
furniture among others. Pieces of wood in the premises and of the woods in wall and/or roof were eaten and cut completely,
wooden fences were also inspected for those houses which had grass in roof thatched houses was eaten and the house drips as a
wooden fences. result, window and/or door frames were cut and left their original
The age of the houses and when the wall was made of wood, the normal position, or as a result of termite attack the house was tilted
type of plant from which the wood came were also recorded by and was about to collapse.
asking the owners. A house was said to be infested when there was 4. Collapsed: The house was highly damaged and as a result tilted
any sign of termite attack to the house itself, furniture found in it, and the owner supported it by wooden pole to prevent it from
presence of mud tubes on walls or floors and spots of fecal collapsing, or totally collapsed.
pelletamong others. When a house was found infested, its condition
was recorded as: Preconstruction preventive methods and post construction control
measures used by the homeowners, type of wood in wooden wall
1. Slightly infested: Mud tubes on walls, roof, window and door houses, resistance level of the wood to termites, availability of the
frames, presence of mounds found externally at the base of walls plants were recorded during the interviews. Termites were collected
and inside houses without any sign of damage or little damage. and preserved in 80% alcohol and were later identified with the help
2. Moderately infested: Woods in wall, window and door frames, of taxonomic keys of Abdurahman (1991). Plant species used for
grass in grass thatched roofs or woods supporting roofs partially the construction of the houses were identified at the National
eaten, but were not cut completely. Herbarium of Addis Ababa University, using freshly collected plants
Table 1. Percent termite infestation on rural houses as affected by age.
Age distribution of the Percentage of houses

Percentage houses
surveyed houses in year belonging to each age
infested by termites
(n=58) group
1-3 20.7 19.0
4-6 44.8 39.7
7-9 17.2 15.5
10-12 10.3 10.3
13-15 5.2 5.2
16+ 1.7 1.7
Table 2. Percent termite infested houses in relation to construction materials.
Number of Status of the houses in terms of

Wall material termite infestation
houses
of the houses
surveyed none infested Infested
Mud brick 35 8.6 51.7
Wood 23 0.0 39.7
Total 58 8.6 91.4
of the same species. while 3% of the houses collapsed due to termites (Figure
5).
Data analysis
Samples of pictorial descriptions of termite infested
houses are shown in Plates 1 to 3. The plates
As the study was none replicated experiments descriptive statistics demonstrate a roof supporting timber completely cut by
such as mean and percentage among others were used to termites (Plate 1), termite infested houses supported by
determine termite infestation on rural houses. Data collected from poles (Plate 2) and severely damaged door frame (Plate
respondents and participants were qualitatively interpreted. 3).
Both susceptible and resistant plant species were used
RESULTS for the construction of the surveyed houses (Table 3).
Acacia tortillis, Eucalyptus spp., Acacia albida, Balantes
Table 1 depicts the effect of age on termite infestation. aegyptus and Croton macrostachyus were the
Houses aging from 1 to 3 years were less infested than susceptible plant species used for the construction. The
old houses greater than 7 years. Over 65% of the studied resistant plant species used in the construction include
houses were less than 7 years old and the highest Acacia etbaica, Dichrostachys cinera, Flueggea virosa
percent termite infestation for this age group houses were and Acacia Senegal.
about 40%. Table 2 demonstrated that about 60% of the Plastic sheet cover followed by used engine oil before
surveyed houses were made of mud brick, while 40% of construction and mud tube removal followed by wood ash
them were wooden wall. Only 8.6% of the houses were and used engine after construction were found to be the
free of termite infestation (Table 2). About 55% of the major termite management options in the study areas
respondents indicated that within 1 to 2 years time newly (Table 4). About 79% of the termites causing damage to
built houses can be infested by termites. Less than 5% of houses in the study area were the genus Macrotermes,
the respondents indicated that newly built houses can be while the rest 21% consists of the genus Odontotermes.
infested by termites within 7 to 8 years (Figure 2). Over
50% of the respondents indicated that newly built houses
require repair within 3 to 4 years. Less than 5% of the DISCUSSION
respondents indicated that houses may require repair at
greater than 8 years old (Figure 3). The absence of very old houses, the infestation of most
Over 45% of the surveyed houses were 4 to 6 years of the houses, and severe damage recorded show
old, while only 3% of the surveyed houses were greater frequent rebuilding of houses and termite severity to rural
than 16 years old (Figure 4). Nearly 50% of the surveyed houses. Most of the farmers believed that houses would
houses were rated as severely termite infested houses, collapse if they were not repaired within six years after
Figure 2. Percentage respondents showing years after which newly constructed houses
can be infested by termites.
Figure 3. Percentage respondents showing years after which newly constructed houses
need repair due to termite infestation.
construction. Termite damage to buildings in tropical brick houses could be attributed to the attraction of
countries is a serious concern which is in part due to the termites to wood (cellulose) used in construction and the
diversity of termites in these areas and poor building woody debris left in soil and around houses after
design (Abdel and Skai, 2011). Thatching in African construction. It is also more likely that infested wooden
houses can be expected to last 5 to 6 years (Pearce, wall houses have shorter life than mud brick houses
1997). In western Ethiopia thatched roof huts are because as termites eat woods in the former, the walls
destroyed in less than five years and corrugated iron roof will lose support and eventually collapse. But in mud brick
houses in less than eight years (Abdurahman, 1990). walls, termites simply move through the walls to reach
Higher infestation of wooden wall houses than mud the roof and thus they have little effect on the integrity of
Figure 4. Percentage age distribution of surveyed houses.
Figure 5. Percent of houses fall under different termite infestation category.

Plate 1. A roof supporting timber completely cut by termites.
Plate 2. Termite infested houses supported by poles.
the wall. But, once they have reached the roof, especially corrugated houses were removed by wind at the same
iron corrugated roof houses, which contain only a few time in the year 2008.
roof supporting timbers, termites ring-cut the timbers at The homeowners used different kinds of wood species
their junction with the wall leaving the roof without being in building their houses and they were able to identify
fixed to the wall. As the damage is not usually visible, the susceptible and resistant woods to termites that were
homeowners do not take action timely, and thus the used in their area for house construction. All farmers
whole roof will be removed completely even by a slight regarded D. cinerea, A. etbaica, and F. virosa as highly
wind. Some participants told the authors that in Warja resistant to termites. Logan et al. (1990) reported that
Washgula Farmers’ Association, roofs of 20 iron many timbers contain chemicals or complex mixtures of
Plate 3. Severely damaged door frame.
Table 3. Plant species used for the construction of the studied rural houses and their reaction
to termites.
Names of plants
Plant reaction
Local name Scientific name
Dhaddacha/Ajoo Acacia tortillis (Forskk)
Muka Bargama/Barzafii Eucalyptus spp.
Susceptible Garbii Acacia albida Del.
Badana Balantes aegytica (L.) Del
Bakanissa Croton macrostachyus Del.
Doddota Acacia etbaica Schweinf

Geetoo/haxxee/jirmee Dichrostachys cinera (L.) Wight & Am
Resistant
Daboobessa Flueggea virosa (Willd) Voigt
Saphanga/Qarxafaa Acacia Senegal (L.) Willd
Table 4. Numbers of homeowners used different control/management strategies identified during the survey,
Preconstruction (%) Post construction (%)

Management options
No. of users % of users No. of users % of users
Synthetic termiticide (Malathion) 0 0.0 2 6.7
Herbicide 0 0.0 2 6.7
Wood ash 5 9.8 5 16.7
Decomposed cow dung and/or goat urine 1 1.9 2 6.7
Mound destruction/queen removal 0 0.0 2 6.7
Plastic sheet cover 24 47.1 2 6.7
Used engine oil 13 25.5 5 16.7
Mud tube removal (scratching) - - 8 26.7
Site selection 1 1.9 - -
Debris removal /sanitation 1 1.9 1 3.3
Use of grass free of termites 2 3.9 - -
Floor, perimeter – cement 1 1.9 0 0
Kerosine 0 0.0 1 3.3
Use of mud brick instead of wood 2 3.9 - -
Sand, gravel 1 1.9 - -
- = Not applicable.
chemicals that repel or kill termites or interfere with their that the safest and cheapest termite control measures
gut fauna. Factors affecting wood consumption by are dusting of borates, like 20 Mule Team Borax (2014).
termites are numerous and complexly related. Among the Frequent repairing and rebuilding of houses within a
most important of these factors are wood species and few years is uneconomical for subsistence farmers.
hardness, presence of toxic substances, feeding Besides, it has negative environmental impacts as plants
inhibitors or deterrents, presence or absence of fungi and are the major source for building materials. Therefore,
degree of fungal decay, moisture content of wood and farmers should be given awareness about the general
soil among others (Hickin, 1971; Getachew et al., 2003; views of termites and ways by which they can protect
Regina et al., 2004; Behailu et al., 2011). their homes from damage. Therefore, there is a need for
Over 90% of the houses were infested, although about comprehensive termite control approaches, which should
60% of the homeowners used preconstruction preventive involve both the local communities, concerned
measures implying that the methods are ineffective. government bodies and more use of resistant wood
Plastic sheets were the most popularly used method and species.
their inefficacy could be attributed to their non-termite
resistance and may be incorrect use. It is also practically
impossible to exclude the house totally from termites by Conflict of Interest
plastic materials. Hickin (1971) and Pearce (1997) have
reported that plastic materials are often eaten by termites The author(s) have not declared any conflict of interest.
and their resistance depends mainly on their density, the
compounds they contain, thickness, and intrinsic
hardness. UNEP (2000) and Ahmed and French (2008) ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
also reported that when certain plastic materials are used
as exclusion or barrier they can be breached and bridged The authors are grateful to Adama Science and
over by foraging mud tunnels. Use of engine oil was also Technology University (ASTU) for funding the research.
ineffective in protecting houses from termite attack. Special thanks go to the communities that participated in
Behailu et al. (2011) noted that at field condition stakes of this research. They also extends their thanks to Urgessa,
different timber species, treated with used engine oil Mohammed and Abdulakim for field assistance.
using hot-and-cold dipping open tank thermal method,
were attacked by termites before the third year of staking
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http://www.20muleteamlaundry.com/about/what-is-borax/
Changlu W, Xugao Z, Shujuan L, Magaret S, Michael E, Grzegorz B,
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Vol. 9(39), pp. 2911-2918, 25 September, 2014
DOI: 10.5897/AJAR2013.7208
Article Number: 4D7928747523
ISSN 1991-637X
Major pearl millet diseases and their effects on-farm

grain yield in Uganda
Lubadde G.1*, Tongoona P.2, Derera J.2 and Sibiya J.2
1
National Semi Arid Resources Research Institute (NaSARRI), P. O. BOX private bag, soroti-Uganda.
2
University of Kwazulu Natal P. O. BOX private bag, soroti-Uganda.
Received 13 April, 2013; Accepted 18 August, 2014
Pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum) is an important food and cash crop for many people living in the
semi arid areas of Uganda. But information about the common diseases and their effect on yield is
lacking yet it is important in designing a realistic and focused pearl millet breeding programme aimed at
increasing yield. A disease survey was done in 2012 in the farmers’ fields in the predominantly pearl
millet growing districts of Kumi and Katakwi in eastern and Kitgum and Lamwo in northern Uganda to
identify the major diseases of pearl millet and establish their incidence, severity correlation and effect
on grain yield. The aim of the study therefore was to identify the major pearl millet diseases that affect
production in Uganda. In terms of incidence, rust (Puccinia substriata) (73.58%) was the most frequent
disease followed by ergot (Claviceps fusiformis) (62.98%), then leaf blast (Pyricularia grisea) (61.25%)
and smut (Moesziomyces penicillariae) (26.76%). However, in terms of severity, leaf blast (62.20%) was
the most severe followed by rust (43.33%), ergot (29.46%) and smut (14.18%). Using SPSSv20, backward
model reduction regression of disease parameters against grain yield, results show disease severities
of rust, ergot, leaf blast and incidences of smut and rust were the most important in affecting grain
yield. The correlation of disease severity with grain yield further indicated that ergot and rust severities
were causes of the significant effect on yield.
Key words: Pearl millet, diseases, severity, incidence, Uganda.

INTRODUCTION
Pearl millet [Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br.], also known thin porridge known as ugi and thick porridge commonly
as bulrush millet, is a staple food for many people living known as atapa in teso region or kwon in northern region.
in the semi arid agro-ecological zones of eastern (in teso In Teso region the flour is normally mixed with cassava
region), northern (mainly in greater Kitgum district), flour to enhance the hardness of the atapa and tamerine
northeastern and to some extent in northwestern (west or tangerine to improve the taste but in the north and
nile districts) Uganda. It is a food and source of income northeastern regions nothing is mixed with the flour prior
and to a lesser extent forage crop and yeast for local to making a pearl millet food product. It is an excellent
brewing. As food, the grain is ground and used to make source of yeast but there is decline in the use of pearl
*Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected], Tel: +256 772965752.

millet as yeast source because those who take such year, thus this time was appropriate for conducting the survey as
alcoholic drink claim to have severe headache thereafter. most of the farmers had not yet harvested so it was easy to conduct
disease incidence and severity score on-farm.
The stover is an important source of fodder in many
countries where the crop is grown but in Uganda not
much emphasis is put on the crop for this purpose. The study
It is cultivated as a subsistence rain-fed crop by people
living in the semi arid agro-ecological zones in Uganda. Pearl millet is mostly grown once every year and the study was
In African countries, the national average grain yield of done in January 2012 at the time when the crop in most fields was
at physiological maturity. The crop is not grown by many farmers so
pearl millet is generally in the low range of 400-600 Kg purposive selection of pearl millet farmers who had grown pearl
ha-1 (FAO, 2002) and for Uganda yields between 0- millet for at least two years was done. Prior to field data collection,
900Kg ha-1 have been reported by farmers in this survey. demographic data about the household head (age and
However, in India the National Rainfed Area Authority uses/importance of pearl millet) were collected using a semi-
(NRAA) (2012) reported a grain yield range of 1720 to structured questionnaire. In Kumi (Kumi sub county) and Katakwi
3870 Kg ha-1 and a productivity potential of over 5000 Kg (Katakwi and Usuku sub counties) districts forty fields were selected
for disease survey while thirty fields were selected from Kitgum
ha-1 from farmers’ fields. This shows a great increase in (Kitgum town council, Mucwini, and Kitgim Matidi sub counties) and
productivity since the potential productivity of 3000 Kg ha- Lamwo (Agoro sub county) districts. Thus, a total of one hundred
1
was recorded from research centres over ten years age and forty pearl millet fields, also considered as replicates (Kutama
(Rai et al., 1999). The variation in yield at farmers’ and et al., 2010), were covered in the study. In each, field five quadrants
research centres has been mainly attributed to biotic (2 x 4 m) were made (four at the corners and one in the middle of
the field) and incidence score and disease severity was calculated
constraints faced in the production areas (Baltensperger, by assessing fifty plants in each quadrant making a total of 250
2002; Crampton et al, 2009) and farmers growing plants per field (Thakur et al., 2003). Within the quadrant, the fifty
inherently low yielding local landraces. Extensive studies plants were randomly selected and identification of diseases was
have been done about pearl millet biotic constraints such done using the sorghum and pearl millet disease identification hand
as diseases and the inherent low yielding ability of the book developed for ICRISAT by William et al. (1978). Severity score
crop in the USA, India, West and Southern Africa but no for rust and leaf blast was noted on the third and fourth leaves from
the top as these are reported to have a direct contribution to grain
studies have been conducted about the pearl millet yield (Joshi et al., 2003). Infected leaf samples were collected for
disease and their association with yield in Uganda. For diseases which could not be identified using the field book and
example in the USA, rust and blast have been reported to incubated in the laboratory for microscopic identification. In the
severely affect pearl millet and extensive research has laboratory, leaf samples were cut into small pieces and put on moist
been done on the two diseases to ascertain their effect filter paper and incubated under UV light for three days for
on grain and fodder yield and quality (Wilson et al., pathogen growth. Pathogen observation was done under the stereo
while conidia were observed using compound light microscope. The
1996). In India and Western and Southern Africa, much percentage disease incidence was calculated using the formular;
research has been done and reported about downy
mildew [Sclerospora graminicola (Sacc.) Schroet.] (Hash %incidence = (total number of diseased plants/250 total plants
et al., 1999; Singh, 1995) as being the most important selected) ×100
pearl millet disease in Asia and Africa (Williams, 1984);
For leaf blast, leaf samples showing disease symptoms were
ergot which severely affects hybrids in India and OPVs in collected and observed in the laboratory to confirm the presence of
Africa (Arya and Kumar, 1982); rust, blast and smut the pathogen Pyricularia grisea but for ergot, rust and smut this was
diseases but no such studies and reports have been not necessary as the pathogens are visible with unaided eyes.
done to even identify the common diseases that affect Ergot was identified basing on the condia commonly known as
pearl millet in Uganda. The objective of this study was honey dew (Frederickson and Mantle, 1996) and severity score was
therefore to identify the common pearl millet diseases recorded using the scale developed by Thakur and Williams (1980).
Rust disease was identified based on the small reddish-brown to
and their association with yield. reddish orange, round to elliptical uredinia developing mainly on
foliage (Ramakrishnan and Narasimhalu, 1941) and severity score
was calculated using the Cobbs scale modified by Niks (2011). The
MATERIALS AND METHODS leaf blast disease severity was scored using the 1–9 progressive
scale developed at International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) for
Study area rice blast (IRRI, 1996) whereas the smut severity was scored using
the 1 to 90% scale developed by Thakur and King (1988a).
The study was conducted in two agro-ecological zones namely the
Teso and the Northern farming systems which are characterized by
dry months towards the end and beginning of the year. In the two Data analysis
agro-ecological zones annual crops such as sweet potatoes,
cassava, and legumes are grown in addition to livestock and poultry Data were analysed using IBM SPSS statistics20. The yield data
rearing (Mwebaze, 2001). In the Teso zone the survey was were transformed to base ten. The analysis of variance (ANOVA) at
conducted in Kumi and Katakwi districts while in the Northern zone 5% probability was done to establish whether there was significant
Kitgum and Lamwo districts were covered (Figure 1). Data variation in disease incidence and severities across locations. A
collection was done in January 2012 where one hundred and forty regression analysis was also done to assess the contribution of the
households were surveyed. Pearl millet is generally grown late in major diseases to the farmers’ grain yield. The Pearson’s
the second season starting October to January of the following correlation analysis was also performed to establish the relationship
Lubadde et al. 2913
South Sudan
DR Congo
Kenya
Study area Tanzania
Figure 1. Map of Uganda showing the study area.
between disease severity and yield. A reduced regression model commodities while <1.00% of the farmers fed grains to
was developed to identify which disease parameters significantly poultry.
affected yield. The yield was respondent variable, disease severity
and incidence were the fixed effects and the district and region
Disease symptoms and occurrence of ergot (Figure 2),
were the random effects of the mixed model analysis. smut (Figure 3), leaf blast (Figure 4) and rust (Figure 5)
were observed in eastern and northern Uganda where
the survey was conducted. These diseases occurred at
RESULTS different incidence and severity levels in the four districts.
Generally, the diseases observed occurred at relatively
Demographic data about the age of the household head high incidences of over 61% except for smut (26.76%),
were collected and it was observed that the average age exserohilum leaf blight (8%) and cercospora leaf spot
of the household heads was 47.85 years and the majority (7.5%) (Table 1). Results in Table 1 further show that rust
were in the range of 21-50 years old. In addition farmers (73.58%) caused by Puccinia substriata Ell. & Barth.
were asked about the uses/importance of pearl millet in indica Ramachar & Cumm. was the most prevalent
order to establish the significance of the crop to the disease in all the four districts surveyed followed by ergot
farmers and results showed that most farmers cultivated (62.98%) caused by Claviceps fusiformis Loveless, blast
pearl millet for food consumption (43.96%) followed by (61.25%) caused by Pyricularia grisea (Cke.) Sacc. and
cash (35.53%) and brewing (17.22%). To a lesser extent smut (26.76%) caused by Moesziomyces penicillariae
some farmers barter the grain (1.47%) for other (Bref.) Vanky. The occurrence of rust (64.47 to 77. 15%)
Figure 2. Pearl millet panicle infected by ergot and smut. Figure 4. Leaf blast.
Figure 3. Pearl millet panicles infected by smut. Figure 5. Pearl millet rust disease.
was not significantly different (p=0.05) in all the four Occurrence of ergot (62.98%) and blast (61.25%) in the
districts; statistically indicating that rust was distributed to two regions was almost the same but significant variation
almost the same extent in all the four study districts. existed within the districts. The ergot incidence
Lubadde et al. 2915
Table 1. Percentage incidences and severities of the common pearl millet diseases.
%incidence %severity
Region District yield (Kg/ha)
rust ergot blast smut exser cerc blast ergot rust smut Exser cerc
Katakwi 77.15 80.92 62.26 28.08 15.00 5.00 67.67 60.15 37.56 17.18 10.00 2.00 484.83
Eastern
Kumi 76.78 12.93 29.80 16.34 2.00 0.00 43. 61 6.39 58.93 9.71 1.00 0.00 504.85
Kitgum 64.47 78.39 68.34 29.45 5.00 10.00 58.05 55.79 16.92 13.66 1.00 1.00 366.81
Northern
Lamwo 75.91 79.68 84.59 33.18 10.00 15.00 64.14 47.68 19.73 19.50 5.00 3.00 514.97
Mean 73.58 62.98 61.25 26.76 8.00 7.50 62.20 43.33 29.46 14.18 4.25 1.50 467.87
Pvalue 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.95 0.10 0.07 0.01 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.40 0.68 0.13
Key: exser=exserohilum, cerc=cercospora.
significantly differed in the four districts ranging resistance level of <10% level (Thakur et al., Katakwi and Kitgum districts had relatively low
between 12.93% in Kumi district and 80.92% in 2009). The ergot severity also differed in all the grain yields when compared with Kumi and
Katakwi district. However, except for Kumi where four districts. Except for Kumi district (6.39%) Lamwo districts. The average yield of 467.87 Kg
the lowest ergot incidence was recorded, the where farmers’ materials were within the ha-1 observed in the study is very low compared
other districts had almost the same high levels of resistance range (≤10%), the ergot severity in with the potential grain yield of 3000 Kg ha-1
ergot occurrence (78.39 to 80.92%). This shows Katakwi, Kitgum and Lamwo districts was above realized from research experiments.
that Kitgum, Katakwi and Lamwo can equally the susceptible level of ≥30% (Thakur et al., The low yield observed was partly due to the
serve as hot spot areas for screening materials 1989). Both the highest and lowest ergot combined effect of the observed diseases as
against ergot. The same trend was observed for severities were observed in eastern region shown by the significant regression of yield
leaf blast in all the four districts still there being a although the northern region had relatively high against disease severity (Table 2) and the
significant variation in the occurrence ranging severities above 47%. Rust severity differed in all negative correlation of yield against the disease
from 29.80% in Kumi district to 84.59% in Lamwo the four districts (p=0.03) but higher in eastern severity and incidence (Table 3). The null
district. Kitgum and Katakwi districts also had high region (37.56 to 58.93%) than in northern region hypothesis of diseases having no significant effect
occurrence of leaf blast greater than 62% and can (16.92 to 19.73%). Kumi district had the highest on yield was tested and results (Table 2) indicate
thus also be hot spot areas for material screening rust severity of 58.93% although the same district a rejection of the null hypothesis; implying that the
against leaf blast. The smut, exserohilum and had the lowest severity score for the other major diseases had a significant effect on farmers’
cercospora occurrences were low and not diseases. Smut severity (14.18%) was generally grain yield. A backward model reduction was done
significantly different in all the four study districts. low compared with rust, blast, and ergot severity; to establish which model parameters significantly
Diseases severity significantly differed for blast, but significantly differed at district level (9.71 to contributed to the tested model. Basing on the
rust, ergot and smut but not for exserohilum and 19.50%). Still Kumi district had the lowest smut adjR2 (Table 2) it was observed that percentage
cercospora. For the significantly different severity and Lamwo district the highest (Table 1). smut incidence, percentage rust incidence,
diseases, leaf blast was the most severe disease On the contrary, the cercospora and exserhilum percentage ergot severity, percentage blast
(62.20%) followed by ergot (43.33%), rust severities were lowest of all the diseases with no severity, and percentage rust severity were the
(29.46%) and smut (14.18%) respectively. The significant variation in all the districts. most important parameters in reducing farmers’
blast severity significantly differed in the four Grain yield did not differ significantly (p=0.13) in pearl millet grain yield. The reduced model further
districts with Kumi district having the lowest all the districts although the lowest and the shows that generally disease severity was more
severity of 43.61% but this was still at above the highest were observed in the northern region. important than incidence in explaining the low
Table 2. Regression variance of severities and incidences of major diseases on yield.
Source of variation Sum of Squares df Fvalue Pvalue %R2 %adjR2 Stderror

