Electromagnetic Testing-ASNT Level III S PDF

Electromagnetic Testing
Study Guide Electromagnetic Testing Part 1

My ASNT Level III
Pre-Exam Preparatory
Self Study Notes
17th April 2015
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

E&P Applications

E&P Applications

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Fion Zhang at Shanghai
17th April 2015
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Chapter 1
Principles of Eddy Current Testing

EDDY CURRENT an Overview
Description of Eddy Current Detectors
Coil configurations
Appropriate coil selection is the most important part of solving an eddy current application, no instrument can
achieve much if it doesn’t get the right signals from the probe.
Coil designs can be split into three main groups:
1. Surface probes used mostly with the probe axis normal to the surface, in addition to the basic ‘pancake’
coil this includes pencil probes and special-purpose surface probes such as those used inside a fastener
hole.
2. Encircling coils are normally used for in-line inspection of round products, The product to be tested is
inserted though a circular coil.
3. ID probes are normally used for in-service inspection of heat exchangers. The probe is inserted into the
tube. Normally ID probes are wound with the coil axis along the centre of the tube.
Absolute probes
These categories are not exhaustive and there are obviously overlaps, for example between non-circumferential wound ID probes
and internal surface probes. To this point we have only discussed eddy current probes consisting of a single coil. These are
commonly used in many applications and are commonly known as absolute probes because they give an ‘absolute’ value of the
condition at the test point. Absolute probes are very good for metal sorting and detection of cracks in many situations, however
they are sensitive also to material variations, temperature changes etc.
Differential’ probe
Another commonly used probe type is the ‘differential’ probe this has two sensing elements looking at different areas of the
material being tested. The instrument responds to the difference between the eddy current conditions at the two points. Differential
probes are particularly good for detection of small defects, and are relatively unaffected by lift-off (although the sensitivity is
reduced in just the same way), temperature changes and external interference. (assuming the instrument circuitry operates in a
"balanced“ configuration)
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://www.eng.morgan.edu/~hubert/IEGR470/eddycurrent.html

Note the characteristic "figure of eight for differential probe" response as first one probe element, then the other,
move over the defect. In general the closer the element spacing the wider the "loop" in the signal. Lift-off should
be cancelled out assuming that the probe is perfectly balanced, but there will still be a "wobble" response as
the probe is moved and tilted slightly.
Reflection or driver pick-up probes have a primary winding driven from the oscillator and one or more
sensor windings connected to the measurement circuit. Depending on the configuration of the sensor windings
reflection probes may give response equivalent to either an absolute or differential probe. The two coils
(differential or absolute plus balancing coil) form the ‘legs’ of a bridge. When the bridge is balanced the
measured voltage will be zero. Any change in the condition of either coil will result in an unbalanced bridge, the
degree of imbalance corresponds to the change in coil impedance.
The diagram shows a typical response from a Driver pick-up: As can be seen the essential
differential probe. elements are the same for a driver pick-up
configuration as for a bridge, the necessary
changes can be achieved by simple switching
or probe connection changes

Tangential Probe

Orthogonal Probe

Electromagnetic Testing Advantages
The following characteristics of the method can be used to advantage :
 it can be used without making physical contact with the product ;
 it does not need a coupling medium such as water ;
 it is capable of being used at high throughput speeds.
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang EN 12084 : 2001

Factors Affecting Eddy Current Responses
The basic parameters which influence the measured quantity are all of the
following properties of the product to be tested, alone or in combination :
 the conductivity of the material ;
 the magnetic permeability of the material ; (magnetic factor)
 the size and geometry of the product to be tested ; (magnetic factor)
 the geometry between the eddy current probe and the product to be tested.
(magnetic factor)

Factors Affecting Eddy Current Response
Material conductivity
The conductivity of a material has a very direct effect on the eddy current flow: the greater the conductivity of a
material the greater the flow of eddy currents on the surface. Conductivity is often measured by an eddy current
technique, and inferences can then be drawn about the different factors affecting conductivity, such as material
composition, heat treatment, work hardening etc.
Permeability
This may be described as the ease with which a material can be magnetised. For non-ferrous metals such as
copper, brass, aluminum etc., and for austenitic stainless steels the permeability is the same as that of ‘free
space’, i.e. the relative permeability (μr) is one. For ferrous metals however the value of μr may be several
hundred, and this has a very significant influence on the eddy current response, in addition it is not uncommon
for the permeability to vary greatly within a metal part due to localised stresses, heating effects etc.
Frequency
As we will discuss, eddy current response is greatly affected by the test frequency chosen, fortunately this is
one property we can control.
Geometry
In a real part, for example one which is not flat or of infinite size, geometrical features such as curvature, edges,
grooves etc. will exist and will effect the eddy current response. Test techniques must recognise this, for
example in testing an edge for cracks the probe will normally be moved along parallel to the edge so that small
changes may be easily seen. Where the material thickness is less than the effective depth of penetration (see
below) this will also effect the eddy current response

Proximity / Lift-off
The closer a probe coil is to the surface the greater will be the effect on that coil. This has two main effects:
The "lift-off" signal as the probe is moved on and off the surface. A reduction in sensitivity as the coil to product
spacing increases.
Depth of penetration
The eddy current density, and thus the strength of the response from a flaw, is greatest on the surface of the
metal being tested and declines with depth. It is mathematically convenient to define the "standard depth of
penetration" where the eddy current is 1/e (37%) of its surface value. The standard depth of penetration in mm
is given by the formula:
Where:
δ is standard depth in mm
ρ is resistivity in μΩ.cm
f is frequency in Hz
μr is relative permeability

from this it can be seen that depth of penetration:
1. Decreases with an increase in frequency
2. Decreases with an increase in conductivity
3. Decreases with an increase in permeability: this can be very significant penetration into ferrous materials at
practical frequencies is very small.
δ δ
The graph above shows the effect of frequency on standard depth of penetration.
It is also common to talk about the "effective depth of penetration" usually defined as three times the standard
depth, where eddy current density has fallen to around 3% (5%?) of its surface value. This is the depth at
which there is considered to be no influence on the eddy current field.

The Impedance Plane
Eddy current responses of a single coil may be conveniently described by reference to the "impedance plane".
This is a graphical representation of the complex probe impedance where the abscissa (X value) represents the
resistance and the ordinate (Y value) represents the inductive reactance.

The Impedance Plane
http://www.eng.morgan.edu/~hubert/IEGR470/eddycurrent.html
Note that, while the general form of the impedance plane remains the same, the details are unique for a
particular probe and frequency. The display of a typical CRT eddy current instrument represents a ‘window’ into
the impedance plane, which can be rotated and "zoomed" to suit the needs of the application. For example in
the above impedance plane diagram a rotated detail of the "probe on aluminum" area would appear as below:
This shows the display when moving over a series of simulated cracks of varying depths. Note that in the
example shown both the amplitude and the phase of response from the different sized cracks varies.
Reliability
Eddy currents are often generated in transformers and lead to power losses. To combat this, thin, laminated
strips of metal are used in the construction of power transformers, rather than making the transformer out of
one solid piece of metal. Insulating glue, which confines the eddy currents to the strips, separates the thin strips.
This reduces the eddy currents, thus reducing the power loss. Beside that, Eddy-Current Detectors are very
reliable as far as their industrial usage. They are so reliable that nuclear plants are using robots to the tests,
instead of risking real human beings.

Robotic

Robotic

Measurement Techniques (EN!)
a) Absolute measurement.
The measurement of the deviation from a fixed reference point. The reference point is defined by a calibration
procedure and can be generated by a reference voltage or coi l. This technique can be used for sorting the
product into classes based on physical properties such as hardness, dimensions or chemical composition. It
can also be used for the identification of continuous or gradually changing discontinuities.
b) Comparative measurement.
The subtraction of two measurements, one of which is taken as a reference. This technique is normally used to
sort the product into classes.
c) Differential measurement.
The subtraction of two measurements made at a constant distance between the measurement locations and on
the same scanning path. This measurement technique reduces the background noise due to slow variations
in the product to be tested. (?)
d) Double differential measurement.

The subtraction of two differential measurements. This measurement technique provides high-pass filtering of a
differential measurement independent of the relative speed between the probe and the product to be tested.
e) Pseudo differential measurements

The subtraction of two measurements made at a constant distance between the measurement locations.

Historical Background
Before discussing the principles of eddy current testing, it seems appropriate to briefly discuss the concept of
magnetism and electromagnetism that serve as the foundation for this study. In the period from 1775 to 1900,
scientific experimenters Andre Marie Ampere, Françios Arago, Charles Augustin coulomb, Michael Faraday,
Lord William Thomson Kelvin, James Clerk Maxwell and Hans Christian Oersted had investigated and
cataloged most of what is known about magnetism and electromagnetism. Arago discovered that the oscillation
of a magnet was rapidly damped when a nonmagnetic conductor disk was placed near the magnet. He also
observed that by rotating the disk, the magnet was attracted to the disk. In effect, Arago had introduced a
varying magnetic field into the metallic disk causing eddy currents to flow in the disk. This produced a
secondary magnetic field in the disk that affected the magnet. Arago's simple model is a basis for many
automobile speedometers used today. This experiment can be modeled as shown in Figure 1.1.
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://pegna.vialattea.net/2Arago_Disk.htm

Figure 1.1 Arago’s Experiment

Arago’s Disk Experiment
Arago discovered that the oscillation of a magnet was rapidly damped when a nonmagnetic conducting disk was placed near the
magnet. He also observed that by rotating the disk, the magnet was attracted to the disk. In effect, Arago had introduced a varying
magnetic field into the metallic disk causing eddy currents to flow in the disk. This produced a secondary magnetic field in the disk
that affected the magnet. Arago's simple model is a basis for many automobile speedometers used today.
■ https://www.youtube.com/embed/sChcqdkcLGE
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sChcqdkcLGE

Oersted discovered the presence of a magnetic field around a current carrying conductor and
observed magnetic field developed in a perpendicular plane to the direction of current flow in a
wire. Ampere observed that equal and opposite currents flowing in adjacent conductors cancelled
this magnetic effect. Ampere's observation is used in differential coil applications and to
manufacture non inductive precision resistor. Faraday's first experiments investigated induced
currents by the relative motion of magnet and a coil (Figure 1.2). Faraday's major contribution
was the discovery of electromagnetic induction. His work can be summarized by the example
shown in Figure 1.3.
A coil "A" is connected to a battery through a switch, "S", A second coil, B, connected to a
voltmeter is near by. When switch S is closed it produces a current in coil A in the direction
shown (a). A momentary current is also induced in coil in direction (b) opposite to the current
flow in coil A. If S is now opened, a momentary current will appear in coil B having the direction
of (c). In each case current flows in coil B only while the current in coil A is changing.

Figure 1.2: Induced current with coil and magnet

Figure 1.3: Induced current electromagnetic technique
A coil "A" is connected to a battery through a switch, "S", A second coil, B, connected to a voltmeter is near by.
When switch S is closed it produces a current in coil A in the direction shown (a). A momentary current is also
induced in coil in direction (b) opposite to the current flow in coil A. If S is now opened, a momentary current
will appear in coil B having the direction of (c). In each case current flows in coil B only while the current in coil
A is changing.

Electromagnetic induction is the production of an electromotive force across a conductor when it is
exposed to a varying magnetic field. It is described mathematically by Faraday's law of induction, named after Michael Faraday
who is generally credited with the discovery of induction in 1831.
Electromagnetic induction was first discovered by Michael Faraday, who made his discovery public in 1831. It was discovered
independently by Joseph Henry in 1832.
In Faraday's first experimental demonstration (August 29, 1831), he wrapped two wires around opposite sides of an iron ring or
"torus" (an arrangement similar to a modern toroidal transformer). Based on his assessment of recently discovered properties of
electromagnets, he expected that when current started to flow in one wire, a sort of wave would travel through the ring and cause
some electrical effect on the opposite side. He plugged one wire into a galvanometer, and watched it as he connected the other
wire to a battery. Indeed, he saw a transient current (which he called a "wave of electricity") when he connected the wire to the
battery, and another when he disconnected it. This induction was due to the change in magnetic flux that occurred when the
battery was connected and disconnected. Within two months, Faraday found several other manifestations of electromagnetic
induction. For example, he saw transient currents when he quickly slid a bar magnet in and out of a coil of wires, and he
generated a steady (DC) current by rotating a copper disk near the bar magnet with a sliding electrical lead ("Faraday's disk").
Faraday explained electromagnetic induction using a concept he called lines of force. However, scientists at the time widely
rejected his theoretical ideas, mainly because they were not formulated mathematically. An exception was Maxwell, who used
Faraday's ideas as the basis of his quantitative electromagnetic theory. In Maxwell's model, the time varying aspect of
electromagnetic induction is expressed as a differential equation which Oliver Heaviside referred to as Faraday's law even though
it is slightly different from Faraday's original formulation and does not describe motional EMF. Heaviside's version (see Maxwell–
Faraday equation below) is the form recognized today in the group of equations known as Maxwell's equations.
Heinrich Lenz formulated the law named after him in 1834, to describe the "flux through the circuit". Lenz's law gives the direction
of the induced EMF and current resulting from electromagnetic induction (elaborated upon in the examples below).
Following the understanding brought by these laws, many kinds of device employing magnetic induction have been invented.
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_induction

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homopolar_generator
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Faraday's Law - Any change in the magnetic environment of a coil of wire will
cause a voltage (emf) to be "induced" in the coil. No matter how the change is
produced, the voltage will be generated. The change could be produced by
changing the magnetic field strength, moving a magnet toward or away from
the coil, moving the coil into or out of the magnetic field, rotating the coil
relative to the magnet, etc. Faraday's law is a fundamental relationship which
comes from Maxwell's equations. It serves as a summary of the ways a
voltage (or emf) may be generated by a changing magnetic environment. The
induced emf in a coil is equal to the negative of the rate of change of
magnetic flux times the number of turns in the coil. It involves the interaction
of charge with magnetic field.
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electric/farlaw.html

The law of physics describing the process of electromagnetic induction is known as Faraday's law of induction
and the most widespread version of this law states that the induced electromotive force in any closed circuit is
equal to the rate of change of the magnetic flux enclosed by the circuit. Or mathematically,
ε = dфB/ dt
where ε (epsilon) is the electromotive force (EMF) and ΦB (Φ= BA) is the magnetic flux. The direction of the
electromotive force is given by Lenz's law. This version of Faraday's law strictly holds only when the closed
circuit is a loop of infinitely thin wire, and is invalid in some other circumstances. A different version, the
Maxwell–Faraday equation (discussed below), is valid in all circumstances. For a tightly wound coil of wire,
composed of N identical turns, each with the same magnetic flux going through them, the resulting EMF is
given by
ε = -N dфB/ dt
Faraday's law of induction makes use of the magnetic flux ΦB through a hypothetical surface Σ whose
boundary is a wire loop. Since the wire loop may be moving, we write Σ(t) for the surface. The magnetic flux is
defined by a surface integral:
фB = ∫Σ(t) B(r,t)∙dA
where dA is an element of surface area of the moving surface Σ(t), B is the magnetic field, and B·dA is a vector
dot product (the infinitesimal amount of magnetic flux). In more visual terms, the magnetic flux through the wire
loop is proportional to the number of magnetic flux lines that pass through the loop.

Lenz's Law
When an emf is generated by a change in magnetic flux according to Faraday's Law, the polarity of the induced
emf is such that it produces a current whose magnetic field opposes the change which produces it. The
induced magnetic field inside any loop of wire always acts to keep the magnetic flux in the loop constant. In the
examples below, if the B field is increasing, the induced field acts in opposition to it. If it is decreasing, the
induced field acts in the direction of the applied field to try to keep it constant.

Magnetic Force
The magnetic field B is defined from the Lorentz Force Law, and specifically from the magnetic force on a moving charge:
The implications of this expression include:

1. The force is perpendicular to both the velocity v of the charge q and the magnetic field B.
2. The magnitude of the force is F = q∙v∙B sin θ where θ is the angle < 180 degrees between the velocity and the magnetic field.
This implies that the magnetic force on a stationary charge or a charge moving parallel to the magnetic field is zero.
3. The direction of the force is given by the right hand rule. The force relationship above is in the form of a vector product.
When the magnetic force relationship is applied to a current-carrying wire, the right-hand rule may be used to determine the
direction of force on the wire. From the force relationship above it can be deduced that the units of magnetic field are Newton
seconds /(Coulomb meter) or Newtons per Ampere meter. This unit is named the Tesla. It is a large unit, and the smaller unit
Gauss is used for small fields like the Earth's magnetic field. A Tesla is 10,000 Gauss. The Earth's magnetic field at the surface is
on the order of half a Gauss

Lorentz force
In physics, particularly electromagnetism, the Lorentz force is the combination of electric and magnetic force on
a point charge due to electromagnetic fields. If a particle of charge q moves with velocity v in the presence of
an electric field E and a magnetic field B, then it will experience a force
F = - q∙ [ E + (v x B) ]
(in SI units). Variations on this basic formula describe the magnetic force on a current-carrying wire (sometimes
called Laplace force), the electromotive force in a wire loop moving through a magnetic field (an aspect of
Faraday's law of induction), and the force on a charged particle which might be traveling near the speed of light
(relativistic form of the Lorentz force).
The first derivation of the Lorentz force is commonly attributed to Oliver Heaviside in 1889, although other
historians suggest an earlier origin in an 1865 paper by James Clerk Maxwell. Hendrik Lorentz derived it a few
years after Heaviside.
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lorentz_force

Generation of Eddy Currents
When a conductor is place in the area
influence by the primary field, eddy current is
induced in the conductor, see Fig. 1.4.
Following Lenz’s law, the induced eddy
current IE will produce a secondary field фE
that oppose the фP. The magnitude of фE is
proportional to IE.
The test objet, conductor B’s characteristic
like, material conductivity, permeability and
geometry will affect the IE, this in turn cause
variation in фE. The variation in фE is reflected
in conductor CA by фE influences on фp. The
variations are recorded in media like meter,
CRT, digital read out or chart. The
Ip = Primary Current
Фp =Primary magnetic flux
ФE = Secondary Eddy current magnetic flux
IE = Secondary Eddy current
Figure 1.4: Induced current relationships

Generation of Eddy Currents
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Factors Affecting Inductance
There are four basic factors of inductor construction determining the amount
of inductance created. These factors all dictate inductance by affecting how
much magnetic field flux will develop for a given amount of magnetic field
force (current through the inductor's wire coil):
NUMBER OF WIRE WRAPS, OR "TURNS" IN THE COIL: All other factors
being equal, a greater number of turns of wire in the coil results in greater
inductance; fewer turns of wire in the coil results in less inductance.
Explanation: More turns of wire means that the coil will generate a greater
amount of magnetic field force (measured in amp-turns!), for a given amount
of coil current. L ∝ N2
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/vol_1/chpt_15/3.html

COIL AREA: All other factors being equal, greater coil area (as measured
looking lengthwise through the coil, at the cross-section of the core) results in
greater inductance; less coil area results in less inductance.
Explanation: Greater coil area presents less opposition to the formation of

magnetic field flux, for a given amount of field force (amp-turns). L ∝ A

COIL LENGTH: All other factors being equal, the longer the coil's length, the
less inductance; the shorter the coil's length, the greater the inductance.
Explanation: A longer path for the magnetic field flux to take results in more
opposition to the formation of that flux for any given amount of field force
(amp-turns). L ∝ (l)-1
COIL LENGTH
COIL LENGTH
L ∝ (l)-1 L ∝ (l)-1

CORE MATERIAL: All other factors being equal, the greater the magnetic
permeability of the core which the coil is wrapped around, the greater the
inductance; the less the permeability of the core, the less the inductance.
Explanation: A core material with greater magnetic permeability results in

greater magnetic field flux for any given amount of field force (amp-turns).
L∝μ
μ0 = 4π x 10-7 H.m-1 μr = 600, μiron = 600 x μ0

μ0 = 4π x 10-7 H.m-1

Coil Inductance L
An approximation of inductance L, for any coil of wire can be found with this formula: The electromagnetic field
produced about an unloaded test coil can be described as decreasing in intensity with distance from the coil
and also varying across the coil's cross section. The field is most intense near the coil's surface. The field
produced about this coil is directly proportiona1 to the magnitude of applied current, rate of change of current or
frequency and the coil parameters. Coil parameters inc1ude inductance, diameter, length， thickness, number
of turns of wire and core material.
L = μr• (N2 x A /l) • 1.26 x 10-6 Henry
μ0 = 4π x 10-7 H.m-1 or 1.26 x 10-6 H.m-1

EMF = L di/dt Volt
Where:
L= inductance in Henry H
N = Numbers of turn in coil wire (straight wire N=1)
μr = relative permeability
l = average length of coil in m
A = area of coil (not wire area?) in m2
μo = relative permeability in air 4π x 10-7 H.m-1 or 1.26 x 10-6 H.m-1

Coil Inductance L

Note the direction of the primary current (Ip) and the resultant eddy current (IE).
IE extends some distance into the test object. Another important observation
is that IE is generated in the same plane in which the coil is wound. Figure 1.6
emphasizes this point with a loop coil surrounding a cylindrical test object (4).
Important observation is that

IE is generated in the same
plane in which the coil is
wound.
Figure 1.6 Induction current flow in a cylindrical part.

Note the direction of the primary current (Ip) and the resultant eddy current (IE).
IE extends some distance into the test object. Another important observation
is that IE is generated in the same plane in which the coil is wound. Figure 1.6
emphasizes this point with a loop coil surrounding a cylindrical test object (4).
Important observation is that

IE is generated in the same
plane in which the coil is
wound & in opposite direction
of Ip
Figure 1.6 Induction current flow in a cylindrical part.

Generation of Eddy Current
With a primary current 1p flowing through the coil, a primarr electromagnetic
field фp is produced about the coil. When this excited test coil is placed on an
electrically conductive test object, eddy currents IE will be generated in that
test object Figure 1.5 illustrates this concept.
Figure 1.5 Generation of eddy current IE in a test object

It must be understood that this formula yields approximate figures only. One
reason for this is the fact that permeability changes as the field intensity
varies (remember the nonlinear "B/H" curves for different materials).
Obviously, if permeability (µ) in the equation is unstable, then the inductance
(L) will also be unstable to some degree as the current through the coil
changes in magnitude. If the hysteresis of the core material is significant, this
will also have strange effects on the inductance of the coil. Inductor designers
try to minimize these effects by designing the core in such a way that its flux
density never approaches saturation levels, and so the inductor operates in a
more linear portion of the B/H curve.
If an inductor is designed so that any one of these factors may be varied at
will, its inductance will correspondingly vary. Variable inductors are usually
made by providing a way to vary the number of wire turns in use at any given
time, or by varying the core material (a sliding core that can be moved in and
out of the coil). An example of the former design is shown in this photograph:

Permeability changes as the field intensity varies

(remember the nonlinear "B/H" curves for different
materials).
Figure 1: This unit uses sliding copper contacts to tap into the coil at different points along its
length. The unit shown happens to be an air-core inductor used in early radio work.
Figure 2: A fixed-value inductor is shown in the next photograph, another antique air-core unit
built for radios. The connection terminals can be seen at the bottom, as well as the few turns of
relatively thick wire:
Figure 3: Here is another inductor (of greater inductance value), also intended for radio
applications. Its wire coil is wound around a white ceramic tube for greater rigidity:
Figure 4: The two inductors on this circuit board are labeled L1 and L2, and they are located to
the right-center of the board. Two nearby components are R3 (a resistor) and C16 (a capacitor).
These inductors are called "toroidal" because their wire coils are wound around donut-shaped
("torus") cores.
Figure 5: Like resistors and capacitors, inductors can be packaged as "surface mount devices"
as well. The following photograph shows just how small an inductor can be when packaged as
such: A pair of inductors can be seen on this circuit board, to the right and center, appearing as
small black chips with the number "100" printed on both. The upper inductor's label can be seen
printed on the green circuit board as L5. Of course these inductors are very small in inductance
value, but it demonstrates just how tiny they can be manufactured to meet certain circuit design
needs.

A Dual1:
Figure Variable inductors
This unit uses sliding copper contacts to tap into the coil at different points along its length. The
unit shown happens to be an air-core inductor used in early radio work.

Figure 2: A fixed-value inductor is shown in the next photograph, another antique air-core unit built for
radios. The connection terminals can be seen at the bottom, as well as the few turns of relatively thick wire:

Figure 3: Here is another inductor (of greater inductance value), also intended for radio applications. Its
wire coil is wound around a white ceramic tube for greater rigidity:

Figure 4: The two inductors
on this circuit board are labeled
L1 and L2, and they are located
to the right-center of the board.
Two nearby components are
R3 (a resistor) and C16 (a
capacitor). These inductors are
called "toroidal" because their
wire coils are wound around
donut-shaped ("torus") cores.

Figure 4: The two inductors
on this circuit board are labeled
L1 and L2, and they are located
to the right-center of the board.
Two nearby components are
R3 (a resistor) and C16 (a
capacitor). These inductors are
called "toroidal" because their
wire coils are wound around
donut-shaped ("torus") cores.