Full model
Regression 3.585 8 2.863 0.006* 15.70 10.20 0.39563
Residual 19.253 123
Total 22.838 131
Reduced model
Regression 3.565 6 3.853 0.001* 15.30 12.00 0.39178
Residual 19.273 125
Total 22.838 131
*significant at p=0.05. Reduced model parameters; %smut incidence, %rust incidence, %ergot severity, %blast severity, %rust severity.
Table 3. Severity correlations of the common diseases and grain yield.
Variable Yield smut severity blast severity ergot severity rust severity p-value
smut severity -0.05 1 0.19 0.25 -0.25 0.261
blast severity -0.11 0.19 1 0.03 0.06 0.104
ergot severity -0.23 0.25 0.03 1 -0.38 0.003*
rust severity -0.06 -0.25 0.06 -0.38 1 0.045*
*significant at 5%.
grain yield 467.87 Kg ha-1 realized by farmers. However, pearl millet leaf blast had the highest severity range
the low adjusted R2=12.00% accounts for a low (43.61 to 67.67%) and a non-significant negative
percentage of the parameters explaining the model. This correlation (r= -0.11) with yield. However, Wilson and
may indicate that there may be other factors, not Gates (1993) reported a severity range of 3 to 35% with a
considered in the study, contributing to the observed low significant negative correlation to dry matter yield;
grain yield. confirming that leaf blast actually has a significant effect
in reducing pearl millet yield. The high severity and
incidence observed may be a combined result of farmers’
DISCUSSION materials being susceptible and high plant density; as
broadcasting was the sole planting method practiced by
The major diseases observed in pearl millet were leaf farmers resulting in high plant density and dense canopy.
blast, leaf rust, ergot and smut. Except leaf blast, the Wilson and Gates (1993) noted that dense canopy
other three diseases were also reported by Girgi et al. reduces circulation and sunlight penetration, resulting in
(2006) among the major diseases causing severe high moisture retention, a condition promoting the blast
damage on pearl millet. Leaf blast has emerged as one of pathogen, Pyricularia grisea, survival. The leaf blast
the components of the complex organisms that cause pathogen has also been reported to have varying
blights on pearl millet (Wilson and Hanna, 1992) and the pathotypes, those in the USA being different from those
only blights disease that has gained breeding-for- in India (Gupta et al., 2012); indicating that studies should
resistance attention (Hanna et al., 1988). Until recently be done to identify whether pathotype variation exists in
leaf blast was of economic importance in the southern Uganda in order to develop effective resistant material.
coastal plains of the USA where it affected green forage Reports about rust show that the disease is widely
and digestible dry matter (Wilson and Gates, 1993). distributed in countries that grow pearl millet but of low
However, it has become a serious disease of pearl millet occurrence in the Sahelian zone. Rust has become one
in India (Lukose et al., 2007; Sharma et al., 2013) which of the major pearl millet diseases (Gupta et al., 2012)
is the world’s largest producer of the crop (Gupta et al., affecting forage and fodder quality and substantially
2012). It was a widely distributed foliar disease equally reducing grain yield (Lakshmana et al., 2010) through
found in eastern and northern Uganda. The incidence reduction of the photosynthetic area of the infected
range (29.80 to 84.59%) observed in locally adapted leaves (Wilson et al., 1996). The high rust incidence
materials was almost equal to that (20 to 80%) reported (73.58%) observed in the pearl millet growing districts
on hybrids in India (Rai et al., 2012). In the current study, covered in the study shows that the disease is also
Lubadde et al. 2917
important in Uganda. There being no significant variation Other diseases occurring at very low frequencies from
in the high rust incidence (p=0.05) indicates that rust was the pearl millet were Cercospora leaf spot, and
equally distributed and thus important in all the four Exserohilum spp. The observed low frequencies of these
districts surveyed. The importance is shown by the fungi may be due to the plant growth stage at which the
relatively high average severity (29.46%) and being in the study was done. Wilson (2002) observed a change in the
susceptible range (21 to 30%) (Sharma et al., 2009; frequencies and type of fungi that infected the pearl millet
Wilson et al., 1996). Rust severity in northern Uganda from boot stage to hard dough stage. Note should be
was within the moderately susceptible range (11 to 20%) made that downy mildew and striga, some of the most
while in the east farmers’ materials were highly destructive constraints of pearl millet (Kumar and Manga,
susceptible (>30%) based on the Sharma et al. (2009) 2010) reported in the horn of Africa (Esele, 2002) were
description of rust reaction. The variation in severity may not observed in any of the 140 fields surveyed.
be attributed to variation in the environmental factors like
time of planting and the variation in resistance level in the
germplasm planted by the farmers. Pearl millet being a Conclusion
late planted crop in Uganda and rust also being severe
late in the season, the crop growth and development The study results show that ergot, rust, leaf blast and
coincides with high level of rust prevalence. This may smut are the major pearl millet diseases in Uganda and
explain the high severity and incidences in all the pearl thus research should focus on these diseases especially
millet growing fields surveyed; disease progress being ergot, leaf blast and rust. The results also show that
checked only by inherent resistance. downy mildew and striga spp are not important pearl
Ergot, also a widely distributed pearl millet disease in millet production constraints in Uganda since they were
Africa, but of no importance in other continents like not identified in any of the one hundred and forty pearl
America, was another common disease with direct millet fields visited. Among the panicle diseases much
negative correlation to yield. The presence of ergot in focus should be on ergot due to its high incidence and
Uganda was first reported in the early 1980s (Rachie and severity and the health risk it poses in producing alkaloids
Majmudar, 1980) and since then no studies about this that cause ergotism in humans and animals; whereas for
disease have been reported in Uganda but in Ghana the foliar diseases focus should be on rust due to its
ergot was reported as one of the most important diseases direct effect on forage and grain yields. Kumi district had
causing considerable pearl millet yield loss (Nutsugah et very low disease incidence and severity except for rust;
al., 2006). The wide spread and severity of ergot making it a hot spot for screening materials against rust.
observed in Uganda calls for immediate action due to the The ergot, blast and smut can be screened in Katakwi,
health risk of producing alkaloids that cause ergotism in Kitgum and Lamwo districts except Kumi.
humans and other animals that consume contaminated
grains (Thakur and King, 1988). This study showed that
ergot occurred in northern and eastern Uganda with high Conflict of Interest
incidence (62.98%) and severity (43.33%) except Kumi
district. Thus, all the three districts can serve as hot spots The authors have not declared any conflict of interest.
for screening materials against ergot in Uganda. The high
levels in addition to its health hazards make it a
dangerous disease for the pearl millet consumers in ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Uganda.
Smut is also a widely distributed panicle disease which Thanks goes to the University of KwaZulu Natal and
was identified during the current study but information Government of Uganda for providing funds for the study;
about the disease in Uganda is scanty. Wilson (1995) pearl millet farmers for accepting to conduct the study on
reported that smut infects pearl millet when sporidia their fields and finally the relevant authorities in the
suspended in rain water or dew infiltrates in to the boot. districts where the study was done; and colleagues Dr.
Though smut occurred at low incidence and severity in Moses Biruma and Mr. Robert Amayo; for editing the
the farmers’ fields compared with other diseases, the rate manuscript; and finally to the NaSARRI Director of
was generally above the 10% severity level described for Research Dr. Beatrice Akello for the timely release of
materials as being resistant (Rai and Thakur, 1996). This funds used to conduct this research.
makes it a potential threat to causing epidemics (Wilson
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Vol. 9(39), pp. 2919-2924, 25 September, 2014
DOI: 10.5897/AJAR2014.8692
Article Number:11C555147525
ISSN 1991-637X
Morphophysiological characteristics of maize

inoculated with Azospirillum brasilense and
Herbaspirillum seropedicae as seed treatment,
cultivated in different types of soil
Vandeir F. Guimarães1*, Elizeu A. Menegus1, André S. L. Silva1, Artur S. P. Junior1,
Jeferson Klein2, Leandro Rampim1, Daniel Schwantes1, Andréia C. P. Rodrigues-Costa3,
Débora Kestring1, Adriano M. Inagaki1, Andre G. Battistus1, Luiz C. Offemann1,
Lucas G. Bulegon1 and Aline K. P. de Souza1
1
State University of West Parana, Unioeste, CCA/PPGA, Pernambuco Street No. 1777, P.O. Box 9,
Zip Code 85960-000, city of Marechal Candido Rondon, Parana state, Brazil.
2
Pontifical Catholic University, PUC, city of Toledo, Parana state, Brazil.
3
State University of Maringá, UEM, city of Umuarama, Parana state, Brazil.
Received 17 March, 2014; Accepted 10 September, 2014
This work aimed to evaluate the morphological characteristics of maize inoculated with Azospirillum
brasilense (AbV5) and Herbaspirillum seropedicae (SmR1) by seeds treatment, grown in four different
types of soil from the Western region of Paraná. The experiment was conducted in a greenhouse at
State University of Western Paraná. The used experimental design was a randomized block, in factorial
scheme 4x4, with four replications. The first factor is related to the bacteria, with the treatments:
without inoculation; AbV5, A. brasilense; SmR1, H. seropedicae; mix with the two strains. The used
soils were from the horizon A, ranked as Dystric Acrisol, Eutric Umbrisol, Eutric Ferralsol and a Eutric
Acrisol. The experiment was conducted until the 30 days after emergence (DAE), when plants were
collected for the following biometric evaluations: leaf area, root volume and dry mass of culm, leafs and
root, calculus of the total dry mass and the quotient between root system and shoot system mass.
After, root volume, root density, relative level of chlorophyll in leafs, by SPAD and level of protein in
leafs was determined. No significant effect was found from the inoculation of the strains AbV5 and
SmR1 for the biometric and biochemical variables evaluated for the ‘hybrid corn DKB 390’, grown until
30 DAE. The corn plants showed lesser development when cultivated in land from the horizon A of the
Eutric Umbrisol. More studies are necessary with the objective of investigating the existing relations
between the strains of biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) and genotypes of corn, seeking to decrease
the necessity of nitrogen fertilization in corn culture.
Key words: Nitrogen, Zea mays L. biological fixation of nitrogen, soil.
INTRODUCTION
The corn (Zea mays L.) is an important product in the However, projections point out a significant increment in
global market. In Brazil, the productivity in 2011/2012 the use of nitrogen fertilizers (Hungria, 2011). But, high
crop was estimated in 4,400 kg ha-1 (Conab, 2012). costs associated with the dependence of these fertilizers
do not allow the obtaining of higher productions, because capacity of tolerate drastic alterations of the environment
a subtle reduction can limit the production, once that it act pH (5.3 to 8.0), being also the enzyme nitrogenize is less
directly in the vegetal metabolism as the biosynthesis of affected by the presence of oxygen when compared with
organic compounds (Taiz and Zeiger, 2010). other bacteria. In this way, this work aimed to evaluate
Beyond of nitrogen, other limiting factor is the quality of the morphophysiological characteristics of corn
the soil, comprehended with the balance between inoculated with A. brasilense (AbV5) and H. seropedicae
geological, hydrological, chemical, physical and biological (SmR1) by seeds treatment, cultivated in vases with soil
conditions (Zilli et al., 2003). Between these factors of soil from horizon A from four different classes, common in the
formation, it can be placed in evidence: origin material, western Paraná region.
clime, topography, time of microorganisms biological
activity (Bertoni and Neto, 1996). According to Silva et al.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
(1999), the brazilian soils in the most, present a higher
degree of weathering, higher acidity and low nutritional The experiment was performed in November of 2009, in a
availability, what is directly related to the interaction greenhouse, in the Horticulture Station and Biological Control of the
between plant and microorganisms. Ashraf et al. (2013) State University of Western Paraná, Campus Marechal Cândido
highlight the promotion of plant growth and sustainability Rondon, Brazil. The station is located in the coordinates of 54° 22’
W, 24° 46’ S with mean altitude of 420 m. The vegetal material
provided with the use of rhizobacteria. used was the hybrid single cross DKB 390, considered precocious,
The Paraná state stands out for presenting a large requiring 870 thermal units for the female flowering. The soils used
diversity of soils (Embrapa, 2006). However, are basically were characterized as Dystric Acrisol, Eutric Umbrisol, Eutric
few comparative investigations about the real per- Ferralsol and Eutric Acrisol (Table 1). Samples were collected in the
formance of a culture with respect to the interaction of the layers of 0-20 and 20-40 cm for the chemical characterization
different classes of soil with the presence of micro- (Embrapa, 1999). The physical characterization involved the
particle size analysis by the volumetric flask method (Blake and
organisms. Many diastrophic bacteria which live in the Hartge, 1986).
roots of some plants, also denominated as rhizobacteria, The experiment had the duration of 30 days after emergence
are promoters of the vegetal grow (RBPC) (Olivares et al, (DAE), being adopted the experiment design of randomized blocks
1996). This process was observed in some maize plants, in factorial scheme 4x4, with four replications. The first factor was
where an increment was verified not only by biological the four classes of soil (Dystric Acrisol, Eutric Umbrisol, Eutric
nitrogen fixation (BNF) (Hungria, 2011), but also by Ferralsol and Eutric Acrisol), and the second factor was the
inoculation of corn seeds with the strains (A. brasilense (AbV5), and
phytoregulator (Kuss et al., 2007). These bacteria can H. seropedicae (SmR1)), association with the two species and
stimulate or produce phytoregulators (Baldani and control with no inoculation). The fertilization was without nitrogen
Baldani, 2005). Between many RBPC isolated in corn, and was the same for all treatments, with the fertilizer dose
the species Azospirillum brasilense and Herbaspirillum calculated by bases saturation method (Álvares et al., 1999).
seropedicae (Radwan et al., 2004; Mendonça et al., The inoculation of the seeds was performed with a concentration
of 2.0 x 108 colony-forming unit (CFU) by seed. Regarding the
2006; Pedrinho et al., 2010) can be highlighted. Patil strains of A. brasilense and H. seropedicae, these were provided by
(2014) emphasizes increased productivity in grasses the laboratory of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, UFPR of
when using Azospirillum. The distribution of the bacteria Curitiba. After the inoculation the seeds were maintained in the
from the gender Azospirillum is very large, being found in shadow for two hours. The sowing was performed manually, six
different ecosystems (Marin et al., 1999; Hungria, 2011). units per vase, 5.0 cm of deep, keeping two plants per vase after
Their population density varies depending on its germination. Each experiment parcel was constituted by a vase (8 L
of volume), containing two corn plants, totalizing 64 vases. The
interaction with the genotype of plant or with insects control and the irrigation were performed according to the
environmental factors (Cardoso et al., 2010). These culture necessity. For the evaluation of the number of leafs (NL),
bacteria can be categorized as facultative endophytes, SPAD index (SPAD), length of culm (LC), culm diameter (CD), total
propagating in the hosts or surviving in the soil in the cist leaf area (LA) root volume (RV), root density (RD), dry mass of
form (Bashan and Holguin, 1997). shoot system (DMSS) and dry mass of root system (DMRS), at the
Distinctly, the bacteria from the gender H. seropedicae end of 30 days after emergence, the two plants of each
experimental unit were harvested. The NL was defined as the total
are considered obligatory endophytes, presenting very number of leafs with the blade fully expanded.
low survival taxes in soil (Olivares et al., 1996). Also The SPAD index was obtained using mobile SPAD (SPAD-502
present low specificity with hosts, being their association Minolta, Osaka, Japan). The CD was determine with a graduated
with the biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) more frequent ruler in mm, from the base of the plant until the last node of the
with gramineous (Baldani et al., 1992). According to plant stem, measured with a digital caliper rule in the plant base.
For the obtaining of LA a portable area meter was used (LI-3000,
Pedrosa et al. (2011), these bacteria have the capacity of Li-Cor, Lincoln, USA). After the washing of the plant parts, the RV
colonize the interior of tissues in very important cultures and the RD were obtained in a graduated cylinder of 100 ml. After
like corn. These microorganisms also present a larger that, for the obtaining of the DMSS and DMRS, the part plants were
*Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected]

Guimarães et al. 2921
Table 1. Class, origin material, location, physicochemical analysis of different soils from the Western Region of Paraná State.
Class Location (1) GG (2) GF (3) Lithology

Eutric Ferralsol Marechal Cândido Rondon São Bento Serra Geral Basatl
Dystric Acrisol Palotina Bauru Caiuá Sandstome
Eutric Acrisol Marechal Cândido Rondon São Bento Serra Geral Basatl
Eutric Umbrisol Marechal Cândido Rondon São Bento Serra Geral Basatl
P K
+
Ca2+ Mg2+ Al+3 CTC (5) V (6) MO (7) Sand Silt Clay
Class pH (4)
-3 -3 -1
---mg dm --- -------------cmolc dm ---------- ----%--- -----------------g kg -----------------
Eutric Ferralsol 4.73 20.44 0.20 2.99 1.77 0.40 10.38 50.78 15.04 88.4 9.2 902.4
Dystric Acrisol 5.85 69.91 0.19 1.87 0.86 0.00 5.43 48.71 10.25 893.6 20.0 86.4
Eutric Acrisol 4.87 11.90 0.61 4.37 1.98 0.30 12.31 56.54 25.97 155.0 142.6 702.4
Eutric Umbrisol 5.44 13.29 0.22 6.19 2.67 0.00 14.30 63.50 21.19 181.8 182.8 635.4
(1) (2) (3) (4) -1 + 2+ 2+ 3+ -1 (5)
City which was collected; Geological Group; Geological Formation; pH in CaCl2 0,01 mol L ; P e K (Mehlich-1), Ca , Mg e Al (KCl 1 mol L );
(6) (7)
CEC a pH 7,0; V % (bases saturation); Organic matter (Walkley and Black method).
Table 2. Variance analysis for SAPD, Proteins (PROT), Length of Culm (LC), Culm Diameter (CD), Number of Leafs
(NL), Root Volume (RV), Root Density (RD), Dry Mass of Root System (DMRS), Dry Mass of Culm (DMC), Dry Mass
of Leafs (DML), Total Dry Mass (TDM), Quotient of Root system / Shoot system (QRS) of corn cultivated in different
classes of soil and inoculated with Azospirillum brasilense and Herbaspirillum seropedicae.
MS
FV
DF SPAD PROT LC CD NL RV
Block 3 89.29 0.0003 146.39 17.84 4.18 1870.10
Soils (S) 3 100.16* 0.0001 16.20 45.29** 7.22 20945.20**
Strains (ST) 3 4.17 0.0002 3.72 7.64 9.77 9.28.50
S x ST 9 25.88 0.0001 61.58 8.60 5.99 1838.50
Residue 45 33.04 0.0001 69.84 10.67 6.32 2330.70
CV (%) 22.24 40.95 20.94 31.33 22.79 38.50
MS
FV
DF RD DMRS DMC DML TDM QRS
Block 3 0.001 83.77 19.58 13.99 58.97 0.127
Soils (S) 3 0.021 2626.39** 63.71 60.76 243.02** 4.058**
Strains (ST) 3 0.002 120.62 10.41 1.22 18.60 0.288
S x ST 9 0.001 67.37 4.59 5.63 18.75 0.122
Residue 45 0.003 248.25 11.91 10.86 43.52 0.346
CV (%) 42.79 77.76 34.21 32.32 32.519 43.30
** Significant at 1% e * Significant at 5%.
placed in paper bags and inside a drier of forced circulation air at grown in vases until 30 days after seeding (DAS), in the
60°C for 72 h. Thereafter it was calculated the quotient between absence of fertilization for the studied variables (Table 2).
DMRS and DMSS. The protein and nitrogen level was determined
by Watt and Merril (1975). All the data were submitted to variance
In the same way, the decomposition of the interaction in
analysis, using the F test (P≤ 0.05). The statistical analyses were soil classes in function of the strains did not presented
performed using the computer program Sisvar (Ferreira, 2010). significant differences (P> 0.05) for none of the evaluated
variables to strains. Araújo et al. (2014) conducted under
controlled conditions of greenhouse were measured at 35
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION days after plant emergence and obtained the biometric
variables were higher with inoculation of H. seropedicae
There were not found significant interactions (P> 0.05) in seeds of corn hybrids cultivated in Oxisoil with 650 g
between soil types and strains in corn hybrid DKB 390 kg-1 of clay with different results in stem diameter and
Table 3. Culm Diameter (CD), Root Volume (RV), Dry Mass of Root System (DMRS), Root Density (RD), Quotient of Shoot system /
Root system (QRS), Dry Mass of Culm (DMC), Dry Mass of Leafs (DML), Total Dry Mass (TDM) and SPAD of corn plants inoculated
with the strains A. brasilense and H. seropedicae by seeds treatment, and cultivated in different classes of soil. Unioeste, Marechal
Candido Rondon – PR, Brazil, 2010.
CD RV DMRS RD QRS DMC DML TDM

Soils SPAD
(mm) (cm3) (g) (g cm-3) (g g-1) --------------- (g) ----------------
Eutric Ferralsol 15.81ab 106.88 b 15.05 b 0.13 b 1.61 ab 10.54 a 9.77 ab 20.32 ab 25.50 ab
17.13 a 112.19 b 12.85 b 0.11 b 1.92 a a
Dystric Acrisol 11.29 11.44 a 22.73 a 28.06 a
Eutric Acrisol 15.20 ab 179.38 a 39.43 a 0.19 a 0.74 c 11.37 a
11.93 a
23.30 a 27.36 ab
13.09 b 103.13 b 13.70 b 0.12 b 1.28 bc b b
Eutric Umbrisol 7.14 7.62 14.76 b 22.46 b
Strains
Control 17.13 123.75 19.94 0.13 1.32 10.15 10.19 20.35 25.96
AbV5 (1) 13.09 118.44 19.46 0.13 1.58 10.21 10.32 20.54 25.10
SmR1(2) 15.81 136.25 24.08 0.15 1.27 10.96 10.44 21.41 26.24
(1 + 2) 15.20 123.13 17.56 0.12 1.38 9.01 9.80 18.82 26.07
CV (%) 21.33 22.79 77.76 42.79 42.30 34.21 32.32 32.51 22.24
Means followed by the same letter don not differ statistically by Tukey Test (P<0.05); AbV5 = A. brasilense; SmR1= H. seropedicae.
shoot nitrogen content in simple hybrid P3646H, triple By the biometrical variables analysis for the effect of
hybrid BRS3035 and double hybrid Maximus. Quadros et soil classes, it was observed that, a significant increase
al. (2014) detected different responses to test (P> 0.05), in the culm diameter of the plants cultivated in
Azospirillum in corn hybrids, low interference was the Dystric Acrisol, when compared to those plants
observed in the biometric variables at the beginning of cultivated in the Eutric Umbrisol at 30 DAS (Table 2).
crop development, especially increased dry matter yield These results corroborate with the one obtained by
for AS 1575 and SH5050 hybrid; higher thousand grain Murtadha et al. (1989), which concluded that the culm
weight with P32R48; greater plant height with AS 1575. diameter of the corn plants can be influenced by the class
The obtained results demonstrate that the presence of of soil.
these microorganisms in the tested conditions did not Corn plants cultivated in the Eutric Acrisol, regardless
affect the initial development of the plants during the of the inoculation presented a higher development of the
evaluation period, independent of the soil class used. root system (volume of roots, dry mass of root and root
This response indicates that the two strains do not have density), in relation to the other treatments (Table 3). It is
effectiveness in the inoculation of corn plants of hybrid possible that the chemical condition of the soil may have
DKB 390. The microorganisms showed a great potential been favorable to the radicular development, favoring the
in vitro, however, the expression of its benefits in the field expression of the bacteria potential, since that the Eutric
is still unpredictable and many times disappointing Acrisol presented higher levels of V%, just as higher
(Hungia, 2011). According to the same author, many are CTC, as seen in Table 1. The inferior means obtained for
the factors that can interfere in the activity of the the other treatments can be related to the higher level of
interaction between bacterial-soil-plant as biotic and sand in the Dystric Acrisol, to the lower deep and to the
abiotic factors. What is one of the primary factors for the limiting physical characteristics in the Eutric Umbrisol,
success of the inoculation with these bacteria, acting such as the higher level of clay (90%) in the Eutric
constantly in the selection of strains in different habitats Ferralsol (Table 1). Obtaining plants with a better initial
(Baldani and Baldani, 2005). However, in Brazil, there are development is fundamental, because this better
not many studies which give emphasis the interactions development provides a more developed root system,
between the genotypes of corn, nitrogen and bacteria mainly in the maturation stage, which can provide a
which promote the growing (Moreira et al., 2010) and in better water and nutrient absorption and contribute for a
different soils. higher final production (Taiz and Zeiger, 2010). In this
For Ikeda (2010), the plant response time to the way, Pereira et al. (2003) relate that corn plants which
inoculation, independently of the strain, may or not were maintained without hydric restriction have remained
contribute for a better development of the plants. Other with a higher level of water in the leafs, providing higher
important aspect to be considered is the survival photosynthetic rates and higher production of
percentage of the bacteria after the inoculation, because photoassimilates by the plant. Different results were
this is a main question that still need to be solved in obtained by Cavallet et al. (2000), when inoculating A.
future studies relating the association of bacteria which brasilense spp in seeds of corn G-159 S.
promote growing and gramineous species. Meanwhile the development of the shoot system (dry
Guimarães et al. 2923
mass of culm, dry mass of leaf, quotient “root ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

system/shot system”), of the corn plants cultivated in the
Dystric Acrisol showed significantly superior from those The authors are grateful to Coordination of Improvement
cultivated in the soil Eutric Umbrisol (Table 3). In the of Higher Education Personnel (CAPES), National
same way, the total dry mass of plants cultivated in the Council for Scientific and Technological Development
Dystric Acrisol and Eutric Acrisol were superior from (CNPq), Araucaria Foundation for Scientific and
those cultivated in the soil Eutric Umbrisol. Technological Development of Paraná (Araucaria
The SPAD in the plants cultivated in the Eutric Foundation), National Institute of Science and
Umbrisol were lower to those obtained in the soil Dystric Technology of Biological Nitrogen Fixation (CNPq/INCT-
Acrisol (Table 3). The obtained results in relation to the FBN) for financial support to this research and
quotient between “root system/shoot system”, show that CAPES/PNPD for granting a scholarship.
plants cultivated in the Dystric Acrisol were higher than
those cultivated in the Eutric Umbrisol and Eutric Acrisol.
The obtained values for this variable can indicate a better REFERENCES
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Vol. 9(39), pp. 2925-2935, 25 September, 2014
DOI: 10.5897/AJAR2013.8135
Article Number: 9C842AE47527
ISSN 1991-637X
Study on diversity of Phaseolus spp. landraces with

reference to global climate change
Tzvetelina Stoilova1,3*, Malgorzata Berova2, Kalinka Kouzmova2 and Stanislav Stamatov1
1
Institute of Plant Genetic Resources, Sadovo, Bulgaria.
2
Agricultural University, Plovdiv, Bulgaria.
3
AVRDC, the World Vegetable Center, Regional Center for Africa, P. O. Box 10 Duluti, Arusha, Tanzania.
Received 26 October, 2013; Accepted 10 September, 2014
The purpose of this study was to investigate the differences between Phaseolus vulgaris landraces and
to determine their adaptation to local climatic conditions to enrich the genetic diversity of the collection
of the Institute of Plant Genetic Resources (IPGR), Sadovo with original plant material better adapted to
current climatic changes. The study was performed in four different geographical regions of Bulgaria
(Troyan, Smilyan, Velingrad and Sadovo) with six traditional P. vulgaris landraces. It was demonstrated
that genotype was a more dominant influence on morphological characteristics of landraces than
climatic factors or genotype/environment interaction. Differences in the reaction of separate genotypes
to fluctuations in meteorological conditions were established based on agro-climatic indices. Tolerance
of the studied genotypes to drought was assessed using physiological indices. Accession A9E1270 had
the best indices and high adaptability. The influence of meteorological conditions on its growth rate
during all interphase periods, even under drought conditions, was insignificant, and its biological
specifications had a determining role. A9E1206, A9E1211 and A9E1259 were identified as potential
candidates; the quantity of rainfall had a strong influence on their development rate, but they developed
more quickly under drought conditions.
Key words: Common bean, phenology, morphology, climatic factors, photosynthesis, leaf water potential,
drought.

INTRODUCTION
Climate change, connected with global warming, was concentrations. Increased temperature leads to reduced
forecast 20 years ago (IPCC, 2007). It affects all spheres yields and quality of many crops. Change in precipitation
of the economy, particularly agriculture (Schneider et al., may benefit different areas by increasing soil moisture,
2007). According to Adams et al. (1998), the effect of while the reduction of rainfall could have the opposite
climate change on agricultural yield varies by crop and by effect. Higher concentration of CO2 would result in higher
region. Climate change includes higher temperatures, net photosynthetic rates (Cure and Acock, 1986; Allen et
changes in precipitation, and higher atmospheric CO2 al., 1987). The net change in crop yields is determined by

the balance between these negative and positive direct new varieties displaced the old varieties and landraces.
effects on plant growth and development, and by indirect However, throughout the entire country Bulgarian farmers
effects on crop production (Adams et al., 1998). These still grow old varieties and traditional landraces in low
factors undoubtedly will result in new criteria for crops input agricultural systems, not only for personal
and regional distribution of cultivars. Flowering, fruit consumption but also for sale as niche products or
setting and maturity cycle of grain legumes were affected specialties in local markets. Unfortunately, the cultivation
by different stress factors, as well as higher temperature of these old varieties and landraces is generally practiced
and solar radiation (Munoz-Perea et al., 2006). Singh et by older farmers, and as a result a large fraction of
al. (2009) reported on the severest and negative adverse common bean landraces are endangered by the risk of
effect of the most stressful conditions on seed weight and extinction. Many authors have reported that landraces of
other seed characteristics of common beans such as many crops are the most threatened category of genetic
seed shape, color, and coat brilliance or shininess. resources, and are also the primary object of demands
Cultivars not possessing good drought tolerance and for compensation (Hawkes, 1983; Fowler and Mooney,
better plasticity reduced their reproductive organs (pods 1990).
and seeds) and other useful associated agronomic traits, The climate in Bulgaria is formed under the influence of
thus substantially affecting yield production and quality complex factors: Geographic (location, altitude and
(Suarez et al., 2008; Vallejo and Kelly, 1998). relief), radiation (solar radiation) and circulation
P. vulgaris L. were introduced as a crop into Europe by (atmospheric circulation and cyclonic activity). Areas with
the Spaniards after the discovery of Americas during the an altitude above 1000 m are characterized by a
15th century (Westphal, 1974). Common beans are the mountain climate. The mean annual air temperature for
world’s second most important legume crop after the lowland parts of the country is 10 to 12°C. The
soybean, and it is well known that bean pods and seeds highest mean monthly air temperatures are 21 to 24°C in
are an affordable and inexpensive source of protein, July and August. Precipitation is unevenly distributed in
carbohydrates, dietary fiber, starch, minerals and the country and changes widely from 500 to 550 mm in
vitamins. The use of common beans declined until a few the lowlands to 1000 to 1400 mm in places with a
decades ago, when their use began to be reevaluated for mountain climate.
dietary reasons (Sathe, 2002; Mitchell et al., 2009; Zhu et Over the last three to four decades Bulgaria’s climate
al., 2012). FAO (www.faostat.fao.org 2011) statistics has been changing, which is in accordance with global
show that world production was approximately 23,250 trends (Kouzmova, 1999; Peev et al., 2000; Peev and
million tons harvested from 29,211,491 ha. Europe’s top Kouzmova, 2001). In the 1990s and 2000s, drought in
common bean producing countries are Poland (34,896 Southern Bulgaria was very severe, and included the
tons), Greece (22,744 tons), Romania (21,351 tons), and years with the minimum precipitation of the century. With
Spain (12,952 tons). In Bulgaria the crop occupied an a few exceptions, the mean monthly air temperature
area of 954 ha, from which 1011 tons were produced. deviated positively from the climatic norm and the rainfall-
In Europe the diversity of P. vulgaris germplasm is the negative deviations in the direction of this reduction. 1994
result of adaptation to different agro-climatic and edaphic and 2007 proved to be the warmest years of the 20th
conditions as well as multiple inputs of material from century, and 2000 the driest one of the 21st century to
Andean and Mesoamerican domestication centers date.
(Araya, 2003). People still carry seeds from neighboring All these peculiarities in the climate of Bulgaria have an
and far away regions into Europe and other continents; impact on crop productivity and require more detailed
such unrecorded seed exchange has been occurring study of historical and current agro-climatic conditions
since the first visit of Europeans to the Americas (Zeven, and global trends to correctly select appropriate varieties
1997). Much unrecorded seed exchange between plant for a specific area.
collectors, gardeners, and farmers must have taken place To evaluate crop candidates for distribution, it is
since the first arrival of common bean in Europe. necessary to assess crop structure and cultivar
Common beans are very popular in Bulgaria; they are composition based on their reaction to abiotic stress
the most widely used legume in local cuisine, and beans factors. The Institute of Plant Genetic Resources (IPGR)
are connected with local traditions and habits, usually in Sadovo preserves a collection of about 2000
based on production (Stoilova and Sabeva , 2006). Due accessions of P. vulgaris from different geographical
to the good adaptation of common beans to soil types origins. During the last decade an effort was made to
and climatic conditions, and their aesthetic and collect local landraces and old varieties to characterize,
organoleptic traits, a large number of landraces were evaluate and preserve them at the IPGR National
differentiated by type of plant, flower, form and size of Genebank.
seeds, as well as economic qualities (Gradinarov, 1939; The objectives of this study were: (i) to study the
Genchev and Kiryakov, 2005). Today common beans are differences between landraces using morphological and
widely cultivated in intensive agricultural systems and physiological techniques; and (ii) to determine their
commercialized mainly in the Dobrudzha plateau, where adaptation to local climatic conditions to enrich the
Stoilova et al. 2927
Figure 1. Geographical regions of Bulgaria included in the present study on the diversity of Phaseolus spp.
landraces with reference to global climate change.
genetic diversity of the P. vulgaris collection with plant replication were randomly chosen for biometrics. Complex
material, landraces, or primitive varieties of local origin evaluation and characterization was done according to the
International Board for Plant Genetic Resources (IBPGR)
that are better adapted to current climatic changes. Descriptors of Phaseolus (1982).
MATERIALS AND METHODS Morphological and physiological evaluation
Plant material Observations were made on 11 different agro-biological and

morphological characters (Table 2). Physiological analyses (the
The study was performed in four different geographical regions parameters of the leaf gas exchange - net photosynthesis /PN/,
(Troyan, Smilyan, Velingrad and Sadovo) with different transpiration intensity /E/, stomatal conductance /gs/) were
householders and six traditional P. vulgaris landraces. These performed with a portable photosynthetic system LCA-4 (ADC,
regions were located in the Rhodope and Balkan Mountains at Hoddesdon, England). The measurements were conducted in
different elevations, as follows: Troyan, 395 m/asl; Smilyan, 1010 natural environmental conditions. The measurements were made
m/asl; Velingrad, 745 m/asl and Sadovo, 153 m/asl (Figure 1). from 10:00 to 14:00, under approximate photosynthetic photon flux
The studied landraces were selected according to their importance, density (PPFD) of 1200 to 1900 μmol m-2 s-1. Fully developed
popularity and use in each region. The most traditionally grown leaves of the same physiological age (from the middle portion of the
bean landraces, still grown by older householders, were chosen. shoot) were used for the analyses. The measurements were carried
Six accessions were analyzed in this study (Table 1). The selection out on ten intact plants of each landrace. Leaf water potential /Ψl/
of the regions was based on previous collecting missions and was measured on the same plants as gas exchange using a
knowledge that many farmers still used and maintained typical pressure chamber EL 540-305 (ELE-International Ltd., Hemel
landraces on-farm to meet local market demand for high quality Hempstead, England), according to Turner (1988).
products. A complex morphological characterization was done
during three vegetative cycles (2010-2012) (Table 1).
Climatic factors
Field trials design The agro-meteorological conditions were traced in the studied
regions by interphase periods. The air temperature and the quantity
To trace the adaptive capacity of the studied landraces to agro- of rainfall have been taken as main factors, on the basis of which
climatic conditions (especially to drought) two field trials at IPGR the main agro-climatic indices determining the development rate of
were carried out with irrigation and non-irrigated. The irrigated field the studied bean genotypes were outlined. The hydrothermal
trial was performed with irrigation once per week with 25 L m-3 coefficient (HTC) was used for assessment of drought and dry
water. The trials were a randomized complete block design with conditions (Selyaninov, according to Kouzmova, 2003).
three replications. Each accession was grown in two row plots; Physiological and climatic adaptation investigations were carried
each plot was 3 m2 in size. In each plot 10 plants and 20 seeds per out for a period of two years, 2010 to 2011. During this period
Table 1. Number of accessions included in this study.
No. Accession No Status of sample Geographical Origin Local name

1 A9E1211 Landraces Draginovo-Velingrad region Elenski roga
2 A9E1248 Landraces Grashevo-Velingrad region Kadanka
3 A9E1206 Landraces Kamenitsa-Velingrad region Maslen bob
4 A9E1259 Landraces Vrabevo-Troyn region Byal bob
5 A9E1270 Landraces Cherni Osam-Troyan region Naplatar
6 A9E1188 Landraces Smilyan region Smilynski bob
Table 2. Quantitative descriptors used in the characterization of common bean landraces.
Morphological characters Abbreviations Morphological characters Abbreviations

Beginning of flowering BFL Number of seeds per plant Ns/s/pl
Flowering duration FLD Number of seeds per pod Ns/s/pod
Days to maturity DM 100 seed weight 100sw
Plant height PH Weight of seeds per plant w/s/pl
Number of pods per plant Ns/pod/pl Yield (g/m2) Y/g/m2
Pod length Pl
Table 3. Phenological observations of Phaseolus vulgaris accessions in Troyan, Velingrad and

Smilyan regions with irrigation.
P. vulgaris accession number BFL (days-1) FLD (days-1) DM (days-1)

A9E12111 32.7 40.7 94.3
A9E12481 32.3 39.3 95
A9E12061 32.0 35.7 88.7
A9E12592 32.0 34.3 79.3*
A9E12702 32.7 34.0 82.7*
A9E11883 33.3 42.0 113.3*
Mean Standard 32.5 37.7 92.2
Genotype x Environment % 0.01 28.21 10.6
Genotype’s influence % 9.45 37.96 72.1
Environment % 90.53 33.83 17.3
LSD (0.05) 2.79 4.54 9.39
1 2 3
Velingrad, Troyan, Smilyan, *the mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.
similar results were observed, thus average data from two reporting observations and morphological traits among all
years is presented in this paper. accessions from the regional trial and the other two trials
Statistical analyses were carried out by the SPSS-9 program for
Windows. The correlation and regression analysis was used for
carried out at IPGR with and without irrigation (Tables 3
meteorological data processing, with the help of a specially to 8). The longest period from emergence to beginning of
developed Excel program for processing of phenological data flowering was shown by accessions from the
(Kouzmova, 2002). experimental field of IPGR without irrigation, as follows:
Accession A9E1248 (41 days), A9E1188 (38 days), and
A9E1211 (37 days) (Table 5). The duration of the
RESULTS flowering period from the trial without irrigation was the
shortest, ranging from 27 to 34.7 days, compared with
The accessions from different trials needed a different the other two trials grown with irrigation (Tables 3 and 4).
number of days after emergence to enter into the next Accessions from the three locations in Troyan, Velingrad
phase, the beginning of flowering (BFL) (Table 3 to 5). and Smilyan regions started the first phenological phase
The results obtained showed differences in phenological (BFL) after the least number of days, counting from
Table 4. Phenological observations of P. vulgaris accessions irrigated trials in Sadovo.
Accession No. BFL (days-1) FLD (days-1) DM (days-1)

A9E12111 33.0 33.2 81.3
A9E12481 33.0 33.2 81.3
A9E12061 30.0 33.0 77.3
A9E12592 32.7 29.5 75.4
A9E12702 39.7* 31.0 89.3
3
A9E1188 34.7 29.7 81.3
Environment % 92.8 37.5 18.9
LSD (0.05) 5.8 3.03 15.45
1 2 3
Seeds from: Velingrad, Troyan, Smilyan, *the mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.
Table 5. Phenological observations of P. vulgaris accessions in non-irrigated trials in Sadovo.
Accession No BFL (days-1) FLD (days-1) DM (days-1)

A9E12111 37.0 29.0 78.3
A9E12481 41.0* 29.3 77.0
A9E12061 36.7 29.0 77.3
A9E12592 33.0* 29.0 73.3
2
A9E1270 36.0 34.7 74.3
A9E11883 38.0 27.0 71.3
Environment % 90.5 34.9 20.3
LSD (0.05) 2.32 5.35 6.19
1 2 3
emergence until 50% of flowering plants; the duration of The highest value of plant height was shown by
flowering period was the longest, ranging from 34 to 42 accessions from the regional trial and the tallest
days (Table 3). accessions were A9E1248 from Velingrad, at 2.2 m with
Results with a significant difference compared with the significant difference to the mean value, followed by
mean trial value (accepted as a mean standard) were A9E1188 at 2.0 m from Smilyan (Table 6).
shown only at the beginning of flowering (BFL) by two Accessions of the other two trials at IPGR showed
accessions: A9E1259 and A9E1248 (LSD 0.05) from the different results. The plants’ height was shorter, with
non-irrigated trial carried out at IPGR (Table 5). Duration values between 1.2 and 1.7 m with mean standard value
of the flowering stage did not show any significant of 1.4 m from the trial with IS, and between 1.1 to 1.3 m
difference between all accessions in each trial (Tables 3 with mean standard value of 1.2 m from the trial with NIS
to 5). The longest period of vegetation and maturity was (Tables 7 and 8).
obtained by landraces in the regional trial, ranging from The degree of genotype influence on plant height
79.3 to 113.3 days (Table 3). Accessions A9E1259 and (expressed by percentage) was higher than the other two
A9E1270 from Troyan reached maturity over the shortest factors of genotype x environment and environment
period of time, and A9E1188 from Smilyan had the (Tables 6 to 8). Similar results were obtained for the
longest vegetation cycle. These three accessions showed remaining morphological characters (number of pods per
significant differences at the 0.05 level, compared with plant, number of seeds per plant, weight of seeds per
the mean standard value. plant and 100 seed weight). The biggest number of pods
Morphological characters collected from accessions of per plant were produced by accessions in the regional
these three trials showed big differences (Tables 6 to 8). trial with mean standard of 14.8 pods/plant (Table 6),
Table 6. Morphological characteristics of P. vulgaris accessions obtained from Troyan, Velingrad and Smilyan regions with irrigation.
Ph. vulgaris/acc. No PH (m) Ns/pod/pl PL (cm) Ns/s/pl Ns/s/pod 100sw (g) W/s/pl (g) Y (g m-2)
A9E12111 1.9 13.6 13.6 52.5 5.5 67.3 45.7* 196.0*
A9E12481 2.2* 21.2* 15.9 72.1* 5.4 69.3 40.9 207.3*
A9E12061 1.9 10.8 16.8 47.0 5.6 71.4 29.2 158.3
A9E12592 1.6 10.5* 13.5 45.9 5.2 34.4* 20.9* 133.3*
A9E12702 1.8 10.1* 16.5 53.9 5.3 45.5* 28.4 119.7*
3
A9E1188 2.0 22.7* 13.1 55.7 5.3 76.3* 34.9 176.7
Mean Standard 1.9 14.8 14.0 54.5 5.4 60.69 33.35 165.2
Genotype x Environment % 32.76 0.93 0.64 8.8 0.8 38.24 28.32 13
Genotype’s influence % 47.26 76.2 41.1 61.1 30.06 47.45 53.35 77.1
Environment % 18.78 12.9 58.3 30.2 69.14 14.31 18.33 9.9
LSD (0.05) 0.15 4 3.6 11.15 1.49 12.09 7.61 25.75
1 2 3
Table 7. Morphological characteristics of P. vulgaris accessions from irrigated trials in Sadovo.
Ph. vulgaris/acc. No PH (m) Ns/pod/pl PL (cm) Ns/s/pl. Ns/s/pod 100sw (g) W/s/pl (g) Y (g m-2)
A9E12111 1.5 11.3 11.2 37 4.8 49.8 27.5 143.7*
A9E12481 1.5 11.3 11.2 37 4.8 49.8 27.5 143.7*
A9E12061 1.7 9.5 10 23 4.8 38.8 13.4 82.7*
A9E12592 1.2 13.1 10.8 42.2 4.3 36 15.6 145*
A9E12702 1.2 9.8 11 23.2* 5.3 43.8 24.8 94*
3
A9E1188 1.5 16.7* 12.6 88* 4.9 42.2 24.2 114.6
Mean Standard 1.4 11.9 11.2 41.7 4.8 43.3 22.2 120.2
Genotype x Environment % 27.1 16.7 1.3 15 5.5 31.9 20.2 25.3
Genotype’s influence % 51.2 70.1 48.7 50.1 5.6 53.1 42.8 65
Environment % 21.7 13.2 50 34.9 88.9 15 37 9.7
LSD (0.05) 0.38 4.59 2.25 17.38 1.28 7.46 10.68 23.44
1 2 3
followed by accessions from the IS trial with mean obtained by A9E1248 with 207.3 g/m-2 from a regional
standard of 11.9 pods/plant (Table 7) and the lowest trial (Table 6). Four accessions (AE1211, A9E1248,
value was recorded with accessions in the NIS trial, with A9E1259 and A9E1270) showed a significant difference
mean standard value of 5.1 pods/plant (Table 8). The at 0.05 level with mean standard value of 165.2 g/m-2
same results can be observed by the next important (Table 6). The results from the IPGR trials showed higher
character, number of seeds per plant, with mean production from the irrigated trial with mean value of
standard value of 54.5, 41.7 and 15.1 seeds per plant, 120.2 g m-2 compared with the non-irrigated trial, with a
respectively. The genotype influence was higher than the mean standard value of 36.4 g m-2 (Tables 7 and 8). The
environment factor on these two characters, number of significantly positive difference in seed yield from the
pods per plant and number of seeds per plant. The next irrigated trial was shown by three accessions: A9E1211,
morphological characters were related to seed size. The A9E1248 and A9E1259 and the significantly lower seed
weight of seeds per plant, 100 seed weight, as well as yield by two of them, A9E1206 and A9E1270 (Table 7).
seed yield depended mostly on the genotype influence. The influence of genotype on this character was more
One hundred seed weight (100 sw) had different mean dominant than environment factor or genotype x
values, from different irrigated and non-irrigated trials environment interaction in two trials with and without
(Tables 6 to 8). Genotype influence in all three trials was irrigation as shown by related coefficients 77.1, 65.0 and
47.45% (Table 6), 53.1% (Table 7) and 45.3% (Table 8) 70.6% (Tables 6 to 8). The correlation and regression
followed by genotype x environment interaction dependencies between the development rate in the
coefficients with values of 38.24, 31.9 and 43.3%, studied bean samples and the main agro-meteorological
respectively. The highest seed yield production was factors are shown in Table 9.
Table 8. Morphological characteristics of P. vulgaris accessions in non-irrigated trials in Sadovo.
Ph. vulgaris/acc. No PH (m) Ns/pod/pl PL (cm) Ns/s/pl Ns/s/pod 100sw (g) W/s/pl (g) Y (g/m-2)
A9E12111 1.1 6* 10 14.3 4.7 44 4.7 49.5*
A9E12481 1.3 1.5* 8.6 5.0* 2.6 38.6 1.3 25.0
A9E12061 1.2 6.6* 9.0 19.2* 3.6 40.2 8.6 40.3
A9E12592 1.1 9.1* 9.6 27.7* 4.3 33.8* 8.0 37.5
A9E12702 1.2 4.3 8.9 15.9 4.1 44* 5.1 46.5
3
A9E1188 1.2 3.1 8.4 8.3* 3.4 37.4 2.6 19.5*
Mean Standard 1.2 5.1 9.1 15.1 3.8 39.6 5.0 36.4
Genotype x Environment % 30.8 12.1 0.52 10.2 0.8 43.3 25.6 17.3
Genotype’s influence % 48.9 76.5 42 57.8 3.5 45.3 50.1 70.6
Environment % 20.5 11.4 57.5 32.1 95.7 12.2 4.3 12.1
LSD (0.05) 0.29 0.89 1.08 10.83 0.86 1.20 3.09 11.72
1 2 3
Table 9. Correlation and regression relationships on the influence of the main agro-meteorological factors on the rate of development of the
studied bean genotypes.
Germination - flowering Flowering – pod formation Pod formation - maturing

Regression Correlation Regression Correlation Regression Correlation
Genotypes equation of the coefficient equation of the coefficient equation of the coefficient
type y=ax+b (r) type y=ax+b (r) type y=ax+b (r)
Mean air temperature (t, °C)
A9E1211 y=0.9806t+13.622 0.2933 y=1.446t-18.872 0.8188 y=-10.401t+303.45 -0.8561
A9E1248 y=-4.3943t+127.25 -0.6602 y=-2.531t+73.71 -0.7851 y=-15.978t+430.43 -0.9447
A9E1206 y=-0.5407t+44.489 -0.2773 y=-2.176t+70.61 -0.3932 y=-10.120t+287.84 -0.8281
A9E1259 y=-2.6129t+92.578 -0.5284 y=0.9096t+4.237 0.2855 y=-8.084t+231.86 -0.6247
A9E1270 y=-0.9905t+57.592 -0.1568 y=-0.028t+16.80 -0.0141 y=-8.8092t+256.38 -0.9341
A9E1188 y=0.5281t+28.48 0.3672 y=-1.475t+43.92 -0.8359 y=-3.0584t+110.24 -0.9786
Sum of precipitations (R, mm)