Figure 5: Like resistors and capacitors, inductors can be packaged as "surface mount devices" as well. The following
photograph shows just how small an inductor can be when packaged as such: A pair of inductors can be seen on this circuit board,
to the right and center, appearing as small black chips with the number "100" printed on both. The upper inductor's label can be
seen printed on the green circuit board as L5. Of course these inductors are very small in inductance value, but it demonstrates
just how tiny they can be manufactured to meet certain circuit design needs.

Grundig radio satellit 750
■ https://www.youtube.com/embed/yD7WAcSwz8o
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://www.universal-radio.com/catalog/portable/0750.html

Phasor Vector Diagram of Coil Voltage
A more precise method of describing the relationships of magnetic flux, voltage and current is the
phase vector diagram or phasor diagrams (4). Figure 1.7 compares the electromagnetic events
associated with an unloaded test coil and what happens when that same coil is placed on a
nonferromagnetic test object. The components of phasor diagrams are as follows:
Fig.17(b)
Ep = Primary coil voltage
I = Exciting current (Primary coil current)
Фp = Primary flux
Фs = Secondary flux
Fig.17(b)
Ep = Primary coil voltage
I = Exciting current (Primary coil current)
Фp = Primary flux
Фs = Secondary flux
Es = Secondary voltage
ET= Total voltage
ФT = Total flux

Figure 1.7: Phasor Diagram of Coil Voltage (?)
In Figure 1.7(a) the current (I) and primary magnetic Figure 1.7(b) represents the action of placing the coil on a
flux (фp) are plotted in phase. The primary voltage (Ep) nonferromagnetic test object Observing the figure, one can see by
is shown separated by 90 electrical degrees. The vectorial addition of Ep and Es that a new coil voltage (ET) is arrived
secondary magnetic flux (фs) is plotted at zero at for the loaded condition. The primary magnetic flux фp and
because without a test object no secondary flux exists. secondary magnetic flux фs are also combined by vectorial addition
to arrive at a new magnetic flux (фT) for the loaded coil.

In Figure 1.7(a) the current (I) and primary magnetic flux (фp) are plotted in
phase. The primary voltage (Ep) is shown separated by 90 electrical degrees.
The secondary magnetic flux (фs) is plotted at zero because without a test
object no secondary flux exists.
Figure 1.7(b) represents the action of placing the coil on a nonferromagnetic

test object Observing the figure, one can see by vectorial addition of Ep and
Es that a new coil voltage (ET) is arrived at for the loaded condition. The
primary magnetic flux фp and secondary magnetic flux фs are also combined
by vectorial addition to arrive at a new magnetic flux (фT) for the loaded coil.
Notice that for the condition of the test object in the test coil, фT is no longer in
phase with the excitation current I. Also observe that the included angle
between the excitation current and the new coil voltage ET is no longer at 90
electrical degrees. These interactions will be discussed in detaillater in this
study guide.

Current Density
The distribution of eddy currents in a test object varies exponentially. The
current density in the test object is most dense near the test coil. This
exponential current density follows the mathematical rules for a natural
exponential decay curve (1/ e) where ε (epsilon) is 2.718. Usually a natural
exponential curve is illustrated by a graph with the ordinate (Y axis)
representing magnitude and the abscissa (X axis) representing time or
distance. A common point described on such a graph is the knee of the curve.
The knee occurs at the 37% value on the ordinate axis.
This 37% point is chosen because changes in X axis values produce

significant changes in Yaxis values from 100% to 37% and below 37%
changes in X axis values þroduce less signlficant changes in Y axis values
(?).

Applying this logic to eddy current testing, a term is developed to describe the
relationship of current distribution in the test object. The eddy current
generated at the surface of the test object nearest the test coil is 100%. The
point in the test object thickness where this current is diminished to 37% of its
previous strength is known as the standard depth of penetration. The term δ
(delta) is used to represent this point in the material. Figure 1.8 is a relative
eddy current density curve for a plane wave of infinite extent with magnetic
field parallel to the conducting test object surface.

Figure 1.8: Relative eddy current density

The current density at any depth can be calculated as:
Jx =J0 e - x√(πfμσ)
Where:
Jx = Electrical density at depth x in A∙m-2
J0 = Electrical density at the surface x=0
x = distance fro surface in meter m
f = Frequency of the AC primary current Hz
μ = Permeability of the test object in H∙m-1
σ = Conductivity of the test object in Siemen∙m-1
e = Natural logarithm

Relative Magnetic Permeability
Permeability of free space μ0 = 4π x 10-7 HM-1
Permeability of material can be expressed as relative to μ0
μmaterial = μr∙μ0

The Standard Depth of Penetration δ
The Standard Depth of Penetration can be expressed as:
δ = (πfμσ) -½
Where:
δ = One standard depth of penetration; 1/e of the surface current
density (37%) in meter, m
f = Frequency of the AC primary current in Hz
μ = Permeability of the test object in Henry per meter, H∙m-1
σ = Conductivity of the test object in Siemens per meter, S∙m-1

It should be observed at this point that as frequency, conductivity or
permeability is increased, the penetration of current into the test object will be
decreased. The graph in Figure 1.8 is used to demonstrate many eddy
current characteristics.
Using an example of a very thick block of stainless steel being interrogated

with a surface or probe coil operating at a test frequency of 100 kHz, the
standard depth of penetration can be determined and current densities
observed at other depths. Stainless steel (300 Series) is nonferromagnetic.
Magnetic permeability (μ) is 4πX 10-7 H∙m-1, the conductivity σ is 0.14 X 107
siemens (mhos) per meter for 300 Series stainless steel.
δ = (πfμσ) -½
δ = (π x 100 x 103 x 4 x π x 0.14) -½

δ = 0.00135m or 1.35mm#

δ = (π x 100 x 103 x 4 x π x 0.14) -½ as 1000*(pi*x*4*pi*0.14*10^3)^(-.5)
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://graph-plotter.cours-de-math.eu/

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Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://rechneronline.de/function-graphs/

Using 1.35 mm as depth x from surface, a ratio of depth/depth of penetration
would be 1 Referring to Figure 1.8, a depth/ depth of penetration of 1
indicates a relative eddy current density of 0.37 or 37%. What is the relative
eddy current density at 3 mm?
The relative standard depth Drelative of x = 3mm is:
Drelative = 3/δ = 3/1.53 mm = 2.22δ
This ratio indicates a relative eddy current densityof about 0.1 or 10%
[ (1/e)2.22 = 10.9% ]. With only 10% of the available current flowing at a depth
of 3 mm, detectability of variables such as conductivity, permeability and
discontinuities would be very difficult to detect. The obvious solution for
greater delectability at a depth of 3 mm depth is to lower the test frequency.
Frequency selection will be covered in detaillater in this text.

f(x) = (1/e)x where x = depth/δ
Relative current density
Relative Standard depth x = depth/δ
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Standard Depth for Different Conductive Materials
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Phase/Amplitude and Current Time Relationships
Figure 1.9 reveals another facet of eddy current. Eddy currents are not
generated at the same instant in time throughout the part. Eddy currents
require time to penetrate the test part. Phase and time are analogous
meaning - phase is an electrical term used to describe timing relationships of
electrical waveforms.
Phase Lag = x/δ radian

Where:
x =depth below surface
δ = Standard depth

Current (?) Lagging
Voltage lagging or current lagging?

Current (?) Lagging
Voltage lagging or current lagging?

σº∙πμ■δ∝∞ωΩθ√ρβααδπ

Phase is u,sually expressed in either degrees or radians. There'are
2πradians per 360 degrees. Each radian therefore is about 57 degrees
(360/2π). Using the surface eddy current near the test coil as a reference, the
deeper the eddy current the greater the phase lag. The amount of phase lag
is determined by:
β = x/δ = x∙√(πfμσ)
β or Φ = Phase lag angle in radian.

Others as defined earlier

Figure 1.9 should be used as a relative indicator of phase lag. The exact
phase relationship for a particular system may be different due to other
variables, such as coil parameters and excitation methods.
The amount of phase lag for a given part thickness is an important factor
when considering resolution. Resolution is the ability to separate variables
occurring in the test object; for example, distinguishing two discontinuities
occurring at different depths in the same test object. As an example, using a
standard depth of penetration at 1 mm in a 5 mm thick test object. Refer to
Figure 1.9 and observe the phase lag of the current at one standard depth of
penetration. Where depth of interest (x) is 1 mm and depth of penetration (δ)
is 1 mm, the x/ δ ratio is 1 and the current at depth x lags the surface current
by 1 radian or 57 degrees.

Projecting this examination, observe the phase lag for the entire part
thickness. The standard depth of penetration is 1 mm, the part thickness is 5
mm; therefore, the ratio x/δ equals to 5. This produces phase lag of 5 radians
or about 287 degrees for the part thickness. Having a measurement capability
of 1 degree increments, the part thickness could be divided into 287 parts
each part representing 0.017mm. That would be considered excellent
resolution.
There is an obvious Iimitation. Refer to Figure 1.8 and observe the resultant
relative current density with an x/δ ratio of 5. The relative current density is
near 0. It should become apparent that the frequency can be adjusted to
achieve optimum results for a particular variable. These and other variables
will be discussed in Chapter 5 of this Study Guide.


Chapter 1
Review Questions

Q.1.1 Generation of eddy currents depends on the principle of:
A. wave guide theory.
B. electromagnetic induction.
C. Magnetostriction force
D. All of the above
Q.1.2 A secondary field is generated by the test object and is;

A. Equal and opposite to the primary field
B. Opposite to the primary field but much smaller
C. In the same plane as the coil is wound.
D. In phase with the primary field.
Q.1.3 When a non ferromagnetic part is placed in the test coil, The coil' s
voltage:
A. increases
B. remains constant because this is essential.
C. decreases.
D. shifts 90 degrees in phase.

Q.1.4 Refer to Figure 1.7(b). If ET was produced by the test object being
stainless steel, what would the effect be if the test object were copper?
A. ET would decrease and be at a different angle.
B. ET would increase and be at a different angle.
C. Because both materials are non-ferromagnetic, no change occurs
D. None of the above.

Q.1.5 Eddy current generated a test object flow;
A. in the same plane as magnetic flux
B. in the same plane as the coil is wound
C. 90 degrees to the coil winding plane.
D. eddy currents have no predictable direction.
Q.1.6 The discovery of electromagnetic induction is credited to

A. Arago
B. Oersted.
C. Maxwell.
D. Faraday.
Q.1.7 A standard depth of penetration is defined as the point in a test object

where the relative current density is reduced to:
A. 25%.
B. 37%
C. 50%.
D. 100%

Q.1.8 Refer to Figure 1.8. If one standard depth of penetration was
established at 1 mm in an object 3 mm thick, what is the relative current
density on the far surface?
A. 3
B. <0.1
C. 1/3
D. indeterminate

Q.1.9 Refer to Figure1.9 using example in question 1.8, what is the phase
difference between the near and far surfaces?
A. the far surface current leads the near surface current by 57 degrees.
B. the far surface current leads the near surface current by 171 degrees.
C. the far surface current lags the near surface current by 171 degrees.
D. the far surface current lags the near surface current by 570 degrees.
Q.1.10 Calculate the standard depth of penetration at 10KHz in Copper with σ

= 5.7 x 107 Siemens per meter.
A. 0.1 mm (3.9 x10-3 in.)
B. 0.02 mm (7.9 x10-4 in.)
C. 0.66 mm (0.026 in.)
D. 66 mm (2.6 in.)
β = x/ δ x 57.3º
δ = (πfμσ) -½ = √(10 x 103 x π x 4 π x 10-7 x 5.7 x 107) x 1000 mm

The Answers

Chapter 2
The Coil Arrangements

Test Coil Arrangement
Test coils can be categorized into three main mechanical groups: probe coils,
bobbin coils and encircling coils.
(Surface coil, internal bobbing coil, encircling coil)
Probe Coils
Surface coil, probe coil, flat coil or pancake coil are all common terms used to
describe the same test coil type. Probe coils provide a convenient method of
examining the surface of a test object. Figure 2.1 below illustrates a typical
set of probe coils used for several surface scanning applications.

Probe coils and probe coil forms can be shaped to fit particular geometries to
solve complex inspection problems. As an example, probe coils fabricated in
a pencil shape (pencil probe) are used to inspect threaded areas of mounting
studs and nuts or serrated areas of turbine wheels and turbine blade
assemblies. Probe coils may be used where high resolution is required by
adding coil shielding (2). When using a high resolution probe coil, the test
object surface must be carefully scanned to ensure complete inspection
coverage. This careful scanning is very time consuming. For this reason,
probe coil inspections of large test objects are usually limited to critical areas.
Probe coils are used extensively in aircraft inspection for crack detection near
fasteners and fastener holes. In the case of fastener holes (bolt holes, rivet
holes), the probe coil may be rotated either manually or mechanically to
provide a helical scan of the hole using a spinning probe technique (Figure
2.2).

Figure 2.2: Bolt hole inspection probes

Encircling Coils
Encircling coil, outside diameter coil and feed through coil are terms
commonly used to describe a coil that surrounds the test object. Figure 2.3
illustrates a typical encircling coil. Encircling coils are primarily used to inspect
tubular and bar-shaped products. The tube or bar is fed through the coil (feed
through) at relatively high speed. The cross section of the test object within
the test coil is simultaneously interrogated. For this reason, the
circumferential location of discontinuities cannot be determined with an
encircling coil.
The volume of material examined at one time is greater using an encircling
coil than a probe coil; therefore, the relative sensitivity is lower for an
encircling coil. The additional advantage that a probe coil would have over the
encircling coil is that the probe coil could define where within the
circumferential plane the discontinuity exists. The encircling coil cannot make
that distinction. If there are multiple signal sources within the coil's field of
view the encircling coil response will indicate the average of all of those
events.

Figure 2.3: Encircling coil

Discussion
Subject; Encircling Coil
If there are multiple signal sources within the coil's field of view the encircling
coil response will indicate the average of all of those events.
Question: Why average? why not sum of all signals?

When using an encircling coil, it is important to keep the test object centered
in the coil. If the test object is not centered, a uniform discontinuity response
is difficult to obtain. To ensure proper centering it is corrunon practice to run
the calibration standard several times, each time indexing the artificial
discontinuities to a new circumferential location in the coil. As in all
discontinuity detection schemes, it is essential to select a reasonable
operating frequency, properly adjust the system display parameters and
ensure that the tube is centered in the coil at all times to achieve optimum test
sensitivity.

Bobbin Coils
Bobbin coil, inside diameter coil and inside probe are terms that describe
coils used to inspect from the inside diameter or bore of a tubular test object.
Bobbin coils are inserted and withdrawn from the tube inside diameter by long,
semi flexible shafts or simply blown in with air and retrieved with an attached
pull cable. These mechanisms will be described later in the text. Bobbin coil
information follows the same basic rules stated for encircling coils. Figure 2.4
illustrates a typical bobbin coil.

Coil Arrangements
Probe coils, encircling coils and bobbin coils can be additionally classified.
These additional classifications are determined by how the coils are
electrically connected. The three coil categories are absolute, differential and
hybrid. Figure 2.5 shows various types of absolute and differential coil
arrangements.

Figure 2.5: Test coil configurations for eddy current testing of small-diameter tubing
 Absolute
 Differential- Self
comparisons, external
reference
 Thru transmission
 Reflection (Double) -
Sending & Receiving

Absolute Coils
An absolute coil makes its measurement without direct reference or
comparison to a standard as the measurement is being made (6). Some
applications for absolute coil systems would be measurements of conductivity,
permeability, dimensions and hardness.

Differential coils
Differential coils consist of two or more coils electrically connected to oppose
each other. Differential coils can be categorized into two types: (1) self
comparison differential and (2) external reference differential.
a) The self-comparison differential coil compares one area of a test object

to another area on the same test object. A common use is two coils,
connected opposing, so that if both coils are affected by identical test object
conditions, the net output is 0 volts or no signal change. The self-comparison
arrangement is insensitive to test object variables that occur gradually.
Variables such as slowly changing wall thickness, diameter or conductivity
are effectively discriminated against with the selfcomparison differential coil.
Only when a different condition affects one or the other test coils will an
output signal be generated. The coils usually being mechanically and
electrically similar allows the arrangement to be very stable during
temperature changes. Short discontinuities such as cracks, pits or other
localized discontinuities with abrupt boundaries can be readily detected using
the self-comparison differential coli.

b) The external reference differential coil, uses an external reference to
affect one coil while the other coil is affected by the test object. Figure 2.6
illustrates this concept. This system is used to detect differences between a
standard object and test objects. It is particularly useful for comparative
conductivity, permeability and dimensional measurements. Obviously in
Figure 2.6 it is imperative to normalize (or balance) the system with one coil
affected by the standard object and the other coil affected by an acceptable
test object. The external reference differential coil system is sensitive to all
measurable differences between the standard object and test object. For this
reason it is often necessary to provide additional discrimination to separate
and define variables present in the test object.

Figure 2.6: External reference differential system

Hybrid Coils
Hybrid coils may be defined as driver/pickup, through transmission, reflection
or primary/secdndary coil assemblies. Hybrid coils may or may not be the
same size and are not necessarily adjacent to each other. Figure 2.7 shows
one possible hybrid coil arrangement. In the through transmission coil, the
excitation coil is on one side of the test object and the sensing coil is on the
other. The driver coil induces eddy currents and a secondary magnetic field in
the test specimen. Any variation of these secondary events should be
detected by the smaller probe coil on the opposite side of the thin plate.

Figure 2.7: Hybrid coil (through transmission)

A hybrid coil arrangement consists of an excitation coil and a sensing coil
(reflection coils). In most cases a single probe housing assembly contains
both the driver and the pickup coil(s). The primary magnetic flux interacts with
both coils. The voltage developed in the sensing coil is a function of the
current magnitude and frequency applied to the excitation coil, coil
parameters of the exciting and sensing coils and the test object
characteristics.
Most hybrid coils are designed to improve test sensitivity for a specific
application. One example of this is for better detection of subsurface
discontinuities in multilayer structures. The concept of using a smaller pickup
coil enhances the ability to detect lower level impedance variations from small
volume discontinuities deeper in the test sample. It should be pointed out that
if larger volume discontinuities are encountered that a measurable impedance
change might be generated by both the exciter and the pick up coil(s).

Additional Coil Characteristics
Coil configuration is but one of many factors to consider when setting up test
conditions. Other coil characteristics of importance are mechanical, thermal
and electrical stability; sensitivity, resolution and dimensions. The geometry of
the coil is usually dictated by the geometty of the test object. Selection of
smaller probe sizes may affect test sensitivity and/or resolution. The relative
importance of the coil characteristics depends on the nature of the test. A
blend of theory and experience usually succeeds in selection of proper coil
parameters. Coil design and interactions with test objects will be discussed
later in this Study Guide.

Chapter 2
Review Questions

Q.2.1 Differential coils are usually used in:
A. bobbin coils.
B. probe coils.
C. outside diameter coils.
D. any of the above.
Q.2.2 When using a probe coil to scan a test object:

A. the object must be dry and polished.
B. the object must be scanned carefully to ensure inspection coverage.
C. the object must be scanned in circular motions at constant speeds.
D. the probe must be moving at all times to get a reading.
Q.2.3 A spinning probe would most likely be:

A. a bobbin coil
B. an inside diameter coil.
C. an outside diameter coil.
D. a probe coil.

Q.2.4 A feed through coil is:
A. a coil with primary/ secondary windings connected so that the signal is fed
through the primaq to the secondary.
B. an encircling coil.
C. an outside diameter coil.
D. both Band C.
Q.2.5 When inspecting a tubular product with an encircling coil, which

statement is not true?
A. Outside diameter discontinuities can be found.
B. Axial discontinuity locations can be noted.
C. Circumferential discontinuity locations can be noted.
D. Inside diameter discontinuities can be found.

Q.2.6 An absolute coil measurement is made:
A. by comparing one spot on the test object to another.
B. without reference to or direct comparison with a standard.
C. only with probe coils.
D. by comparative measurement to a known standard.
Q.2.7 When coils in a self-comparison differential arrangement are affected

simultaneously with the same test object variables, the output signal:
A is directly proportional to the number of variables.
B. is 0 or near 0.
C. is indirectly proportional to the number of variables.
D. is primarily a function of the exciting current.

Q.2.8 Which coil type inherently has better thermal stability?
A bobbin
B. absolute
C. outside diameter
D. self-comparison differential
Q.2.9 A hybrid coil is composed of two or more coils. The coils:

A. must be aligned coplanar to the driver axis.
B. may be of widely different dimensions.
C. must be impedance matched as closely as possible.
D. are very temperature sensitive.
Q.2.10 Proper selection of test coil arrangement is determined by:

A. shape of test object.
B. redolution required.
C. sensitivity required.
D. stability.
E. all of the above.

The Answers

Chapter 3
Test Coil Design

As discussed earlier test coil design and selection is a blend of theory and
experience. Many factors must be considered. These important factors are
determined by the inspection requirement for resolution, sensitivity,
impedance, size, stability and environmental considerations. To better
understand coil properties and electrical relationships, a short refresher in
alternating current theory is necessary. First, the electrical units must be
examined. For example, current and its representative symbol I. Current not
only suggests electron flow but also the amount. The amount of electrons
flowing past a point in a circuit in 1 second is expressed in amperes:
2π x 1018 electrons passing a point in 1 second is called 1 ampere.

Ampere
The ampere (SI unit symbol: A), often shortened to "amp", is the SI unit of electric
current (dimension symbol: I) and is one of the seven SI base units. It is named after
André-Marie Ampère (1775–1836), French mathematician and physicist, considered
the father of electrodynamics.
The ampere is equivalent to one coulomb (roughly 6.241×1018 times the elementary
charge) per second. Amperes are used to express flow rate of electric charge. For any
point experiencing a current, if the number of charged particles passing or the charge
on the particles is increased, the amperes of current at that point will proportionately
increase.
The ampere should not be confused with the coulomb (also called "ampere-second")
or the ampere-hour (A·h). The ampere is a unit of current, the amount of charge
transiting per unit time, and the coulomb is a unit of charge. When SI units are used,
constant, instantaneous and average current are expressed in amperes (as in "the
charging current is 1.2 A") and the charge accumulated, or passed through a circuit
over a period of time is expressed in coulombs (as in "the battery charge is 30000 C").
The relation of the ampere to the coulomb is the same as that of the watt to the joule,
and that of metre per second to metre.
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amperec

Demonstration model of
a moving iron ammeter.
As the current through
the coil increases, the
plunger is drawn further
into the coil and the
pointer deflects to the
right.
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amperec

Resistance
Resistance is an opposition to the flow of electrons and is measured in ohms.
Ohm's Law is stated by the equation:
E = IR
Where:
I = Current in Ampere A
R = Resistance in Ohm Ω
E = Electrical potential difference in volt V
The resistance of a coil is determined primarily by the length of wire used to

wind the coil; its specific resistance is determined by the type of wire (e.g.,
copper, silver) and the cross-sectional area of the wire.
Resistance = (Specific resistance X Length) / Area

Resistance =

Thus, the resistance of a 10 ft length of 40 gage copper wire with a specific
resistance of 10.4 circular-mil-foot at 20ºC would be found as follows:
R = (10.4 X 10) / 9.888 = 10.518 ohm.
In an alternating current circuit containing only resistance, the current and

voltage are in phase. In phase means the current and voltage reach their
minimum and maximum values, respectively, at the same time. The power
dissipated in a resistive circuit appears :in the form of heat. For example,
electric toasters are equipped with resistance wires that become hot when
current flows through them, providing a heat source for toasting bread.

Circular-Mill-Foot
A circular-mil-foot (figure 1-3) is a unit of volume. It is a unit conductor 1 foot in length and has a cross-sectional
area of 1 circular mil. Because it is a unit conductor, the circular-mil-foot is useful in making comparisons
between wires consisting of different metals.
For example, a basis of comparison of the RESISTIVITY (to be discussed shortly) of various substances may
be made by determining the resistance of a circular-mil-foot of each of the substances.
In working with square or rectangular conductors, such as ammeter shunts and bus bars, you may sometimes
find it more convenient to use a different unit volume. A bus bar is a heavy copper strap or bar used to connect
several circuits together. Bus bars are used when a large current capacity is required.
Unit volume may be measured as the centimeter cube. Specific resistance, therefore, becomes the resistance
offered by a cube-shaped conductor 1 centimeter in length and 1 square centimeter in cross-sectional area.
The unit of volume to be used is given in tables of specific resistances.
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SPECIFIC RESISTANCE OR RESISTIVITY Specific resistance, or resistivity, is the
resistance in ohms offered by a unit volume (the circular-mil-foot or the centimeter cube) of a substance to the
flow of electric current. Resistivity is the reciprocal of conductivity. A substance that has a high resistivity will
have a low conductivity, and vice versa. Thus, the specific resistance of a substance is the resistance of a unit
volume of that substance. Many tables of specific resistance are based on the resistance in ohms of a volume
of a substance 1 foot in length and 1 circular mil in cross-sectional area. The temperature at which the
resistance measurement is made is also specified. If you know the kind of metal a conductor is made of, you
can obtain the specific resistance of the metal from a table. The specific resistances of some common
substances are given in table 1-1.

The resistance of a conductor of a uniform cross section varies directly as the
product of the length and the specific resistance of the conductor, and
inversely as the cross-sectional area of the conductor. Therefore, you can
calculate the resistance of a conductor if you know the length, cross-sectional
area, and specific resistance of the substance. Expressed as an equation, the
"R" (resistance in ohms) of a conductor is

Problem:
What is the resistance of 1,000 feet of copper wire having a cross-sectional
area of 10,400 circular mils (No. 10 wire) at a temperature of 20°C?
Solution:
The specific resistance of copper (table 1-1) is 10.37 ohms. Substituting the
known values in the preceding equation, the resistance, R, is determined as
R = ρ∙ l / A = 10.37 x 1000 / 10400 = 1Ω approximately
This equipment operates on the principle that the resistance of a line varies
directly with its length. Thus, the distance between the test point and a fault
can be computed accurately.

Inductance
Heat generation is an undesirable trait for an eddy current coil. If the 10 ft
length of wire used in the previous example was wound into the shape of a
coil, it would exhibit characteristics of alternating current other than resistance.
By forming the wire into the shape of a coil, the coil also would have the
property of inductance. The role of inductance is analogous to inertia in
mechanics, because inertia is the property of matter that causes a body to
oppose any change in its velocity. The unit of inductance is the Henry (H). A
coil is said to have the property of inductance when a change in current
through the coil produces a voltage in the coil. More precisely, a circuit in
which an electromotive force of 1 V is induced when the current is changing
at a rate of 1 Ampere per second will have an inductance of 1 H.

The inductance of a multilayer air core coil can be expressed by its physical
properties or coil parameters. Coil parameters such as length, diameter,
thickness and number of turns of wire affect the coil's inductance. Figure 3.1
illustrates typical coil dimensions required to calculate coil :inductance. An
approximation of small, multilayer, air core coil inductapce is as follows:
L = 0.8(rN)2 ∙ (6∙r+9∙l+10∙b) -1 μHenry

L = self inductance in μH
N = number of turns
r = mean radius in inches
l = length of coil in inches
b = coil depth

Multi Layer Induction Coil
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://info.ee.surrey.ac.uk/Workshop/advice/coils/air/area.xhtml

Example:
A coil whose dimensions are as follows:
r = 0.1 in
I = 0.1 in
b = 0.1 in
N = 100 turns
for L = 0.8(rN)2 ∙ (6∙r+9∙l+10∙b)-1 μH
L = 0.8(0.1x100)2 (6x0.1+9x0.1+10.0.1)-1
L = 32 μH
As stated earlier, this inductance is analogous to inertia in mechanical systems in that inductance
opposes a change in current as inertia opposes a change in velocity of a body. In alternating
current circuits the current is always changing; therefore inductance is always opposing this
change. As the current tries to change, the inductance reacts to oppose that change. This
reaction is called innductive reactance.

Inductive Reactance
The unit of inductive reactance (XL) is in ohms. For a given coil the inductive
reactance is a function of the rate of change of current or frequency. A
formula relating frequency, inductance and inductive reactance is:
XL = ωL = 2πf L
Where:
XL = Inductive reactance Ohm
f = Frequency Hz
L = Inductance Henry

Example:
Using the 32 μH coil calculated earlier operating at 100 KHz, its inductive
reactance would be found as follows:
L = 32 μH or 0.000032 H
f = 100 KHz or 100000 Hz
XL = ωL = 2πfL = 2π x 100 x 103 x 32 x 10-6 = 20.106Ω
Therefore, this coil would present an opposition of 20.096 ohms to currents

with a rate of change of 100 kHz due to its reactive component. Unlike a
resistive circuit, the current and voltage of an inductive circuit do not reach
their minimum and maximum values at the same time. In a pure inductive
circuit the voltage leads the current by 90 electrical degrees. This means that
when the voltage reaches a maximum value, the current is at 0.

Power is related to current and voltage as follows:
Power P = E x I
P = Power
E = Potential volt
I = Current in Ampere
Notice that in a pure inductive circuit, when the voltage is maximum, the
current is 0. Therefore, the product P = E x I = 0, Inductive reactances
consume no alternating power where resistive elements consume power and
dissipate power in the form of heat. The opposition to current flow because of
the resistive element of the coil and the reactive element of the coil do not
occur at the same time; therefore, they cannot be added as scalar quantities. .
A scalar quantity is one having only magmtude, that is a quantity fully
described by a number, but which does not involve any concept of direction.
Gallons in a tank, temperature in a room, miles per hour, for example, are all
scalars.

Impedance
To explain the addition of reactance and resistance witha minimum of
mathematical calculations, it is ·possible to use vector or phasor diagrams. A
vector diagram constructed with imaginary units on the ordinate or Y axis and
real units on the abscissa or X axis is shown in Figure 3.2. Z=√(XL2+R2)
Observation of Figure 3.2 reveals XL, R and

Z appear to form the sides of a right triangle.
The mathematical solution of right triangles
states the square of the hypotenuse is equal
to the sum of the squares of the other two
sides, or c2 = a2 + b2
Substituting Z, XL and R, the statement
becomes: Z2 = XL2 + R2, further simplified
Figure 3.2 Vector Diagram Z = √(XL2+R2)

Example:
Example: What is the impedance of a coil having an inductance. of 100μH
and a resistance of 5 ohms and being operated at 200 kHz?
XL = 2π x 200 x 103 x 100 x 10-6 = 125.7Ω

Z =√(XL2 + R2) = (125.72 + 52) .5 = 125.8 Ω
First, convert inductance to inductive reactance and then, by vector addition,
combine inductive reactance and resistance to obtain the impedance.

Maximum transfer of power is accomplished when the driving impedance and load
impedance are matched. If, for instance, an eddy current instrument had a driving
impedance of 50 ohms, the most efficient test coils would also have impedances of 50
ohms. Other, more common examples of impedance matching are home stereo
systems rated at 100 W per channel into 8 ohms. Impedance can be discussed in a
more detailed manner by mathematically noting variables using imaginary numbers).
The square root of a negative number is known as an imaginary number (√-1).
The imaginary number √(-16) could be written as √(-1x16) or √-1∙ √(16) or

√(-1)∙4. The notation √(-1) is used extensively and is mathematically noted by a lower
case letter "i". Because i is also used in electrical terms for current, the i notation for
electrical calculations is changed to the letter "j". The term j, often called operator j, is
equal to the √(-I). Instead of noting √(-16) as √(-1)∙4. note it as j4. Because reactance
is known as an imaginary component, then impedance In Cartesian form:
Z = R + jXm
where the real part of impedance is the resistance R and the imaginary part is the
reactance X.
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_impedance

Rectangular Notation
Because reactance is known as an imaginary component, then impedance In
Cartesian form:
Z = R + jX = |Z|∠ θ =
The term R + jX is known as a rectangular notation. As an example, a

resistance of 4 ohms in series with an inductive reactance of 3 ohms could
be noted as Z = 4 + j3 ohms. The impedance
Ω. Z = 4 + j3 ohms.
º
4 8.59
j3 ohms |5 |∠
Z =
4 ohms

Rectangular Notation
Because reactance is known as an imaginary component, then impedance In
Cartesian form:
Z = R + jX = |Z|∠ θ =
The term R + jX is known as a rectangular notation. As an example, a

resistance of 4 ohms in series with an inductive reactance of 3 ohms could
be noted as Z = 4 + j3 ohms. The impedance
Rectangular Polar Notation Ω. Z = 4 + j3 ohms.

.5 9º
Notation 4 8
j3 ohms 5 |∠
Z =|
4 ohms

Polar and Rectangular Notation
In order to work with these complex numbers without drawing vectors, we first need
some kind of standard mathematical notation. There are two basic forms of complex
number notation: polar and rectangular.
Polar form is where a complex number is denoted by the length (otherwise known as
the magnitude, absolute value, or modulus) and the angle of its vector (usually
denoted by an angle symbol that looks like this: ∠). To use the map analogy, polar
notation for the vector from New York City to San Diego would be something like
“2400 miles, southwest.” Here are two examples of vectors and their polar notations:
(Figure below)

Vectors With Polar Notations.
Standard orientation for vector angles in AC circuit calculations defines 0º as
being to the right (horizontal), making 90º straight up, 180º to the left, and
270º straight down. Please note that vectors angled “down” can have angles
represented in polar form as positive numbers in excess of 180º, or negative
numbers less than 180. For example, a vector angled ∠ 270º (straight down)
can also be said to have an angle of -90º. (Figure below) The above vector
on the right (7.81 ∠ 230.19º) can also be denoted as 7.81 ∠ -129.81º.

The Vector Compass
Rectangular form, on the other hand, is where a complex number is denoted
by its respective horizontal and vertical components. In essence, the angled
vector is taken to be the hypotenuse of a right triangle, described by the
lengths of the adjacent and opposite sides. Rather than describing a vector's
length and direction by denoting magnitude and angle, it is described in terms
of “how far left/right” and “how far up/down.”
These two dimensional figures (horizontal and vertical) are symbolized by two
numerical figures. In order to distinguish the horizontal and vertical
dimensions from each other, the vertical is prefixed with a lower-case “i” (in
pure mathematics) or “j” (in electronics). These lower-case letters do not
represent a physical variable (such as instantaneous current, also symbolized
by a lower-case letter “i”), but rather are mathematical operators used to
distinguish the vector's vertical component from its horizontal component. As
a complete complex number, the horizontal and vertical quantities are written
as a sum: (Figure below)

Rectangular Notation – Prefix “j”
These two dimensional figures (horizontal and vertical) are symbolized by two numerical figures.
In order to distinguish the horizontal and vertical dimensions from each other, the vertical is
prefixed with a lower-case “i” (in pure mathematics) or “j” (in electronics). These lower-case
letters do not represent a physical variable (such as instantaneous current, also symbolized by a
lower-case letter “i”), but rather are mathematical operators used to distinguish the vector's
vertical component from its horizontal component. As a complete complex number, the horizontal
and vertical quantities are written as a sum: (Figure below)

Rectangle & Polar Notation
 In rectangular notation, the vertical and horizontal components’ ordinate
and abscissa are shown. Z = R + jX, where j denoting vertical component.
 In polar notation, vector length hypotenuse and angle are shown |Z|∠ θ,
where |Z| denoting vector length and ∠ θ denoting the angle.
Z = R + jXm = |Z|∠ θ =
Ω. Z = 4 + j3 ohms.
º
4 8.59
j3 ohms |5 |∠
Z =
4 ohms

Imaginary Component
In “rectangular” form the vector's
length and direction are denoted in
terms of its horizontal and vertical
span, the first number representing
the horizontal (“real”) and the
second number (with the “j” prefix)
representing the vertical
(“imaginary”) dimensions. The
horizontal component is referred to
as the real component, since that
dimension is compatible with normal,
scalar (“real”) numbers. The vertical
component is referred to as the
imaginary component, since that
dimension lies in a different direction,
totally alien to the scale of the real
numbers. (Figure below)

Vector compass showing real and
imaginary axes. The “real” axis of
the graph corresponds to the
familiar number line we saw earlier:
the one with both positive and
negative values on it. The
“imaginary” axis of the graph
corresponds to another number
line situated at 90º to the “real”
one. Vectors being two-
dimensional things, we must have
a two-dimensional “map” upon
which to express them, thus the
two number lines perpendicular to
each other: (Figure below)

Imaginary

Vector compass with real and imaginary “j” number lines.
Either method of notation is valid for complex numbers. The primary reason for having two
methods of notation is for ease of longhand calculation, rectangular form lending itself to addition
and subtraction, and polar form lending itself to multiplication and division.
Conversion between the two notational forms involves simple trigonometry. To convert from polar
to rectangular, find the real component by multiplying the polar magnitude by the cosine of the
angle, and the imaginary component by multiplying the polar magnitude by the sine of the angle.
This may be understood more readily by drawing the quantities as sides of a right triangle, the
hypotenuse of the triangle representing the vector itself (its length and angle with respect to the
horizontal constituting the polar form), the horizontal and vertical sides representing the “real”
and “imaginary” rectangular components, respectively: (Figure below)
To convert from polar to rectangular notation

To convert from rectangular to polar notation, find the polar magnitude through
the use of the Pythagorean Theorem (the polar magnitude is the hypotenuse of a right triangle,
and the real and imaginary components are the adjacent and opposite sides, respectively), and
the angle by taking the arctangent of the imaginary component divided by the real component:
Z = 4+j3 Magnitude vector in terms of real (4) and imaginary (j3) components.

REVIEW on Rectangular & Polar Notations
 Polar notation denotes a complex number in terms of its vector's length and
angular direction from the starting point. Example: fly 45 miles ∠ 203º (West by
Southwest).
 Rectangular notation denotes a complex number in terms of its horizontal and
vertical dimensions. Example: drive 41 miles West, then turn and drive 18 miles
South.
 In rectangular notation, the first quantity is the “real” component (horizontal
dimension of vector) and the second quantity is the “imaginary” component
(vertical dimension of vector). The imaginary component is preceded by a lower-
case “j,” sometimes called the j operator.
 Both polar and rectangular forms of notation for a complex number can be related
graphically in the form of a right triangle, with the hypotenuse representing the
vector itself (polar form: hypotenuse length = magnitude; angle with respect to
horizontal side = angle), the horizontal side representing the rectangular “real”
component, and the vertical side representing the rectangular “imaginary”
component.

More Reading on Polar & Rectangular Vector Notations
http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_notation
http://www.daycounter.com/Calculators/Polar-To-Rectangular-
Calculator.phtml
https://filebox.ece.vt.edu/~LiaB/Lectures/Ch_9/Slides/Mathematics.pdf
http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/vol_2/chpt_2/5.html

The term Z = R + jX is known as a rectangular notation. As an example, a
resistance of R= 4 ohms in series with an inductive reactance of jX = 3 ohms
could be noted as Z = 4 + j3 ohms. The impedance calculation is then :
Z = √(42 + 32) = √(25) = 5Ω
In coil design it is often helpful to know also the included angle between the
resistive component and impedance. A convenient method of notation is the
polar form where tan θ =XL+ R and θ is the included angle between
resistance and impedance. In the previous example the impedance
magnitude is 5 ohms, but at what angle? A proper form of notation is Z∠θ
where Z is impedance and ∠θ is the included angle. Therefore, the complete
notation for R=3, XL=4 is:
Z = √(42 + 32) = √(25) = 5Ω

tan θ = ¾ = 0.750 = 36.9º
Z = |5|∠ 36.9º or Z = 3+j4

Eddy current coils with included impedance angles of 60 degrees to 90
degrees usually make efficient test coils. As the angle between resistance
and impedance approaches 0 degrees, the test coil becomes very inefficient
with most of its energy being dissipated as heat.

Q or Figure of Merit
The term used to describe coil efficiency is Q or merit of the coil. The higher
the Q or merit of a coil, the more efficiently the coil performs as an inductor.
The merit of a coil is mathematically stated as:
Q = XL / R
For example, a coil having an inductive reactance of 100 ohms and a

resistance of 5 ohms would have a Q of 20.

Permeability and Shielding Effects
The addition of permeable core in certain designs dramatically improves “Q”
factor. For example, are wound on a form that allow the powdered iron rod or
slug to be placed in the center of coil. It is common to increase the coil
impedance by a factor of 10 by the addition of coil materials. This increase in
impedance without addition winding greatly enhances the Q of the coil. Some
core materials are cylindrical or cup shaped. A common term is cup core
(Fig3.3). the coil is first wound and then placed inn the cup core. In the case
of a probe coil in the cup core,not only is the impedance increased, but the
benefit of shielding is also gained.
Shielding with a cup core, prevent the electromagnetic field from spreading at
the sides of the coil. This greatly reduces signal produced by edge effect of
adjacent member of the test area, such as fasteners on air wings. Shielding,
while improving resolution, usually sacrifices some amount of penetration into
fue part.

Figure 3.3: Effects of cup cores
(a) Unshielded coil -field spread might be up to twice the coil diameter.
(b) Shielded coil - magnetic field extension restricted to the core geometry.

Another technique of shielding uses high conductivity material, such, as
copper or aluminum, to suppress high frequency interference from other
sources and also to shape the electromagnetic field of the test coil. A copper
cup would restrict the electromagnetic field in much the same manner as the
powdered iron cup core. A disadvantage of high conductivity, low or no
permeability shielding is that the coil's impedance is reduced when the
shielding material is placed around the test coil. The net effect is that the
coil's “Q” factor is less than it was when the coil was surrounded by air.

Discussion
Subject 1: Shielding, while improving resolution, usually sacrifices some
amount of penetration into fue part.
Subject 2: A disadvantage of high conductivity, low or no permeability

shielding is that the coil's impedance is reduced when the shielding material
is placed around the test coil. The net effect is that the coil's “Q” factor is less
than it was when the coil was surrounded by air.

Saturation Approach
Another coil design used for inspection of ferromagnetic materials is the saturation
approach. A predominant variable that prevents eddy current penetrating in
ferromagnetic material is called permeability. Permeability effects exhibited by the test
object can be reduced by means of magnetic saturation(Figure 3.4). Saturation coils
for steels are usually very large and surround the test object and test coil. A steady
state (DC) current is applied to the saturation coil. When the steel test object is
magnetically saturated it may be inspected in the same manner as a nonferromagnetic
material. In the case of mild steel many thousands of tesla are required to produce
saturation.
In some inherently nonferromagnetic tubing materials like high temperature nickel

chromium alloy there may be low level permeability variations because of
manufacturing discontinuities. In this case the use of small permanent magnets
adjacent to the bobbin probe coils may improve the inspection quality by reducing the
permeability effects. Figure 3.5 shows the use of disk type magnets placed close to
the coil. It is also possible to use an array of bar magnets arranged around the probe
housing if higher magnetic potential is required to offset the material permeability
characteristics.

Figure 3.4: Magnetic saturation inspection process

Figure 3.5: Magnetic bias probe

Coil Fixtures
Coil fixtures or holders may be as varied as the imagination of the designers
and users. After the size, shape and style have been decided on, the next
consideration should be the test environment. Characteristics of wear,
temperature, atmosphere, mechanical stress and stability must be considered
(4). Normally wear can be reduced by selection of wear resistant compounds
to protect the coil windings. If severe wear is expected, artificial or genuine
jewels may be used. Less expensive and very effective wear materials, such
as aluminum oxide or ceramics, are more commonly used. Temperature
stability may be accomplished by using coil holder material with poor heat
transfer characteristics. Metals have high heat transfer characteristics and
often coils made with metal holders are sensitive to temperature variations
caused by human touch. For high temperature applications, materials must
be chosen carefully. Most common commercial copper coil wire may be used
up to 150°C to 200°C. For temperatures above 200 ac, silver or aluminum
wire with ceramic or high temperature silicone insulation must be used.

Materials must be chemically compatible with the test object. As extreme
examples, a polystyrene coil form would not be used to inspect an acetone
cooler or a lead or graphite housing allowed to come in contact with a high
temperature nickel chromium alloy jet engine tail cone. The chemical
interactions between these material combinations could cause cracking and
lead to component failure.
Mechanical and electrical stability of the test coil can be enhanced by an
application of epoxy resin between each layer of coil winding. This
accomplishes many objectives:
1) it seals the coil to exclude moisture;
2) it provides additional electrical insulation; and
3) it provides mechanical stability.
Characteristics listed are not in order of importance. The importance of each
characteristic is determined by specific test requirements.

Chapter 3
Review Questions

Q.3.1 A coil's resistance is determined by:
A. wire material.
B. wire length.
C. wire cross-sectional area.
D. all of the above.
Q.3.2 Inductance might be referred to as being analogous to:

A. force.
B. volume.
C. inertia.
D. velocity.
Q.3.3 The unit of inductance is the:

A. henry.
B. maxwell.
C. ohm.
D. farad.

Q.3.4 The inductance of a multilayer air core coil with the dimensions I = 0.2,
r = 0.5, b = 0.1 and N = 20, is: L = 0.8(rN)2 ∙ (6∙r+9∙l+10∙b) -1 μHenry
A. 1.38 H. L = self inductance in μH
B. 13.8 μH. N = number of turns
C. 13.8 ohms. r = mean radius in inches
l = length of coil in inches
D. 1.38 ohms.
b = coil depth
Q.3.5 The inductive reactance of the coil in Q.3.4, operating at 400 kHz,
would be:
A. 1380 ohms. XL= 2πfL = (2π∙400∙103∙13.8∙10-6)
B. 5520 ohms.
C. 34.66 ohms.
D. 3466 oluns.
Q.3.6 The impedance of a 100μH coil with a resistance of 20 ohms operating

at 100kHz would be:
A. 62.8 ohms. XL = 2πfL, Z =√(XL2 + R2)
B. 4343.8 ohms.
C. 628 ohms.
D. 65.9 ohms.
Q.3.7 The Q or merit of a coil is denoted by the ratio:
A. Z/XL
B. XL/Z
c. XL/R
D. R/XL
Q.3.8 The incorporation of ferromagnetic shielding materials around a coil:
A. improves resolution.
B. decreases field extension.
C. increases impedance.
D. Does all of the above.
Q.3.9 The purpose of a steady state winding w near a test coil is to: (? –
scanned copy missing wording)
A. reduce material permeability effects.
B. produce possible magnetic saturation in the test material.
C. provide a balance source for the sensitive coil.
D. both A and B.

Q.3.10 The most important consideration when selecting a test coil is:
A. sensitivity.
B. resolution.
C. stability.
D. meeting established inspection criteria

The Answers

Chapter 4
Effects of Test Object on Test Coil

Jackfruit Tree
Operating or Test Variables
As previously seen, the eddy current technique depends on the generation of
induced currents within the test object. Disturbances in these small induced
currents affect the test coil. The result is a variation of the test coil impedance
due to test object variables. These variances are called operating or test
variables. The range of test variables encountered might include electrical
conductivity, magnetic permeability, skin effect, lift off, fill factor; end effect,
edge effect and signal-to-noise ratio.
Coil impedance was discussed at length in Chapter.3. In this chapter coil

impedance changes will pe represented graphically to more effectively
explain the interaction of the operating variables.

Electrical Conductivity σ
In electron theory the atom consists of a positive nucleus surrounded by
orbiting negative electrons. Materials that allow these electrons to be easily
moved out of orbit around the nucleus are classified as conductors. In
conductors electrons are moved by applying an outside electrical force. The
ease with which the electrons are made to move through the conductor is
called conductance. A unit of conductance is the siemens (mho). The
siemens is the reciprocal of the ohm or conductance G = l / R where G is
conductance in siemens and R is resistance in ohms. In eddy current testing,
instead of describing conductance in absolute terms, an arbitrary unit has
been assigned. Since the relative conductivity of metals and alloys varies
over a wide range, the need for a conductivity bench-mark is of prime
importance.

The International Electrochemical Commission established in 1913 a
convenient technique of comparing one material to another.
The commission established that a specific grade of high purity copper, 1 m in

length, with a uniform cross section of 1 mm2, measuring 0.017241 ohms at
20°C would be arbitrarily considered to be 100% 'conductive.
The symbol for conductivity is σ (sigma) and the unit is percent IACS or
percent of the International Annealed Copper Standard. Table 4.1 lists
materials by their electrical properties: conductivity and resistivity. A
statement can be made about a conductor in terms of conductance or
resistance. Note that a good conductor is a poor resistor. Conductance and
resistance are direct reciprocals as stated earlier. Conductivity and resistivity,
however, have different origins and units; therefore, the conversion is not so
direct.

As previously discussed, conductivity is expressed on an arbitrary scale in
percent IACS. Resistivity is expressed in absolute terms of micro-ohm-
centimeters. To convert values on one scale to the other system of units a
conversion factor of 172.41 is required. Once you know either the conductivity
or the resistivity value for a material the other electrical property can be
calculated.
Shanghai- 上海
172.41

%IACS & Resistivity ρ (rho) in micro-ohm-centimeter
■ %IACS = 172.41 / ρ micro-ohm-centimeter (μΩ∙cm)
■ ρ micro-ohm-centimeter = 172.41 / %IACS
These numerical values will be necessary when additional calculations are

needed to determine issues of frequency choice, depth of penetration and I or
phase spread to meet specific inspection criteria. As the test coil is influenced
by different conductivities, its impedance varies inversely to conductivity. A
higher conductivity causes the test coil to have a lower impedance value.
Figure 4.1 illustrates this concept.

Figure 4.1; Conductivity curve

Discussion
Subject: A higher conductivity causes the test coil to have a lower
impedance value. Figure 4.1 illustrates this concept.- Reason out the
statement.

The coil's inductive reactance is represented by theY axis and coil resistance
appears on the X axis. The 0% conductivity point, or air point, is when the
coil's empty reactance (XL) is maximum. Figure 4.1 represents a measured
conductivity locus . Conductivity is influenced by many factors. Table 4.1 is a
comparative listing of materials with various chemical compositions. There
are various manufacturing or in situ factors that must be considered when
hying to measure the conductivity of various alloys. In metals, .as. the
temperature is increased, the conductivity wlll decrease. This is a major factor
to consider when accurate measurement of conductivities is required.