A9E1211 y=0.0788R+30.919 0.2674 y=-0.004R+13.1 -0.0224 y=0.2362R+14.103 0.9110
A9E1248 y=-0.069R+41.791 0.1319 y=0.2341R+3.75 0.8769 y=-0.4715R+117.1 -0.3886
A9E1206 y=0.0642R+30.671 0.4420 y=0.1043R+16.6 0.6466 y=0.1063R+26.47 0.3105
A9E1259 y=0.0752R+34.779 0.5796 y=0.107R+11.28 0.4977 y=0.0977R+25.204 0.2482
A9E1270 y=0.0361R+35.3 0.1661 y=0.0413R+14.9 0.2285 y=0.1218R+23.383 0.4352
A9E1188 y=-0.0232R+39.636 0.2263 y=0.2043R+8.97 0.9301 y=0.2436R+8.479 0.8906
Hydrothermal coefficient (H)

A9E1211 y=-1.8713H+34.634 -0.0906 y=-6.5H+17.21 -0.6406 y=10.822H+32.526 0.2784
A9E1248 y=-23.415H+56.73 -0.7053 y=6.8596H+5.78 0.6896 y=-34.502H+95.756 -0.9606
A9E1206 y=3.1899H+31.399 0.3270 y=5.0828H+16.8 0.5334 y=-7.8744H+49.368 -0.3015
A9E1259 y=4.8236H+35.634 0.4580 y=1.2422H+14.3 0.1855 y=-10.618H+48.339 -0.3718
A9E1270 y=-2.0287H+38.27 -0.1378 y=0.3587H+15.9 0.0616 y=-0.473H+36.213 -0.0173
A9E1188 y=-1.3614H+40.147 -0.3972 y=9.0702H+6.28 0.9418 y=26.097H+2.1505 0.8884
У, Duration of the interphase periods (days); t, average air temperature (°C); R, sum of precipitations (mm); H,Hydrothermal coefficient (HTC); r,
correlation coefficient.
During the period from sowing to germination there were genotypes to the fluctuation of meteorological conditions
no cultivar differences between the separate genotypes were found. In the period from germination to flowering
(unpublished data). However, in the remaining interphase the air temperature was decisive for the growth rate only
periods differences in the reaction of the separate in A9E1248, where a strong negative correlation was
Table 10. Gas exchange and water potential () in the leaves of common bean (P. vulgaris).
Variable PN gs E l PN/E
A9E1211
Velingrad (irrigated) 13.55a 0.11b 4.30b -3.3a 3.11a
Exp. field - Sadovo (irrigated) 16.69b 0.15b 2.14ab -3.1a 7.79b
Exp. field - Sadovo (non-irrigated) 11.95a 0.07a 1.16a -3.9ab 10.30c
A9E1248
Velingrad (irrigated) 11.45b 0.14b 2.11ab -2.9a 5.43ab
Exp. field - Sadovo (irrigated) 18.49c 0.12b 2.95ab -3.1a 6.27ab
Exp. field - Sadovo (non-irrigated) 7.33a 0.04a 1.74a -5.0b 4.21a
A9E1206
Velingrad (irrigated) 10.91a 0.14b 1.51a -3.3a 7.23ab
Exp. field - Sadovo (irrigated) 11.69ab 0.16b 2.28ab -3.1a 5.13a
a
Exp. field - Sadovo (non-irrigated) 10.94 0.06a 1.39a -4.2ab 7.87ab
A9E1259
Troyan (irrigated) 14.99b 0.12b 1.83b -3.0a 8.19a
Exp. field - Sadovo (irrigated) 14.52b 0.15b 1.87b -3.0a 7.76a
Exp. field - Sadovo (non-irrigated) 10.28a 0.04a 0.94a -3.6ab 10.94b
A9E1270
Troyan (irrigated) 12.54b 0.21b 3.56b -3.1a 3.52a
Exp. field - Sadovo (irrigated) 10.33ab 0.19b 3.23b -3.6a 3.20a
a
Exp. field - Sadovo (non-irrigated) 9.55 0.07a 1.67a -4.2ab 5,72b
A9E1188
b
Smilyan (irrigated) 10.22 0.11a 3.40ab -2.7a 3.00b
Exp. field - Sadovo (irrigated) 16.81c 0.17a 2.90a -3.1a 5.79c
Exp. field - Sadovo (non-irrigated) 7.69a 0.13a 3.95ab -4.3b 1.95a
-2 -1 -2 -1 -2
PN, Net photosynthesis (µmol m s ); Е, transpiration intensity (mmol m s ); gs, stomatal conductance (mol m s)); PN/E, water use
efficiency; l, leaf water potential (MPa)* Within the same column (for each genotype) values flanked by different letters (a, b, c) are
significantly different for p=0.05. The results for each experimental field were statistically analyzed using Student’s t-test then, the fields
were compared by One-Way ANOVA using Tukey’s test.
established. In A9E1259 both the air temperature and the (photosynthesis and transpiration rate, stomatal
quantity of rainfall influenced the growth rate, but the conductance) were used as indicators, as well as water
accessions developed faster under conditions of drought regime parameters (predawn water potential) (Blum et
(Table 9). al., 1998; Blum, 1999; Vassilev et al., 2010). The effect of
In all remaining samples no correlation dependencies drought on the different stages of plant development is
between the studied parameters were established. In the reflected in inhibition of photosynthesis and growth, and
period from flowering to bean formation the air is associated with changes in carbon and nitrogen
temperature and the quantity of rainfall were determining metabolism and water exchange (Yordanov et al., 2000;
factors on the growth rate of A9E1248 and A9E1188, in Boutra and Sanders, 2001; Zlatev and Lidon, 2005).
which a very close correlation dependency was reported. Where dehydration is gradual, the initial decrease in
However, the influence of rainfall on the growth rate of the net photo-assimilation is due to stomatal limitations
the beans during that period was completely different. A and at a later stage it is mostly due to mesophilic
very close correlation dependency was reported in limitations and structural disturbances of the thylacoid
A9E1188 and A9E1211 (Table 9). membranes (Lawlor and Cornic, 2000). The applied
The assessment of the tolerance of different genotypes methodology allows measurement of leaf gas exchange
to drought under field conditions is connected with tracing of the landraces traditionally grown in different areas and
changes in the plants’ physiological status in the course under controlled conditions at IPGR, Sadovo (Table 10).
of stress impact. The gasometric parameters Under irrigation the photosynthesis rate (PN) is higher in
landraces grown at Sadovo. The highest values were longest vegetation period was registered for A9E1188
found in A9E1211, A9E1248 and A9E1188. The intensity with 113.3 days (Table 3). There is a chance of mild to
of photosynthesis increased by 79.9% on average. The severe frost at the beginning of May (start of the growing
differences between landraces grown in different regions season) and beginning of October (toward the end of
and in Sadovo under irrigation were probably due to growing season). Therefore, cultivars/landraces with
different climatic factors and farming practices in the more than 110 to 115 days maturity are under risk of frost
relevant areas. Without irrigation PN decreased in all during these months. Short-season cultivars/landraces
tested landraces. The most pronounced inhibition was with 95 to 100 days maturity with wide adaptation
demonstrated in A9E1188 and A9E1248. The indicated capacity would be more reliable for bean producers,
changes in PN are comparable with those in the intensity especially in the Rhodope and Balkan Mountains. The
of transpiration and stomatal conductivity (with exception results published by Singh et al. (2009) confirmed the
of A9E1188). In A9E1211, A9E1259 and A9E1270 the strong emphasis on developing earlier maturing common
water use efficiency in photosynthesis, expressed bean cultivars because of a shorter growing season and
through the ratio PN/E, increased as a result of the less risk of frost at higher altitudes. Large differences for
stronger inhibition of transpiration, compared with seed yield among six landraces of three different field
photosynthesis under irrigated conditions. The nature of trials during the studied period were observed. The
changes in the parameters of the leaf gas exchange in highest value of mean grain yield was obtained by
A9E1248 and A9E1188 determined the decrease in the accessions from regional trials grown under the most
ratio PN/Е. The results showed that the leaf water favorable edapho-climatic conditions (temperature,
potential, which is the main thermodynamic value of precipitation and soil type) using IS with an average yield
water exchange, decreased under non-irrigated of production 163.22 g m-2 (Table 6). The landraces from
conditions. Changes in leaf potential were most probably regional trials with IS reached a 100 seed weight of 69.69
caused by some structural and functional modifications g, on average. Temperature increases lead to higher
ensuring the plant's adaptation to drought. transpiration rates, shorter period of seed formation and
consequently low production. Similar results can be
observed from our research (Tables 7 and 8). The two
DISCUSSION field trials carried out at IPGR under unfavorable growing
conditions with higher temperature and low air humidity
The accessions used in this study were representative of during the whole vegetation cycle had lower values for
observed field trials from each region with different local reproductive traits including seed yield production, weight
names and plant habits, pod and seed traits. We were of seeds per plant and 100 seed weight. The plants from
able to select six landraces among 39 observed IPGR’s trial with IS produced 120.2 g m-2 and 36.4 g m-2
accessions with great morphological variability as well as seed yield, much less than the regional trial with IS
different response to stress factors. These results are (Tables 7 and 8). The same trend was registered on
consistent with Rodino et al. (2006) and Freitas et al. weight of number of seeds per plant and 100 seed weight
(2011), who studied the morphology of common bean (Tables 6, 7 and 8). The values of 100 seed weight at
diversity on Madeira Island. They concluded that the IPGR’s trials with IS and NIS were much less than the
accessions showed a high variability of the analyzed first regional trial, at 43.3 and 39.6 g, respectively.
morphological characters and this reflects a wide range In the separate interphase periods, considerable
of environments in which crops evolved. differences in the reaction of the genotypes to the
Plant systems, and hence crop yields, are influenced fluctuations of the meteorological conditions were
by many environmental factors, and these factors, such reported. The air temperature and the quantity of rainfall
as precipitation and temperature, may act positively or were decisive for the growth rate, mostly for А9Е1248
negatively together with other factors in determining yield and А9Е1188.
(Waggoner, 1983). Following the physiological indices it is worth noting
The results obtained from these samples had a great that the plants differ in terms of their stomatal role for the
phenotypic stability and were well adapted to the agro- maintenance of the functional activity of their
ecological conditions of the relevant region: Velingrad, photosynthetic apparatus during the periods of drought
Smilyan or Troyan. This adaptation is likely one reason (Ort et al., 1994). In some plants the stomatal control has
why farmers still prefer to grow traditional landraces and a dominant share in the restriction of photosynthesis and
continue to use traditional knowledge and practices. they are characterized by increased efficiency of water use
According to Blum (1988), physiological, morphological in the photosynthesis (PN/E). In other plants maintaining
and phenological criteria could be used to select for their stomata “relatively” open due to the fact that they
improved adaptation to dry environment. are able to compensate for the loss of water or due to
Mean days to maturity for all studied genotypes of the loss of stomatal control, the water use efficiency may
three different trials were similar in the whole remain unchanged or may considerably decrease. Our
experimental period of three years. The mean value of research places A9E1211, A9E1259 and A9E1270 91-
DM for regional field trials was 92.22 days and the 089 in the first group and А9Е1188 in the second group.
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Vol. 9(39), pp. 2936-2947, 25 September, 2014
DOI: 10.5897/AJAR2013.7986
Article Number: 93E496B47529
ISSN 1991-637X
Impacts of wetland cultivation on plant diversity and

soil fertility in South-Bench District, Southwest Ethiopia
Kassahun Mulatu1*, Debela Hunde2 and Endalkachew Kissi2
1
Department of Natural Resource Management, College of Agriculture and Natural Resource, Mizan-Tepi University
P. O. Box 260, Mizan Teferi, Ethiopia
2
Department of Natural Resource Management, College of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Jimma University
P. O. Box 307, Jimma, Ethiopia.
Received 27 January, 2013; Accepted 10 September, 2014
Wetlands provide enormous socioeconomic and environmental values. However, wetlands are
threatened by conversion for agricultural land in southwestern Ethiopia. The study aims to assess the
impact of wetland cultivation on plant species richness, composition and soil fertility. Plant species
richness and composition was investigated for 30 plots in each site of adjacent uncultivated and
cultivated wetlands sites and total of 60 sampling plots were used. Soil samples were collected from 18
sample plots (9 in each site) selected using simple random method from plots used for plant survey.
The results showed that cultivated sites have significantly higher (P<0.05) species richness, diversity
and evenness indices than uncultivated wetlands. Though, this seems positive biological integrity in
cultivated site, some ecologically and socioeconomically valuable wetland plant species were lost.
Similarity of species (index 30.51%) between two sites was low. Moisture content, clay, organic carbon,
total nitrogen, available phosphorous, cation exchange capacity (CEC), exchangeable K+ and Na+ were
significantly (P<0.05) lower while silt, pH and electric conductivity (EC) were significantly (P<0.05) higher
for cultivated site respect to uncultivated site. However, bulk density, sand, exchangeable Mg2+ and Ca2+
were not significantly (P>0.05) affected. Hence, planning wise use strategy for sustainable management of
wetlands is essential.
Key words: Wetland cultivation, species composition, soil physico-chemical properties, South-Bench District.

INTRODUCTION
Wetlands are diverse in types and hence defined Secretariat, 2011). Wetlands contribute in diverse ways
differently across the world. The most commonly used to the livelihoods of millions of people (Rebelo et al.,
definition is that of Ramsar Convention which defines 2010) and providing fundamental ecological services
wetlands as ‘areas of marsh, fen, peatlands or water, such as food, water, and recreational benefits for the
whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with larger catchment population (Ayalew, 2010; McCartney et
water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, al., 2010). In recent decades, agricultural use of wetlands
including areas of marine water the depth of which at low has increased significantly in many developing countries,
tide does not exceed six meters’ (Ramsar Convention particularly in Africa (McCartney et al., 2010). This

Mulatu et al. 2937
increase is driven partly by increasing number of Rezaei et al., 2012). Moreover, the loss of biological
population, deterioration of upland soil, economic and diversity, changes in soil characteristics and associated
financial motivation (Schuyt, 2005) and increasing issues impact on ecological services had serious socio-
of food security in developing countries (Taiwo, 2013). It economic impacts (Legesse, 2007).
also supplements the upland soils where soil productivity In southwestern Ethiopia, cultivation of wetlands is
and crop yields have declined due to improper land use increasingly needed due to growing population
and management, soil erosion and degradation (Ogban associated to shortage agricultural land and decline in
et al., 2011). Though, the continuous use of wetlands for crop productivity of the uplands. Although understanding
cultivation has the potential to degrade their fragile the impact of wetland cultivation on plant diversity and
ecosystems and undermine their capacity to provide soil properties will be the basis for designing strategies
ecological services (Morardet et al., 2010). and implementation of a sustainable utilization of wetland
In Ethiopia, wetlands cover about 2% the total area resources. However, the study on wetlands degradation
(13,699 km2) of the country (Ayalew, 2010). Like other has not been conducted and the information on
developing countries most of Ethiopian wetlands are southwest Ethiopia is still lacking particularly in the
under the risk of degradation and loss due to drainage for South-Bench district. Therefore, the objective of this
cultivation, overstocking, offsite and underlying causes study was to assess the impact of wetland cultivation on
related to policy issues (Afework, 2007). Some plant species richness and composition and on some
researchers indicated that, farmers in the country were selected soil physico-chemical properties as fertility
encouraged and often enforced to drain and convert indicators.
available wetlands into agricultural land because they are
considered as underutilized potential agricultural lands.
During the past decade, this trend of wetland conversion MATERIALS AND METHODS
during the past decade in the country shows faster
Descriptions of the Study Site
increase than ever. For instance, Legesse (2007)
reported that in Illu Abba Bora zone the percentage of The study area is located in southwest of Ethiopia and nearly 586
wetlands converted to agricultural land was 12.7% in km away from Addis Ababa, the federal capital of Ethiopia. The
1996 and 65.6% in 2006, which is more than five times geographic location of the study area is between 29°23' 13.401"
within ten years. Besides, many wetland ecosystems are and 29° 41' 37.004" east latitude and between 6° 43' 55.916" and
regarded as unproductive and unhealthy ‘wastelands’ 6°59' 42.775" north longitude. The altitudes range from 1,000 to
2,200 m above sea level with undulating plains and mountains. The
with no useful purpose to society or as a source of area receives annual rainfall of nearly from 1,000 to 1,452 mm and
disease and a threat to public health and they continue to much of it falling during March to November. The mean annual
be depleted at an alarming rate throughout the country minimum and maximum temperature is18 and 25°C, respectively.
(Yilma, 2003; Legesse 2007). Dixon and Wood (2003) A study wetland, according to Collins (2005), is valley bottom
also showed that many small wetland areas in eastern wetlands. The wetland is seasonally flooded and fed by ground
Africa have been drained for agriculture and now pose a water, as well as spring flow around it. A wetland was stratified into
two adjacent land uses: Cultivated and uncultivated (pristine
real threat to their continued existence. wetland). Cultivated site has been used for cultivation of taro
Wetland drainage and cultivation have resulted in major (Colocasia esculenta) for about nine years. Clearing of native
impacts on wetland hydrology (Dixon, 2002) which is one vegetation, burning of vegetation and crop residues, drainage and
of the strongest determinants for wetland vegetative and soil manipulation through hoe was the common farming activities in
composition, diversity and for soil (Collins, 2005). cultivated wetland site. Agrochemicals (chemical fertilizers,
Disturbance to wetlands especially from agricultural herbicides, etc) were not used by farmers’ for cultivation. Both sites
of the wetland have similar slope of almost flat surfaces with
activity was the causes for elimination of native species gradients of about zero to 2.6%.
and introduction of weedy species due to hydro-period
regime shift (Zedler and Kercher 2004; Handa et al.,
2012) which generally reduces the value of the wetland Plant sampling and identification
for wetland dependent species (Collins, 2005). Besides,
an alteration to water regimes has notably affect on A plant survey was conducted from December 2012 to mid-January
2013. This period was selected because most species was
wetland dependant species composition and contributed expected to reach at their full growing stage during end of the rainy
to a loss of wetland biodiversity (Legesse, 2007). season in the area. Seven transects intervals were determined
Anthropogenic activities such as cultivation also affect systematically at fixed intervals of 160 m across the direction of
self-organization in wetlands and affecting spatial patterns water flow in each cultivated and uncultivated wetland sites. Along
of soil pH, nutrient concentrations and soil organic matter each transect, sample plots were laid systematically at fixed
(SOM) content (Cohen et al., 2008). Cultivation also intervals of 15 m. The plot size of 1m2m (2 m2) was used for
impacted on soil structure, hence lowering the clay content herbaceous and grass while the plot size of 44 m (16 m2) was
used for shrubs (Jefferies et al., 2008). Plots were laid after
by promoting the disintegration of soil and leading to estimating the boundaries of wetland in each site from the upland.
precipitation of clay particles into lower horizons and For comparison of change in wetland plant composition due to
increased accumulation of the fine silt particles on surface cultivation, sampling plots were entirely placed inside the wetland.
(Belay and Hunt, 2000; Igué, 2004; Fungai, 2006; Thus, a total of 60 sample plots (30 sampling plots from each site)
were used. In each sample plot, all plant species (excluding Organic carbon (%OC) was determined using wet combustion
agronomic species) were recorded and plant specimens were methods of Walkley-Black as described by Nelson and Sommers
collected for identification. Identification, assignment and (1982). Total nitrogen (%TN) was measured by using the Kjeldahl
nomenclature of the plant species were performed according to the method and available phosphorus was determined by Bray method.
Flora of Ethiopia (Hedberg and Edwards, 1989; Edwards et al., Total exchangeable bases were determined after leaching soils with
1995, 1997; Phillips, 1995). ammonium acetate. The exchangeable Ca2+ and Mg2+ in the
extracts was measured using atomic absorption spectrophotometer
(AAS) while Na+ and K+ by flame photometer. Cation exchange
Determination of species diversity and evenness capacity (CEC) of the soil was estimated from ammonium-saturated
samples that were subsequently replaced by sodium (Na+) from by
Shannon and Wiener Diversity index (H’) was used to calculate the a percolating sodium chloride solution. The excess salt was
species diversity to compare the diversity between cultivated and removed by washing with alcohol and the ammonium that was
uncultivated wetland sites using the formula (Help et al., 1998): displaced by sodium was measured by Kjeldahl method (Chapman,
1965).
Data analysis
Where: H’ = Shannon-Wiener diversity index, s = number of plant To know the statistical difference in plant diversity indices and soil
species encountered, Pi = ni/N = relative abundance of each physico-chemical properties among plots from cultivated and
species, ni = number of individual of a species, N = total number of uncultivated wetlands sites, calculated plant diversity indices and
soil physico-chemical properties were analyzed using SPSS version
all individuals of all species. The evenness (E) component of H´
16.0 software. Independent two sample t-test was used to test
was computed as follows:
whether significance (P0.05) difference in these parameters
between cultivated and uncultivated wetland sites exist. Relative
change (RC) in soil parameter was computed to compare the
change in soil properties due to cultivation as:
Where: E = Evenness; H’max = Ln(S), S= total number of species Puc - Pc

in the sample. Jaccard coefficient of similarity index (JCS) was used RC(%) = × 100
to assess the similarity of plant species composition between Puc
cultivated and uncultivated wetland sites using the formula (Kent
and Coker, 1992): Where Puc is the mean value of soil property in uncultivated site
and Pc is the mean of a soil property in cultivated site. Pearson
correlation analysis was carried out to determine the relationship
between soil parameters. Moreover, Principal Components Analysis
(PCA) was used explore the relationship between and within plant
species and soil variables.
Where: C = the number of species in common between sites
(cultivated and uncultivated site), A = the number of unique species
at uncultivated site, B = the number of unique species at cultivated
site. The Jaccard coefficient of similarity index value was converted RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
to percentage to show the percentage similarity between two sites
(cultivated and uncultivated wetlands) Species composition
Soil sampling and laboratory analysis A total of 59 different plant species belonging to 20
families were identified in both cultivated and uncultivated
Eighteen plots (that is, 9 samples from each site) were used for soil wetland study sites. Higher numbers of species were
sampling. Soil samples were collected using a soil augur from 0 to found in cultivated site (Table 1). In cultivated wetlands
30 cm depth. The samples were collected at five points after
removing aside vegetation and litter and pulled into one sample.
48 species classified as in 19 families and in uncultivated
The soil sampling plots were chosen among the plots used for plant site 29 species belonging to 15 families were identified.
sampling using a simple random method. From 7 transects and 30 From 29 plant species observed in uncultivated site, 28
sample plots used for vegetation survey in each sites, three species were identified as wetland plants and 11 species
transects from each site and 3 plots along selected transect were were exclusively observed in uncultivated site. On other
randomly selected for soil sampling (3 transect*3plot*2site=for a hand, of the 48 species observed in cultivated site, 18
total of 18 samples as a whole).
Particle size distribution was determined by the hydrometer plant species were wetland plant species while 30
method after destroying OM and dispersing the soil. Soil moisture species were upland plant species or weedy species.
content was determined using Gravimetric method as the ratio of About 80% of the plant communities were solely found in
weight of water to weight of oven dry soil (Sahlemedhin and Taye, cultivated site.
2000). Soil bulk density was determined by core method (FAO, In the uncultivated site, Cyperaceae was the family with
2007) using core sampler and drying it to constant weight in an
the highest number of plant species (5), followed by the
oven at a temperature of 105°C for 24 h. Soil pH was measured in
1:2.5 pH-H2O (soil: distilled water) using the glasscalomel family of Gramineae and Lamiaceae each with 4 species.
combination electrode whereas electric conductivity (EC) by Besides, Fabaceae and Polygonaceae each of them had
conductivity meter using suspension of 1:2.5 soil: water ratio. with 3 species while the remaining 10 families each had
Mulatu et al. 2939
Table 1. Plants species recorded at uncultivated and cultivated wetland sites with their relative distribution.
Study sites Species

Family Species
Cultivated Uncultivated category
Acanthaceae Hygrophila schulli (Hamilt)Almeda v Almeda + + w
Amaranthus spinosa L. + - nw
Amaranthaceae
Achyranthes aspera L. ++ ++ w
Cenetella asiatica (L.) Urb ++ + w

Apiaceae
Hydrocotyle sibthorpioides Lam. + - nw
Balsaminaceaeae Impatiens ethiopica + - nw
Cerastium octandrum Hochst. ex A. Rich. + - nw