Figure 4.1; Conductivity curve
Key Word:
The 0% conductivity point
Air point

Effects of Heat Treatment on Conductivity
Heat treatment affects electrical conductivity by redistributing elements in the
material. Dependent on materials and degree of heat treatment, conductivity
can either increase or decrease as a result of heat treatment. Stresses in a
material due to cold working produces lattice distortion or dislocation. This
mechanical process changes the grain structure and harness of the material,
changing its electrical conductivity. Hardness in age hardened aluminum alloy
changes the electrical conductivity of the alloy. The electrical conductivity
decreas as hardness increase. As an example Brinell hardness 60 is
represented by conductivity 23 while Brinell hardness 100 of the same alloy
would have a conductivity of 19.

Table 4.1: Electrical resistivity and conductivity of several metals and alloys
ρ = 172.41 / %IACS

Permeability
Permeability of any material is a measure of the ease with which its magnetic
domains can be aligned or the ease with which it can be establish lines of
force. Materials are rated on a comparative basis. Air is assigned a
permeability of 1. Ferromagnetic metals and alloys including nickel, iron and
cobalt tend to concentrate magnetic flux lines. As discussed in Chapter 3,
some ferromagnetic materials or sintered ionic compounds are also useful in
concentrating magnetic flux. Magnetic permeability is not constant for a given
material. The permeability in a test sample depends on the magnetic field
acting on it. As an example, consider a magnetic steel bar placed in an
encircling coil. As the coil current is increase, the magnetic field of the coil will
increase. The magnetic flux within the steel will increase rapidly at first and
then will tend to level off as the steel approaches magnetic saturation. This
phenomenon is called the saturation effect.

BH Curve

When increases in the magnetizing force produce littile or no change on the
flux within the steel bar, the bar is magnetically saturated. When
ferromagnetic materials are saturated, permeability becomes constant. With
magnetic permeability constant, ferromagnetic materials may be inspected
using tpe eddy current method. Without magnetic saturation ferromagnetic
materials exhibit such a wide range of permeability variation that signals
produce by discontinuities or conductivity variations are masked by the
permeability signal.

Skin Effect
Electromagnetic tests in many applications are most sensitive to test object
variables nearest the test coil because of skin effect. Skin effect is a result of
mutual interaction of eddy currents, operating frequency, test object
conductivity and permeability. The skin effect, the concentration of eddy
currents in the test object nearest the test coil, becomes more evident as test
frequency, test object conductivity and permeability are increased. For current
density or eddy current distribution in the test object, refer to Figure 1.8 in
Chapter 1.
δ = (πfμσ) -½
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Skin Effect
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Edge Effect
The electromagnetic field produced by an excited test coil extends in all
directions from the coil. The coil's field precedes the coil by some distance
determined by coil parameters, operating frequency and test object
characteristics.
As the coil approaches the edge of a test object, eddy current flow in the test
sample becomes distorted by the edge. This is known as edge effect.
Edge effect can create a change in the coil's impedance that is similar to a
discontinuity (Figure4.2). The response would move back along the
conductivity curve toward the air point. The coil is responding to a slightly less
conductive situation (air) at the leading edge of the coil's field of view. It is
therefore essential that edge effect be eliminated as a variable during a
surface scanning test. Response to the edges of test objects can be reduced
by: incorporating magnetic shields around the test coil, increasing the test
frequency, reducing the test coil diameter or by changing the scanning pattern
used. Edge effect is a term most applicable to the inspection of sheets or
plates with a probe coil.

Discussion
Subject: Response to the edges of test objects can be reduced by:
incorporating magnetic shields around the test coil, increasing the test
frequency, reducing the test coil diameter or by changing the scanning pattern
used.

Figure 4.2: Edge effect

Lift Off
Electromagnetic coupling between test coil and test object is of prime importance
when conducting an eddy current examination. The coupling between test coil and test
object varies with spacing between the test coil and test object. This spacing is called
lift off (4). The effect on the coil impedance is called lift off effect. Figure 4.3 shows the
relationship between air, conductive materials and lift off. The electromagnetic field, as
previously discussed, is strongest near the coil and dissipates with distance from the
coil. This fact causes a pronounced lift off effect for small variations in coil to object
spacing.
As an example, a spacing change from contact to 0.0254 mm (0.001 in.) will produce
a lift off effect many times greater than a spacing change of 0.254mm (0.010 in.) to
0.2794 mm (0.011 in.) (15), Lift off effect is generally an undesired effect causing
incre,ased noise and reduced coupling resulting in po6r measming ability (12). In
some instances, equipment having phase discrimination capability can readily
separate lift off from conductivity or other variables. Lift off can be used to advantage
when measuring nonconductive coatings on conductive bases. A nonconductive
coating such as paint or plastic causes a space between the coil and conducting base,
allowing lift off to represent the coating thickness. Lift off is also useful in profilometry
and proximity applications. Lift off is a term most applicable to testing objects with a
surface or probe coil.

Fill Factor
Fill factor is a term used to describe how well a test object will be ectromagnetically
coupled to a test coil that surrounds or is inserted into the test object. Fill factor then
pertains to inspections using bobbin or encircling coils. Like lift off, electromagnetic
coupling between test coil and test object is most efficient when the coil is nearest the
surface of the part. The area of a circle (A) is determined using the equation:
A Area = πd2/4
Fill factor can be described as the ratio of test object diameter to coil diameter squared
(Figure 4.4). The diameters squared is a simplified equation resulting in the.division of
effective coil and part areas. Because the term π /4 both the numerator and the
denominator of this fractional equation the term π/4 cancelled out, leaving the ratio of
the diameters squared;
η (eta) = d2/D2 , fill factor

Fill factor will always be a number less than 1 and efficient fill factors
approaching 1, fill factor of 0.99 is more desirable than a fill factorof 0.75. The
effect of fill factor on the test system is that poor fill factors do not allow the
coil to be sufficiently coupled to the test object. This is analogous to the
effect of drawing a bow only slightly and releasing an arrow. The result is,
with the bow slightly drawn and released, little effect is produced to propel the
arrow.
In electrical terms it is said that the coil is loaded by the test object. How
much the coil is loaded by the test object due to fill factor can be calculated in
relative terms. A test system with constant current capabilities being affected
by a conductive nonmagnetic bar placed into an encircling coil can be used to
demonstrate this effect.

For this example, the system parameters are as follows: (a) Unloaded coil
voltage equals 10 V. (b) Test object effective permeability equals 0.3 (c) Test
coil inside diameter equals 25.4 mm (1 in.) (d) Test object outside diameter
equals 22.9 mm (0.9 in.)
η (eta) = d2/D2 , fill factor = (0.9/1)2 = 0.81

An equation demonstrating coil loading is given by:
E = Eo (1- η + η∙μeff )
Where:
Eo = Coil voltage with coil affected by air
E = Coil voltage with coil affected by the test material
η = Fill factor
μeff = Effective Permeability

Figure 4.4: Fill factor ratios
Whena nonfermmagnetic test object is inserted into the test coil, the coil's
voltage will decrease.
E = Eo (1- η + η∙μeff )
E = 10 (1-0.81 + 0.81 x 0.3)
E = 4.33 Volts
This allows 10- 4.3 or 5.7 V available to respond to test object changes
caused by discontinuities or decreases in effective conductivity of the test
object. It is suggested that the reader calculate the resultant loaded voltage
developed by a 12.7 mm (0.5 in.) bar of the same material and observe the
relative sensitivity difference.
Figure 4.4: Fill factor ratios
Whena nonfermmagnetic test object is inserted into the test coil, the coil's
voltage will decrease.
∆E = Eo (1- η + η∙μeff )
∆E = 10 (1-0.81 + 0.81 x 0.3)
∆E = 4.33 Volts
object. It is suggested that the reader calculate the resultant loaded voltage
developed by a 12.7 mm (0.5 in.) bar of the same material and observe the
relative sensitivity difference.
Example:
Calculate the resultant loaded voltage developed by a 12.7 mm (0.5 in.) bar of
the same material and observe the relative sensitivity difference.
η (eta) = d2/D2 , fill factor = (0.5/1)2 = 0.25
An equation demonstrating coil loading is given by:
∆E = Eo (1- η + η∙μeff)
∆E = 10 (1-0.251 + 0.25 x 0.3)
∆E = 8.25 Volts
object.

Discontinuities
Any discontinuity that appreciably changes the normal eddy current flow can
be detected. Discontinuities, such as cracks, pits, gouges, vibrational damage
and corrosion, generally cause the effective conductivity of the test object to
be reduced. Discontinuities open to the surface are more easily detected than
subsurface discontinuities. Discontinuities open to the surface can be
detected with a wide range of frequenciesi subsurface investigations require a
more careful frequency selection.
Discontinuity detection at depths greater than 12.7 mm (0.5 in.) in stainless

steel is very difficult. This is in part due to the sparse distribution of magnetic
flux lines at the low frequency required for such deep penetrations.

Figure 1.8 is again useful to illustrate discontinuity response because of
current distribution. As an example, consider testing a nonferromagnetic tube
at a frequency that establishes a standard depth of penetration at the
midpoint of the tube wall. This condition would allow a relative current density
of about 20% on the far surface of the tube. With this condition, identical near
and far surface discontinuities would have greatly different responses. Due to
current magnitude alone, the near surface discontinuity response would be
nearly five times that of the far surface discontinuity.
Discontinuity orientation has a dramatic effect on response. As seen earlier,

discontinuity response is maximum when eddy currents and discontinuities
are at 90 degrees or perpendicular. Discontinuities parallel to the eddy
current flow produce little or no response.
The easiest technique to ensure detectability of discontinuities is to use a

reference standard or model that provides a consistent means of adjusting
instrumentation.


Signal-to-Noise Ratio
Signal-to-noise ratio is the ratio of signals of interest to unwanted signals.
Common noise sources are test object variations of surface roughness,
geometry and homogeneity. Other electrical noises can be due to such
external sources as welding machines, electric motors and generators.
Mechanical vibrations can increase test system noise by physical movement
of test coil or test object. In other words, anything that interferes with a test
system's ability to define a measurement is considered noise. Signal-to-noise
ratios can be improved by several techniques. If a part is dirty or scaly, signal-
to-noise ratio can be improved by cleaning the part. Electrical interference
can be shielded or isolated. Phase discrimination and filtering can improve
signal- to-noise ratio. It is common practice in non destructive testing to
require a minimum signal-to-noise ratio of 3 to 1. This means a signal of
interest must have a response at least three times that of the noise at that
point.

Chapter 4
Review Questions

The Answers

Q.4.1 Materials that hold their electrons loosely are classified as:
A. resistors.
B. conductors.
C. semiconductors.
D. insulators.
Q.4.2 100% IACS is based on a specified copper bar having a resistance of:
A. 0.01 ohms.
B. 100 ohms.
C. 0.017241 ohms.
D. 172.41 ohms.
Q.4.3 A resistivity of 13 μohm cm is equivalent to a conductivity in percent

IACS of:
A. 11.032.
B. 0.0625.
c. 1652.
D. 13.26.

Q.4.4 A (?) prime factor affecting conductivity is:
A. temperature.
B. hardness,
C. heat treatment.
Q.4.5 Materials that tend to concentrate magnetic flux lines are:

A. conductive.
B. permeable.
c. resistive.
D. inductive.
Q.4.6 Diamagnetic materials have:

A. a permeability greater than air.
B. a permeability less than air.
C. a permeability greater than ferromagnetic materials.
D. no permeability.

Q.4.7 Edge effect can be reduced by:
A. shielding.
B. selecting a lower frequency.
C. using a smaller coil.
D. both A and C.
Q.4.8 Calculate the effect of fill factor when a conducting bar 12.7 mm (0.5 in.)
in diameter with an effective permeability of 0.4 is placed into a 25.4 mm (1 in.)
diameter coil with an unloaded voltage of 10V. The loaded voltage is:
A. 2V.
η = (0.5)2 = 0.25
B. 4.6V:
∆E = Eo ( 1-η+ ηxμeff)
C. 8.5V:
∆E = Eo ( 1-0.25 + .25x.4) = 8.5 Volts
D. 3.2V.
Q.4.9 Laminations are easily detected with the eddy current method.
A. True
B. False

Q.4.10 Temperature changes, vibration and environmental effects are test
coil inputs that generate:
A. unwanted signals.
B. magnetic fields.
c. eddy currents.
D. drift.

Chapter 5
Selection of Test Frequency
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Test Frequencies
It is the responsibility of nondestructive testing engineersand technicians to
provide and perform non destructive testing that in some way ensures the
quality, usefulness of industly products. To apply a nondestructive test, it is
essential that the parameters affecting the test be understood. Usually
industry establishes a product or component and then seeks a method to
inspect it. This practice establishes test object geometry, conductivity and
permeability before the application of the eddy current examination.
Instrument, test coil and test frequency selection become the tools used to
solve the problem of inspection. Test coils were discussed previously and
instrumentation will be discussed later in this text. Test frequencies and their
selection will be examined in detail in this Chapter.

Frequency Selection
In Chapter 1, it was observed that eddy currents are exponentially reduced as
they penetrate the test object. In addition, a time or phase difference in these
currents was observed (current lagging with penetration w.r.t surface current).
The currents near the test coil happen first or lead the current that is deeper
in the object.
A high current density allows good detectability and a wide phase difference
between near and far surfaces allows good resolution.
Keypoint:
Current deeper into the test object lag the surface current by β = x/δ radian.

Single Frequency Systems
Unfortunately, if a low frequency is selected to provide good penetration and
detectability, the phase difference between near and far surface is reduced. Selection
of frequency often becomes a compromise. It is common practice in inservice
inspection of thin-wall, nonferromagnetic tubing to establish a standard depth of
penetration just past the midpoint of the tube wall. This permits about 25% of the
available eddy current to flow at the outside surface of the htbe wall. In addition, this
establishes a phase difference of about 150 degrees to 170 degrees between the
inside and outside surface of the tube wall. The combination of 25% outside, or
surface current and 170 degrees included phase angle provides good detectability and
resolution for thin-wall tube inspection. (This is accomplished by properly selecting the
driving frequency of the coil to limit the penetration)
Calculation:
δ = (πfσμ) -½
β = x/ δ radian = x / δ∙ 57.3º
Where:
x = depth below surface

Standard penetration depth δ
The depth that eddy currents penetrate into a material is affected by the frequency of
the alternating current, the electrical conductivity and magnetic permeability of the
sample. The depth of penetration decreases with increasing frequency and increasing
conductivity and magnetic permeability. The depth at which eddy current density has
decreased to 1/e, or about 37% of the surface density, is called the standard depth of
penetration (δ or 1 δ) and used as criteria of ideal measurement. At three standard
depth of penetration (3δ), the Eddy Current density is down to only 5% of the surface
density. So, defects or variation deeper than the three standard depth of penetration
cannot be recognized because the EC density in this depth is too low to detect. Thus,
achieving the standard penetration depth is the most important factor at Eddy Current
testing and this is realized by selecting appropriate frequency suitable for a material
property.
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Eddy Current Density
Since the sensitivity of Eddy Current inspection depends on the Eddy Current density at the
defect location, it is important to know the strength of the Eddy Currents at this location. When
detect flaws, a frequency is often selected which places the expected flaw depth within one
standard depth of penetration. This assures that the strength of the Eddy Currents would be
sufficient to produce a flaw indication.
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Eddy Current Density of a Solid bar D=2δ
D=2δ δ
1/e = 37% of surface current density
2δ
(1/e)2 = 13.5% of surface current density

Applicable Scenario
Eddy Current Density of a Solid bar D≤2c
The field in air

on the far
surface ?
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Eddy Current Density of a Solid bar D>3δ
100% surface current density

δ
1/e = 37% of
D>3δ surface current
2δ density
(1/e)2 = 13.5% of
surface current
density
32δ
(1/e)3 = 5% of
surface current
density at 3δ

Standard Depth δ Formula
The depth of penetration formula discussed in Chapter 1, although correct, has rather
cumbersome units. Conductivity is usually expressed in percent of the International Annealed
Copper Standard (% IACS). Resistivity is usually expressed in terms of micro-ohm-centimeter
(μΩcm) (16). Depths of penetration are normally much less than 12.7 mm (0.5 in.). A formula
using these units may be more appropriate and easier to use. In Chapter 1 a formula for
calculating depth of penetration in the metric units was presented. Another derivative of this
formula using resistivity, frequency and permeability with δ expressed in mm or inches can be
expressed as follows: (standards form δ = (πf∙σμrμo)-½ , σ = 1/ρ)
δ = K√ [ρ/(fμr)] ， δ = K [ρ/(fμr)] ½
Where:
δ = Standard penetration in mm or inches
K = 50 for δ in mm and 1.98 for δ in inches
ρ = Resistivity in micro-ohm-centimeter (μΩcm)
f = Frequency
μr = Relative permeability (for non-magnetic conductor μr=1)
δ = K√ [ρ/(f)]
for non-magnetic conductor where μr=1

Frequency Selection – Non Ferromagnetic Conductor
The prime variable is frequency. By adjusting frequency technicians can be
selectively responsive to test object variables. Solving the nonferromagnetic
depth of penetration formula for frequency requires a simple algebraic
manipulation as follows:
δ = K√ [ρ / (f)] for non-magnetic conductor where μr=1
ρ /f = (δ/K)2,
f = ρ∙(K/δ)2

Example 1:
As an example of how this may be used, consider inspecting a 7.6 mm (0.3
in.) thick aluminum plate, fastened to a steel plate at the far surface. Effects of
the steel part are undesirable and require discrimination or elimination. The
aluminum plate has a resistivity of 5 μΩ∙cm. By establishing a depth of
penetration at 2.54 mm (0.1 in., the far surface current will be less than 10%
(5%) of the available current, thus reducing response to the steel part. The
frequency required for this can be calculated by applying: δ = 0.1”
f = ρ∙(K/ δ)2 , f = 5(1.98/0.1)2 = 1960Hz (use inches)
0.3 in. Thick Al.
Steel plate

Example 2:
If detection of the presence of the steel part was required, the depth of
penetration could be reestablished at 7.6 mm (0.3 in.) in the aluminum plate
and a new frequency could be calculated. δ = 0.3 in.
f = ρ∙(K/ δ)2 , f = 5(1.98/0.3)2 = 218Hz (use inches)

Frequency Selection – Ferromagnetic Conductor
For ferromagnetic conductor δ = K√ [ρ/(fμr)], the parameter μr ≠ 1, need to
be addressed in the above example:
f = ρ /μr ∙(K/ δ)2 instead of f = ρ ∙ (K/ δ)2

Bessel function for fg (?)
Another approach to frequency selection uses argument A of the Bessel
function where argument A is equal to unity or 1.
A = f μrσd2 / 5066
Where:
f = frequency Hz
μr = Relative permeability
σ = Conductivity in meter / Ω.mm2
d = Diameter of the coil in cm

A frequency can always selected to established factor A = 1, the frequency is
known as limiting frequency and is denoted by fg. By substituting 1 for A and
fg for f, the equation becomes;
1 = fg∙ μr∙ σ∙ d2 / 5066
fg = 5066/ (μr∙ σ∙ d2)
Limiting frequency fg is then established in term of conductivity, permeability,

some dimensional properties and a constant 5066.
Because limiting frequency fg is based on these parameters, a techniques of
frequency determination using a test frequency to limit frequency ration f/fg
can be accomplished.
High f/fg ratios are used for near surface tests and lower f/fg ration is used for
subsurface tests.

Often results of such tests are represented graphically by diagrams,These
diagrams are called impedance diagrams. Impedance illustrated by vector
diagrams in Chapter 3 shows inductive reactance represented onthe Y axis,
ordinate and resistance on the X axis, abscissa.
The vector sum of the reactive and resistive components is impedance. This
impedance is a quantity with magnitude and direction that is directly
proportional to frequency. To construct a universal impedance diagram valid
for all frequencies, the impedance must be normalized (4). Figure 5.1
illustrated a normalization process.

Figure 5.1(a) shows the effect on primary impedance Zp with changes in
frequency (ω= 2πf). Figure 5.1(a) represents primary impedance without a
secondary circuit or test object.
Figure 5.1(b) illustrates the effect of frequency on primary impedance with a

secondary circuit or test object present. The primary resistance R, in
Figure5.1(a) has been subtracted in Figure 5.1(b) because resistance is not
affected by frequency. The term ωLsG in Figure 5.1(b) represents a
reference quantity for the secondary impedance. The units are secondary
conductance (G) and ωLs (secondary reactance).

Figure 5.1: Effects of frequency change (a) Primary impedance without
secondary circuit (b) Primary impedance with secondary circuit.
XL =ωL = 2πf∙L

Figure 5.1: Effects of frequency change (a) Primary impedance without
secondary circuit (b) Primary impedance with secondary circuit.
B, C, D, E, F, loci for selected values of Zp

G = secondary conductance
Zp =primary impedance
ω = angular frequency = 2πf
ωLs = secondary reactance
The primary resistance R, in

Figure5.1(a) has been
subtracted in Figure 5.1(b)
because resistance is not
affected by frequency.

Further normalization is accomplished by dividing the reactive and resistive
components by the term ωLo or the primary inductive reactance without a
secondary circuit present.
Figure 5.2 shows a typical normalized impedance diagram. The terms
ωL/ωL0 and R/ωL0 represent the relative impedance of the test coil as
affected by the test object. Signals generated by changes in ωL or R caused
by test object conditions such as surface and subsurface discontinuities may
be noted by ∆ωL or ∆R. The ∆ωL and ∆R notation indicates a change in the
impedance.

Figure 5.2: Normalized impedance diagram for long coil encircling solid
cylindrical nonferromagnetic bar and for thin-wall tube. Coil fill factor = 1.0
k = √(ωμσ) = Electromagnetic wave propagation

constant for conducting material
r = radius of the conductor in m
μ = magnetic permeability of bar = 4π∙10-7 H.m-1
if bar is non-magnetic (μ = μo)
ω = angular velocity = 2πf
√(ωLoG) = equivalent of √(ωμσ) for simplified
electrical circuit, where G=conductance (Siemens)
and Lo = inductance in air (Henry)

Figure 5.3 shows the impedance variation in a nonferromagnetic cylinder
caused by surface and subsurface discontinuities. Figure 5.3 also illustrates a
sensitivity ratio for surface and subsurface discontinuities. Notice with an flfg
ratio of 50, a relatively high frequency, the respouse to subsurface
discontinuities is not very prononounced.
Figure 5.4 shows responses to the same discontinuities with an f/fg ratio of 15.
This lower frequency allows better detection of subsurface discontinuities as
shown in Figure 5.4.

Figure 5.3: Impedance variations caused by surface and subsurface cracks
Impedance variations caused by surface and

subsurface cracks in nonferromagnetic cylinders,
at a frequency ratio f/fg = 50.

Figure 5.3: Impedance variations caused by surface

and subsurface cracks
Figure 5.4: Impedance variations caused by surface and subsurface cracks
Impedance variations caused by surface and

subsurface cracks in nonferromagnetic
cylinders, at a frequency ratio f/fg = 15.

Figure 5.4: Impedance variations caused by surface

and subsurface cracks
Multiparameter Techniques
It becomes obvious that the technician must have a good working knowledge
of current density and phase relationships to make intelligent frequency
choices. The frequency choice discussed to date deals with coil systems
driven by only one frequency. Test systems driven by more than one
frequency are called multifrequency or multi parameters systems. It is
common for a test coil to be driven with three or more frequencies. Although
several frequencies may be applied simultaneously or sequentially to a test
coil, each of the individual frequency techniques follows rule established by a
single frequency techniques. Signals generated at the various frequencies
are often combined or mixed in electronic circuits that algebraically add or
subtract signals to obtain the desired result.

Multiparameter Techniques – Broadband Signals
One multifrequency approach is to apply a broadband signal, with many
frequency components to the test coil. The information transmitted by the
signal is proportional to its bandwidth and the logarithm of 1 plus the signal-
to-noise power ration.
The relation is stated by the equation:
C = B∙Log2(1+ S/N)
C = rate of information transmitted in bits per second

B = bandwidth of the signal
S/N = signal-to-noise ratio
This is known as the Shannon-Hartley theorem.

Multiparameter Techniques - Multiplexing
Another approach to multiparameter techniques is to use multiplexing
process. The multiplexing process places one frequency at a time on the test
coil. This results in zero crosstalk between each frequency and eliminates the
need for channel specific band pass filters. The major advantages of a
multiplex system, in addition to the crosstalk reduction issues, are lower cost
and greater flexibility in frequency selection. If the multiplexing switch rate is
sufficiently high, both broadband and multiplex systems have essentially the
same results.
The characterization of eddy current signals by their phase angle and

amplitude is a common practice and provides a basis for signal mixing to
suppress unwanted signals from test data. Two frequencies are required to
remove each unwanted variable.

Example – Multiparameter Technique
Practical multi parameter frequency selection can be demonstrated by the
following example:
Problem: Eddy current inspection of installed thin wall nonferromagnetic heat

exchanger tubing. Tubing is structurally supported by ferromagnetic tube
supports at several locations. It is desired to remove the tube support
response signal from tube wall data.
Solution: Apply a multiparameter technique to suppress the tube support

signal response.

First, a frequency is selected to give optimum phase and amplitude
information about the tube wall. This is called the prime frequency. At the
prime frequency, the response to the tube support and to a calibration
through wall hole are about equal in amplitude. They may also have about the
same phase angle.
A second frequency called the subtractor frequency is selected on the basis

of the phase angle of the tube support response. Because the tube support
surrounds the outside diameter of the tube, a lower frequency is selected. At
the subtractor frequency the tube support signal response is about 10 times
greater than the calibration through wall hole. The phase difference between
the support signal and the through wall hole in this lower frequency will be
about 90 degrees. Parameter separation limitations are greatest for those
parameters producing nearly similar signals, such as dents .

If the prime and subtractor channels have been selected properly then signal
subtraction algorithms should be able to suppress the tube support signal
leaving only slightly attenuated prime data (discontinuity) information.
For suppression of inside or near surface signals, a higher subtractor

frequency would be chosen. A combination of prime, low and high subtractor
frequencies is often used to suppress both near and far surface signals,
leaving only data pertaining to the part thickness and its condition.
Bandwidth of the coil is of prime importance when operation over a wide

frequency range is required in multifrequency/multi parameter testing.
Optimization of a test frequency (or frequencies) will therefore depend on the
desired measurement or parameter(s) of interest.

More Reading on
Characteristic Parameter Pc / Frequency fg
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EDDY CURRENT PROBES (SENSORS)
INTRODUCTION
Eddy current (EC) testing is used to ensure pre-service quality and to assess in-service health of industrial components
made of electrically conducting materials, by way of detection and characterization of defects or discontinuities. This
technique works on the principles of electromagnetic induction and test phenomenon can be explained using the
Maxwell’s equations. In this technique, as shown in Fig. 1, a coil (also called probe) is excited with sinusoidal
alternating current (frequency, f) to induce eddy currents in the component under test and the change in coil impedance
is measured. Defects such as cracks, inclusions, notches, microstructure variations etc. cause a discontinuity in
electrical conductivity, and/or magnetic permeability, hence, distort the eddy current flow and in turn, change the coil
impedance. The measured impedance change is correlated with defect parameters e.g., length, depth, location, and
orientation etc. The locus of impedance change during the movement of an EC probe is usually called an EC signal or
the impedance-plane trajectory. Eddy current test phenomenon is controlled by the skin effect, according to which the
depth of penetration (also standard depth of penetration [SDP]), depends on frequency and material properties (see
Fig.1). Due to skin-effect, the detection and characterization of surface defects is more reliable as compared to buried
or sub-surface defects. Popular industrial applications of eddy current testing include defect detection, material
property measurement, alloy sorting, and material as well as coating thickness measurements. It is also used for
proximity sensing, level measurements, metal particles/debris in non-conducting media (cardboards, bakery products,
currency notes, underground mines, insulators etc. )
Eddy current probe is the main link between the eddy current instrument and the component under test. Success of
eddy current testing for a specific inspection application depends on sensor, instrument and optimization of test
parameters. The probe plays two important roles: it induces the eddy currents, and it senses the distortion of their flow
caused by defects. Design of probe / sensor is an important task and a variety of aspects such as component geometry,
impedance matching, magnetic field focusing, and environment etc. need to be considered for its design and
development. In this contribution, some important aspects concerning probe design and development are covered.

Figure 1: Eddy Current Testing

TYPES OF EDDY CURRENT PROBES / SENSORS
Design and development of eddy current probes is very important as it is the
probe that dictates the probability of detection and the reliability of
characterization. In general, defects that cause maximum perturbation of
eddy currents are detected with high sensitivity. The shape, cross-section,
size and configuration of coils are varied to design an eddy current probe for
a specific application. Depending on the geometry of the component three
types of eddy current probes viz. surface pancake, encircling and bobbin
probes shown in Fig.2 are employed. The three types of probes can be
operated in absolute, differential or send-receive modes. In absolute mode
only one coil is used for exciting and sensing eddy currents. The differential
probes with two coils usually wound in opposite direction, and the send-
receive probes with separate receiver coils, employ different bridge circuits.
The absolute and differential modes exhibit different characteristics (Table.1)
and selection depends, primarily on inspection requirement.

Figure 2: Types of Probes

Surface (Pancake) Probes
Surface probe or Pancake probe, usually a spring mounted flat probe or a
pointed pencil type probe, allows determining the exact location of a defect.
The probe may be hand held, may be mounted on automated scanners or
may even be rotated around to get e.g. a helical scan in tube/rod inspections.
Surface probes possess directional properties i.e. regions of high and low
sensitivity (Table.2). Usually ferrite cores (absolute cylindrical as well as split-
D differential types) and shields are used for enhanced sensitivity and
resolution. Besides ferrites, copper coils are used for shielding purpose.
Surface probes are extensively used in aircraft inspection for crack detection
in fastener holes and for detection of corrosion/exfoliation in hidden layers.
When the component geometry is complex, it is not uncommon to use probe
guides, shoes, centering-mechanisms to maintain uniform lift-off and
detection sensitivity. Surface probes were developed for EC imaging, for
measurement of liquid sodium level in steel tanks and also for measurement
of thickness of coatings.

σº∙πμ■δ∝∞ωΩθ√ρβααδπ∠δ

Encircling Probes
Encircling probes are used to inspect rods, tubes and wires. In an encircling
probe the coil is in the form of a solenoid into which the component is placed.
In this arrangement, the entire outside circumferential surface of the
component covered by the coil is scanned at a time, giving high-inspection
speeds. These probes may not detect circumferential defects (Table.2) as the
edy currents flow parallel to them without getting distorted. Popular industrial
application of encircling probes is high-speed inspection of tubes from outside
during the manufacturing stages. Encircling probes were developed NDE of
thin-walled cladding tubes and thick-walled steam generator magnetic tubes.

Bobbin Probes
These probes are the most widely used ones in eddy current NDE. Bobbin
probes consist of a coil arrangement in the form of a winding over a bobbin,
which passes through components such as tubes and scans the entire inside
surface in one-go. Popular application of bobbin probes is high-speed multi-
frequency inspection of heat exchanger tubes in-situ for detection of cracks,
wall thinning and corrosion in tubes as well as under support plate regions.
The directional properties of these probes are identical to encircling probes.
In some instances, bobbin type probes are employed for inspection of bolt
holes. For inspection of critical components, phased-array probes are slowly
replacing the traditional bobbin/encircling probes as regards to detection and
location of circumferential and short defects.

Design of eddy current probes
In most EC instruments excitation current is kept constant (in a few tens of
mA range) and the inductance may vary by a factor of one thousand. The
usual input impedance could range between 20 and 200 ohms. The number
of turns and wire gauge (between SWG 30 and SWG 45) are fixed such that
the coils fill the available cross sectional space in uniform layers and turns per
layer so that inter-winding effects are minimal. In some situations, it may be
necessary to use a number of bridge circuits as well as probes operating
simultaneously, essentially to cover larger area. For good sensitivity to small
defects, small diameter probes are used. Similarly, in order to detect sub-
surface and buried defects, large diameter high throughput probes are
necessary. As a general rule, the probe diameter should be less than or equal
to the expected defect length and also comparable to the thickness of the
component.

The sensing area of a probe is the physical diameter of the coil plus an
extended area governed by magnetic field spread. Hence, it is common to
use ferrite cores/shields (high permeability and low conductivity) to contain
the lateral extent of magnetic fields without affecting the depth of penetration.
It is essential to operate EC probes below the probe/cable resonance

frequency, especially while using long probe cables and at very high
frequencies. The probe bodies are usually made of non-conducting plastics.
Wear of probes is normally be reduced by giving wear resistant coating to the
probe heads or tips. It must be noted here that such coatings add to the built-
in lift-off of probes and tend to reduce signal amplitudes. Temperature stability
of probes is usually accomplished by using coil holder material with poor heat
transfer characteristics. Most common commercial copper wires are used up
to about 150º C. For temperatures above this, silver or aluminum wires with
ceramic or high temperature silicon insulation or MIC are used. The probe
material must be chemically compatible with the component.

In brief, probe design is usually done considering the following:
 Geometry of the component e.g. rod, tube, plate etc.
 Type of discontinuity expected e.g. fatigue cracks, conductivity variation etc.
 Likely location of defect e.g. surface, sub-surface.
 Coil impedance and its matching with the bridge circuit of the EC instrument.
 Frequency range of the probe i.e. for simultaneous multi-frequency excitation
 Inspection requirement e.g. detection, evaluation of length, depth etc.
 Material characteristics e.g. ferromagnetic or non-ferromagnetic.
 Coil response to a notch, drilled hole or other reference discontinuity.
 Field distribution in space and eddy current flow distribution in the material.
 Shape and dimensions of core, coil /coils and lift-off characteristics.
 Environmental characteristics such as wear, temperature and chemical attack.
As many factors need to be considered, three different approaches viz.

experimental, analytical and numerical are often resorted to for designing
eddy current probes.

Experimental Approach
This approach usually involves trail and error fabrication of probes suiting the
geometry. In this approach, the coil dimensions and the test frequency are
usually optimized by comparing the detection sensitivity of artificial reference
notches as well as natural cracks if available. This approach was used to
design encircling EC probes for inspection of stainless steel cladding tubes of
Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR) and also to design probes for Cr-Mo
steam generator tubes of Prototype Fast Breeder Reactors (PFBR). In
another instance, in order to minimize low sensitivity zones of phased-array
eddy current probes for inspection of heat exchanger tubes, tandem probe
was developed.

Analytical Approach (Pc & fg)
Analytical approaches for probe design involve analyzing the eddy current
testing phenomenon and calculating the coil impedance and examining the
operating point on the impedance plane as well as the effect of variations in
coil radius r, shape, material conductivity, thickness t and test frequency f.
Two popular impedance plane diagram based methods are
1) calculation of characteristic parameter, Pc introduced by Deeds and Doods for
planar geometries and
2) calculation of characteristic frequency ratio f/fg, where fg is the characteristic
frequency introduced by Förster for tubular geometries.
(fg = 5066/ (μr∙ σ∙ d2)
Using these two methods, coils are designed such that the operating point is
in the “knee” region on the normalized impedance plane diagrams.

Numerical Approach
Eddy current testing phenomenon can also be analyzed numerically using
finite difference, finite element (FE), boundary element (BEM) and other
methods. In this approach, coil and core dimensions are varied systematically
and signals are predicted for a reference defect and the dimensions that
result in maximum detection sensitivity are chosen. Not only signal amplitude,
but phase angle from lift-off is also considered for decision making. A few
typical applications of axis-symmetric FE model, are discussed elsewhere. In
this model, the region consisting of EC probe and component, is discritised
into triangular elements and variational principles are applied to compute the
vector potential at the vertices of the elements. From the vector potential, the
probe impedance is calculated and in turn, the impedance plane trajectories.
This model has been used to optimize eddy current probes for location of
garter springs in the coolant channels of Pressurized Heavy Water Reactors
(PHWRs)

RECENT TRENDS IN EDDY CURRENT PROBE DESIGN
Detection of cracks emanating from edges and corners of components is very important. Often, strong signal from the edges
mask the small/weak signal from a potentially harmful crack. Focused surface probes are being explored and likewise appropriate
signal processing methods are being incorporated to suppress edge contributions. In the case of heat exchanger tubes, rotating
surface probes or array probes with multiplexing are preferred for detection and characterization of defects along the tube
circumference (location). For detection of defects at roll joints special array probes are being tried. In order to inspect components
with complex geometries, flexible probes are being tried. These probes can be mounted/scanned over a region for inspection
purpose and be easily removed. Similarly, for detection of sub-surface and deep-seated defects in multi-layer and other structures
eddy current probes are mounted and integrated with Hall probes, SQUID, GMR and AMR sensors. The main objective in these
strategies is to detect the weak magnetic fields from defects, rather than the traditional impedance changes. When more than one
sensors is used and data fusion methods are adopted to combine the sensors data to form a comprehensive global picture of
investigated regions. At times, it may be beneficial to combine information of a single sensor, but operating at different
frequencies to get enhanced information of defects. Such an approach has been used in an intelligent imaging scheme to obtain
accurate and quick 3-dimensional pictures of defects.
Inspection of ferromagnetic tubes is difficult due to high and varying magnetic permeability. For testing such tubes from outside,
encircling D.C. saturation coils are used, where as remote field eddy current probes and permanent magnet based probes are
used for testing from tube inside. Optimization of frequency and location of receiver coil (usually about 3 to 4 tube diameters away
from exciter) in the remote field eddy current testing method is very important. FE model and experimental based approaches
have been successfully used this purpose.
When surface EC probes are scanned in a raster and the impedance data is displayed, Eddy current C-scan images of defects
can be formed. EC images provide valuable information of defects. However, these images are blurred due to distributed point
spread function of the probe. FE model based approach was used to optimize ferrite-core probes for eddy current imaging. In
case of heat exchangers and steam generators, probes have to negotiate U-bend regions and detect defects, if any, in those
regions. Design of flexible probes that are insensitive to bend regions is very challenging. For inspection of bend regions in
ferromagnetic steam generator tubes, flexible remote field eddy current probe, with WC rings on either sides, was developed and
wavelet transform based signal processing method was incorporated to suppress disturbing signals from bend regions.

Pressurized Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs)

Pressurized Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs)

Chapter 5
Review Questions

The Answers

Q.5.1 What frequency is required to establish a standard depth of penetration of
7.6mm (0.1 in.) in Zirconium?
A. 19.6kHz
δ = K√ [ρ/(f)]
B. 196Hz
f = ρ(K/ δ)2 , ρZr= 40μΩ∙cm
C. 3.4 kHz f = 40(50/7.6)2 = 1731 Hz
D. 340Hz f = 40(1.98/.3)2 = 1742 Hz
Q.5.2 To reduce effects of far surface indications, the test

frequency:
A must be mixed.
B. must be raised.
C. mnst be lowered.
D. has no effect.
Q.5.3 The frequency required to establish the Bessel function argument A equal to 1 is
called:
A an optimum frequency.
B. a resonant frequency.
C. a limit frequency.
n. a penetration frequency.

Q.5.4 Calculate the limit frequency for a copper bar (σ = 50.6 meter I ohm
mm2) 1 cm in diameter. The correct limit frequency is:
A. 50kHz.
B. 50.6Hz. fg= 5066/ (μr x σ x d2)
C. 100Hz. fg = 5066/ (1x50.6x12) = 100Hz
D. 100kHz.
Q5.5 Using the example in Question 5.4, what is the f/fg ratio if the test
frequency is 60kHz?
A. 1.2
B. 120
c. 60
D. 600

Q.5.6 In Fig.5.1(b) the value of ωLsG equaling 1.4 would be indicative of
A. a high resistivity metal.
B. a high conductivity metals.
C. a low conductivity metals.
D. a nonconductor.

Q.5.7 Primary resistance is subtracted from Fig.5.1(b) because
A. resistance is always constant.
B. resistance is not frequency dependent.
C. resistance is not added to impedance.
D. none of the above.
Q5.8 The reference quantity is different for solid

cylinder and thin wall tube in Fig 5.2 because:
A. the frequency is different.
B. the conductivity is different.
C. the skin effect is no longer negligible.
D. the thin wall tube has not been normalized.
Note: Both materials having the same conductivity.

The thin wall tube will form a weaker eddy current thus
weaker secondary flux that oppose the primary flux

Discussion:
Subject:
Q5.8 The reference quantity is different for solid
cylinder and thin wall tube in Fig 5.2 because:
A. the frequency is different.
B. the conductivity is different.
C. the skin effect is no longer negligible.
D. the thin wall tube has not been normalized.
Further normalization is accomplished by dividing the reactive and

resistive components by the term ωLo or the primary inductive
reactance without a secondary circuit present.
Figure 5.2 shows a typical normalized impedance diagram. The

terms ωL/ωLo and R/ωLo represent the relative impedance of
the test coil as affected by the test object. Signals generated by
changes in ωL or R caused by test object conditions such as
surface and subsurface discontinuities may be noted by ∆ωL or
∆R. The ∆ωL and ∆R notation indicates a change in the
impedance.
k = √(ωμσ) = Electromagnetic wave propagation constant for conducting material

r = radius of the conductor in m
μ = magnetic permeability of bar = 4π∙10-7 H.m-1 if bar is non-magnetic (μ = μo)
ω = angular velocity = 2πf
√(ωLoG) = equivalent of √(ωμσ) for simplified electrical circuit, where G=conductance
(Siemens) and Lo = inductance in air (Henry)

Q5.9 A 25% deep crack open to the near surface give a response ____ times
greater than the same crack 3.3% of diameter under the surface (refer to Fig
5.4)
A. 10
B. 3
C. 2
D. 5

Q5.10 When using multifrequency system, low subtractor frequencies are
used to suppress:
A. conductivity changes
B. far surface signals
C. near surface signal
D. permeability changes
Note: For suppression of inside or near surface signals, a higher subtractor

frequency would be chosen.
A combination of prime, low and high subtractor frequencies is often used to
suppress both near and far surface signals, leaving only data pertaining to the
part thickness and its condition.
The subtractor frequency is actually the “detecting secondary” frequency

which will be subtracted from the prime frequency signal.

Chapter 6
Instrument Systems

Eddy Current Instrumentation
Most of the eddy current instrumentation is categorized by its final output or
display mode. There are basic requirements common to all type of eddy
current instruments. Five different elements are usually required to produce a
viable eddy current instrumentThese function are excitation, modulation,
signal preparation, signal analysis and signal display. An optional sixth
component would be test object handling equipment. Figure 1 illustrated how
these components interrelate.
The generator provide excitation signals to the test coil. The signal
modulation occurs in the electromagnetic field of the test coil assembly. Next,
the signal preparation section, usually a balancing network, prepares the
signal for demodulation and analysis. In the signal preparation stage, balance
network are used to null out steady value alternating current signals.
Amplifiers and filters are also part of this section to improve signal-to-noise
ratio and raise signal levels for the subsequent demodulation and analysis
stage.

Figure 6.1: Internal functions of the electromagnetic nondestructive test


Eddy current testing – Signal Balancing
The demodulation and analysis section is made up of detectors, analyzers,
discriminators, filters and sampling circuits. Detectors can be a simple
amplitude type or a more sophisticated phase/amplitude or coherent type.
The signal display section is the key link between the test equipment and its
intended purpose. The signals generated can be displayed many different
ways. The type of display or readout depends on the test requirements. In
some tests, a simple GO/NO-GO indicator circuit may be all that is required.
However some applications may require recording of 100% of all raw data
generated during a test. This data may be imported into other digital devices
that allow sophisticated data analysis or engineering statistics to be
generated. One example of this is the inspection of large inservice nuclear
components so that discontinuity growth can be monitored for determining
potential failure rates or replacement cycles. Signal display processes will be
discussed more in Chapter 7.

Chernobyl Nuclear
Power Plant

Series of simple eddy current instruments is shown in Figure 6.2. In Figure
6.2(a), the voltage across the inspection coil is monitored by an alternating
current voltmeter. This type of instrument could be used to measure large lift
off variations where accuracy was not critical. Figure 6.2(b) shows an
impedance bridge circuit. This instrument consists of an alternating current
exciting source, dropping resistors and a balancing impedance.
Figure 6.2(c) is similar to Figure 6.2(b). In Figure 6.2(c) a balance coil similar
to the inspection coil is used to provide a balanced ridge. Figure 6.2(d)
illustrates a balancing coil affected by a reference sample. This is commonly
used in external reference differential coil tests. In all cases, because only the
voltage change or magnitude is monitored, these systems can all be grouped
as impedance magnitude types.

Figure 6.2: Four types of simple eddy current instruments

In Figure 6.2(a), the voltage across the inspection coil is monitored by an
alternating current voltmeter. This type of instrument could be used to
measure large lift off variations where accuracy was not critical.

Figure 6.2(b) shows an impedance bridge circuit. This instrument consists of
an alternating current exciting source, dropping resistors and a balancing
impedance.

Figure 6.2(c) is similar to Figure 6.2(b). In Figure 6.2(c) a balance coil similar
to the inspection coil is used to provide a balanced ridge.

Figure 6.2(d) illustrates a balancing coil affected by a reference sample. This
is commonly used in external reference differential coil tests.


Eddy current testing – Signal Analysis
can be divided into three broad groups. The groups are impedance testing,
phase analysis testing and modulation analysis testing.
1. Impedance testing is based on gross changes in coil impedance when
the coil is placed near the test object.
2. Phase analysis testing is based on phase changes occurring in the test
coil and the test object's effect on those phase changes.
3. Modulation analysis testing depends on the test object passing through
the test coil's magnetic field at a constant feed rate or speed. These
systems act like a tuned circuit. The operating frequency of the tester is
changed (modulated) as a discontinuity passes through the test coil's field.
The amount of modulation is a function of the transit time of the
discontinuity through the coil's field. The faster the transit time the greater
the modulation. If a system is set up for one speed and then the parts are
scanned at a much slower speed the discontinuities may not be detected.

Modulation analysis testing depends on the test object passing
through the test coil's magnetic field at a constant feed rate or speed. These
systems act like a tuned circuit. The operating frequency of the tester is
changed (modulated) as a discontinuity passes through the test coil's field.
The amount of modulation is a function of the transit time of the discontinuity
through the coil's field. The faster the transit time the greater the modulation.
If a system is set up for one speed and then the parts are scanned at a much
slower speed the discontinuities may not be detected.

Impedance Testing
With impedance magnitude instrumentation it is often difficult to separate
desired responses, such as changes in conductivity or permeability, from
dimensional changes.
A variation of the impedance magnitude technique is the reactance

magnitude instrument.
In reactance magnitude tests, the test coil is part of the fundamental

frequency oscillator circuit. This operates like a tuned circuit where the
oscillator frequency is determined by the test coil's inductive reactance. As
the test coil is affected by the test object, its inductive reactance changes,
which in turn changes the oscillator frequency. The relative frequency
variation ∆f/f is, therefore, an indication of test object condition. Reactance
magnitude systems have many of the same limitations as impedance
magnitude systems.

Phase Analysis Testing – Earlier Test System
Phase analysis processes can be divided into many subgroup depending on
the type of display.
Some of the earlier test system output were called vector point, ellipse and
linear time base.

Phase Analysis Testing - Vector Point
The vector point display would simply be a point of light on an analog cathode
ray tube (Figure 6.3), The point is the vector sum of Y and X axis voltages
present in test coil. By proper selection of frequency and phase adjustment a
response in the vertical plan might represent dimensional changes (magnetic
permeability’s factor) while voltage shift inthe horizontal plane could represent
change in conductivity.

Phase Analysis Testing - Ellipse
As with the vector point techniques, the test object and reference standard
are used provide a balanced output. A normal balanced output is a
straight horizontal line. Fig 6.4 shown typical ellipse responses.
Figure 6.4: Cathode ray tube displays for dimension and conductivity

Phase Analysis Testing - Ellipse
As with the vector point techniques, the test object and reference standard
are used provide a balanced output. A normal balanced output is a
straight horizontal line. Fig 6.4 shown typical ellipse responses.



Phase Analysis Testing - Linear Time Base
An early test system that was better suited to compensate for harmonic distortions present in the
fundamental waveform used the linear time base technique. The linear time base unit applies a
sawtooth shaped voltage to the horizontal deflection plates of a CRT. This provides a linear trace
of the CRT beam from left to right across the CRT screen. The timing of the linear trace function
is set to same value as the alternating current energy applied to the coil. This allows one
complete cycle of the sine wave voltage applied to the coil to appear on the CRT. Figure 6.5
illustrates a linear time base display. A slit or narrow vertical scale is provided to measure the
amplitude of signals present in the slit. The base voltage is normally adjusted to cross the slit at 0
volts, the 180 degree point on the sinewave.
The slit value M is used to analyze results. The slit value M is described by
the equation:
M = A sin θ
Where:
M = slit value
A =amplitude of the measurement in the slit
θ = angle between base angle and measurement effect.
In Figure 6.5 the angle difference A to B is about 90 degrees.

Figure 6.5: Screen image of a linear time base instrument with sinusoidal
signals
M = A sin θ
M = slit value
A =amplitude of the measurement in the slit
θ = angle between base angle and measurement
effect.
θ= 90º

Presence Method – The Impedance Plane Testing
The three tester types that have been defined so far (vector point ellipse and linear time base)
were early attempts to correlate electromagnetic changes detected by a test system with material
variables. The circuits that they used were fairly primitive by today's standards. These techniques
were limited by the level of technology available at the time they were built. They were not very
sensitive to small changes in materials and could not readily display small variations in the signal
changesthat they did detect.
As the field of electronics advanced, more sophisticated components became available. In
today's marketplace many eddy current test systems have the capability to display data in
multiple modes. The classic X-Y type display mode is a simple way of showing what is meant by
an impedance plane test system. In Chapter 4 impedance plane diagrams were defined. These
graphs and curves allow technicians to look at complex sets of information for a number of test
variables simultaneously.
Test systems that provide the ability to view both the direction (phase) and amplitude (voltage) of
the voltage shift across an inspection coil provide much greater detail than the early model test
systems that were looked at in this chapter. These modern systems give the ability to sort or
measure material parameters with a much higher degree of accuracy. Some impedance
measurement systems may only display part of the information derived (meterbased technology)
but most use a two-dimensional output device.