Caryophyllaceae
Drymaria cordata (L.) Willd + - nw
Floscopa glomerata (Willd. ex Schult. & Schult. f.) Hassk + + w

Commelinaceae Commelina lantifolia A.Rich + - nw
Commelina forskalaei Vahl. ++ - nw
Galinsoga parviflora Cav. + - nw

Sonchus asper(l.) hill + - nw
Compositae Galinsoga quadriradiata Ruiz & Pav + - nw
Bidens pilosa L. + - nw
Aqeratum conyzoidesL. + - nw
Jacquemontia paniculata (Burm. f.) Hall f. + - nw

Ipomea cordofana R. Br. + - nw
Convolvulaceae
Convolvulus arvensis L. + - nw
Ipomea eroiocarpa R. Br. + - nw
Pycreus elegantulus (Steud.) C.B. Clarke - + w

Cyperus flavescent L. - + w
Cyperus mundtii (Nees)Kunth. - + w
Cyperaceae Fimbristylis dichotoma (L.) Vahl. ssp. Sieberiana - + w
Mariscus syperoides L. + - nw
Cyperus latifolius poir + ++ w
Cyperus assimilis Steud. ++ -
Euphorbiaceae Phyllanthus boehmii Pax. var. boehmii ++ ++ w
Aeschynomene schimperi Hochst. Ex A.Rich - + w

Fabaceae Sesbania dummeri E. Phillips &Hutch. - + w
Aeschynomene abyssinica (A.Rich.)Vatke + + w
Sacciolepis rigens (Mez) A. Chev. - + w

Panicum sp. + + n
Cynodom dactylon (L.)pers + - nw
Sacciolepis africana C.E.Hubb. and Snowden + + w
Echinocloa colona(L.)Link + - nw
Gramineae Snowdenia polystachya (Fresen.) Pilg ++ - nw
Eragrostis ciliaris(L.) R. Br. ++ - nw
Digitaria ternate (A.Rich.) Stapf ++ - nw
Oplismenus spp. ++ - nw
Digitaria sanguinalis (L.) Scop. ++ - nw
Leersia hexandra SW. ++ ++ w
Lamiaceae Leucas deflexa Hook f. - + w

Table 1. Contd.
Plectranthus argentatus (S.T.Blake) - + nw

Plectranthus punctatus (L.)L Her + + w
Ajuga remota Benth. + + w
Dissotis canescens (Graham) Hook. F. + ++ w

Melastomataceae
Antherotoma naudinii Hook. + - nw
Luddwigia abyssinica A.Rich. + + w

Onragraceae
Ludwigia stolonifera (Guill. & al.) Raven + - nw
Persicaria glabra (Wild.) M.Gomez + ++ w

Persicaria senegalensis (Meisn.) Sojak + + w
Polygonaceae
Polygala petitiana Meisn. ++ + w
Rumex abyssinicus Jasq. ++ - nw
Rubiaceae Oldenlandia lancifolia (Schumach) DC var. scabridula + + w
Solanaceae Solanum anguivi Lam + - nw
Thelypteridaceae Thelypteris confluens (Thunb.) Morton - ++ w
Triumfetta spp - + w
Tiliaceae
Triumfetta pilosa Roth + - nw
+Represent species with abundance <2% while ++ represent ≥2%; (-): absence, (+): present, (++) dominant, w= wetland plant, nw =non wetland
plant (upland plant), n=habitat not identified.
one species (Table 1). In the cultivated site, Gramineae (12.96%), Digitaria sanguinalis (12%), Oplismenus spp.
was the family with highest number of plant species (9.71%), Digitaria ternate (8.02%), Cyperus assimilis
which is 10 species followed by Compositae with 5 (3.54%), Phyllanthus boehmii (3.3%), Rumex abyssinicus
species, Convolvulaceae and Polygonaceae each with 4 (2.89%), Cenetella asiatica (2.6%), Eragrostis ciliaris
species, Apiaceae and Cyperaceae each with 3 species, (2.59%), Achyranthes aspera (2.44%), Snowdenia
Caryophyllaceae, Amaranthaceae, Commelinaceae, polystachya (2.16%) and Polygala petitiana (2.11%) with
Melastomataceae, Onragraceae and Lamiaceae each relative abundance more than two percent were
with 2 species while the rest 7 families each had one accounted for 79.92% of the plant community in
species (Table 1). Family Thelypteridaceae was not cultivated sites of which 56.61% them were upland plant
observed in cultivated site. Furthermore, in cultivated species.
wetlands, the species in family Cyperaceae, Fabaceae On other hand, wetland plant species such as
and Lamiaceae were decreased because of draining the Thelypteris confluens, Cyperus mundtii, Leucas deflexa,
land for agricultural use while species in families Cyperus flavescens, Cyperus elegantulus, Sesbania
Amaranthaceae, Apiaceae, Balsaminaceaeae, dummeri, Fimbristylis dichotoma, Plectranthus
Caryophyllaceae, Commelinaceae, Compositae, argentatus, Aeschynomene schimperi, Sacciolepis rigens
Convolvulaceae, Gramineae, Melastomataceae, and Triumfetta spp were not observed in cultivated site.
Onragraceae, Polygonaceae and Solanaceae was The result revealed that other important species such as
increased because of drainage and cultivation created Leersia hexandra and Cyperus latifolius were decreased
conducive environment for their invasion. significantly due to cultivation. The local community is
Among plant species in uncultivated site, 7 plant species using Cyperus latifolius for thatching; Leersia hexandra
dominant the plant community with relative abundance for thatching, fodder and plastering; Aeschynomene
more than two percent. These plant species were Leersia abyssinica and Sesbania dummeri for construction and
hexandra (46.35%), Cyperus latifolius (23.79%), fuel wood; Triumfetta spp. for fodder and rope making.
Thelypteris confluens (3.96%), Phyllanthus boehmii Due to conversion of wetland into agricultural lands some
(3.73%), Persicaria glabra (2.71%), Dissotis canescens of these species are declining and hence the
(2.58%) and Achyranthes aspera (2.09%). These 7 plant socioeconomic benefits obtained by local community
species were accounted for 85.21% of the community while from these plants were significantly reduced. A research
rest 22 species had relative abundance less than 2% which report by Dixon (2002) indicated that conversion of
accounted for 14.79%. From 48 plant species, 13 species natural wetland by drainage and cultivation may be
such as Commelina forskalaei (15.6%), Leersia hexandra causes for loss of wetland vegetation which area
Mulatu et al. 2941
Table 2. Species diversity measured using transects in uncultivated and cultivated wetland
sites.

Study wetland sites
Parameter
Uncultivated Cultivated
Species richness(S) 29 48
Shannon-Wiener diversity(H’) 1.90 2.99
Evenness(E) 0.58 0.78
Jaccard’s coefficient of similarity (JCS) (%) 30.51
Table 3. T-test for diversity measured using plot based in uncultivated and cultivated wetland sites.

Mean ± Std. deviation
Parameter t-test P-value
Uncultivated Cultivated
Species richness(S) 7.3±1.44 10.33±2.06 -6.61 0.000***
Shannon-Wiener diversity(H’) 1.24±0.20 1.85±0.22 -11.45 0.000***
Evenness(E) 0.59±0.09 0.80±0.08 -9.41 0.000***
*** Very highly significant P<0.001.
important to local communities livelihoods. (E) (0.78) were measured at cultivated site than
The Jaccard coefficient of similarity index (30.51%) uncultivated site (H’ = 1.9 and E = 0.58) which showed
showed low similarity in plant species composition that cultivated site had more number of species and more
between cultivated and uncultivated wetland sites. This even distribution of plant species than uncultivated site
confirms the change in wetland plant composition and (Table 2).
invasion of the wetlands by upland plants species due to The diversity result indicated that cultivated site had
wetland drainage and cultivation. Fungai (2006) also significantly higher (P<0.001) mean species richness
observed that cultivation influences community structure (10.33) than uncultivated site (7.3) (Table 3). Similarly,
and species composition. According to Dixon (2001), cultivated site had also significantly higher (P<0.001)
disappearance of natural wetland vegetation and invasion mean species diversity (1.85) than uncultivated (1.24)
of non wetland (upland) vegetation or weedy species is site. The result of this study is in agreement with Zerihun
the sign of environmental degradation in wetlands. This is and Kumlachew (2003) and Handa et al. (2012) where
because of the fact that each plant species has a limited they reported that drainage and the disruption of
tolerance to their habitat requirement. Thus change in vegetation creates an increased number of ecological
composition and loss wetland plant in cultivated site niches or conditions which suit a wider range of plants or
could be change in habitat condition of the wetland or favorable environments for the survival of upland plants
alteration of water regimes by wetland drainage for species to invade the disturbed area. Fungai (2006) also
cultivation (Zerihun and Kumlachew, 2003; Barakagira reported that, shortened hydroperiods, the use of fire in
and Kateyo, 2008; Dube and Chitiga, 2010). Besides, land preparation can induce the domination of weedy
drainage cultivation could cause undesirable species in cultivated site. Cultivated site also significantly
environments to the wetland plants and resulted in their higher (P<0.001) mean species evenness (0.80) than
disappearance. In line with this, Collins (2005) also uncultivated site (0.59). This indicates little dominance but
reported that the degree of harshness decreased as more number of species with few individual per plot in
wetlands were drained for cultivation which could create cultivated site. It also showed that cultivated site has
conducive environments for increasing diversity of upland more species diversity than uncultivated site (Table 3).
species in cultivated site and loss/degradation of wetland
plants. Temporary the evading species use the
opportunity that is why the diversity of cultivated site Soil physico-chemical properties
increased. However, as time goes this situation will
change results in decreasing species diversity in Conversion of wetland into agricultural land may cause the
cultivated site. alternation of soils physico-chemical properties which in
turn can influence the soil fertility status of a given area.
Hence, soil samples collected from the study site at the
Species diversity and evenness depth of 0 to 30 cm were analyzed for some selected soil
properties. The soil of uncultivated and cultivated site were
High species diversity (H’) (2.99) and species evenness clayey and clay loamy respectively. The soil contained
Table 4. Soil physical properties of cultivated and uncultivated wetland sites.

Mean ± Std. deviation Relative change
Uncultivated Cultivated (%)
%Sand 34.22±5.83 36.11±5.90 -0.68 0.504ns -5.52
%Clay 49.44±5.50 34.78±8.86 4.22 0.001** +29.7
%Silt 16.33±3.81 29.11±7.29 -4.66 0.001** -78.23
Bulk density(g/cm3) 0.20± 0.043 0.22±0.02 -1.12 0.287ns -8.84
%soil moisture content (SMC) 15.54±0.24 11.05±0.25 10.08 0.000*** +28.85
***very highly significant P<0.001; **highly significant at P<0.01; * significant at P<0.05; ns = not significant at P>0.05 whereas (-)
decrease in soil properties; (+) increase in soil properties from cultivated to uncultivated site.
Table 5. Soil chemical properties of cultivated and uncultivated wetland sites.

Mean ± Std. deviation Relative change
Uncultivated Cultivated (%)
pH-H2O 4.26±0.18 4.49±0.13 -3.17 0.006** -5.48
Available P(ppm) 3.62±0.46 3.03±0.42 2.81 0.013* +16.22
%TN 2.31±0.73 1.06±0.23 4.9 0.000*** +54.02
%OC 28.19±5.8 12.33±2.68 7.45 0.000*** +56.26
CEC(meq/100gm) 41.31±11.78 28.19±9.72 2.58 0.021* +31.77
Mg2+(cmol(+)/kg soil) 3.31±1.66 3.96±1.11 -0.98 0.342ns -19.67
Ca2+ (cmol(+)/kg soil) 26.83±11.28 26.17±9.89 0.13 0.899ns +2.41
+
K (cmol(+)/kg soil) 0.714±0.17 0.56±0.028 2.58 0.020* +21.1
Na+(cmol(+)/kg soil) 0.057±0.03 0.025±0.003 2.91 0.019* +56.38
EC (dS/m) 0.10±0.01 0.22±0.14 -2.58 0.032* -120.29
***very highly significant P<0.001; **highly significant at P<0.01; *significant at P<0.05; ns = not significant at P>0.05 (-) decrease in soil
properties; (+) increase in soil properties from cultivated to uncultivated site.
acidic in reaction with a pH value ranged from 4.26 to 4.49, could probably due to the removal of clay soil from
and high organic carbon varied from 12 to 28%. The cation surface by erosion and translocation of clay fraction down
exchange capacity (CEC) of the soil also ranged from 28 to to a lower horizon. This result are in agreement with the
41 meq/100 g in which the dominant cation being Ca2+ findings of Lgué (2004), Fungai (2006) and Rezaei et al.
followed by Mg2+ and K+ was the dominant exchangeable (2012), in which they reported that cultivation of land
cation (Table 5) cause accumulation of silt and sand particles in upper
horizon and high clay content in lower horizon due to
translocation of clay fraction from surface layer to
Soil physical properties subsurface layer. Besides, Igué (2004) and Wakene and
Heluf (2004) reported that the removal of clay by
Clay and silt content of the soil samples analyzed from accelerated soil erosion (sheet erosion) in rainy season
uncultivated and cultivated wetland sites were as cultivated site was less vegetation cover and bare
significantly different (P<0.001) while the sand content during rainy season could be the cause for lower clay
was not significantly different (P>0.05) (Table 4). content in cultivated site. Similarly, Wakene and Heluf
Uncultivated site had higher mean value of clay (49.44) (2004) indicated that clay content can be decreased by
than cultivated site (34.78). On the contrary, cultivated land use change as the management practices that may
site had high mean value of silt (29.11) and sand (36.11) contributed indirectly to the changes in particle size
than uncultivated site (silt 16.33, and sand 34.22). The distribution particularly in the surface layers by removal of
relative change result indicated that clay content of the soil by sheet erosion and mixing up of the surface and
soil decreased by 29.7% while silt and sand was the subsurface layers during continuous cultivation.
increased by 78.23 and 5.52% respectively due to The mean bulk density of the soil of study sites ranged
change of wetland into cultivated land. The possible from 0.20 g/cm3 (uncultivated wetland) to 0.22 g/cm3 which
reason for this lower content of clay in cultivated site is less than the bulk density of mineral soils (fine silt:
Mulatu et al. 2943
1.0 to 1.3 g/cm3, and sandy soil: 1.3 to 1.7 g/cm3) (FAO, higher (4.49) than uncultivated (4.28). Cultivation
2007). This wetland soil has lower bulk densities than increased the pH of the soil by 5.48%. The removal of
mineral upland soil because it was rich in organic matter vegetation for cultivation and exposure of soils to wind and
(OM) and water-saturated. Similar bulk densities were sunny could increase aeration and temperatures of the soil
reported, for instance; 0.11 to 0.23 g/cm3 by Bruland et may facilitate rapid decomposition of OM and prevents the
al. (2003), as low as 0.2 g/cm3 in the very organic rich accumulation of acids and increase in pH in cultivated as
soils by Powell (2008). Moreover, Mitsch and Gooselink indicated by Fungai (2006).
(2000) indicated that, organic soils (Organic carbon >12- On other hand, the lower pH in uncultivated site could
20%) have low bulk density due to high porosity and be due to the release of organic acids from organic
usually had bulk density of ranging between 0.2 and 0.3 matter decomposition (Collins, 2005; Dube and Chitiga,
g/cm3. Otabbong and Fristedt (2005) reported the bulk 2011; Tariku and Abebayehu, 2011).
density lower than 0.12 g/cm3 in almost entirely not Organic carbon (OC) content was significantly different
decomposed wetlands soil and 0.27 to 0.35 g/cm3 in (P<0.001) between cultivated and uncultivated site. The
highly decomposed peat soil. This indicated that the level mean of OC content of uncultivated sites was higher
of decomposition of OM had effect on bulk density of (28.19) than that of cultivated (12.33) site. The relative
wetlands soils. change indicated that OC was decreased by 56.26% due
The t-statistics revealed that bulk densities were not to the conversion of wetland to cultivated land. Similarly,
significantly different (P>0.05) in the two sites. The change Belay and Hunt (2000), Fungai (2006), Dube and Chitiga
of organic matter from cultivated to uncultivated wetland (2011), Tariku and Abebayehu (2011), measured low
was high, though the soil bulk density not changes. This amount of OC in cultivated wetlands. Belay and Hunt
might be due to the variation of bulk density by contribution (2000) and Zoltán (2008) also indicated that the low OM
of tillage practices is higher that organic matter. Farmers in was due to the rapid decomposition of OM that was
the study wetland used hoes for soil preparation could facilitated by excessive drainage of wetlands, ploughing of
have insignificant impact on risk of increasing bulk density soil for cultivation, low coverage and clearing of vegetation
of the soil in cultivated site. Fungai (2006) and Collins in cultivated site. Besides, decreased in OM inputs to the
(2005) also reported that tillage by hand had less risk of soil due to burning of plants and crop residues for
soil compaction in wetlands soils. cultivation (Pantami et al., 2010; Verma and Jayakumar,
Soil moisture content (SMC) between the cultivated 2012) and removal crop and plant residues as indicated by
and uncultivated site was significantly different (P<0.001). Jie et al. (2013) could be the causes for the lower OC
The mean SMC of uncultivated site was higher (15.54) content in cultivated wetland. On the contrary, high OC
than cultivated (11.05) site. Relative change in SMC levels in the uncultivated sites could be the reduced
indicated that it was decreased by 28.85% by to decomposition rate as a consequence of less soil residue
cultivation. The higher SMC in the uncultivated sites may contact, lower aeration and lower soil temperature (Figure 1).
be due to the presence of high vegetation cover and high The total nitrogen content (TN) was significantly different
OM of the soil. Correlation result showed there was (P<0.001) between cultivated and uncultivated wetland
positive and significant correlation between OC and SMC site. A cultivated site was lower (1.06) mean levels of TN
(r=0.81**). On the other hand, clearing vegetation cover, than uncultivated site (2.31). TN was increased by 54.02%
soil tillage and redaction in organic matter of cultivated due to wetland uncultivated (Table 6). The TN contents
wetlands could reduce water holding capacity of was positively and significantly correlated with the amount
cultivated soil. This was similar with the findings of Dube of OC(r = 0.74**) (Table 6). This is obvious reason to
and Chitiga (2011); they showed there was a significant expect an increase level of nitrogen content in increased
correlation between the amount of total organic carbon OM content of a soil as OM is essentially the main source
and moisture content. In addition, high clay content of of nitrogen (Brady and Weil, 2000). The lower level of TN
uncultivated wetland site may leads to have high water in cultivated site was because of decrease in litter and
holding capacity. There was positively and significantly vegetation cover, soils preparation and wetland drainage in
correlation between clay and SMC(r=0.744**) which cultivated site. Moreover, nitrogen can be lost due to crop
explain the direct relationship between clay and SMC. This removal and burning of plant and crop remains in cultivated
result agrees with earlier findings of Fungai (2006) and site. Several works (Burdt, 2003; Zoltán, 2008; Liu et al.,
Powell (2008) who reported that soils with high clay 2010; Dube and Chitiga, 2011) also reported similar results
content tend to have high water holding capacity. that cultivation of wetlands increased soil aeration and
temperatures which were the causes for rapid
decomposition and mineralization of plant materials and
Soil chemical properties this indirectly lower the content of nitrogen in cultivated
site.
Soil pH, organic carbon (OC), total nitrogen (TN) and The available phosphorous (Av.P) concentration was
available phosphorous Soil pH level was significantly significantly (P<0.05) different between uncultivated and
different (P<0.01) between the cultivated and uncultivated cultivated sites. Cultivated site was lower (3.03) mean
wetland sites. The mean pH value of cultivated site was levels of available phosphorous than uncultivated site
Figure 1. Ash added by burning of plants and crop residues during cultivation in cultivated wetland site.
(3.62) sites. It was relatively decreased about 16% due to contact of high amount of rainfall of the area which was
cultivation. The lower concentration of available similar with the finding of Gebeyaw ( 2007) and Adamu
phosphorus in cultivated site could be the result of (2011). Moreover, lower K+ in cultivated site might be
continuous loss of phosphorous through crop harvesting, continuous losses though harvested crops and crop
plant and crop residues removal. On other hand, residue removal.
continuous application OM through litter fall and dying of The CEC values was significantly different (P<0.05)
plant in uncultivated site could increase soil phosphorus between uncultivated and cultivated sites. Uncultivated site
availability by decomposition and mineralization of had higher mean CEC value (41.31 meq/100 g soil) than
organic phosphorous (OP) and reduce phosphate cultivated site (28.7 meq/100 g soil). The relative change
adsorption in the soil colloids (Yusran, 2010). indicated that CEC was decreased by 31.77% by
cultivation. High clay and OM might be the reason for
high CEC value in uncultivated site. There was general
Exchangeable bases and CEC relationship between clay and colloidal OM with CEC
value (Raseem and Bhatti, 2000; Brady and Weil, 2001;
There were significant difference (P<0.05) in Gebeyaw, 2007). This is because clay and colloidal OM
exchangeable K+ and Na+ between cultivated and had high surface area and negative electrical surface
uncultivated sites. Cultivated sites had lower mean charges to absorb and hold positively charged ions.
content of exchangeable K+ (0.57 cmol (+)/kg soil) and Hence depletion of OM as a result of continuous
Na+ (0.025 cmol (+)/kg soil) than uncultivated site (K+ = cultivation could result for reduced CEC under cultivated
0.714 cmol (+)/kg soil and Na+ = 0.057 cmol (+)/kg soil). site. This result was agreed with the observations of Belay
The relative change result indicated that K+ and Na+ and Hunt (2000), which indicated that the capacity of the
content were decreased by 21.1 and 56.38% respectively wetland soils to contain nutrients (CEC) is adversely
due to cultivation. There were no significant difference affected by cultivation.
(P>0.05) in exchangeable Ca2+ and Mg2+ between
uncultivated and cultivated sites. However, the mean
exchangeable Ca2+ content in cultivated site was slightly Species and soil property relationship
lower (26.19 cmol (+)/kg soil) than uncultivated site
(26.83cmol (+)/kg). The probable reason for lower Principal Component Analysis (PCA) performed for soil
contents of exchangeable K+, Na+ and Ca2+ could be and plant species had extracted more than 32.1% of the
leaching due to clay because of low vegetation cover of variance of data set. PCA 1 provides 19.74% of the
cultivated wetlands which expose the soil to direct variance of data set while PCA 2 takes about 12.38% of
Mulatu et al. 2945
Table 6. Pearson correlation matrix among soil properties.