Impedance Plane Testing - Mode of Operation
Test instruments may also be classified by their mode of operation. The mode
of operation is determined by two functional areas within the instrument.
1. The first functional consideration might be the degree of compensation, or

nulling, and the type of detector used.
2. The second consideration is the method of test coil excitation. The types of
excitation include single frequency or multifrequency sinusoidal, single or
repetitive pulse and swept frequency.

Impedance Plane Testing - Signal Compensation
Mode 1. Null balance with amplitude detector
Mode 2. Null balance with amplitude phase detectors, (Figure 6.6) and
Mode 3. Selected off null balance with amplitude detector.
Mode 1 responds to any signal irrespective of phase angle. These would typically be
meter-based instrumentation capable of showing only the voltage change or amplitude
of the signal of interest.
Mode 2, using amplitude and phase detectors, can be used to discriminate against
signals having a particular phase angle. With this type of system, the total
demodulated signal can be displayed in an X-Y screen presentation format to show
both amplitude and phase relationships. A classic example of the advantage of this X-
Y screen presentation in surface scanning applications is to put lift off responses on
the horizontal with discontinuities responding up on the screen.
Mode 3 systems are phase sensitive systems although they have only amplitude
detector. They achieve phase sensitivity by operating in a manually selected off
balanced condition. Based on this selection, the off null signal change can be set so
that it may appear larger than the inherent impedance change due to test object
variables.

Figure 6.6: Null balance instrument with amplitude phase detectors
A classic example of the advantage of this

X-Y screen presentation in surface
scanning applications is to put lift off
responses on the horizontal with
discontinuities responding up on the
screen.

Test Coil Excitation
The second consideration that was previously mentioned for determining the
mode of operation of a test unit could be the way the probe is being energized.
Figure 6.7 a typical surface riding pancake coil responses to an array of EDM
notches on a calibration standard. Fig 6.8 shows a block diagram of a
stepped, single frequency, phase amplitude instrument.
The circuit in Fig 6.8 is capable of operating at any of the four frequency, if
the four frequencies are spread over a wide range, several different test coils
may be required to use the instrument over the entire range. Most modern
single frequency instruments use this principle; however one variable
frequency generator with a wide operating range usually replaced the four
individual fixed generators. A typical frequency for such an instrument is in
the low hertz range (50Hz to 100Hz) to several megahertz (8MHz to 10MHz).
This large dynamic range gives these units a wide variety of possible
applications.

Figure 6.7: Typical surface riding pancake coil response to an array of EDM
notches on a calibration standard

Figure 6.8: Single frequency selectable instrument

For deep subsurface crack detection (more than 5mm) the lower frequency would
be required. This test might be performed with hybrid (driver/pick-up) coil to
improved detection of the low amplitude responses from smaller discontinuities
deeper in a product.
For detection of very small stress or fatigue crack in a near surface inspection
process the higher frequency range could improve sensitivity to smaller cracks.
The compromise at very high frequencies is the issue of skin effect or surface
noise. Special probe or scanning process may be required for this type of test
also.
Figure 6.9 shows a block diagram for a multifrequency instrument operating at
three frequencies simultaneously. In modern systems this is referred to as
simultaneous injection. This diagram shows three dedicated frequency modules
but more recent adaptations use multiple variable frequency circuits. In Figure 6.9,
excitation currents at each selected frequency are impressed across the coil at
the same time. You will recall from earlier chapters that the electromagnetic
envelope around an alternating current driven coil is very dynamic. It is very
difficult to model what the combined electromagnetic flux pattern would look like
with more than one frequency affecting the coil at a given moment in time.

Figure 6.9: Multifrequency instrument operating at three frequencies
simultaneously

Multiple circuits are used throughout the instrument. The test coil output
carrier frequencies are separated by filters. Multiple dual phase amplitude
detectors are used and their outputs summed to provide separation of several
test object parameters. A system similar to this is described in Inservice
Inspection of Steam Generator Tubing Using Multiple Frequency Eddy
Current Techniques.
Another approach to the multifrequency technique uses a sequential coil drive
called multiplexing. The frequencies are changed in a step-by-step sequence
with such rapidity that the test parameters remain unchanged. The multiplex
technique has the advantages of lower cost, continuously variable
frequencies and little or no crosstalk between channels.
Figure 6.10 illustrates a multifrequency instrument capable of generating up
to 16 channels of data sequentially. Each channel or time slot may be
adjusted over a wide range of frequencies. In addition, this digital system
provides for the creation of mixed channel combinations for suppression of
unwanted test variables. Results of such suppression are described in
Multifrequency Eddy Current Method and the Separation of Test Specimen
Variables .

Figure 6.10: Commercial multifrequency instrument

This type of digital instrumentation allows all of the test setup parameters to
be stored to either internal or external storage media. This allows
preprogrammed test setups to be recalled and used by semi-skilled personnel.
Systems can be created with programs having supervisory code interlocks
that prevent reprogramming by other than authorized personnel. These
instruments can also interface with robotic or computer-based systems for
both process control and raw data recording purposes. A test system using
pulsed excitation is shown in Figure 6.11.
A pulse is applied to the test coil, compensating networks and analyzers
simultaneously. Systems having analyzers with one or two sampling points
perform similar to a single frequency tester using sinusoidal excitation. Pulsed
eddy current systems having multiple sampling points perform more like the
multifrequency tester shown in Figure 6.10.

Figure 6.11: Pulsed waveform excitation


Read Out Mechanisms
Eddy current test data may be displayed or indicated in a variety of ways. The
type of display or readout depends on the test requirements. Some common
readout mechanisms are indicator lights, audio alarms, meters, digital
displays, CRTs, recorders and computer interfaces.
Read Out Mechanisms - Indicating Light

A simple use of the indicating light is to monitor the eddy current signal
amplitude with an amplitude gate circuit, When the signal reaches a preset
amplitude limit, the amplitude gate switches a relay that applied power to an
indicator light or automatic sorting device. With the amplitude gate circuit,
high-low limits could be preset to give GO/NO-GO indications.

Read Out Mechanisms - Audio Alarms
Audio alarm can be as much same as the indicator light. The alarm gives
qualitative indication without giving any quantitative information.

Read Out Mechanisms - Meter Display
The test information generated by any analog system can be processed
through an analog-to-digital converter if additional signal processing is
required. Meter-based technology signal responses fall into one of two
categories: either quantitative or qualitative. One example of a quantitative
meter response would be a system used for measuring conductivity (Figure
6.12). When the needle deflects and reaches a specific point on the scale the
number indicated on the scale should correlate to a specific percent IACS
value if the system has been properly set up. Some meter-based devices
(Figure 6.13) that might be used for simple discontinuity detection do not give
the operator a numerical value other than a percent of full scale. A given
crack could generate either a small amplitude voltage at a low gain e setting
or a larger amplitude response at a higher gain setting. This would be a
qualitative type response. These systems are not used for discontinuity sizing.

An qualitative meter response could be used in a test situation where a
minimum discontinuity amplitude response can be accurately defined. This
might be an EDM ,, notch of a specified depth in a calibration block. As long
as the meter stays below the preset voltage level from the selected
discontinuity then the sample is acceptable. If that voltage level is exceeded
then the part is deemed unacceptable. In some online inspections, this type of
voltage threshold or gate is used to rapidly sort or grade materials. The use of
these types of output displays should be limited to applications where a
qualitative value or discontinuity threshold can be established and would be
acceptable to meet test criteria.

Figure 6.12: A quantitative meter response indicating a specific conductivity
(in percent of the IACS)

Figure 6.13: A qualitative analog meter response showing only percent of full
scale

Read Out Mechanisms - Digital Displays
Numerical digital displays can also be used to provide qualitative information.
These might have several applications but the most common would be for
measuring conductivity values.

Read Out Mechanisms - Cathode Ray Tubes
Cathode ray tubes, or CRT type displays, play an important role in the display of
eddy current information. In more recent times many eddy cm-rent systems have
become available with digital representations of CRT type screens. In the original
analog system there were three main elements: the electron gtm, the deflection
plates and a fluorescent screen. The electron gun would generate, focus and
direct the electron beam toward the face or screen of the CRT. The deflection
plates were sih1ated between the electron gun and he screen, arranged in two
pairs, usually called horizontal and vertical or X and Y. The plane of one pair
would be perpendicular to the other pair.
The screen is the imaging portion of the CRT. The screen consists of a coating or
coatings that produce photochemical reactions when struck by the electron beam.
The photochemical action appears in two stages. Fluorescence occurs as the
electron beam strikes the screen. Phosphorescence is the chemical process that
allows the screen to continue to give off light after the electron beam has been
removed or has passed over a section of the screen. All analog CRT screen
materials possess both fluorescence and phosphorescence.

The duration of the photochemical effect is called persistence. Persistence
can be grouped as either low, medium ol' high persistence. To display
repetitive signals, a low or medium persistence CRT may have been used. To
display noru:ecurxent or single events, a high persistence CRT would have
been used. Many modern digital cathode ray tube type systems are available.
Because analog CRTs are no longer manufactured, those systems are being
replaced with other options digital system provide the additional flexibility for
the selection of various color and contrastconditions (Figure 6.14).
This allows the operator a thoice otcolor options that can be established on
the swnesystem to compensate for use :in different lighting conditions.
Because the data are outpuftotlte screen in a digital format varying
persistence values can be selected by defining the timing factor of a rolling
data buffer or memory. This selection process allows the operators to choose
how long the digital images created stay on the screen for viewing.

Figure 6.14: Numerical readouts/digital conductivity tester

Read Out Mechanisms - Recorders
Data recorders might be required to meet the inspection criteria. Recording is sometimes
accomplished on analog paper strip charts or on magnetic tape formats. With most modern
equipment providing recording capability some form of digital media would be used. The
data could be stored internally in some test systems, but more often than not the data are
exported to an external storage device. Most of these digital recording media can retain the
files created for offline analysis and long term historical use. Early digital systems were
write once - read many devices. The more recent recording media can be erased and
reused. The advantage of digital systems is that all of the raw data created by a
multifrequency test system can be viewed in multiple display formats at the same time.
Tubing exam data are often reviewed using both the X-Y and strip chart modes to optimize
discontinuity detection and sizing.
The s trip chart format is often used where the discontinuity's location down the length of a
rod or tube is critical. The strip chart length is indexed to time or distance and signal
response deviation from the baseline indicates various material conditions. The amplitude
of the X-Y lissajous response in Figure 6.15 (6.66 V) is an 1nd1cat01' of the volume of the
discontinuity. The phase angle with respect to the/( axis (114 degrees) represents
discontinuity depthl(in this case, 41%) and discontinuity origin (tube outside diameter),
indicating whether the discontinuity originated on the inside or outside surface of the tube
(13). Many comp uter-based systems have multiple display modes available for the same
raw data set.

Read Out Mechanisms - Computer
Eddy current testing may be display with the used of computer. The electronic
components and connectors that are linked to a remote computer via a local
area network (LAN) cable. The computer itself handles data display and
processing functions as well as adjusting tester operating parameters, such
as frequency, gain, probe drive voltage and mode of operation, etc. Figure
6.16 shows a multimode output responses of a rotating pancake coil
inspection in a bolt hole application. The same crack response can be seen in
all four display formats.

Figure 6.16: Multimode output responses: rotating pancake coil inspection in
a bolthple application. The same crack response can be seen in all four
display formats.


Test Object Handling Equipment
Test object handling equipment is often a necessary component of an online test system.
Bars and tubes can be fed through encircling coils by means of roller feed assemblies.
Consistent centering of the material is essential. The stock being fed through the coils is
usually transported at a constant speed. The transport speed needs to be adjusted to allow
adequate time for testing and for the reject, cutting or marking systems to perform their
tasks. Should product centering or speed change during the examination system
performance could be limited. Automatic sorting devices are very common in online
inspection systems used in a manufacturing environment.
When a volumetric test is required for heat treatment or hardness verification the probe
assembly may interrogate the entire test specimen (or some critical region of the specimen)
in one view. For small specimens like ball bearings this could take just fractions of a
second per sample. In larger specimens the volumetric test may take a few seconds per
sample. When crack detection is required the part is normally rotated with one or more
coils positioned near the surface of the specimen. This type of inspection ensures 100%
inspection of critical areas in one test The eddy current technique can often demonstrate
much higher discontinuity sensitivity and more rapid economical testing for surface
discontinuities in parts than any of the other nondestructive testing processes. If
unacceptable material conditions were encountered at any inspection station the part
would be dropped into rejection bin. A digital counter and or remote sensor can be used to
track the number of rejection and alert the plant staff on the manufacturing processes.

Probe Delivery System
Instead of moving the part through an inspection station there are situation
where motorized probe delivery system is used. These are normally
employed outside of the of the manufacturing environment to perform in situ
inspection on existing materials. The term spinning probes originally comes
from the pipe manufacturing environment. The coil is typically a fairly small
specialized coil to improve detection potential for small cracks. A probe was
rotated around the circumference of a tube or bar. The tested material was
moved past the inspection point at a controlled rate of speed. The probe
rotational speeds would have been set to be compatible with instrument
response and translation speeds to obtain the desired inspection coverage
and test sensitivity.

As technology has been improved it has been possible to create other types
of spinning probe possibilities. There are now many situations where spinning
probes can be used. High speed probe guns are used to perform bolt hole
inspection after removal of fastener in aerospace structures.
For heat exchanger inspection, Tubes to be inspected, are identified and their
coordinates are loaded into a database. Positive feedback is supplied to
computerized positioning system by encoder or digital pattern recognition
routines. Although these systems are quite automated, visual. Verification of
the inspection is confirmed by an inspector via a remote video system. As the
probe is inserted and withdrawn from each tube the test results are monitored
in real time for data quality but the data are also recorded for later analysis.
Remotely Operated Vehicles (ROV) can also be looked at as part of the array
of technology to enhance eddy current systems in hostile environments.
These electromechanical devices can be used to perform a wide array of
nondestructive testing tasks. This could include applications for underwater
eddy current array probe inspection of welds in either piping or support
structures for offshore platforms.

Chapter 6
Review Questions

Answers

Q.6.1 Signal preparation is usually accomplished by:
A. detectors.
B. samplers.
C. balance networks.
D. discriminators.
Q.6.2 Most eddy current instruments have ______ coil excitation.

A. square wave
B. triangular wave
C. sine wave
D. sawtooth wave
Q.6.3 Eddy current systems can be grouped by:

A. output characteristics.
B. excitation mode.
C. phase analysis extent.
D. both A and B.

Q.6.4 A multifrequency instrument that excites the test coil with several
requencies sequentially uses the ______ concept.
A. multiplexing
B. time base
C. broadband
D. cartesian
Q.6.5 Reject limits should always be adjusted to:

A. one-half the screen height.
B. 5 volts.
C. ensure unacceptable components are properly identified.
D. reduce operator training costs.
Q.6.6 Display requirements are based on:

A. test applications.
B. records requirement.
C. need for automatic control.

Q.6.7 Amplitude gates provide a technique of controlling:
A. reject or acceptance limits. Note: this is different from UT equipment
B. instrument response. “gate” where area of interest is high lighted
C. display amplitude. to display the necessary information, like
depth, %FSH etc.
D. All of the above.
Q.6.8 Alarms and lights offer only:

A. qualitative information.
B. quantitative information.
C. reject information.
D. accept information.
Q.6.9 The length of a strip chart presentation can indicate:

A. discontinuity severity.
B. distance or time.
C. orthogonality.

Q.6.10 A top view display of the test results from a specimen can be referred
to as:
A. an X-Y display.
B. a C scan.
C. a crosshatch presentations

Chapter 7
Eddy Current Applications

Eddy Current Applications
Electromagnetic induction and the eddy current principle can be affected in many
different ways. These effects may be grouped by discontinuity detection,
measurement of material properties, dimensional measurements and other
special applications. With the discontinuity or the detection group, we are
concerned with locating cracks, corrosion, erosion and mechanical damage. The
material properties group includes measurements of . conductivity, permeability,
hardness, alloy sorting or chemical composition and degree of heat treatment.
Dimensional measurements commonly made are thickness, profilometry, spacing
or location and coating or cladding thickness. Special applications include
measurements of temperature, flow metering of liquid metals, sonic vibrations
and anisotropic conditions.
Regardless of the specific application, once the test system has been properly
calibrated there should not be any fundamental changes made to it during the
testing process. If it has been determined that the instrument has been set up
incorrectly or is not working as specified in the operational procedures being used,
all material should be retested since the last time the correct setup and proper
system operation was verified.

Discontinuity Detection
The theoretical response to discontinuities has been discussed in previous
chapters of this guide. In this chapter, some actual examples are given to
enhance the understanding of the applied theory. A problem common to the
chemical and electric power industries is the corrosion of heat exchanger
tubing. This tubing is installed in closed vessels in a high density array. It is
not uncommon for a nuclear steam generator or main condenser to contain
many thousands of tubes. This high density and limited access to the
inspection areas often precludes the use of other nondestructive testing
methods. A bobbin coil inspection provides a volumetric inspection of the tube
wall in a cost effective process.
Heat exchanger inspection systems and results are described by Libby, Dodd,
Sagar and Davis.

Heat Exchanger

Heat Exchanger

Heat Exchanger

Heat Exchanger

Heat Exchanger

Heat Exchanger

Heat Exchanger

Heat Exchanger

Figure 7.1: American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) thin-walled
tubing standard

Heat Exchanger
TSP

Heat Exchanger
TSP

Heat Exchanger
TSP

Phase angle and amplitude relationships are usually established by using
reference standards with artificial discontinuities of known and documented
values. These discontinuities should reflect expected damage modes as
close as possible. In most thin-walled tubing cases the severity of the
discontinuity can be determined by analyzing the eddy current signal phase
and/ or amplitude. The phase angle of small volume discontinuities (cracks,
pits) is used to establish a phase-to-depth calibration curve (Figure 7.2) and
to verify the originating surface (inside diameter or outside diameter) of that
discontinuity. The signal amplitude is an indicator of discontinuity volume. For
volumetric tube wall loss conditions such as wear and fretting, a volts-to-
depth calibration curve can be created (Figure 7.3). When used properly,
these curves will provide a more accurate sizing process for mechanically
driven discontinuity mechanisms.

Figure 7.2: Phase-to-depth calibration curve

Figure 7.3: Volts-to-depth calibration curve

The geometry of real discontinuities may differ from reference standard
discontinuities. This difference produces interpretation errors as discussed by
Sagar. Placement of real discontinuities near tube support members causing a
complex coil impedance change is also a source of error. This, of course, is
dependent on the size of the discontinuity and its resultant eddy current signal in
relation to the tube support signal. This follows the basic principle of signal-to-
noise ratio. The signal-to-noise ratio can be improved at tube-to-tube support
intersections by the use of multifrequency techniques.
In multifrequency applications, an optimum (or prime) frequency is chosen for
response to discontinuities within the tube wall. A lower than optimum or
suppression frequency (subtractor frequency?) is chosen for response to the tube
support. The two signals are processed through comparator circuits called mixers
where the tube support response is subtracted from the tube wall response signal,
leaving only the response to the tube wall discontinuity. (See Figures 7.4 and 7.5.)
Both channels must be able to detect both the discontinuity and the noise source
that is being suppressed. Another market sector that uses eddy current testing
extensively is the aerospace industry. Many eddy current examinations are
conducted on engine and airframe structures.

Figure 7.4: A multifrequency application without discontinuity
A: The nominal response to a tube

support plate at the prime
frequency.
B: The nominal response to a tube
support plate at the subtractor
frequency.
A-B: The mixer channel residual
response after support plate
suppression.

Figure 7.5: A multifrequency application with discontinuity
A: The response to a tube support

plate with a discontinuity at the
prime frequency.
B: The response to a tube support
plate with a discontinuity at the
subtractor frequency.
A-8: The mixer channel response to
the discontinuity after support plate
suppression.

A common problem with turbines is fatigue cracking of the compressor blades
or disks in the root areas. Given the potential safety risks if these components
fail, the inspection criteria thresholds are set to detect extremely small
artifacts. Special probe designs and inspection techniques are required to
deal with the difficult sample geometries and small discontinuity detection
limits. Many other aircraft inspections are designed to deal with cracking or
corrosion processes that may not lead to immediate catastrophic failures but
that do need to be handled in a timely manner. Portable inspection devices
are often used to perform these tests. Careful test system calibration using
appropriate procedures and reference specimens is required to maintain
aircraft fleet serviceability.

Aerospace Applications

Aerospace Applications

The reference specimen and its associated discontinuities are very critical to
the success of the test. Often models are constructed with artificial
discontinuities that are exact duplicates of the item being inspected. Field
degraded specimens are also used to verify test discontinuity sensitivity.
D.J. Hagemaier discussed low frequency eddy current inspection of aircraft
structures for subsurface discontinuity detection in an article published in
Materials Evaluation in 1982. A low frequency (100Hz to 1000Hz) technique
can be used to locate cracks in thick or multiple layer, bolted or riveted aircraft
structures. Again, models are constructed with artificial cracks and their
responses are compared to responses in the actual test object. Most of these
examinations are performed using single or multifrequency sinusoidal
alternating current processes. Pulsed eddy current systems, if available,
might also be used for crack detection in thick structures.

Pulsed Eddy Currents Systems
Learn more on Pulsed Eddy Currents Systems

Dimensional Measurements
Dimensional measurements, such as thickness, shape and position, or
proximity of one item to another, are important uses of the eddy cunent
technique. Materials are often clad with other materials to present a
resistance to chemicals or to provide wear resistance. Cladding or plating
thickness then becomes an important variable to the serviceability of the unit.
For nonconductive coatings on conductive bases, the probe-to-specimen
spacing, or lift off technique can be applied. The case of conductive plating or
cladding on conductive bases requires more refinement. The thickness loci
respond in a complex manner on the impedance plane. The loci fm
multilayered objects with each layer consisting of a material with a different
conductivity follow a spiral pattern. In certain cases, two frequency or
multifrequency systems are used to stabilize results or minimize lift off
variations on the thickness measurement.

Figure 7.6 shows a single frequency hardness tester output presentation. The depth of
case hardening can be determined by measuring the nitride case thickness in
stainless steel. The nitride case thickness produces magnetic permeability variations.
The thicker the nitride layer the greater the permeability. The coil's inductive reactance
increases with a permeability increase. This variable is carefully monitored and
correlated to actual metallographic results. Eddy current profilometry is another
common way to measure dimensions. One example is the measurement of the inside
diameters of tubes using a lift oft technique. For this measurement, several small
pancake coils are mounted radially in a coil form.
The coil form is inserted into the tube and each coil's proximity to the tube wall is
monitored. The resultant output of each coil can provide detailed information about the
concentricity of the tube. This is especially useful when the amount of tube wall
deformation due to either manufacturing or operational conditions may require
corrective action. An obvious problem encmmtered with this technique is centering of
the coil holder assembly. The center of the coil holder must be near the center of the
tube. When inspecting for localized dimensional changes, a long coil holder is
effective in maintaining proper centering. Another function o£ the long coil form is to
keep the coils from becoming tilted in the tube. This also requires higher probe fill
factors than might normally be used during other types of tube inspections.

Figure 7.6: A single frequency hardness tester output presentation

Eddy Current Profilometry is another common way to measure dimensions.
One example is the measurement of the inside diameters of tubes using a lift
oft technique. For this measurement, several small pancake coils are
mounted radially in a coil form. The coil form is inserted into the tube and
each coil's proximity to the tube wall is monitored.

Conductivity Measurements
Conductivity is an important measured variable. In the aircraft industry,
aluminum is used extensively. Aluminum conductivity varies not only with
aHoy but also with hardness and tensile strength. Eddy current instruments
scaled in percent IACS are normally used to inspect for conductivity
variations. Secondary conductivity standards are commonly used to check
instrument calibration. Common secondary conductivity standards range from
8% IACS to about 100% IACS. The secondary standards are usually certified
accurate to within ±0.35% or ±1% of value, whichever is less.
Temperature is an important variable when making conductivity
measurements. Most instrument and standards are certified at 20°C.
Primary conductivity standards are maintained at a constant temperature by
oil bath systems. Primary standards are measured with precision maxwell
bridge type instruments. This circuit design increases measurement accuracy
and minimizes frequency dependence of the measurement. The secondary
standards used for field tester set up and calibration are often required to
have their listed values recertified on an annual basis.

Hardness Measurements (Conductivity variable?)
Hardness measurements can be performed on both ferritic and nonferritic
materials. Some hardness measurements are performed with a two coil
comparative process but this is not a strict requirement. When using a two- oil
system the reference and test coils are both balanced with sample parts of
known hardness. As parts of unknown hardness affect the test coil, the
instrument output (impedance) varies.
The amount of output variation depends on the degree of imbalance created
by the unknown test object hardness. The detected signal variations can be
correlated to test object hardness. If an X-Y type display were to be used to
display this hardness information, the specimens exhibiting an acceptable
hardness could be adjusted to one region of the screen while those
specimens defined as unacceptable, or unhardened, could appear in a
different region of the screen. Once this calibration process is completed a
high-speed automated system can be allowed to make the measurements
using an alarm gate process.

Alloy Sorting
Alloy sorting can also be accomplished with a two coil comparator bridge
process but again it is not a strict requirement. Other types of coil
arrangements may also provide useful information. The key element to keep
in mind with alloy sorting is that this is not the same as material identification.
Two very different materials may provide the same load to the coil. Alloy
sorting using electromagnetic must be verified with the additional verification
of the mechanical properties of these materials. In the inspection of
nonferromagnetic alloys it is easiest to separate one alloy or heat treat type
from another when there is a unique range of conductivities associated with
each material. This is not always the case within families of alloys. Different
alloys and heat treats of the alurninum family may have the same conductivity
value. This could lead to misidentification of the materials being inspected.

All comparative tests will be strongly influenced by the selection of correct
and accurate reference specimens. Because most eddy current instruments
respond to a wide range of variables, the reference specimen parameters
must be controlled carefully. Test object and reference specimens must be
the same or very similar in the following characteristics:
1. geometry,
2. heat treatment,
3. surface finish,
4. residual stresses,
5. metallurgical structure.

In addition, it is advisable to have more than one reference specimen for
backup in case of loss or damage. In the case of steel parts, they should be
completely demagnetized information .With the right equipment, probes,
techniques and to remove the effects of residual magnetism on instrument
readings. As in most comparative tests, temperature of specimen and test
object should be the same or compensated. Many other measurements can
be made using eddy current techniques. The electromagnetic technique
produces so much information about a material that its application is only
limited by the ability to decipher this training, the experienced operator should
be capable of making the required distinctions between relevant and
nonrelevant indications.

Chapter 7
Review Questions

Answers

Q.7.1 Conductivity, hardness and composition are part of the group.
A. discontinuity detection
B. material properties
C. dimensional
D. special
Q.7.2 Using an inside diameter coil on tubing and applying the phase I
amplitude technique of inspection, a signal appearing at 90 degrees on a
CRT would be caused by:
A. inside diameter discontinuity.
B. outside diameter discontinuity.
C. a dent.
D. a bulge.
Q.7.3 Discont:inuities in heat exchangers at tube support locations are easier

to detect because the support plate concentrates the electromagnetic field at
that point.
A. True
B. False

Q.7.4 Using multifrequency techniques on installed heat exchanger tubing, a tube
support plate signal can be suppressed by subtracting a ____ frequency signal
from the optimum frequency signal.
A. low
B. high
C. A orB
D. None of the above.
Q.7.5 In the aircraft industry, a common problem in gas turbine engines is:
A. corrosion.
B. fatigue cracking.
C. vibration damage.
D. erosion.

Q.7.6 Subsurface discontinuities located in thick or multilayered aircraft
structures could be detected by:
A. low frequency sinusoidal continuous wave instruments.
B. high frequency sinusoidal continuous wave instruments.
C. pulsed systems.
D. A or C.
Answer to a Mistake – a mistake make is a good lesson learned.
D.J. Hagemaier discussed low frequency eddy current inspection of aircraft structures for
subsurface discontinuity detection in an article published in Materials Evaluation in 1982. A low
frequency (100Hz to 1000Hz) technique can be used to locate cracks in thick or multiple layer,
bolted or riveted aircraft structures. Again, models are constructed with artificial cracks and their
responses are compared to responses in the actual test object. Most of these examinations are
performed using single or multifrequency sinusoidal alternating current processes. Pulsed eddy
current systems, if available, might also be used for crack detection in thick structures.

Q.7.7 Response to multilayer varying conductivity structures follow _____ loci.
A. orthogonal
B. spiral
C. linear
D. stepped
Q.7.8 Nitride case thickness variations can be detected in stainless steel

(μr≈ 1) cylinders by measuring: Answer to mistake: The depth of case hardening can be determined by
measuring the nitride case thickness in stainless steel. The nitride case
A. conductivity. thickness produces magnetic permeability variations. The thicker the
B. dimensions. nitride layer the greater the permeability.
C. permeability. Question: Both conductivity & permeability count and the weighted
significant dictated the prime factor? In this case the permeability effect
D. none of the above. dominates.
Q.7.9 Conductivity is not affected by temperature.

A. True
B. False

Q.7.10 Residual stresses in the test part produce such a small effect that they
are usually ignored when selecting reference specimens.
A. True
B. False

Chapter 8
Other Electromagnetic Techniques

Electromagnetic Testing
Eddy current testing is just one of a group of teclmiques that as a whole are
defined as the electromagnetic testing method. The sub disciplines or
teclmiques listed within the method continue to expand. Following are the
techniques that fall under this method at the time of publication: Method:
Electromagnetic Testing Techniques:
 alternating current field measurement, ACFM
 eddy current testing, ECT
 flux leakage testing, MFLT
 remote field testing, RFT
The borders are sometimes a little gray between one process and another.
These techniques have been grouped in this fashion more on the basis of
their specific market area or specialized applications in the field testing
envirorunent rather than on a purely scientific basis. Electromagnetics is a
very broad term. It covers a wide range of energy levels, sources and
measurement tools.

Some other technologies that have been suggested to be included in
electromagnetic testing are:
 microwave systems,
 superconducting quantum interference devices,
 magneto-optical inspection devices,
 flux leakage testing*. (*Now accepted as a stand -alone method for tank
floor, wire rope, and down-hole pipe inspection work.)

The ASNT Electromagnetics Committee, at the time of this revision, has
selected the first four teclmiques because they are currently available and
fairly well established to perform specific nondestructive testing inspections in
the field. In this chapter the generic differences between these techniques will
be explained. Eddy current testing is most commonly used for detection of
surface or near surface discontinuities in nonferromagnetic materials. In
materials with little or no permeability eddy current testing is effective to about
5.08 mm (0.2 in.) below the test surface.
For material thicknesses of greater than 5.08 mm (0.2 in.) special probes and/
or electronics packages are needed to improve the performance of eddy
current testing. Although there are applications for eddy current tests on
ferritic materials, eddy current has no ability to provide subsurface
discontinuity detection in ferromagnetic alloys. Surface crack detection in
ferromagnetic materials, especially for weld inspection, is a very viable eddy
current process when the right technology is applied. Eddy current is often
more sensitive and more cost effective than either magnetic particle
inspection or penetrant inspection in this role.

Alternating current field measurement, flux leakage testing and remote field
testing are all special electromagnetics testing teclmiques that, if used
properly, can provide useful non destructive testing information about
ferromagnetic components. The deciding factor of one over the other is the
type of material, part size or geometry and the type and size of discontinuities
that need to be detected. There is no reason to believe that any of these three
techniques would show any significant advantage over eddy current in the
nonferromagnetic world except for material thicknesses over 5.08 mm (0.2in.),
where remote field testing may be used to provide enhanced sensitivity to
outside diameter discontinuities. Manufacturers and users will debate the
various capabilities of one of these techniques over another. The following
discussion will be made as generic as possible.
Note:
ACFM does not need magnetic saturation for ferromagnetic materials, unlike ECT.
RFT more sensitive to outer surface discontinuities detection than ECT.

Alternating Current Field Measurement
Primary application: Inspection of weldments Power source: Alternating
current Advantages Compared to Magnetic Particle and Dye Penetrant
Inspection
 Works through nonconductive coatings [up to 10 mm (0.4 in.) thick] so
there is no need to remove and then reapply paint or to clean off rust.
 Provides information on depth as well as length, saving time on removing
discontinuities of insignificant depth.
 Relatively insensitive to material property changes, so it is ideal for
inspecting at welds. (permeability μ, thus no need to saturated the specimen &
conductivity σ)
 Relatively insensitive to probe lift off, allowing deployment through
coatings and on rough surfaces.
 Allows depth sizing of discontinuities up to about 25 mm (1 in.), depending
on probe type.

Figure 8.1 shows the basic principles of the technique. With no discontinuity
present and a uniform current flowing in the Y direction, the magnetic field is
uniform in the X direction perpendicular to the current flow, while the other
components are 0. The presence of a discontinuity diverts current away from
the deepest parts and concentrates it near the ends of a crack
The effect of this is to produce strong peaks and troughs in Bz above the
ends of the crack, while Bx shows a broad dip along the whole discontinuity
with amplitude related to the depth. Alternating current field measurement has
been developed from the alternating current potential drop technique.
Alternating current potential drop uses current injection and contact potential
drop probes. This technique required extensive surface preparation of the
weld under examination. It could be used to produce crack depth
measurements.

Figure 8.1: Alternating current field measurement qualitative explanation of
the magnetic forces above a notch.
Bx =magnetic flux component normal to electric field

Y and parallel to test surface
Bz =magnetic flux component normal to test surface
T = time or scan distance (relative scale)
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://www.ndt.net/article/wcndt00/papers/idn233/idn233.htm

ACFM Principle
ACFM
X Z
Y Bx =magnetic flux component normal to electric field

and parallel to test surface

ACFM
Bx =magnetic flux component normal to electric field

and parallel to test surface
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://iic-hq.co.jp/english/03sp/01ii/01ni/KH-04.html

ACFM Butterfly Plot

Alternating current field measurement has been developed from the
alternating current potential drop ACPD technique. Alternating current
potential drop uses current injection and contact potential drop probes. This
technique required extensive surface preparation of the weld under
examination. It could be used to produce crack depth measurements.
Alternating current field measurement ACFM has its origins in alternating

current potential drop but instead of using a contact type probe the current
is induced in the test specimen. The contact probes previously used in
alternating current potential drop have been changed to (noncontact)
magnetic field sensitive coils. The models developed in alternating current
potential drop for mapping surface magnetic fields and electric cmrents have
been utilized in alternating current field measurement.

Offshore Subsea ACFM Applications
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://www.ndt.net/article/platte/platte.htm

The technique in its simplest form uses a handheld probe containing a
uniform field induction system and two magnetic field sensors. The
induced alternating current is generated in a limited region of the test
specimen where the alternating electric current AC is considered to be lineal:
In this region a magnetic field is produced which is also linear. Any
disturbances in this region produced by surface discontinuities will affect the
components of this linear magnetic field. Two or more air wound coils
mounted with orthogonal axes within a probe will detect these disturbances.
This is the foundation of altemating current field measurement which is
different from eddy current testing.
Keywords:
The induced alternating current...

The alternating current field measurement technique is being used by
inspection companies and owners of fabricated components for weld
inspection in petrochemical process plants, pharmaceutical plants, offshore
well structures, highway bridges and roller coasters. Originally introduced to
the offshore industry for subsea weld inspection, the use of alternating current
field measurement has now broadened to include inspection of pressure
vessels, process piping and drillpipe threads and risers. Recent
developments have included automated and semiautomated systems to
reduce the reliance on operators and the use of array technology to increase
inspection speeds.

Alternating current field measurement can be used for the inspection of
nonferromagnetic materials but is less effective in this role. The effective
depth of penetration in nonferritic materials with alternating current field
measurement is dramatically reduced. This is in sharp contrast to standard
eddy current philosophy. It should also be noted that volumetric
discontinuities, such as corrosion pitting or porosity, give much weaker
signals than planar discontinuities, so it is not recommended that alternating
current field measurement be used in this role.

Keywords:
The effective depth of penetration in nonferritic materials with alternating
current field measurement is dramatically reduced. This is in sharp contrast to
standard eddy current philosophy.
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Magnetic Flux Leakage Testing
Primary Application: Ferromagnetic Materials: pipe, plate, wire, oil field
tubulars and pipelines Power Source. Permanent magnets or direct current
coils Flux leakage testing has been extensively used in the pipe inspection
industry. This entails the introduction of a moving direct cmrent magnetic field
into a ferromagnetic test piece. Any localized (normally surface breaking)
discontinuities that lie within the inspection zone will cause the field to bend or
leak and extend above the surface at that point. These flux lines cut across a
moving coit or other magnetic sensors and are used to detect this direct
current leakage field.

In pipe inspection, flux leakage testing is used to look for corrosion pits and
cracks. The locally thinned area puts a higher magnetic flux distribution in the
space nearer to the flux detection device. This relative increase in field
strength can be measured. Any discontinuity with its major axis parallel to the
direction of the flux flowing in the material has little chance of being detected
using this method. The pull speed of the flux leakage testing probe must be
maintained at a fairly constant rate or the accuracy of the test is decreased
even further. Pipeline inspections are performed with what are called smart
pigs (Figure 8.2). These devices can simultaneously carry out multiple
nondestructive testing tests. The most common is flux leakage testing.

Figure 8.2: Equipment for magnetic flux leakage testing of pipes and tubes:
(a) pig tool; and (b) data acquisition from pig sensors.
(a)
(b)

Defect Detections
Any discontinuity with its major axis parallel to the direction of the flux flowing
in the material has little chance of being detected using this method.
Low
Detectability

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The most commonly used inservice inspection tools utilize flux leakage
testing to detect internal or external cmrosion. The flux leakage testing
inspection pig uses a circumferential array of detectors positioned between
the poles of strong permanent magnets to magnetize the pipe wall to near
saturation flux density. Abnormalities in the pipe wall, such as corrosion pits,
result in flux leakage testing near the pipe's surface. The leakage flux may be
detected by hall effect probes or passive induction coils.
MFLT-
Magnetize the pipe
wall to near saturation
flux density
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The most commonly used inservice inspection tools utilize flux leakage
testing to detect internal or external cmrosion. The flux leakage testing
inspection pig uses a circumferential array of detectors positioned between
the poles of strong permanent magnets to magnetize the pipe wall to near
saturation flux density. Abnormalities in the pipe wall, such as corrosion pits,
result in flux leakage testing near the pipe's surface. The leakage flux may be
detected by hall effect probes or passive induction coils.
The demands now being placed on magnetic inspection tools are shifting
from the mere detection, location and classification of pipeline discontinuities,
to the accurate measurements of discontinuity size and geometry. Modern,
high resolution flux leakage testing inspection tools are capable of giving very
detailed signals. However, converting these signals to accurate estimates of
size requires considerable expertise, as well as a detailed understanding of
the effects of inspection conditions and the magnetic behavior of the type of
steel used.

Magnetic Saturation
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Magnetic Saturation
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Magnetic Saturation
Hysteresis, in general, is defined as the lag in a variable property of a system with respect to the effect producing it as this effect
varies. In ferromagnetic materials the magnetic flux density B lags behind the changing external Magnetizing field Intensity H.
Hysteresis curve is drawn by plotting the graph of B-field vs H (or M-H) by taking the material through a complete cycle of H
values as follows
First, consider an unmagnetized sample of ferromagnetic material. The magnetic field intensity H is initially zero at O. It is
increased monotonically, then magnetic induction B increases nonlinearly along the curve (OACDE) called as the magnetization
curve. At point E almost all of the magnetic domains are aligned parallel with the magnetic field. An additional increase in H does
not produce any increase in B. E is called as the point of magnetic saturation of the material. Values of permeability μ derived
from the formula μ = B / H along the curve are always positive and show a wide range of values. The maximum permeability as
large as 105 μo occurs at the ``knee (point D) of the curve.
Next H is decreased till it reduces to zero. B reduces from its saturation value at "E" to that at point "F". Some of the magnetic
domains lose their alignment but some maintain alignment i.e. some magnetic flux density B is still retained in the material. The
curve for decreasing values of H (i.e. Demagnetization curve EF) is offset by an amount FO from that for increasing values of H
(i.e. Magnetization curve OE). The amount of offset “FO” is called the retentivity or the remanence or the level of residual
magnetism.
As H is reversed in direction and increased, the curve moves to point "G", where B is reduced to zero. Most of the domains are
flipped and oriented randomly so that net flux density within the material is zero. Portion corresponding to “GO” denotes
“coercivity”.
As H is increased to large values in the negative direction, B reaches saturation but in the opposite direction at point "I ". Almost
all of the magnetic domains are aligned in opposite direction to that at point E of positive saturation.
H is varied from its maximum negative value to zero. Then B reaches point "J." This point shows residual magnetism equal to that
achieved for positive values of H (OF =OJ)
H is increased back from zero to maximum in the positive direction. Then B reaches zero value at “K” i.e. it does not pass through
the origin of the graph. OK indicates the amount of field H required to nullify the residual magnetism OJ retained in the opposite
direction.
H is increased from point “K” further in the positive direction, then again the saturation of B is reached at point “E” and the loop is
completed.

The magnetization curve is not retraceable. The domains forced to coalesce into large domains aligned with the external field
maintain the alignment and retain magnetism even after the external field is removed. The state of a system depends on the
history of its state. The state (value and direction) of B depends upon the previous state of H (value=zero/ +ve/ -ve and direction
increasing/ decreasing). Ferromagnetic materials have "memory" of previous exposure to magnetism or magnetic history. This
phenomenon is called as Hysteresis.
This property has been used to advantage in magnetic memory devices e.g. recording of audio tape/ video tape, and the magnetic
storage of data on computer disks. From the hysteresis loop, important magnetic properties of a material can be determined as
follows
1. Retentivity : A measure of the residual flux density corresponding to the saturation of a magnetic material. It is a material's
ability to retain a certain amount of residual magnetic field when the magnetizing force is removed after achieving saturation (The
value of B at point E on the hysteresis curve).
2. Residual Magnetism or Residual Flux : The magnetic flux density B that remains in a material when the magnetizing field
intensity H is zero. Residual magnetism and retentivity are same only when the material is magnetized to the saturation point.
However, it may be lower than the retentivity value otherwise.
3. Coercive Force : The amount of reverse magnetizing field intensity which must be applied to a magnetic material to make the
magnetic flux density return to zero. (The value of H at point G on the hysteresis curve).
4. Permeability, μ : A property of a material that measures the ease with which a magnetic flux is established in it. μ is negative in
the II and IV quadrants and positive in the I and III quadrants of the B-H graph (i.e. the Hysteresis curve).
5. Reluctance : Is the opposition that a ferromagnetic material shows to the establishment of a magnetic field. Reluctance is
analogous to the resistance in an electrical circuit.
The knowledge of these properties of materials is useful for selecting materials appropriate for different applications e.g. materials
having both a large remanence and a large coercivity are selected for designing a permanent magnet. Materials possessing small
remanences and small coercivities are selected for making transformer circuits.




Magnetic Flux Leakage
The basic principle behind MFL involves magnetizing a ferrous metal object
to saturation level with a powerful magnetic field.
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Rare earth neodymium iron boron magnets power the magnetizer of the inspection unit, providing the ultimate strength to meet
most pipeline wall thicknesses for the best feature detection and sizing. Special designs can cover extra heavy wall applications.
ILI tool drive section is the sealing unit that pulls the pig through the pipeline. All sizes of the ILI tool can accommodate multiple
wall thickness in the same run. Longitudinal distance measurement to assure accurate location of anomalies. Magnetic sensors
give 3 digital ticks per foot and analog sinusoid quadrature signals to allow for distance interpolation and forward/backward
movement discrimination. Closely spaced individually calibrated Hall-effect sensors measure the magnetic flux and record MFL
leakage caused by anomalies in Gauss units. A typical ¼” nominal sensor spacing provides for a true High Resolution inspection
result. All tools are articulated for short capsule length to achieve bend radius of 1.5 D. The versatility of adding capsules or
removing capsules allows the recording life of the tool to be changed with batteries to meet most pipeline lengths. Up-to-date
computer hardware and components, flash memories and signal conditioning electronics record the signals from the sensors in
full, without any filtering criteria, to allow for best post-run signal analysis and comparison with future runs. ID /OD Sensors
discriminate between internal and external anomalies. Each signal captured by the sensor is compared with the signals captured
with the array of Hall-effect sensors monitoring the total body wall response to the magnetic field.
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Magnetic Flux Leakage (MFL) testing is a widely used, Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) method for the detection of corrosion and
pitting in steel structures. MFL is often used for integrity assessment of pipelines and storage tanks, but the principle can be
applied to assets in any industrial sector.
The Principle
The basic principle behind MFL involves magnetizing a ferrous metal object to saturation level with a powerful magnetic field.
Where the object has no flaws, the magnetic flux will remain undisturbed. High magnetization levels are required to differentiate
corrosion from other pipeline features such as hard spots, stress and strain variations and to minimize the effects of remnant
magnetization and velocity. Where there is internal or external metal loss, the magnetic flux leaks from the object. In the MFL
testing device, a magnetic sensor is placed between the poles of a magnet yoke to record the leakage field by Hall-effect sensors.
Eddy current sensors integrated in the magnetic flux sensors are used to improve the differentiation between internal and external
defects.
Applications
MFL is used to detect metal loss defects (such as corrosion) in a wide range of settings.
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Remote Field Testing RFT
Remote field testing should not be looked at as a typical eddy current test. There
are papers and other reference materials that include remote field eddy current,
however, to prevent confusion on the range of applications and material test
situations, the attempt is being made to phase out that terminology. Both
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) and American Society of
Mechanical Engineers (ASME) have remote field testing listed as a specific
technique within electromagnetic testing.
For the purpose of generic discussion this book will discuss remote field testing
as it applies to inspection of ferromagnetic tubing in various heat exchangers.
Remote field testing is an electromagnetic test that utilizes an alternating current
excitation source. This alternating current electromagnetic energy travels along
the htbe wall for some distance in both directions from an exciter coil. The
distribution of the primary Held is dependent on the magnetic properties of the
tube, the tube wall thickness and the presence of surrounding support structures.
The transmitted field may be affected by discontinuities within the tube wall or
support structures on the tube outside cliameter. The changes in the strength
(amplitude) and phase shift or phase angle of the received signal are measured a
few tube diameters away from the exciter coil.

Special hybrid (driver/pick up) coils are necessary to perform remote field
testing inspections. Because of the need for a significant spacing between the
exciter coil(s) and the receiver or pick up coils the probes tend to be longer
that the typical eddy current probe. Remote field testing probe types are
shown in Figure 8.3. The high magnetic permeability of ferromagnetic
materials dramatically impacts standard eddy current testing inspection
techniques. Some electromagnetic testing techniques attempt to compensate
for and/ or suppress the permeability effects by the use of strong magnets or
direct current chiven saturation coils. The remote field testing RFT process
requires no magnetic saturation. Instead it makes use of the natural
tendency of ferromagnetic materials to channel magnetic energy. Like the
keeper of a horseshoe magnet, the magnetic lines of flux from the exciter coil
take the path of least reluctance. They will flow down the tube wall; which
acts as a wave guide, for a considerable distance.
Probes tend to be
longer that the typical
eddy current probe

Figure 8.3: Remote field testing probe types
From top to bottom: Larger diameter tubing with either single or dual exciters, smaller diameter
tubing and boiler tubing.

At distances in excess of two tube diameters from the internal exciter coil, the flux field
has become homogenous and the passive receiver coils, positioned two to three tube
diameters away from the exciter, receive practically all of their energy from the flux in
the tube wall. The direct field from the exciter has been almost completely attenuated,
or absorbed by the tube wall, and the external field is actually stronger than the field
inside the tube.
Through transmission is a term that is often used to describe the remote field testing
process. This term normally implies that there is a source of energy that transmits
through a medium. For example through transmission,. in both eddy current and
ultrasonic testing, implies that the power source is on one side of the test product and
the receiver element is on the opposite side of the material (through wall). In remote
field testing some of the alternating current primary magnetic energy does extend to
the outside diameter of the tube. It travels down the tube wall and eventually
propagates back through the tube to the tube inside diameter.
The concept of calling a remote field testing test a through wall technique may be hard
to visualize, but the energy path is actually twice through the wall; once out at the
exciter and then in at the detector. It is for this reason that short discontinuities show
two distinct signals when the exciter and detector pass the discontinuity at different
moments in time. The short discontinuity has interrupted the through transmission
path twice.

In remote field testing inspection of tubing it is probably more accurate to look
at the tube wall as a conduit or wave guide. Magnetic fields are modeled as
closed loops. The following graphic shows the magnetic flux lines traveling
out from the exciter coil (at 0 in Figure 8.4), mixing with incoming exciter
energy in a transition zone (one to two diameters) and finally becoming
homogenous in the remote field zone (two to three diameters) where the
detector should be located.
The main concern is to determine where along the length of the tube the
primary magnetic flux lines will reverse their direction and start their return
path back to the driver coil. It is at that point on the tube inside diameter that
the remote field testing pick up coils should be placed. The driver or exciter
coil supplie.s a low frequency alternating current magnetic field which couples
to the tube wall. Electromagnetic induction occurs twice. In the near field or
direct coupled zone, eddy currents are created in the tube wall. These
actually decrease the efficiency of the process. Eddy currents are also
created through induction as the field flux lines cut across the pickup coils on
reentering the tube inside diameter.