Clay Sand Silt BD OC TN %SMC Av.P Ca2+ Mg 2+ CEC EC pH Na+ K+
Clay 1
Sand -0.553* 1
Silt -0.830** -0.003 1
BD 0.048 -0.441 0.236 1
OC 0.630** -0.125 -0.673** -0.279 1
TN 0.655** -0.286 -0.594** -0.036 0.740** 1
SMC 0.744** -0.199 -0.761** -0.233 0.813** 0.765** 1
Av.P 0.302 0.181 -0.483* -0.396 0.485* 0.130 0.553* 1
Ca2+ 0.092 -0.344 0.119 0.377 0.005 0.425 -0.101 -0.466 1
Mg2+ 0.102 -0.147 -0.025 -0.122 -0.194 0.149 -0.111 -0.235 0.067 1
CEC 0.160 0.406 -0.462 -0.550* 0.538* 0.362 0.478* 0.326 -0.023 -0.166 1
EC -0.198 -0.044 0.267 0.272 -0.344 -0.283 -0.522* -0.714** 0.056 0.206 -0.233 1
Ph -0.501* -0.032 0.624** 0.546* -0.586* -0.291 -0.566* -0.357 0.335 -0.045 -0.644** 0.480* 1
Na+ 0.551* -0.316 -0.450 0.050 0.575* 0.894** 0.613** 0.134 0.518* 0.328 0.298 -0.291 -0.131 1
K+ 0.502* -0.309 -0.397 0.062 0.543* 0.879** 0.578* 0.073 0.561* 0.336 0.291 -0.282 -0.089 0.99** 1
* Significant at the 0.05 level; ** significant at the 0.01 level.
the variance. Scatter plot for species and soil associated with Na+, K+ and Mg2+ in which only S. Conclusion
parameters indicated three major groups of data Africana was wetland plant species and the rest
set (Figure 2). In first group A. abyssinica, L. were upland species. It also revealed that Plant species diversity and evenness were
hexandra, C.elegantulus, A. schimperi, C. available phosphorous, SMC, TN, OC, CEC and increased in the cultivated site due to wetland
latifolius, L. deflexa, A. aspera, P. punctatus, P. Clay were associated with each other negatively drainage and cultivation. Changes in wetland
argentatus, P. senegalensis, T. confluens I. associated with sand, bulk density, pH, EC and hydrology and wetland cultivation were the most
ethiopica, S. dummeri and D. sanguinalis were silt. Besides, Shannon-wiener diversity, evenness determinant factor for changing in wetland plant
associated with available phosphorous, SMC, TN, and species richness were positively associated composition, diversity and soil characteristics
OC, CEC and Clay. Except I. ethiopica and D. bulk density, pH, EC and silt. Thus, most wetland linked to soil fertility. Though this seems positive
sanguinalis, they were wetland plants. Similarly, in plant species were positively associated with clay, for biological integrity in cultivated site, cultivation
second group, O. forskalaei, S. polystachya, C. SMC, CEC, TN, OC and available phosphorous has caused the losses and degradation of wetland
assimilis, H. schulli, M. syperoides, I. cordofana, which measured maximum value in uncultivated plant species vital for ecosystem services and
D. ternate, P. boehmii, L. stolonifera and C. wetland site. Similarly, most of upland plant livelihood of local community. Low similarity in
dactylon were associated with sand, bulk density, species were positively associated with sand, bulk species composition between cultivated and
Ca2+, pH, EC and silt. In this group only density, pH and EC measured highest value in wetland sites indicated that changes in
Hygrophila schulli and Phyllanthus boehmii were cultivated site (Figure 2). This indicated that environmental conditions of the wetland favor
wetland species. Furthermore, C. arvensis, I. continuous cultivation can increase EC, pH, silt, upland plant species. Cultivated and continuous
eroiocarpa, Sacciolepis Africana, A. conyzoides, bulk density, species diversity and change in the drainage impact on soil phyco-chemical properties
E. ciliaris, S. anguivi, D. cordat and O. spp. were composition wetland plants. such as soil organic matter, water-holding
Figure 2. Scatter plot for species and soil parameters relationship in cultivated and uncultivated wetland sites.
capacity of the soils, total nitrogen, available Abundance at Falgore Game Reserve, Kano. A Thesis Submitted to
the Postgraduate School, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria.
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Vol. 9(38), pp. 2948-2963, 25 September, 2014
DOI: 10.5897/AJAR2013.7574
Article Number:8858D1147536
ISSN 1991-637X
Assessment of on-farm diversity of wheat varieties and

landraces: Evidence from farmer’s fields in Ethiopia
Zewdie Bishaw1*, Paul C. Struik2 and Anthony J. G. van Gastel3
1
Seed Section, ICARDA, P.O, Box 5689, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
2
Center for Crop Systems Analysis, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands.
3
Harspit 10, 8493KB, Terherne, the Netherlands.
Received 28 June, 2013; Accepted 9 September, 2014
Analysis of spatial diversity, temporal diversity and coefficient of parentage (COP) were carried out along
with measurements of agronomic and morphological traits to explain on-farm diversity of modern varieties
or landraces of wheat (Triticum aestivum L. and Triticum durum L.) grown by farmers in Ethiopia. Farm
level surveys showed low spatial diversity of wheat where only a few dominant varieties appeared to
occupy a large proportion of wheat area. The five top wheat varieties were grown by 56% of the sample
farmers and these varieties were planted on 80% of the total wheat area. The weighted average age of
wheat varieties was high with an average of 13.8 years for bread wheat showing low temporal diversity or
varietal replacement by farmers. The COP analysis showed that average and weighted diversity of bread
wheat was 0.76 and 0.66, respectively variance component analysis showed significant variations for
agronomic characters such as plant height, grain yield, and yield components (kernels spike-1, thousand
seed weight) among modern varieties and/or landraces. The principal component analysis explained better
the variation among varieties and landraces. Cluster analysis based on agro-morphological traits grouped
modern varieties and landraces into separate clusters. The present study describes the diversity of wheat
crop available on the farm using different indicators. The variation among modern varieties and landraces
offered opportunities for using genotypes with desired agronomic characters in plant breeding to develop
varieties suitable for different agro-ecological zones in the country.
Key words: Ethiopia, wheat, genetic diversity, spatial diversity, temporal diversity, coefficient of parentage,
landraces.
INTRODUCTION
Crop genetic diversity refers to variation within a plant, disciplines could be problematic because the criteria and
within a crop, between crops of the same species and scales for measurements and their relationships are weak
between different crop species (Almekinders et al., 1995). It (Smale et al., 1996). Smale et al. (1996) noted that
is argued, however, that the definition of diversity across biological scientists measure diversity using genealogical

Bishaw et al. 2949
analysis or indicators (coefficient of parentage), analysis of and Habtemariam, 1991) or for quantifying variation within
agronomic or morphological characters using G×E and between geographic regions and populations
interactions, and indices of gene frequencies using (Kebebew et al., 2001a) or for specific agronomic (Belay et
biochemical or molecular tools; whereas social scientists al., 1993) or morphological (Tesemma et al., 1991) traits.
use the number of varieties within a given crop species However, information on the status of varietal diversity at
(numerical), proportion of area planted to cultivars (spatial) the farm level is rather limited (Witcombe et al., 2001;
and the rate of variety replacement over time by farmers Souza et al., 1994). Some diversity studies were reported
(temporal) using both farm level surveys and/or secondary particularly on Ethiopian wheat (Kebebew et al., 2001a) but
data. information is rather limited on on-farm diversity. Benin et
Spatial diversity indicates the number of varieties grown al. (2003) reported that using named varieties and
or the proportion of area occupied by each variety per unit ecological indices of spatial diversity (richness, evenness,
farm, area, community or region. Temporal diversity and inverse dominance), they found that a combination of
indicates changes in crop varieties (or sequential varietal factors related to agro-ecology of a community, its access
releases by plant breeders) assessing changes taking to markets, and the characteristics of its households and
place over time through introduction or withdrawal of farms significantly affect both the inter- and infra-specific
varieties by individual farmers or farming communities. At diversity of cereal crops. The present study, however,
present a combination of different approaches and tools are aimed at assessing the on-farm wheat diversity using
used to analyze the genetic diversity of crops (Duvick, different approaches and tools. Therefore, the main
1984; Brennan and Byerlee, 1991; Smale et al., 1996). objectives of this study were to: (i) Investigate the spatial
According to Duvick (1984) there are at least three kinds of and temporal diversity of wheat varieties planted by
diversity: diversity in space, diversity in time and diversity in farmers, and (ii) Investigate the agronomic and
reserve (genotypes in breeding pools, breeding materials morphological traits diversity of wheat varieties used by
exchanged, etc.). Moreover, genetic diversity of crops can farmers in Ethiopia using different approaches.
be measured through examining cultivar morphology
(Souza and Sorrells, 1991), molecular markers (Cox et al.,
1985) or origin or parentage analysis (Martin et al., 1991) or MATERIALS AND METHODS
a combination of these tools (van Beuningen and Busch, Field surveys
1997a,b; Almanza-Pinzón et al., 2003). The coefficient of
parentage (COP) was used to measure genetic diversity in A total of 304 wheat farmers were interviewed in major wheat growing
wheat (Souza et al., 1994) and rice in Nepal and India regions as part of a wheat seed system study (Figure 1). A stratified
(Witcombe et al., 2001). The weighted average age (WA) sampling procedure based on the proportion of wheat area in each
of varieties is also a very useful tool for measuring the region, was followed by random sampling of farmers, as described by
Bishaw (2004). Four regions were included covering 81 villages in
temporal diversity of the crop (Brennan and Byerlee, 1991; nine districts in south eastern, central and north western parts of the
Smale et al., 1996). country. Farmers were asked about wheat varieties or landraces they
Ethiopian highlands are considered the ‘center of grew and their perception and source of the varieties and area under
diversity’ for wheat (Demissie and Habtemariam, 1991; each variety. After the interview, a seed sample of about 1 kg was
Tesemma and Belay, 1991). Tesemma et al. (1991) collected from each farmer from the seed lot planted or intended for
planting for field experiments.
reported the morphological diversity of durum wheat
landraces from the central highlands of Ethiopia. Since the
establishment of the National Agricultural Research System Field experiments
(NARS) in the mid-1960s (ICARDA et al., 1999), several
modern varieties including selections from landraces were From 304 wheat seed samples collected from farmers, 50 samples
released for commercial production in Ethiopia representing 13 bread wheat (7 modern, 6 obsolete or landraces) and
12 durum wheat (1 modern, 11 landraces) were selected and planted
(Geberemaraim, 1991b; Tesemma and Belay, 1991). The for two seasons during the 1998/1999 and 1999/2000 cropping
extent of adoption and diffusion of modern varieties for seasons to assess the wheat genetic diversity using agronomic and
wheat has been described in Ethiopia (Bishaw, 2004). To morphological traits. The study was conducted in a randomized
date, there is great concern over the loss of genetic complete block design (RCBD) with three replications. The bread
diversity, particularly with the substitution of a diverse set of wheat included recommended varieties (Dashen, ET13, HAR1685,
genetically variable crop landraces with few genetically HAR1709, HAR710, K6295, Pavon76), obsolete varieties (Batu, Israel,
Kenya) and landraces (Goli, Menze, Rash, Zombolel). All durum
uniform modern varieties particularly in centers of genetic wheat, except Boohai were landraces (Baghede, Baherseded, Enat
diversity such as Ethiopia. Although the loss of biodiversity sende, Gojam gura, Gotoro, Key sende, Legedadi, Nech shemet,
is largely due to replacement of landraces by ‘modern’ Shemet).
varieties, population pressure, urbanization and Bread and durum wheat varieties were planted separately to study
environmental degradation such as recurrent droughts, the genetic diversity among modern varieties and landraces using
agro-morphological characteristics. The experiment was planted at an
overgrazing and desertification are also contributing to the altitude of 2250 masl at the Gonde seed farm (8.0°N and 39.1°E) in
decrease in natural genetic diversity. southeastern Ethiopia. The soils in Gonde are termed as ignimbrite
Abundant information is available on classical diversity (consolidated lava flows), volcanic ash and pumice. The soil texture is
studies for crop genetic resources/core collections (Demissie light clay with clay (44 to 47%), silt (28 to 32%) and sand (23 to 27%)
Figure 1. Wheat seed system study areas (shaded) in Ethiopia
(Bishaw, 2004). The agro-morphological characteristics were recorded harvested and weighed at maturity;
on a plot basis in the field and after harvest. Agronomic characters Spike length (cm): Length measured from base of spike to top
measured included days to flowering, days to heading, days to excluding the awns at maturity;
maturity, grain yield, biomass yield, plant height, spike length, number Number of spikelets spike-1: Number of spikelets on randomly selected
of spikelets spike-1, number of kernels spike-1 and thousand seed plants counted at maturity;
weight. Morphological characters were measured visually on a plot Number of kernels spike-1: Number of kernels counted on randomly
basis or on a group of plants as described by UPOV (1981 and 1988) selected plants per spike at maturity;
defining the methods, scales and crop growth stages for scoring. The Thousand seed weight (g): Weight of 1000 seeds calculated at 12%
following agronomic and morphological characters were recorded moisture content.
during the field experiments: (ii) Morphological characters (observed on plot basis or 10 randomly
selected plants)
(i) Agronomic characters (on a plot basis or on 10 randomly selected Growth habit: Scored as prostrate, semi-prostrate, intermediate, semi-
plants) erect, erect;
Days to heading (days): Number of days (counted from first effective Plant characters: Hairiness of uppermost node (HUN), glaucocity of
date of rainfall to) when 75% of the plants were heading in the plot; ear neck (GN), zigzagness of neck (ZICN);
Days to flowering (days): Number of days (counted from first effective Leaf characters: Auricle coloration, glaucocity of leaf sheath and lower
date of rainfall to) when up to 50% of the plants flowering in the plot; leaf blade;
Days to maturity (days): Number of days (counted from first effective Glume characters: Glume color (GC), beak length (BL), shoulder
date of rainfall to) when 90% of plants reaching physiological maturity shape (SHSH), shoulder width (SHW);
in the plot; Ear characteristics: Ear shape (ES), ear color (EC), awn condition
Grain filling period (days): Number of days to maturity minus number (presence or absence), awn color (AC);
of days to heading; Grain characters: Grain color (GC), grain shape (GS), brush hair
Plant height (cm): Length of randomly selected plants measured from (BRH).
the ground (excluding the awns) at maturity;
Number of tillers plant-1: Number of tillers of randomly selected plants Some of the morphological qualitative characters were measured on a
counted at maturity; scale of 1 to 9. For example, for growth habit the score was erect (1),
Grain yield (g): Grain weight of four middle rows harvested at maturity semi-erect (3), intermediate (5), semi-prostrate (7) and prostrate (9).
and measured after threshing and cleaning; The qualitative characters were measured on a discontinuous basis
Biomass yield (g): Biomass (straw and grain) weight of 4 middle rows such as absent (1) or present (2). For ear shape, it could be scored as
Bishaw et al. 2951
tapering (1), parallel (2), semi-clavate (3), clavate (4) or fusiform (5). was observed particularly on landraces leading to
substantial yield loss.
Data analysis
Survey data Spatial diversity of wheat varieties
Farm surveys were conducted as part of a seed system earlier Farmers grow different crops and varieties from agro-
(Bishaw, 2004) in Ethiopia. Farmers were asked about wheat varieties ecological, agronomic, economic, and socio-cultural context
they grew and their perceptions, source of the varieties, area under to maximize on-farm productivity and ensure household
each variety. The number of varieties grown by each farmer and the
proportion of area under each variety was used to measure the spatial
food security. It was reported that relatively higher
diversity on the farm. The weighted average age of varieties was speciesdiversity on the farm where most farmers grew a
calculated to estimate the temporal diversity of the varieties (Brennan wide range of cereal, legume and oilseed crops in Ethiopia
and Byerlee, 1991) grown by sample farmers. Moreover, measuring (Bishaw, 2004). Wheat farmers either grew bread wheat
the varietal diversity also requires information on the genetic (83.2%), durum wheat (7.9%) or a combination of both
relatedness between varieties. The matrix of coefficients of parentage wheat types (8.9%). Table 2 shows the number of bread
(COP) among released wheat varieties was generated using the
International Wheat Information System version 4 computer program
and durum wheat varieties grown per farm. The number of
(Payne et al., 2002). The COP measures the theoretical genetic wheat varieties grown by an individual farmer was low
relationship between two varieties based on the analysis of their showing low levels of varietal diversity. If both bread and
pedigrees. St. Martin (1982) defined the algorithm for calculating COP: durum wheat varieties are considered together 72, 24 or
(i) the COP of each unique wheat variety with itself is one, and two 4% of farmers grew one, two or three varieties per farm,
varieties without common parentage is zero; (ii) each parent respectively. In case the two wheat species considered
contributes equally to the progeny, and any unrelated parents has a
relationship of 0.5 with the progeny; and (iii) each variety without a separately, the number of farmers growing one variety will
known pedigree is unrelated (COP=0). The average diversity is the be 70% for bread wheat (n=280) and 82% for durum wheat
average value of the COP among all cultivars (including the COP of a (n=51). Similarly, farmers growing two varieties dropped
cultivar with itself) grown within each year and region subtracted from from one-third to one quarter for bread wheat and to 16%
1 (Souza et al., 1994). The weighted diversity is determined from a for durum wheat.
matrix of the COPs where each cell in the matrix is weighted by the
proportion of the area grown to each variety and the weighted mean
In Arsi, relatively more farmers had better choice and
COP is subtracted from 1 (Witcombe et al., 2001). access to newly released varieties due to proximity to
agricultural research stations and seed suppliers and as a
result grew more than two varieties. In other regions more
Experimental data farmers grew modern bread wheat varieties as they were
newly introduced to the regions along with durum wheat
The data from field experiments was statistically analyzed using the
residual maximum likelihood estimation (REML Genstat 6.1) to test the
landraces. Lack of availability of varieties with different
significance of variation among the genotypes and to estimate agronomic characteristics would be one possible cause of
variance components. Moreover, the data was pre-standardized to growing less number of varieties by farmers. Similar results
overcome differences in measurement units used for recording data were also reported where 73% of farmers grew one wheat
before carrying out the multivariate analysis. Principal component variety in southeastern Ethiopia (Ferede et al., 2000).
analysis was performed using the correlation matrix to define the However, this is contrary to Negatu et al. (1992) where over
patterns of variation among the varieties or landraces or the collection
sites based on the mean of agronomic and phenotypic traits measured 50% of farmers grew more than one variety in the central
during the study using the SPSS 11.1 statistical software and the highlands of Ethiopia (although no distinction between
graph plotted with NTSYS pc 2.1 software. Clustering was made using bread and durum wheat) and Stanelle et al. (1984) who
the hierarchical cluster analysis. Euclidean distance was used as found that 32% of farmers planted two varieties and 27%
cluster distance measure and the clustering method was unweighted planted three or more wheat varieties in the USA. The latter
pair group using arithmetic average using NTSYS pc 2.1. The actual
data matrix was compared with a calculated cophenetic value matrix
could be attributed to the availability of many wheat
to evaluate the degree of fitness between the two matrices (r) varieties with diverse morphological characteristics to
performing Mantel test (Mantel, 1967). reduce the risk of wheat production. The general
assumption that small-scale farmers are growing diverse
crop varieties fitting to different niches is not clearly evident
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION both for wheat or other crops grown by farmers. However,
at the community level farmers were growing relatively
The average rainfall for 1998/1999 and 1999/2000 were more varieties as in 62 out of 81 villages where sample
794 and 682 mm, respectively, showing some variation in farmers were growing from 2 to 4 different wheat varieties
the amount and distribution at the experimental site or landraces. Given the fact that farmers are planting even
between the two seasons (Table 1). In both years, one variety on different plots in the village one could
exceptionally high and extended rainfall during crop possibly find a mosaic of fields with different
maturity and at harvesting period resulted in lodging and varieties/landraces at a time showing some degree of
loss of grain yield of modern wheat varieties and landraces. spatial diversity on the farm. About 40 modern varieties and
In the 1999/2000 crop season, high incidence of yellow rust landraces of bread and durum wheat were grown in the
Table 1. Average monthly minimum and maximum temperature and rainfall in 19998/89 and 1999/00 crop seasons at Gonde basic seed
farm, Ethiopia.
1998/1999 1999/2000
Months
Rainfall mm Max ºC Min ºC Average ºC Rainfall mm Max ºC Min ºC Average ºC
January 82 22.18 9.55 15.9 3.5 22.31 7.38 14.8
February 80.4 23.75 11.18 17.5 4.5 25.47 8.65 17.1
March 28.8 25.13 11.4 18.3 27 24.36 10.73 17.5
April 45.8 26.73 12.45 19.6 26.7 26.36 11.31 18.8
May 78.5 25.7 12.4 19.1 60 25.43 11.38 18.4
June 66.2 24.58 11.76 18.2 98.3 24.08 11.18 17.6
July 96.1 20.2 11.3 15.8 96.1 22 12.03 17.0
August 67.8 20 10.9 15.5 148.6 21 11.7 16.4
September 164.5 21.3 11.1 16.2 112.7 na na na
October 81.2 21.5 10.7 16.1 104.4 na na na
November 2.6 21.88 9.8 15.8 0 na na na
December 0 21.71 na 15.6 0 na na na
Total/mean 793.9 22.9 11.1 15.6 681.8
Note: na= data not available because of malfunctioning of the equipment.
Table 2. Number of bread and durum wheat varieties grown by sampled farmers (n=331) in Ethiopia.
Arsi West Shoa North Shoa East Gojam Total

Number of varieties
Farmers % Farmers % Farmers % Farmers % Farmers %
All wheat
1 75 53 55 77 56 93 53 90 239 72.2
2 55 39 14 20 4 7 6 10 79 23.9
3 11 8 2 3 - - - - 13 3.9
Total 141 100 71 100 60 100 59 100 331 100
Bread wheat
1 75 53 44 81 30 97 48 89 197 70.4
2 55 39 9 17 1 3 6 11 71 25.4
3 11 8 1 2 - - - - 12 4.3
Total 141 100 54 100 31 100 54 100 280 100
Durum wheat
1 - - 11 65 26 90 5 100 42 82.4
2 - - 5 29 3 10 - - 8 15.7
3 - - 1 6 - - - - 1 2.0
Total - - 17 100 29 100 5 100 51 100
Note: - = no farmers growing.
survey areas in south eastern, central and northwestern such as Atekere, Agere, Bire, Boydo and Wasma. Figure 2
regions of the country (Figure 1) by sampled farmers from shows the pattern of the top ten wheat varieties grown by
1994/1995 to 1997/1998 crop season. The total number of farmers over a four-year period from 1994/1995 to
wheat varieties grown slightly decreased because some 1997/1998 crop season. During the four year period, the
landraces were dropped as farmers were adopting new five major bread varieties were grown by 44.9% (lowest in
bread wheat varieties instead. The total number of wheat 1996) to 66% (the highest in 1997) of wheat farmers. In
varieties grown by sampled farmers dropped from 40 in 1994, the bread wheat varieties Pavon, Enkoy, Dashen,
1994 to 31 in 1997 and these included durum landraces Batu and Israel were planted by 62.1% of farmers. In 1997,
Bishaw et al. 2953
30 Pavon
ET 13
25
HAR 1685
20 HAR 710
Farmers (%)
Dashen
15
HAR 1709
10 K6295
Enkoy
5
Batu
0 Israel
1994 1995 1996 1997 Local-bread
Years Local-durum
Figure 2. Patterns of bread and durum wheat varieties grown by sample farmers in Ethiopia.
the top five varieties altogether were planted by 66.2% of by the new varieties. The newer ‘HAR’ varieties accounted
farmers, among which Pavon and ET13 were grown by for over one fifth of wheat area. Pavon remained dominant
40.6% of the farmers, followed by HAR1685 (11.2%), occupying 40 to 50% of the wheat area grown by sampled
HAR710 (8.4%) and Batu (6.2%). The average over four farmers over the four year period. Negatu (1999) also
year period was 56%. In 1997, about 86% of sampled reported that in central Ethiopia three modern wheat
farmers grew bread wheat varieties whereas the remaining varieties were grown on 53% of the wheat area and the
14% planted durum wheat varieties. The proportion of most widely grown variety ET13 was planted by 74% of
farmers growing Dashen and Enkoy dropped from nearly sample farmers on 51% of the wheat area. In another
one third in 1994 to less than 10% in 1997. On the other survey it was reported that six dominant varieties covered
hand, the percentage of farmers’ growing Pavon and ET13 92.5% of the total wheat area grown by sample farmers in
showed an upward trend increasing from 27.2 to 40.6%, in Arsi region (Ferede et al., 2000). Much higher level cultivar
the same period as the two older varieties Dashen and concentration was reported from South Asia where a single
Enkoy become susceptible to rust and less popular with wheat variety occupied up to 70% in Pakistan and 75% in
farmers. Throughout the period Pavon appeared to be a Bangladesh (CIMMYT, 2001). The area allocated to bread
single dominant variety planted by over 20 to 25% of the and durum landraces declined over the years from 18.3
farmers. Batu also remained among the top five bread and 14.4%, respectively in 1994 to 12.6 and 7.6% in 1997
wheat grown by sample farmers. in the same order. Kotu et al. (2000) found that wheat
The percentage area of top ten wheat varieties grown by farmers in southeastern Ethiopia are decreasing the area of
farmers over a four-year period is shown in Figure 3. There landraces compared to modern varieties.
was a steady increase of area allocated for wheat The important features observed from the survey were:
production by sampled farmers over the years (almost by (a) decline in the proportion of bread and durum landraces;
50%). This happened due changes in adoption rates as (b) decrease in previously most popular varieties such as
most of the farmers were introduced to modern varieties Dashen and Enkoy as they became susceptible to
and at the same time growing their landraces in decreasing diseases; (c) increase in the proportion of previously less
proportion. The five top wheat varieties on average popular varieties such as Pavon and ET13; and (d) a
occupied 80% of the wheat area planted during the four continuous increase of newly released ‘HAR’ varieties
year period. In 1994, Pavon, Enkoy, Dashen, Batu and which was not evident in previous surveys. Negatu et al.
Israel in decreasing order accounted for nearly 80% of the (1992) also found that 94% of sampled farmers in
wheat area planted by farmers. In 1997, Pavon and Batu predominantly durum wheat production zones in the central
still remained at the top whereas the older varieties or highlands grew only few modern bread and durum wheat
landraces such as Dashen, Enkoy and Israel were replaced varieties. About 63% of these farmers were formerly used
60
Pavon
ET 13
50
H AR 1685
H AR 710
40 D ashen
H AR 1709
Area (%)
30 K6295
Enkoy
B atu
20
Israel
Local-bread
10 Local-durum
0
1994 1995 1996 1997
Y ears
Figure 3. Patterns of area allocation for bread and durum wheat varieties by sample farmers in Ethiopia.
to grow as many as 27 durum landraces, but abandoned varieties were released during the survey year. The
them primarily due to lack of seed availability and their average wheat varietal release was 1.3 modern varieties
susceptibility to plant diseases and insect pests. Hailye et per year from 1950 to 2000. There is substantial difference
al. (1998) also found that farmers in northwestern Ethiopia in the average release per year between durum (0.3) and
had formerly reported mostly growing 13 durum landraces, bread wheat (1.0) varieties, indicating more choices for
which were abandoned because of their susceptibility to bread varieties. During the wheat seed survey sample
rusts, moisture stress and low soil fertility. farmers grew nine bread wheat varieties on the
It should be noted that the number of varieties grown by recommended list compared to one durum variety. Souza
individual farmers was rather low given the number of et al. (1994) reported an average release of 1.5 varieties
released wheat varieties and landraces cultivated in per year in the Yaqui valley of Mexico. The performance of
Ethiopia. Moreover, a small number of varieties occupied the Ethiopian Wheat Research programme appeared
the highest proportion of area allocated to wheat and they satisfactory given the average annual total wheat releases
were also grown by a large number of farmers. Varietal of 80 varieties per year by NARS of developing countries
concentration indicates the percentage distribution of crop between 1986 and 1990 (Evenson and Gollin, 2003).
area by cultivar (spatial diversity) and measured by the The availability of recommended varieties alone would
area planted to a dominant cultivar and the area planted to not imply varietal diversity, if they were not available at the
the top five cultivars. Accordingly, these results indicate farm level and grown by farmers. The weighted average
high varietal concentration reflecting low on-farm diversity age (WA) of varieties is used to estimate the rate of varietal
of bread wheat in Ethiopia. On the other hand, there was replacement, based on the average age of varieties grown
not a single landrace which substantially dominated the by farmers in a given year since release, weighted by the
area of wheat production. Different durum landraces were area planted to each variety in that year (Brennan and
grown quite evenly across the districts. Byerlee, 1991). In 1997, the WA calculated for modern
bread wheat showed a low level of varietal turnover of 13.4
years (Table 3) similar to WA of 13 and 11 years reported
Temporal diversity of wheat varieties for bread wheat varieties, respectively in central (Beyene
et al., 1998) and northwestern Ethiopia (Hailye et al.,
During the last five decades, several modern bread (49) 1998). These figures indicate that although Ethiopian
and durum (16) wheat varieties were recommended or farmers are growing modern varieties of bread wheat, they
released (Gebremariam, 1991; Tesemma and Belay, 1991; are slow in changing to new varieties released in recent
NSIA, 2000) with an average of 13 varieties per decade for years or having difficulty to get quick access to improved
the highly diverse agro-ecological regions of Ethiopia seeds. The present WA was closer to 13 years (Smale et
(Figure 4). Among these, eleven bread and three durum al., 1996), but lower in contrast to 16 years of varietal
Bishaw et al. 2955
25
se 20
it
ei
ra Bread wheat
v 15
f
o Durum wheat
re 10
b
m Total
u 5
N
0
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990
Years
Figure 4. Modern bread and durum wheat varieties released from 1950 to 2000 in Ethiopia.
Table 3. Weighted average age (WA) of bread wheat varieties grown by farmers in Ethiopia.
Variety Year variety released Years since release Mean area (ha) in 1997 WA
Dashen 1984 13 0.80 1.09
Enkoy 1974 23 0.39 0.94
ET13 1981 16 0.46 0.77
HAR 1685 1995 2 0.87 0.18
HAR 1709 1994 3 0.38 0.12
HAR 710 1995 2 1.06 0.22
K6295 1980 17 0.86 1.53
Pavon 1982 15 1.78 2.80
Batu 1984 13 1.57 2.14
HAR 416 1987 10 0.75 0.79
Kenya 1954 43 0.61 2.75
Total 13.35
replacement reported by Moya and Byerlee (1993). registration system, poor promotion or popularization of
Ethiopian farmers had long seed retention period (Bishaw, new varieties or unavailability or lack of access to seed of
2004) which had a negative impact on adoption of new new varieties (Bishaw, 2004; Hailye et al., 1998).
varieties (Gamba et al., 1999) thus increasing the WA of Although several modern durum wheat varieties were
varieties on the farm. The slightly lower WA could be released by the national agricultural research system none
attributed to the release of new varieties and farmers of them were encountered in Arsi region where bread
willingness to adopt them replacing most popular ‘old’ wheat is most popular among farmers because of its high
generation wheat varieties such as Dashen and Enkoy yield potential. Moreover, only a single improved variety
which become susceptible to yellow rust and stem rust, was found in traditionally durum wheat growing areas of
respectively. Enkoy variety remains dominant in terms of the country in central and northwestern regions reflecting
area coverage for over two decades in major wheat lower adoption of modern varieties on the farm. This
production regions of the country. The breakdown of indicates the underlying failure of the crop improvement
resistance induced farmers to promoting varietal program in developing modern varieties that meet farmers’
replacement and increasing the temporal diversity at the adoption criteria or the weakness of national seed system
farm level similar to what was reported elsewhere (Souza in providing seed of these varieties to farmers. On the
et al., 1994; van Beuningen and Busch, 1997a; Hailye et other hand, sample farmers were growing a wide range of
al., 1998). In general high WA is a combination of many durum wheat as many as 15 landraces across the regions.
factors reflecting slow rate of variety development by the It is estimated that over 80% of durum wheat area in
agricultural research, ineffective variety release and Ethiopia is covered by landraces consisting of mixtures
Table 4. Coefficient of parentage matrix of modern bread wheat varieties in Ethiopia.
Variety Batu Dashen Enkoy ET 13 HAR 416 HAR 710 HAR 1685 HAR 1709 K6295 Pavon 76
W1 0.115 0.061 0.009 0.111 0.002 0.107 0.116 0.022 0.021 0.436
Batu 1 0.184 0.007 0 0.147 0.071 0.144 0.073 0 0.152
Dashen 1 0.008 0 0.231 0.096 0.383 0.116 0 0.297
Enkoy 1 0.5 0.009 0.005 0.008 0.005 0 0.01
ET 13 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
HAR 416 1 0.091 0.197 0.281 0 0.274
HAR 710 1 0.083 0.045 0 0.122
HAR 1685 1 0.098 0 0.274
HAR 1709 1 0.5 0.137
K6295 1 0
Pavon 1
1
Note: W = proportion of area occupied by each variety used for calculating the weighted diversity; COP values for ET 13 and K6295 are
assumptions.
that exhibit genetic variation for quantitative and qualitative Pavon, the most widely grown variety has high COP values
traits (Tesemma and Bechere, 1998). It is believed that of 0.274 each with HAR 416 and HAR 1685 and Dashen
such landrace mixtures constitute the major on-farm (0.297). HAR 1709 has high COP value with HAR 416
diversity of durum wheat in Ethiopia (Belay et al., 1993; (0.281). Dashen also had the highest COP values with
Kebebew et al., 2001a) where 20 or more morphotypes HAR 1685 followed by Pavon and HAR 416. The COP data
(agrotypes) still exist all in one field (Tesemma and and the proportion of area occupied by each variety were
Bechere, 1998). used to measure the average diversity and the weighted
At present a significant proportion of the total wheat area diversity of bread wheat varieties deployed in farmers’ fields
in developing countries is planted to modern varieties, (Souza et al., 1994; Witcombe et al., 2001).
including early generation tall improved varieties and/or First, the COP data was used to measure the average
second-generation short stature modern varieties (Pingali, diversity of bread wheat varieties in farmers’ fields. Here
1999). However, the rate of varietal replacement of the old bread wheat varieties with unknown association with
generation improved varieties is slow where farmers could current varieties (e.g. Kenya) or those considered
not benefit from investment made in developing new landraces or the origin could not be traced (e.g. Israel) were
varieties with superior yield potential owing to time lag excluded, although some of them occupied more than 0.1%
between the release of the variety and its adoption by of the total wheat area in the 1997/1998 crop season. The
farmers. A rapid rate of varietal replacement in farmers’ most popular bread wheat variety ET13 has Enkoy as one
fields not only leads to higher returns to plant breeding parent and therefore a maximum COP value of 0.5 was
research programme by increasing adoption but also assigned between the two varieties assuming they are from
increase genetic diversity if varieties are from diverse unrelated parents. Likewise, K6295 also has Romany Back
parentage (Brennan and Byerlee, 1991). Cross as one parent similar to HAR1709 and therefore a
COP value of 0.5 was assumed between the two varieties.
However, these figures appeared high and it is unlikely that
Coefficient of parentage of wheat varieties the parents of these varieties came from unrelated
ancestors. The average wheat diversity among cultivars
During the field survey it was found that the majority of the grown in an area is measured by subtracting the mean
sampled farmers extensively grew modern bread wheat coefficient of parentage from 1 (Souza et al., 1994;
varieties compared to the landraces. Most of these Witcombe et al., 2001) and higher values indicate higher
varieties, however, were introductions from CIMMYT, diversity. Accordingly, the average diversity of wheat
Kenya or selections from Ethiopian landraces with some varieties of known parentage calculated from the COP
common parents or ancestors. Table 4 presents the COP matrix would be 0.76, if ET 13 and K6295 were excluded
which measures the degree of relatedness among varieties from the matrix. If ET 13 and K6295 are, however, kept in
(Payene et al., 2002). The COP values vary from as low as the matrix with COP values of 0.5 with Enkoy and HAR
0.071 (between Batu and Enkoy) to 0.383 (between 1709, respectively and unrelated to all other varieties the
Dashen and HAR 1685) excluding the non-related varieties average diversity of wheat varieties grown by farmers
(COP values = 0). Most of the recently released wheat would be 0.81 showing slight increase (6%) in diversity.
varieties not only related to each other, but also to the These results are comparable to similar diversity studies for
recommended or ‘obsolete’ varieties still grown by farmers. crops such as barley (Martin et al., 1991).
Bishaw et al. 2957
Table 5. Mean, minimum, maximum and standard error of mean for nine agronomic traits of bread and durum wheat
varieties.
Bread wheat Durum wheat

Agronomic characters
Minimum Maximum Mean Minimum Maximum Mean
Number of tillers plant-1 2 10 4.2 ± 0.2 2 10 4.3 ± 0.1
Days to heading (d) 49 97 67 ± 1.0 51 78 67 ± 0.4
Days to maturity (d) 114 147 131 ± 1.1 114 147 132 ± 0.8
Grain filling period (d) 21 82 64 ± 1.4 47 84 66 ± 0.8
Plant height (cm) 72 128 94.3 ± 1.3 65 115 90.9 ± 0.9
Grain yield (kg ha-1) 1050 7590 3702 ± 109 250 5550 2381 ±121
-1
Biomass yield (kg ha ) 3750 10000 7343 ± 123 3000 12500 6425 ± 129
Number of grains spike-1 19 53 36.0 ± 0.8 5 57 30.4 ± 0.9
Thousand seed weight (g) 22.8 45.7 33.5 ± 0.5 8 53.09 27.2 ± 0.8
Second, the COP data and the proportion of area standard error of mean of bread and durum wheat varieties.
occupied by each variety were used to measure the The number of tillers plant-1 ranged from 2 to 10 with an
weighted diversity of bread wheat varieties. The weighted average of 4 for both bread wheat varieties. Tillering is the
diversity measures not only the relatedness but also the most important yield component of wheat varieties and
area occupied by the varieties; and therefore robust criteria most liked by farmers because of the potential it offers for
to measure the diversity at the farm level. The bread wheat better weed control. Although the average number of days
varieties with known COP values and with the proportion of to heading appeared to be similar, the bread wheat
area of more than 0.1% were included for calculating the varieties had a slightly longer period to heading than durum
weighted diversity. The varieties Batu, Dashen, Enkoy, ET wheat materials. There was a clear distinction in plant
13, K6295 and the ‘HAR’ series, altogether accounts for height with local bread wheat varieties such as Menze,
nearly 90% of the total wheat producing area during the Zombolel, Goli and ET 13 (selection from Ethiopian
1997/1998 crop season. We calculated the weighted germplasm) having the highest plant height (over 100 cm)
diversity by the formula (d= 1-WRW´) where the COP (R) and modern varieties such as Batu, Dashen, Pavon, Enkoy
value in each cell in the matrix is weighted by the proportion and ‘HAR’ showing shorter plant height (< 100 cm). The
of area occupied by each variety (where W is a vector and average grain filling period between bread and durum
W′ a transpose). Accordingly, the weighted diversity of wheat appears to be similar, but bread wheat varieties had
bread wheat varieties was 0.66. The weighted diversity is wider range than durum landraces with short gain filling
expected to be lower than the average diversity particularly period similar to that reported by Belay et al. (1993).
if higher number of varieties is related (because of high Tarekegne et al. (1996) also found that in bread wheat
average COP values) as seen from the COP values in varieties plant height was reduced significantly, while days
Table 4. It should be noted that, however, fewer varieties to anthesis was significantly increased over the period of
dominated the wheat production area. Pavon is varietal releases since 1949.
predominantly grown by nearly 40% of the farmers in Among the bread wheat varieties Pavon gave the highest
1997/1998 crop season and closely followed by ET 13 grain yield followed by varieties K6295 and Enkoy whereas
which is less related to most of the recommended and Boohai (the modern variety) was the highest yielder among
newly released varieties. Witcombe et al. (2001) found that durum wheat close to the expectations farmers gave during
both the average and weighted diversity increased field survey (data not shown). The yield at experimental
following participatory variety selection approaches with stations ranged from 5 to 7 tonnes ha-1 were reported
farmers where previously a single variety predominates the earlier for modern wheat varieties (Tarekegne, 1996). The
crop area and thus lower the diversity at the farm levels. number of kernels spike-1 and the thousand seed weight
They also reported that weighted diversity has increased among bread and durum wheat appeared to be also
from 0.26 to 0.61 due to releases and adoption of unrelated different. Almost all bread wheat varieties had higher
and diverse varieties following the participatory variety number of kernels spike-1 and highest thousand seed
selection in India. weight than durum wheat varieties and therefore widely
accepted by farmers because of high yield potential.
Alemayehu et al. (1999) reported substantially higher
Agro-morphological traits diversity number of grains per spike but similar results with this study
for thousand seed weight for recently released bread wheat
Table 5 presents the summary of descriptive statistics varieties. In general durum wheat landraces have low
including the means, minimum and maximum values, thousand seed weight compared to modern varieties (Belay
Table 6. Simple Pearson correlation coefficient of agronomic traits for bread wheat (matrix above diagonal) and durum
wheat (matrix below diagonal).
Variables TIL DTH DTM GFP PH GYD BYD NKS TSW

Tillers plant-1 (TIL) 1.00 -0.26 0.03 0.26 -0.18 0.03 0.13 -0.23 0.40
Days to heading (DTH) 0.10 1.00 0.12 -0.99** 0.26 -0.03 -0.03 0.09 -0.63*
Days to maturity (DTM) 0.40 0.28 1.00 0.44 0.24 0.11 0.28 0.03 -0.01
Grain filling period (GFP) 0.09 -0.90** 0.17 1.00 -0.21 0.16 0.08 -0.09 0.64**
Plant height (PH) -0.16 -0.53 0.07 0.57 1.00 0.23 0.56* -0.66** -0.03
Grain yield (GYD) 0.28 -0.86** 0.07 0.91** 0.57 1.00 0.51 -0.11 0.16
Biomass yield (BYD) 0.48 -0.13 0.51 0.37 0.09 0.46 1.00 -0.51 0.37
Number of kernels spike-1 (NKS) 0.12 -0.77** 0.21 0.88** 0.70* 0.89** 0.48 1.00 -0.45
Thousand seed weight (TSW) 0.28 -0.77** 0.25 0.90** 0.50 0.94** 0.51 0.91* 1.00
Note: * and ** are significant at P ≤ 0.05 level and P ≤ 0.01, respectively.
et al., 1993). such as the number of kernels spike-1 and thousand seed
A wide range in the extreme values of each of the traits weight. Grain filling period had highly significantly positively
studied particularly among the modern varieties will provide correlated with grain yield, number of kernels plant-1 and
farmers an opportunity to make a choice of genotypes that thousand seed weight, but highly significantly negatively
will fit best to their niche environmental conditions. correlated with days to maturity. However, grain yield was
Moreover, the variation that exists among the landraces significantly (P ≤ 0.01) correlated with the number of
offers broad opportunities for using the genotypes with kernels per spike and thousand seed weight. Moreover,
desired agronomic characters in the plant breeding the number of kernels spike-1 was positively and
program to develop new varieties suitable for different significantly correlated with thousand seed weight. The
agroecological zones of the country. findings are similar to what Belay et al. (1993) reported in
that days to heading had significantly negatively correlated
with grain yield, number of kernels and thousand seed
Correlation coefficient analysis weight; and the grain yield had significant positive
correlation with number of kernels and thousand seed
The correlation coefficients between agronomic traits are weight in durum wheat landraces from central Ethiopia.
presented in Table 6. In bread wheat correlation among They also found a highly significant negative association
the traits was not only weak but also insignificant with few between grain filling period and days to maturity, but a
exceptions. The correlation between days to heading and positive association with thousand seed weight which is
thousand seed weight was highly significant and negatively similar to present findings. The kernel weight was reported
correlated (P ≤ 0.01). The longer the days to heading, the as an important yield component in durum wheat
lower the thousand seed weight probably due to shorter landraces (Belay et al., 1993).
grain filling period. Grain filling period had a highly
significantly negatively correlated with days to heading and
a highly significantly positively correlated with thousand Variance component analysis
seed weight. Similarly, plant height was significantly
negatively correlated with number of kernels per spike (P ≤ Variance component analysis revealed little significant
0.01) and a significantly positively correlation with biomass differences among the bread and durum wheat varieties for
yield (P ≤ 0.05). The negative association between plant agronomic characteristics except for days to heading for
height and number of kernels was due to the modern bread wheat and thousand seed weight for durum wheat
bread wheat varieties with short plant height had long and qualitative characteristics such as growth habit, grain
spikes and thus more grains as compared to tall landraces color and grain shape for both wheat types (data not
with short spike length associated with a low number of shown). The estimates of variance components showed the
kernels spike-1. A positive association is expected between contribution of collection sites towards the patterns of
plant height and biomass yield because the taller the variation that existed among the genotypes which is more
plants the more is the biomass yield. Moreover, some of pronounced for durum landraces compared to modern
the modern bread wheat varieties had high tillering bread varieties. This is well understood given the recent
capacity and therefore produced more biomass yield introduction of modern varieties to their collection sites and
comparable to the landraces. where any variation is expected from the genotypes than
In durum wheat, days to heading were significantly the effect of collection sites. Estimates of variance
negatively correlated with grain yield and yield components components showed that the patterns of variation among
Bishaw et al. 2959
Figure 5. Principal component plot of durum wheat varieties based on 12 agronomic and phenotypic traits.
the genotypes were attributed to the collection sites towards the overall agro - morphological variations among
(provinces and districts) from the lowest of 36% for grain the local durum landraces. The analysis showed that the
yield to 74% of the variation for plant height among the first three components with eigenvalues more than unity
durum varieties and landraces, although this is not altogether explained 84% of variation among 11 durum
significant in all cases. Tesemma et al. (1991) also found wheat landraces for 12 agronomic and phenotypic
that diversity among durum landraces from central Ethiopia characteristics studied (data not shown). The first, second
was attributed to their collection sites (districts) than and third components each accounted for 45, 21 and 18%
variation within the populations. There was no significant of the variation, respectively. Plant height, grain yield,
difference among all the estimates of mean diversity for the number of kernels spike-1 and thousand seed weight were
populations and districts except for glume pubescence. most important agronomic characters contributing to the
However, by dropping the collection sites from the model, first principal component. The qualitative morphological
almost all the agronomic characters measured such as characters such as growth habit, ear shape, grain color
plant height, grain yield, biomass yield, number of kernels and grain shape were important for the second
spike-1 and thousand seed weight showed remarkable component. According to Demisie and Habtemariam
significant variation among the genotypes. Therefore, there (1991) Ethiopian durum wheat landraces exhibited an
was a significant difference (P<0.001) among bread wheat enormous variation in spike form, spike density, awn size
varieties for tillers plant-1, days to heading, grain yield, and glume color and glume hairiness. The third component
number of kernels spike-1 and thousand seed weight. Days was associated with days to maturity, tillers plant-1 and
to maturity and biomass yield were not significant among biomass yield. Ayana and Bekele (1999) also found that
bread wheat varieties. Likewise, durum wheat varieties plant height and days to 50% flowering as important
showed significant differences (P ≤0.001) for days to agronomic characters for classifying sorghum germplasm
heading, grain yield, and thousand seed weight. Number of in Ethiopia.
kernels spike-1 was significant at P≤ 0.01. The number of The distribution of durum wheat landraces along the first
tillers plant-1, days to maturity and biomass yield was not two axes of the principal components is presented in
significantly different among the durum wheat varieties. On Figure 5. The first principal component is more important in
the contrary significant difference on number of tillers plant-1 separating the durum wheat landraces as compared to the
was observed among landraces of wheat collected from second component. The extreme right of the first
central Ethiopia and suggested as useful agronomic trait for component was occupied by Boohai, a modern variety
crop improvement programs in the country (Belay et al., developed from germplasm materials introduced from
1993). CIMMYT compared to other landraces which are known to
be of Ethiopian origin. The first principal component
differentiated the low yielding landraces from high yielding
Principal component analysis modern variety based on grain yield and yield components
such as number of kernels spike-1 and thousand seed
The principal component analysis was made to estimate weight. Belay et al. (1993) reported that landraces were
the relative contribution of the different traits studied late in days to heading and maturity and had lower kernel
Figure 6. Dendrogram showing clustering of durum wheat landraces collected from farmers in
Ethiopia.
weight compared to Boohai, a modern variety. The second Bagehede and Key sende which were collected from the
component was able to separate early maturing landraces same region. Enate sende, Gojam gura and Shemet all
from late maturing genotypes. Gotoro and Legedadi from North Shoa were within the same sub-cluster with
occupied the extreme negative values of the second another unidentified local landrace from the same region.
component and appeared to head earlier compared to However, Nech shemet was clustered with Gojam gura
other genotypes. Baherseded, Shemet and Nech shemet instead of Shemet. The durum wheat landraces from North
heads slightly later than other genotypes. Landraces such Shoa were heading late, had low grain filling period and
as Baghede, Enat sende, Gojam gura and Key sende low grain yield. Kebebew et al. (2001a) also reported that
(‘red’ grain) as the name suggests could be separated durum landraces collected from central and southeastern
from others on the basis of seed color. Belay et al. (1995) Ethiopia were not clustered along their collection sites or
reported that local landraces exhibited a wide range of geographic origin. Instead, durum landraces with similar
colors from white, red/brown to purple colored grains; and vernacular names collected from different sites or
the purple-grain landraces have useful agronomic traits geographic regions were clustered together than those
such as early maturity, shorter height, higher fertility, landraces from the same collection sites or geographic
tillering capacity and harvest index. However, most of the regions. Ethiopian durum wheat landraces exhibited
modern wheat varieties had amber color (Alemayehu et tremendous diversity for some phenotypic characteristics
al., 1999) with few exceptions such as Enkoy and K6295 such as grain color ranging from white to purple.
with red kernels. Landraces such as Baghede, Enat sende, Gojam gura and
Key sende (‘red’ seeded wheat as the name suggests)
were grouped together within the same sub-cluster
Cluster analysis because of their patterns of grain color mixtures. Tesemma
et al. (1991) reported that a high proportion of landraces
Clustering based on agro – morphological traits revealed had purple seed color across different districts. Some
three clusters separating the recently introduced modern landraces such as Tikur sende are used for specific
variety (Boohai) and long established landraces (Figure 6). purposes such as for brewing local beer or spirits
The correlation between the cophenetic value matrix and (Kebebew et al., 2001a) while white colored ones are used
actual matrix data was very high (0.91) indicating a very for social or religious festivities. The prefixes such as ‘key’
good fit of the cluster analysis performed. The durum (red), nech (white), tikur (black), sergegna (white and red
wheat landraces were not all clustered along their region of mixture) are useful folk taxonomy in classifying landraces
geographic origin based on the morphological traits. based on the proportion of grain color mixtures not only in
Baherseded, Gotoro and Legedai were collected from wheat but also in other crops such as barley (Kebebew et
West Shoa and were clustered together but differently from al., 2001b) in Ethiopia. Local names could be used to
Bishaw et al. 2961
describe the performance or to indicate the original source time diversify the choice of bread wheat varieties available
of landraces. Moreover, farmers may coin new names for to farmers.
modern varieties and some varieties are better known by The diverse agro-ecology and long history of association
their adopted name than their release names. For example with the wheat crop and its production under a variety of
a bread wheat variety, HAR 1685 is named popularly by socio-economic and cultural situations led to the evolution
farmers as Qubsa because of its high yield. of highly diverse forms of landraces which could be of
In case of bread wheat the principal component analysis practical benefit for crop improvement. Several workers
showed that the first four components with eigenvalues reported the diversity of quantitative and qualitative
more than unity accounted for 74% (22, 21, 18 and 12%, characters of the Ethiopian wheats (Demissie and
respectively) of the variation among the varieties (data not Habtemariam, 1991; Belay et al., 1993, Tesemma et al.,
shown). The first component was associated with plant 1991). Durum wheat landraces such as Enat sende and
height and ear shape whereas the second component was Nech shemet from North Shoa identified by farmers as
with agronomic characteristics such as days to maturity, having frost tolerance (Kebebew et al., 2001a). Moreover,
grain yield, biological yield and phenotypic characteristics purple seeded wheat matures earlier and has higher
such as ear color and grain color. The third component was tillering capacity than other color types and a good
associated with agronomic traits such as tiller plant-1 and adaptation to water-logged soil conditions in high-altitude
thousand seed weight and the fourth with number of areas (Kebebew et al., 2001b). Monomorphism for awn
kernels spike-1. Clustering separated the varieties into six condition (presence or absence) was also reported for
clusters (data not shown). Israel, one of the ‘oldest’ popular landraces which is similar to our findings, a useful trait for
bread wheat of unknown origin was placed completely tolerance to plant diseases (Tesemma et al., 1991). It was
distinct from the rest of the group. The local variety had the suggested, however, that durum wheat crop improvement
highest thousand seed weight and unique phenotypic would be possible through indirect selection for tiller
characteristics in terms of ear shape and awn condition numbers plant-1 and thousand seed weight or direct
compared to other bread wheat varieties. In Cluster 2 selection for yield per se (Belay et al., 1993). Moreover,
Enkoy and K6295 were grouped together because of their alternative breeding strategies led to the development of
unique red grain color as compared to all bread wheat ‘composites’ with up to 20 to 25% more yield than local
varieties with white to amber color including local bread landraces and 10 to 15% more than modern varieties
wheat varieties (Alemayehu et al., 1999). This is in contrast (Tesemma and Bechere, 1998). The study has shown that
to durum landraces where variable grain color is most the few wheat varieties, particularly the durum wheat
common. ET 13 and Goli had the highest plant height and landraces collected from farmers, were diverse in
were therefore grouped together in Cluster 3 while agronomical and phenotypic characteristics offering greater
Zombolel, another landrace, stood alone in Cluster 5. opportunities for developing germplasm adapted to the
However, the clusters did not match the clustering varied agroecology and diverse end uses and consumer
constructed from the COP values. preferences. This would contribute towards the
The Ethiopian farmers are growing durum wheat for maintenance of genetic diversity on the farm and counter
millennia and the country was recognized as a center of balance the ensuing genetic erosion.
diversity for tetraploid wheats (Demissie and Habtemariam,
1991) while the bread wheat is comparatively of recent
introduction (Gebremariam, 1991). The national bread Conclusion
wheat breeding program has benefited substantially from
the introduced germplasm from the International The Ethiopian highlands are considered the centers of
Agricultural Research Centers (IARCs). As a result, plant diversity of tetraploid wheats where a considerable wealth
breeders have made good achievement in developing of genetic variability and diversity still exists on the farm.
varieties acceptable to farmers at least in favorable The diverse agro-ecology of Ethiopia coupled with a long
production areas. There is substantial increase in bread history of association with the crop under a variety of socio-
wheat area and production in traditionally durum wheat economic and cultural situations led to the evolution of
growing regions of central and northwestern Ethiopia. At highly diverse forms of these crops. Until recently this
present, the high adoption and diffusion rate of modern wealth of genetic diversity has been maintained by
varieties coupled with recurrent drought in traditionally generation of farmers. However, the introduction of modern
durum wheat growing areas of the country are threatening agriculture brought a dramatic shift in wheat production
the existence of landraces and leading to loss of such practices. There was a remarkable increase in the adoption
immense diversity (Bishaw, 2004). Moreover, the of modern bread wheat varieties in predominantly durum
predominance of a few bread wheat varieties calls for wheat growing regions of the country as farmers are
concern in a country where devastating rust epidemics are striving to maximize production and achieve food security
common features of crop production. There seems to be an from diminishing and meager land resources. The wide
urgent desire for appropriate conservation measures to be spread adoption and diffusion of modern bread wheat
undertaken for the durum wheat landraces and at the same varieties could lead to the replacement or displacement of
these valuable genetic resources - the loss of durum measurements showed remarkable variation that existed
landraces. The loss of landraces also leads to loss of both among modern varieties and local landraces that
traditional knowledge in crop improvement and would provide broader opportunities for use in crop
maintenance. It is important to design an innovative and improvement and production. Since different
integrated genetic resources conservation, maintenance, measurements and scales were used to define diversity it
enhancement and utilization strategies and approaches would be difficult to ascertain a set of common indicators
that could meet the food security and livelihoods of farmers and their interrelationships that would satisfy both the
dependent on these crops. It is desirable that the biological scientists and social scientists concerned with
participation of national governments and all stakeholders biodiversity issues. It is imperative that a multidisciplinary
in formulating and targeting the interventions required. approach is undertaken to address the problem and
The national agricultural research systems made a develop a common framework for assessing genetic
spectacular progress and achievement in developing diversity that would enable policy changes required to
modern varieties of bread wheat that meet farmers’ enhance the conservation and utilization of these resources
preferences. In contrast, there is little headway in crops like to the benefit of farmers and the society at large.
durum wheat where landraces still dominate the agricultural This study was not meant to measure wheat diversity per
landscape. Not only was there a lack of success in se or intended to investigate the patterns of diversity from
developing modern varieties, but farmers also rejected the geographic or agroecological context. It was rather an
those varieties released by the national programs and the attempt to look into the agronomic and morphological traits
area under improved varieties is negligible. The Ethiopian diversity of sets of varieties currently used by farmers and
durum wheat production areas are characterized by highly any specific traits that are associated with farmers’
varied microenvironments such as topography, soil type, considerations or preferences for particular group of
soil moisture (water-logging), temperature and frost. In varieties or landraces.
apparent effort to circumvent the failure of conventional
crop improvement program alternative breeding strategy is
suggested for durum wheat in Ethiopia. Therefore, the Conflict of Interest
national agricultural research systems should introduce and
institutionalize participatory approaches as a means of The authors have not declared any conflict of interest.
identifying new varieties that farmers prefer and link this
with formal plant breeding and seed production activities.
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Vol. 9(39), pp. 2964-2970, 25 September, 2014
DOI: 10.5897/AJAR2014.8882
Article Number: D632D8E47548
ISSN 1991-637X
The effect of harvest conditions and drying temperature

on drying kinetics of two popcorn genotypes
Fernanda Machado Baptestini1*, Paulo Cesar Corrêa1, Gabriel Henrique Horta de Oliveira2,
Aline Almeida da Paixão1 and Patrícia Fontes Machado1
1
Departamento de Engenharia Agrícola e Ambiental, Universidade Federal de Viçosa, CEP 36570-000,
Viçosa, MG, Brazil.
2
Instituto Federal de Brasília, Campus Gama. DF 480, Lote 01, Setor de Múltiplas Atividades, Brasília/DF, Brazil.
Received 29 May, 2014; Accepted 10 September, 2014
The present work aimed to assess the effect of the initial moisture content of grains (at harvest),
velocity of the harvester cylinder and air temperature on the diffusion coefficient, as well as to achieve
the activation energy of the drying process of two popcorn cultivars. Grains of popcorn from the
cultivars Zélia and CMS 43 were mechanically and manually harvested and thrashed. The rotations of
the threshing cylinder were fixed at 500, 600 and 700 rpm, with initial moisture contents of 0.235 and
0.175 db. They were dried with drying air temperatures of 40, 50 and 60ºC, until reaching the final
moisture content of 0.137 db. The diffusion coefficient increased with increased air temperature,
presenting average values from 6.345 × 10-11 to 3.075 × 10-13 m2s-1 for the temperature range studied,
depending on the initial moisture content, cultivar and level of mechanical damage. The cultivar CMS 43
(C2) is more resistant to the mechanical damage caused by the threshing cylinder, and the structural
changes caused by it increased the diffusion coefficient. The relation between diffusion coefficient and
temperature can be described by the Arrhenius expression, which presents activation energy for liquid
diffusion in the grains of popcorn from 1.50 to 45.92 kJ mol-1.
Key words: Mechanical damage, initial moisture content, diffusion coefficient.

INTRODUCTION
Popcorn cultivation is increasing throughout the years in traditional corn grain.

several countries, including Brazil, due to the Moisture content reduction is essential in order to
consumption increment of popcorn, especially after diminish the material biological activity. In addition,
microwave use. Furthermore, this culture has some chemical and physical occurs due to drying procedure,
favorable aspects when compared to conventional corn which consequently affects storage of the product. The
grain, such as: High mechanization potential at all moisture content reduction involves heat and mass
production processes; lower susceptibility to plague and transfer processes, which can substantially change the
diseases during plant development. Besides, its grain’s quality.
commercial value is, at least, two times superior to Water transport in agricultural products demands a

Baptestini et al. 2965
Table 1. Harvesting machine characteristics for each cultivar.
Characteristics Dimension
Cylinder diameter 0.35 m
Cylinder width 0.80 m
Concave length 0.31 m
Entrance opening between cylinder and concave (cultivar Zélia) 14.90 mm
Exit opening between cylinder and concave (cultivar Zélia) 7.65 mm
Entrance opening between cylinder and concave (cultivar CMS 43) 17.08 mm
Exit opening between cylinder and concave (cultivar CMS 43) 8.89 mm
driving force, either by adsorption or desorption, that is, a drying process in two popcorn cultivars were
concentration gradient between their surface and the accomplished.
inner part (Botelho, 2009). Although many mechanisms
have been proposed in the available literature, the
primary means of water transportation is liquid diffusion MATERIALS AND METHODS
(Fortes and Okos, 1980; Geankoplis, 1983). Diffusion
occurs in solids with thin structure and in capillaries, Grains of popcorn from the cultivars Zélia and CMS 43 were used in
this work. The planting was performed in the experimental field of
pores and small holes full of steam. However, the the EMBRAPA-Centro Nacional de Pesquisa de Milho e Sorgo,
diffusion theory disregards shrinkage, hardening of the located in Sete Lagoas-MG. The harvest was carried out when
shell and sorption isotherms (Barbosa-Cánovas and maize reached the moisture contents of 0.235 and 0.175 db. The
Veja-Mercado, 2000). hot air drying method at 105 ± 3ºC for 24 h was employed to
The liquid diffusion mechanism is very complex due to determine the moisture content (Brazil, 1992).
the diversity of the chemical composition and physical Harvest and thrashing were performed in two ways: Manually
and with the aid of a harvester machine (pull-type harvester, model
structure of products. The data available in literature “Double Master”, axial flow system), with harvester cylinder
presented very different values, due to the complexity of rotations fixed at 500, 600 and 700 rpm. Internal characteristics of
the products, and the function of the different estimation harvesting machine are presented at Table 1.
methods, type of material, moisture content, drying After thrashing, the samples were manually cleaned and then
process and methodology used. placed into two low-density polyethylene bags, properly sealed and
The effective diffusion coefficient is an important identified, which were put into a refrigerator at 4ºC for 24 h, to
maintain the initial moisture content of the harvest. Then, they were
property in the transportation of water. Its dependence on transferred in styrofoam boxes to the Laboratory of Pre-Processing
temperature is frequently reported in classical literature of Agricultural Products of the Department of Agricultural
(Gely and Giner, 2007; Addo et al., 2006; Goneli et al., Engineering of the Universidade Federal de Viçosa, located in
2007). According to Giner and Mascheroni (2002), the Viçosa-MG, where they were stored in a refrigerator at 4ºC and 80
value of this coefficient also depends on the initial ± 5% of RH, until the beginning of the experiment.
Drying was carried out with the aid of a laboratory dryer (Ethik
moisture content. Besides, Botelho (2009) considers that Technology, model 440/DE), in thin layer, with controlled
the physical integrity of a product is another fact that temperature and air flow. Drying air velocity was maintained
significantly affects this value. constant at 1 m s-1 and monitored by a digital anemometer with
Mechanical damage in grains and seeds during rotating blades. The air flow was provided by an axial fan that
harvest, thrashing and processing are extremely harmful conducted the air to the plenum and from there to three
to their quality, causing breakage, cracks, cuts and individualized chambers with removable trays with screened
bottom. Drying air temperatures of 40, 50 and 60ºC were used and
abrasion, which may reduce their physiological quality measured by a mercury thermometer installed just below the layer
(Araújo et al., 2002). In addition, Goneli et al. (2005) of grains. The temperature and air relative humidity were recorded,
found that the effect of mechanical damage on the with the use of a thermohygrograph (RENE GRAF). It was
physiological quality of seeds of popcorn during storage determined that drying would finish when the samples reached the
depends on the level of damage caused by mechanical pre-established moisture content of 0.137 db. A semi-analytical
impact. balance (Gehaka, model BK 400, Brazil) with precision of ± 0.01 g
was used to monitor drying, and the samples were weighed at
The present work aims to aid the producers and every five-minute interval by retrieving the drying trays from the
companies related to popcorn agribusiness to perform dryer. Weighting procedure lasted about 30 s.
harvest decision due to the impact of different procedures Thin layer drying is defined as the one with thickness of only one
during harvest and the consequences for popcorn quality. grain. The thin layer drying equation, added to representative
Therefore, investigation of the effect of the initial moisture equations of other physical properties specific to the product under
study, forms a set of mathematical relations that help in the
contents of the grains (at harvest), velocity of the calculations and understanding of the thick layer drying process. It
harvester cylinder and drying air temperature on the is considered that a thick layer of grains is composed of successive
diffusion coefficient, as well the activation energy of the overlapped thin layers. For Chittenden and Hustrulid (1966), the
theory used to describe the drying phenomenon may be based on The equivalent radius, used in the liquid diffusion model, is defined
the principle that resistance to moisture transport is concentrated in as the radius of a sphere with the same volume as the grain. It is
the surface of grains, according to the following differential determined by the measurement of the three orthogonal axes
equation: (length, width and thickness), as proposed by Mohsenin (1986), in
fifteen grains, with the aid of a digital caliper. The volume of each
dU grain, considered a spheroid, was achieved by the expression:
 k (U  U e )
dt (1)
π  abc 
Where U and Ue are the moisture content of the product for a Vg =
certain time and the equilibrium moisture content (kg/kg), 6 (7)
respectively; K is the drying constant (s-1); t is the drying time (s).
Where a is the largest grain axis, mm; b is the average grain axis,
By integrating this equation between the U0 limits in the beginning mm; c is the smallest grain axis.
of the process, and Ut at any time of drying, t, we have:
The dependence of effective moisture diffusivity (Def) on drying
Ut Ue temperature has been shown to follow an Arrhenius relationship
 R U  e x p (  k t)
U0 Ue (2) (Bai et al., 2013; Xiao et al., 2012) as shown in Equation (8).
Where RU is the humidity ratio, dimensionless; U0 is the moisture  E 

content of the product at time zero (kg/kg); t is the drying time (s). Def = D0exp   a 
 RTabs  (8)
The equilibrium moisture content of popcorn, for the conditions of
temperature and drying air relative humidity, was calculated by the Where D0 is the pre-exponential factor, m2 s-1; Ea is the activation
Sigma-Copace equation (Corrêa et al., 1998). energy, kJ mol-1; R is the universal gas constant, kJ mol-1 K-1; Tabs is
the absolute temperature, K.
U e  exp( a  bT  c exp(UR)) (3)
Where T is the drying air temperature, ºC; UR is the drying air RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
relative humidity, decimal; a, b and c are the specific parameter of
the product (a = 1.2658, b = 0.0053 and c = 0.7879). Table 2 shows the values of the diffusion coefficient,
using the initial equivalent radius of popcorn, related to
According to Brooker et al. (1992), in the liquid diffusion theory, the the cultivars, initial moisture contents of the product at
second Law of Fick has been used to establish water diffusion
according to the concentration gradient. harvest, velocity of the harvester cylinder and drying air
temperature.
U   U  The analysis of the results demonstrates that the
  Def  diffusion coefficient increased with increased drying air
t x  x  (4)
temperature. It agrees with several researchers (Goneli
Where Def is the liquid diffusion coefficient, m2 s-1; x is the distance et al., 2007; Côrrea et al., 2006a; Campos et al., 2009)
from a reference point, m. and suggests that, for lower temperatures, popcorn
grains offer more internal resistance to water transport,
The variation of the moisture content according to the time of which leads to lower diffusion coefficients. Thus,
drying, for homogenous materials with constant diffusion
coefficients, is represented by the following equation:
increased drying air temperature indicates higher
intensity of the phenomenon of water transport from the
U   2U c U  inner part to the periphery of the grain. Campos et al.
 D ef    (2009) affirm that water viscosity decreases with
t  r
2
r r  (5)
increased temperature. Since it is a measure of
resistance of the fluid to flow, variations of this property
Where r is the radial distance or thickness, m; c is 0 for plane
bodies, 1 for cylindrical bodies and 2 for spherical bodies. result in changes in water diffusion in the capillaries of
grains, thus favoring the movement of this fluid in the
Brooker et al. (1992) present the following analytical solution for the product. Similarly, the level of molecular vibrations of
spherical geometric shape: water molecules is also intensified, which contributes for
a more efficient diffusion.
Ut Ue 6  1  n2 2 Def t  32  The values of diffusion coefficient ranged from 0.30756
RU    exp    to 63.45711 × 10-12 m2 s-1. Xiao et al. (2010a) found this
U0 Ue  2 n1 n2  9  R  (6) parameter values from 1.82 to 5.84 × 10−10 m s−2 for
grapes whilst Xiao et al. (2010b) reported values from
Where n is the number of terms; R is the equivalent radius, m. 0.265 to 1.052 × 10−9 m2s-1 for carrot cubes. These
different values can be explained by differences in the
The diffusion coefficient was achieved by the Equation (6). The
analytical solution of this equation is presented as an infinite series chemical composition, physical structure, and geometry
and the finite number of terms (n) in the truncation can determine of the products, in addition of different drying methods.
the accuracy of the results. It can be observed that, for the initial moisture content
Table 2. Diffusion coefficient using the initial equivalent radius of two popcorn cultivars, Zélia and CMS 43, moisture content of
the product at harvest, velocity of the harvester cylinder and drying air temperature.
Combinations* Diffusion coefficient ×10-12(m2 s-1) Combinations* Diffusion coefficient ×10-12(m2 s-1)
C1U1MT1 0.55217 C2U1MT1 61.28197
C1U1MT2 0.71859 C2U1MT2 61.60351
C1U1MT3 1.02783 C2U1MT3 63.45711
C1U1V1T1 0.73437 C2U1V1T1 0.71990
C1U1V1T2 0.90948 C2U1V1T2 0.91302
C1U1V1T3 1.31225 C2U1V1T3 1.31119
C1U1V2T1 0.64649 C2U1V2T1 0.69295
C1U1V2T2 0.83726 C2U1V2T2 0.95145
C1U1V2T3 1.10687 C2U1V2T3 1.36117
C1U1V3T1 0.44876 C2U1V3T1 0.78911
C1U1V3T2 0.94171 C2U1V3T2 1.03465
C1U1V3T3 1.28857 C2U1V3T3 1.35387
C1U2MT1 0.30756 C2U2MT1 0.38353
C1U2MT2 0.44608 C2U2MT2 0.49308
C1U2MT3 0.60189 C2U2MT3 0.72197
C1U2V1T1 0.37389 C2U2V1T1 0.51966
C1U2V1T2 0.44885 C2U2V1T2 0.72273
C1U2V1T3 0.63210 C2U2V1T3 1.05531
C1U2V2T1 0.33539 C2U2V2T1 0.47191
C1U2V2T2 0.49218 C2U2V2T2 0.68524
C1U2V2T3 0.55343 C2U2V2T3 0.97063
C1U2V3T1 0.44876 C2U2V3T1 0.53754
C1U2V3T2 0.59906 C2U2V3T2 0.81223
C1U2V3T3 0.80104 C2U2V3T3 1.04777
* C1 and C2: Cultivars Zélia and CMS 43, respectively; U1 and U2: Initial moisture content of the product at harvest, 0.235 and 0.175
(d.b.), respectively; M: Manual harvest and thrashing; V1, V2 and V3: Mechanical harvest and thrashing with velocity of the harvester
cylinder of 500, 600 and 700 rpm, respectively; T1, T2, T3: drying air temperature (40, 50 and 60°C), respectively.
(U1), the diffusion was higher than (U2), since the higher configuration, bringing together the cells previously apart
the water concentration gradient between the surface and from each other.
the inner part of a product, the higher the diffusion. This As an example, Figure 1 presents the graphic of
fact was also observed by Giner and Mascheroni (2002), correspondence among the values observed and
who reported increased diffusion coefficient for initial estimated according to humidity for the combination
moisture content values of 0.2694; 0.2396; 0.2133 and C1U1V1. This figure shows the appropriate adjustment of
0.1891 db for wheat grains. Besides, on average, the the moisture diffusion model for the kinetic description of
cultivar CMS 43 (C2) is the most resistant to the popcorn grain drying.
mechanical damage of the cylinder, because it presented The dependence of the diffusion coefficient on drying
lower values for diffusion coefficient. air temperature has been satisfactorily described by the
Higher values of diffusion coefficient were found for Arrhenius equation. Figure 2 shows the Arrhenius
elevated thrashing velocity (higher mechanical damage), representation for the diffusion coefficients according to
on average, when compared to the values of this the drying air temperatures for the combination C1U1V1.
parameter for grains with lower thrashing velocity (lower The slope of the curve of the Arrhenius representation
mechanical damage). The same phenomenon was provides the Ea/R relation, while its intersection with the
observed by Botelho (2009), while studying water Y-axis indicates the value of D0. According to Sharma and
absorption by maize with different levels of mechanical Prasad (2004), thermodynamically, the activation energy
damage, and by Campos et al. (2009), when they represents the energy necessary for the disruption of the
assessed coffee grain drying at different stages of wet barrier that the water molecules face during the drying
processing. However, it did not occur for the combination process, when they migrate from the interior to the
C2U1M because a preferential way for gas exchange surface of the product, and the lower it is, the higher the
with the environment may have been formed, while water diffusivity in the product. Reduced activation energy
mechanical damage caused changes in the intracellular of a process causes increased average energy of the
40°C
50°C
60°C
Figure 1. Observed and estimated values of humidity for the combination

C1U1V1.
Figure 2. Arrhenius representation for the diffusion coefficients according to the

drying air temperatures for the combination C1U1V1.
molecules that compose it. The values of activation fissures and cracks, caused by the thrasher cylinder,
energy and pre-exponential factor found in this work which overlaps the moisture content factor.
(Table 3) corroborate those found in literature (Campos et Values of activation energy ranged from 1.50 to 45.92
al., 2009). kJ mol-1 with median value of 26.79 kJ mol-1.
It is observed that, on average, for the cultivar Zélia Researchers reported different values of activation
(C1), the higher the moisture content, the lower the energy, such as 67.29 and 20.17 kJ mol-1, respectively by
activation energy needed, as found by Xiao et al. (2012). Xiao et al. (2010a) and Xiao et al. (2010b). This trend
However, for the cultivar CMS 43 (C2), the same trend is indicates the need of the study of different agricultural
not observed, since it presents higher resistance to the products, due to variety of physical and chemical
impacts and abrasive mechanical efforts that generate properties, which interferes at the drying process.
Table 3. Calculated values of the activation energy and pre-exponential factor of water
diffusion in popcorn grains for the temperature range under study.
Combinations* Activation energy (kJ mol-1) Pre-exponential factor (m2 s-1)

C1U1M 26.90 2.88
C1U1V1 26.00 2.91
C1U1V2 23.31 2.95
C1U1V3 45.92 2.37
C1U2M 29.14 2.87
C1U2V1 26.69 2.99
C1U2V2 21.83 3.01
C1U2V3 25.12 2.93
C2U1M 1.50 3.13
C2U1V1 25.94 2.89
C2U1V2 29.25 2.82
C2U1V3 23.41 2.94
C2U2M 27.37 2.90
C2U2V1 30.69 2.80
C2U2V2 31.28 2.79
C2U2V3 29.00 2.84
*C1 and C2: Cultivars Zélia and CMS 43, respectively; U1 and U2: Initial moisture content of the
product at harvest, 0.235 and 0.175 (d.b.), respectively; M: Manual harvest and thrashing; V1, V2
and V3: Mechanical harvest and thrashing with thrasher cylinder velocity of 500, 600 and 700 rpm,
respectively.
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