Figure 8.4: Remote field testing energy distribution

By making careful measurements it is possible to map the strength and
distribution of the driver coil's flux density as it travels down the tube wall. A
graph can be generated, such as Figure 8.4, using experimental data that
shows there are three distinct areas of interest. In an attempt to define the
variations in the alternating current energy distributions that are present in the
tube wall the following terminology has been developed:
 Near Field (direct coupled) Zone - (0-1.5 tube diameters from the driver
coil)
 Transition Zone - (1.5-2 tube diameters from the driver coil)
 Remote Field Zone - (2-3 tube diameters from the driver coil)

Remote-Field Energy Zones - in remote field testing. Profiles of B field just inside and
outside pipe wall are used to indicate direct field region, transition and remote field zones.

Remote-Field Zone
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Remote-Field Zone
Transition Zone
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Near Field Zone - Within the near field zone the eddy currents generated in
the tube wall by the alternating current driven exciter coil create a shielding
effect of the exciter's flux. As eddy currents propagate through the material's
inner wall, an opposing secondary magnetic flux is developed in the material
that attenuates the primary field strength and limits its extension. Logically,
the near zone would be the area where there is the greatest sensitivity to
discontinuities because of the high concentration of magnetic flux. However
the field tends to be concentrated near the inner surface of the tube, next to
the exciter and this strong field tends to mask any signals from the tube
outside diameter which are much weaker. In remote field testing the pickup
coils are placed at some distance away from the exciter coil in an effort to get
outside the high internal field area of the near field zone.

RFT - Flux distribution in pipe (a) 0 rad (0 deg);
Legend
IS = inside surface
OS = outside surface
PA = pipe axis

Transition Zone -The region just outside the near field zone is known as the
transition zone. It is an area that is currently not considered to contain reliable
data because the location of the transition zone changes with changes in wall
thickness, permeability and conductivity. In this zone there is a great deal of
interaction between the flux of one field that is diffusing outward from the
exciter and the flux of the returning energy that is diffusing inward from the
outside surface of the tube. The total or resultant field strength in this
area · tends to be weaker because of the negative interaction of fields with
differing directional characteristics. When the two opposing fields meet, the
result is a cancellation of some of their respective energy.

Remote Field Zone - The third definable region starts to occur at about two
tube diameters from the exciter coil. The detector coil's signal amplitude
bottoms out at the base of the logarithmic curve and starts a linear decay.
Notice that the curves (Figure 8.4) describing signal amplitudes of the inner
and outer walls parallel each other and are linear after peaking at maximum
values. Considering the rate of attenuation of the inner wall field strength, the
result is that in the area where the remote field zone starts, the outer wall field
strength can be 10 to 100 times the strength of the inner wall field.

Phase - The phase change of the signals detected at the pick up coil can be
used to estimate the loss of wall. A thinner wall allows the flux traversing the
wall to arrive at the detector sooner (similar to the time of flight of ultrasonic
testing signals). Discontinuities of differing depths can be evaluated
accurately based on measured phase shift information. In eddy current testing
there is a well defined difference in phase angle responses for inside
diameter and outside diameter events; however, in remote field testing data
inside diameter and outside diameter discontinuities of the same depth will
have about the same phase angle.

Amplitude (voltage) - The remote field testing system senses a decrease in
wall thickness as a stronger alternating current magnetic field cutting across
the pick up coil. This induces a stronger voltage in the coil. Discontinuities of
larger volume increase the amplitude of the signal while smaller volume
discontinuities produce small amplitude signals, but the signal phase still
represents the wall loss at the discontinuity. Signal location (at or near a
support versus in free span tube) goes a long way to assisting in signal
interpretation. The use of specialized voltage dependent phase analysis
curves can also improve discontinuity resolution. Because some of the
primary magnetic field extends out beyond the tube outside diameter tube
support plates or baffles interfere with the magnetic field distribution. Any
metallic material on the tube outside diameter will tend to block the energy
transfer down the length of the tube. Because of the spacing between exciter
and pick up coils this could lead to decreased sensitivity at these locations.
Remote field testing is capable of detecting both small and large volume
discontinuities in most ferromagnetic tubing found in a wide range of tubes
and pipes such as heat exchangers, boilers, piping and pipelines. Some
limitations do exist, for example in fin fan tubing found in air fin coolers.

The base tubing is carbon steel, however to improve heat transfer rates, large
diameter fins of high conductivity metal (normally aluminum) are installed on
the tube outside diameter. The induced energies in the fins themselves
prevent the primary magnetic field distribution along the outside diameter
surface of the tube which dramatically limits the remote field testing inspection
process. ASTM E-2096 is a good reference document for anyone considering
remote field testing applications. It references remote field testing technology
as well as personnel training criteria. It provides a guide to the types of
minimum detection capability that should be demonstrated by inspection
personnel when they apply the proper tools and techniques while performing
remote field testing examinations.

RFT
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Remote Field Eddy Current Technique (RFT)
This process is well adapted to the inspection of small-bore ferromagnetic tubes such as carbon steel. Using
electromagnetic techniques this is now the industry standard inspection for boilers and heat exchangers due to
its low frequency (typically 50-1000Hz). The probe consists of two coils in a send-receive configuration which
are inserted into the tube. The energized exciter coil transmits a signal to the detector coil located some
distance away. This signal passes through to the outside tube wall returning to arrive at the detector coil. With
wall thinning there is less shielding hence the return time (greater phase) and attenuation (greater amplitude) is
shorter. Phase and amplitude traces are generated as the probe is pulled through the tube as recorded data
identifies the metal loss. Flaw sizing is also possible with RFT enabling depth, length and circumference to be
accurately calibrated.
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The Remote Field Technique is an electromagnetic examination, which utilizes a through-transmission process.
The resultant field is affected by either ID or OD tube wall anomalies. RFT signal measurements are made a
few tube diameters away from the AC excitation coil without any attempt at tube wall magnetization or
saturation. A pair of pick-up coils located in the remote field zone measures the resultant field to give both a
differential and an absolute signal. The signal phase and amplitude information is used to determine defect
depth and volume


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RFT- Tube Cleanliness
Tube Cleanliness is as important for the process reasons (i.e. heat transfer) as it is for the
Remote Field inspection. Inspections that go the smoothest are ones where the tubes are
adequately cleaned prior to the inspection. Not only does this save inspection time and money,
but the data acquired from clean tubes VS dirty tubes make the inspection much more accurate.
Non-relevant indications can occur from Iron deposits, calcium deposits, etc. These non-relevant
indications can mask real defects located underneath.
So how can you tell when the tubes are cleaned enough for a Remote Field inspection? We
have developed a “Dummy” probe chart that customers can use to build probe heads to check
for tube cleanliness. These probes can be made to screw on to hydro-blasters lance’s and used
after the cleaning process is complete to make sure there is proper clearance for the Eddy
Current probe.
Final Reports - After the inspections and final data analysis is completed a formal report is
generated showing a tube sheet diagram with the tubes inspected color coded to a percentage
wall loss. Additional tube sheet diagrams can be generated showing the worst case scenarios
for tube plugging or selective re-tubing. In addition to this information our reporting format can
generate corrosion rates, and a projection based on the established corrosion rates.
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More Reading: RFT
Remote Field Testing or "RFT" is one of several electromagnetic testing methods commonly employed
in the field of nondestructive testing. Other electromagnetic inspection methods include magnetic flux
leakage, conventional eddy current and alternating current field measurement testing. Remote field
testing is associated with eddy current testing and the term "Remote Field Eddy Current Testing" is
often used when describing remote field testing. However, there are several major differences between
eddy current testing and remote field testing which will be noted in this section.
RFT is primarily used to inspect ferromagnetic tubing since conventional eddy current techniques have
difficulty inspecting the full thickness of the tube wall due to the strong skin effect in ferromagnetic
materials. For example, using conventional eddy current bobbin probes to inspect a steel pipe 10 mm
thick (such as what might be found in heat exchangers) would require frequencies around 30 Hz to
achieve the adequate I.D. to O.D. penetration through the tube wall. The use of such a low frequency
results in a very low sensitivity of flaw detection. The degree of penetration can, in principle, be
increased by the use of partial saturation eddy current probes, magnetically biased probes, and pulsed
saturation probes. However, because of the large volume of metal present as well as potential
permeability variations within the product, these specialized eddy current probes are still limited in their
inspection capabilities.
The difficulties encountered in the testing of ferromagnetic tubes can be greatly alleviated with the use
of the remote field testing method. The RFT method has the advantage of allowing nearly equal
sensitivities of detection at both the inner and outer surfaces of a ferromagnetic tube. The method is
highly sensitive to variations in wall thickness and tends to be less sensitive to fill-factor changes
between the coil and tube. RFT can be used to inspect any conducting tubular product, but it is
generally considered to be less sensitive than conventional eddy current techniques when inspecting
nonferromagnetic materials.
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RFT Theory of Operation
A probe consisting of an exciter coil and one or more detectors is pulled through the tube. The exciter coil and
the detector coil(s) are rigidly fixed at an axial distance of two tube diameters or more between them. The
exciter coil is driven with a relatively low frequency sinusoidal current to produce a magnetic field.
axial magnetic flux induced

perpendicularly circumferential eddy currents
This changing magnetic field induces strong circumferential eddy currents which extend axially, as well as
radially in the tube wall.

These eddy currents, in turn, produce their own magnetic field, which opposes the
magnetic field from the exciter coil. Due to resistance in the tube wall and imperfect
inductive coupling, the magnetic field from the eddy currents does not fully
counterbalance the magnetic exciting field. However, since the eddy current field is
more spread out than the exciter field, the magnetic field from the eddy currents
extends farther along the tube axis. The interaction between the two fields is fairly
complex but the simple fact is that the exciter field is dominant near the exciter coil
and the eddy current field becomes dominant at some distance away from the exciter
coil.
Eddy current field Exciter field

The receiving coils are positioned at a distance where the magnetic field from the
eddy currents is dominant. In other words, they are placed at a distance where they
are unaffected by the magnetic field from the exciter coil but can still adequately
measure the field strength from the secondary magnetic field. Electromagnetic
induction occurs as the changing magnetic field cuts across the pick-up coil array. By
monitoring the consistency of the voltage induced in the pick-up coils one can monitor
changes in the test specimen. The strength of the magnetic field at this distance from
the excitation coil is fairly weak but it is sensitive to changes in the pipe wall from the
I.D. to the O.D.

The Zones
Direct Couple Zone
The region where the magnetic field from the exciter coil is interacting with the tube wall to produce a concentrated field of eddy
currents is called the direct field or direct coupled zone. This zone does not contribute a great deal of useful data to the RFT
inspection due to problems with rather high noise levels due to the intense varying magnetic field from the excitation coil.
Transition Zone
The region just outside the direct couple zone is known as the transition zone. In this zone there is a great deal of interaction
between the magnet flux from the exciter coil and the flux induced by the eddy currents. As can be seen in the graph, the
interaction of the two opposing fields is strongest near the ID of the tube and fairly subtle at the OD of the tube. The "resultant"
field strength (the magnetic field at the sum of the two fields) in this region tends to change abruptly on the ID due to the
interaction of the fields with differing directional characteristics of the two fields. The receiver coil's signal phase, with respect to
the exciter coil, as a function of distance between the two coils is also shown in the graph. When the two coils are directly coupled
and there is no interference from a secondary field, their currents are in phase as seen at location zero. In the transition zone, it
can be seen that the phase swiftly shifts, indicating the location where the magnetic field from the eddy currents becomes
dominate and the start of the remote field.

Remote Field Zone
The remote field zone is the region in which direct coupling between the exciter coil and the receiver coil(s) is
negligible. Coupling takes place indirectly through the generation of eddy currents and their resulting magnetic
field. The remote field zone starts to occur at approximately two tube diameters away from the exciter coil. The
amplitude of the field strength on the OD actually exceeds that of the ID after an axial distance of approximately
1.65 tube diameters. Therefore, RFT is sensitive to changes in material that occur at the outside diameter as
well as the inside diameter of the tube.
1.65 tube diameters

RFT Probes
Probes for inspection of pipe and tubing are typically of the bobbin (ID) variety. These
probes use either a single or dual excitation coil to develop an electromagnetic field
through the pipe or tube. The excitation coils are driven by alternating current. The
sensing coil or coils are located a few tube diameters away in the remote field zone.
Probes can be used in differential or absolute modes for detection of general
discontinuities, pitting, and variations from the I.D. in ferromagnetic tubing. To insure
maximum sensitivity, each probe is specifically designed for the inside diameter,
composition, and the wall thickness of a particular tube.

RFT Instrumentation
Instruments used for RFT inspection are often dual use eddy current / RFT instruments employing multi-
frequency technology. The excitation current from these instruments is passed on to the probe that contains an
exciter coil, sometimes referred to as the driver coil. The receiving coil voltage is typically in the microvolt range,
so an amplifier is required to boost the signal strength.
Certain systems will incorporate a probe excitation method known as multiplexing. This utilizes an extreme high
speed switching method that excites the probe at more than one frequency in sequence. Another method of coil
excitation that may be used is simultaneous injection. In this coil stimulation technique, the exciter coil is
excited with multiple frequencies at the same time while incorporating filter schemes that subtract aspects of
the acquired data. The instrument monitors the pickup coils and passes the data to the display section of the
instrument. Some systems are capable of recording the data to some type of storage device for later review.

RFT Signal Interpretation
The signals obtained with RFT are very similar to those obtained with conventional eddy current testing. When all the proper
conditions are met, changes in the phase of the receiver signal with respect to the phase of the exciter voltage are directly
proportional to the sum of the wall thickness within the inspection area. Localized changes in wall thickness result in phase and
amplitude changes. These changes can be indicative of defects such as cracks, corrosion pitting or corrosion/erosion thinning.

RFT Signal Interpretation

RFT Reference Standards
Reference standards for the RFT inspection of tubular products come in many variations. In order to produce
reliable and consistent test results, the material used for manufacturing calibration standards must closely
match the physical and chemical properties of the inspection specimen. Some of the important properties that
must be considered include conductivity, permeability and alloy content. In addition, tube dimensions including
I.D., O.D. and wall thickness must also be controlled.
The type of damage mechanisms that are expected to be encountered must also be carefully considered when
developing or selecting a reference standard. In order to get accurate quantitative data, artificial discontinuity
conditions are typically machined into the standards that will closely match those conditions that may be found
in the tubing bundle.

Chapter 8
Review Questions

Answers

Q.8.1 Which of the following electromagnetic testing techniques does not use an
alternating current coil excitation process?
A. alternating current field measurement
B. eddy current testing
C. flux leakage testing
D. remote field testing
Q.8.2 Which of the following electromagnetic testing techniques should provide the
best discontinuity depth and length sizing capability for cracks in ferromagnetic
weldments?
Q.8.3 Which of the following techniques should perform best in nonferromagnetic

materials?

Q.8.4 A generally accepted definition of remote field testing is:
A. electromagnetic testing done at remote locations.
B. the electromagnetic field which has been transmitted through the test
object and is observable beyond the direct coupling of the exciter.
C. through transmission eddy currents, detected on the far side of a material
or object under test by a remote receiver coil.
D. the opposite of direct field.
Q.8.5 When a nonferromagnetic tube is inspected with a self-comparison

differential encircling coil arrangement a non-detection could occur when a
discontinuity is:
A. filled with water.
B. deep but very narrow.
C. long with slowly varying depth.
D. short and wide.

Q.8.6 The most common electromagnetic testing technique used to locate
corrosion thinning in large diameter cross country piping systems would be:
A. alternating current field measurement.
B. eddy current testing.
C. flux leakage testing.
D. remote field testing.
Q.8.7 Considering the full range of typical probe designs currently in use, in
which of the following electromagnetic testing techniques could the term
passive receivers be used?
E. All of the above.

Q.8.8 The region of intense electromagnetic interaction at the interface
between an alternating current coil's outside diameter surface and a tube
wall's inside diameter surface is called the:
A. direct couple zone.
B. fresnel zone.
C. near field zone.
D. Both A and C.
E. None of the above.
Q.8.9 The operating frequencies that are selected to perform remote field
testing inspections are:
A. usually higher than those used in conventional eddy current tests.
B. usually lower than those used in conventional eddy current tests.
C. identical to those used in conventional eddy current tests.
D. about one half of those used in conventional eddy current tests.
 Near Field (direct coupled) Zone - (0-1.5 tube diameters from the
driver coil)
 Transition Zone - (1.5-2 tube diameters from the driver coil)
 Remote Field Zone - (2-3 tube diameters from the driver coil)

Q.8.10 The amplitude or voltage of the detected response from a discontinuity
is most often related to:
A. the width of the discontinuity.
B. the location of the discontinuity.
C. the depth of the discontinuity.
D. the volume of the discontinuity.

Chapter 9
Eddy Current Procedures, Standards
and Specifications

Procedures, specifications and standards are produced to provide a means of
controlling product or service quality. Written instructions that guide a company or
individual to a desired end result and are acceptable to industry, are the basis of
procedures, specifications and standards. Many publications are available to
guide or instruct us. Some of the most frequently used references are the
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), American Society of
Mechanical Engineers (ASME), American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
and Military Standards (MIL-STD-XXXX).
These publications are laboriously produced by committees made up of scientific
and technical people. Usually after a committee produces a draft document, it is
submitted to industry and the scientific community for comment and subsequent
revision. In certain cases, standards combine to assist each other.
As an example, ASME Section V Article 8- Appendix IV uses ASTM E1316 to

provide Standard Terminology for Nondestructive Testing. The military standard,
MIL-STD-1537C Electrical Conductivity Test for Verification of Heat Treatment of
Aluminum Alloys, Eddy Current Method, references ASTM B193 Resistivity of
Electrical Conductor Materials and ASTM E18 Rockwell Hardness and Rockwell
Superficial Hardness of Metallic Materials.

American Society for Testing and Materials
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) standards (practices or guides) usually
include in the written instructions headings such as scope, referenced documents, terminology,
significance and use, basis of application, apparatus, reference standards, standardization,
procedure and keywords. Scope makes a general statement about the document's applicability
and intent. Referenced Documents refers to other publications used as references within the
standard. The terminology section usually may contain definitions of unique terms specific to the
equipment or examination covered by the standard. Significance and Use is a more detailed
discussion of test results and probable causes of indications expected during the examination.
The Basis of Application section identifies items which are subject to contractual agreement
between the parties using or referencing the standard such as personnel qualification,
qualification of nondestructive testing agencies, procedures and techniques, surface preparation,
timing of examination, extent of examination, reporting criteria/ acceptance criteria,
reexamination of repaired/reworked items. Apparatus describes the general requirements for the
inspection system including instrumentation, coils, positioning and driving mechanisms. The
fabrication requirements for artificial discontinuity standards used for standardization are
discussed under reference standards. A discussion of the reference specimen and the
geometrical requirements of the artificial discontinuities in it is usually included. Standardization
provides instructions for adjustment of the apparatus used for the examination. The response to
known discontinuities in the reference standard is usually described in this section. Detailed
instructions to process the inspection appears under procedure. These instructions may include
acceptance limits and the handling of components that are not acceptable.

ASTM publishes several standards pertaining to the eddy current method.
These standards are numbered; for example:
 E 571- 98. "E 571" refers to the standard and "98" refers to the year of
revision.
Some ASTM standards that pertain to the eddy current method are:
 E 215 Standard Practice for Standardizing Equipment for Electromagnetic
Examination of Seamless Aluminum-Alloy Tube.
 E 243 Standard Practice for Electromagnetic (Eddy Current) Examination
of Copper and Copper-Alloy Tubes.
 E 426 Electromagnetic (Eddy-Current) Testing of Seamless and Welded
Tubular Products, Austenitic Stainless Steel and Similar Alloys.
 E 571 Standard Practice for Electromagnetic (Eddy Current) Examination
of Nickel and Nickel Alloy; Tubular Products.
 E 690 Standard Practice for In Situ Electromagnetic (Eddy-Current)
Examination of Nonmagnetic Heat Exchanger Tubes.
 E 1316 Standard Terminology for Nondestructive Testing.

Military Standard
The United States Military uses the Military Standard document to control testing and
materials. Standard procedures are provided by a series of MIL-STD-XXXXX
documents. Special requirements are specified by the Military Specification system.
For example, MIL-STD- 537C refers to Electrical Conductivity Test for Verification of
Heat Treatment of Aluminum Alloys, Eddy Current Method. The Calibration System
Requirements for MIL-STD-1537C are contained in Military Specification MIL- -45662.
The MIL-STD usually contains several parts and is very descriptive. These parts
normally include Scope, Applicable Documents, Definitions, General Requirements,
Detail Requirements and Notes. The Scope contains a general statement of
applicability and intent of the Standard.
Applicable Documents pertains to other reference or controlling documents such as
other MIL-STD, Military Specification or ASTM publications. Definition contains precise
definitions of key words and phrases used in the Standard. Under General
Requirements, equipment, reference specimen and personnel requirements are
described in sufficient detail to implement the Standard. Included in this part is
instrument sensitivity and response, test object variables, reference specimen
requirements and personnel qualification requirements. Detail Requirements
describes the specific procedure to implement the Standard. Notes contains pertinent
statements about the process and guidelines for reporting results.

American Society of Mechanical Engineers
In 1911 the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) set up a committee to establish
rules of safety for design, fabrication and inspection of boilers and pressure vessels. These rules
have become known throughout industry as the ASME code. The ASME Boiler and Pressure
Vessel Committee is a large group from industry and the scientific community. The Committee
has many subcommittees, subgroups and working groups. Each subcommittee, subgroup and
working group combines as a unit for a specific area of interest. For example, the
Subcommittee on Pressure Vessels (SC VIII) has two working groups and five subgroups
reporting to it. The purpose of these groups is to interface with industry to keep pace with
changing requirements and needs of industry and public safety.
The ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code is divided into 11 sections. ASME Section V,
Nondestructive Examination/ is divided into two subsections, A and B. Subsection A deals with
Nondestructive Methods of Examination. Article 8 is Eddy Current Examination of Tubular
Products. Subsection B is Documents Adopted by Section V. Eddy current standards are
described in Article 26. In this case, the ASTM E215 document has been adopted by ASME and
reassigned the designation SE215. ASME Section V, Article 8, Appendix I gives detailed
procedure requirements for Eddy Current Examination Method for Installed Nonferromagnetic
Heat Exchanger Tubing. A procedure designed to meet this requirement can be illustrated by the
following example, Document QA 3.

EDDY CURRENT INSPECTION OF NONFERROUS TUBING BY SINGLE FREQUENCY
TECHNIQUES
Procedure No. QA 311-1
A. PURPOSE
This procedure describes the equipment and methods as well as the personnel
qualifications to be utilized for the performance of the eddy current examination of steam
generator tubes. It meets the requirements of the NRC Regulatory Guide 1.83, ASME
Section XI, Appendix IV and ASME Section V, Article 8 of the ASME Boiler and Pressure
Vessel Code.
B. SCOPE
The scope of the examination to be performed is contained in the eddy current inspection
program document applicable to the specific plant to be inspected.
C. PREREQUISITES
1 . Plant Condition
The plant must be shut down with the primary system drained. The steam generators shall
be open on the primary side for access to the channel head and the shell cool down
sequence shall be complete. Air movers shall be attached to circulate air through the
generator to dry the tube sheet.

2. Equipment
The examinations shall be performed utilizing an XXXX/XX multifrequency eddy current instrument with bobbin
coil probes designed for testing from the inside of the tubes. The inspection performance shall be monitored by
the use of a phase sensitive vector display and recorded for later evaluation.
a. Equipment utilized shall be:

i. XXXX/XX eddy current instrument.
ii. Bobbin coil probes capable of operation in the differential and absolute modes.
iii. Digital recording device(s).
iv. Communications system.
v. Reference standard The reference standard shall be manufactured from a length of tubing of the same
size and type of material that is to be examined in the vessel. The standard shall contain 6 intentional
discontinuity areas as follows:
aa. 100% through the wall drill hole (0.052 in. for 0.750 in. outside diameter tubing and smaller, and 0.067 in.
for larger tubing).
bb. Flat bottomed drill hole 5/64 in. diameter X 80% through from the outer tube wall surface.
cc. Flat bottomed drill hole 7/64 in. diameter X 60% through from the outer tube wall surface.
dd. Flat bottomed drill hole 3/16 in. X 40% diameter through from the outer tube wall surface.
ee. Four flat bottom holes, 3/16 in. diameter, spaced 90 degrees apart around the tube circumference, 20%
through the tube wall.
ff. Circumferential groove 20% deep by 1/16 in. long by 360 degrees on the inside tube wall surface.
gg. Circumferential groove 10% deep by 1/8 in. long !jy 13,60 degrees on the outer tube wall surface.
hh. Each standard shall be identified by a serial number etched on one end and be traceable to the master
standard stored at the facility.

b. Probe positioning and feeding shall be accomplished remotely for in-service inspection. Baseline
inspection may be done manually.
c. Personnel communications devices shall be provided.
3. Personnel Qualifications
Personnel collecting data in accordance with this procedure shall be qualified to Level! or higher in
accordance with Document QA 101. Personnel interpreting data collected in accordance with
procedure shall be qualified to Level IIA or higher in accordance with Document QA 101. Prior to
receiving a certification, the applicants shall have completed the program recommended by SNT-TC-1A
(1984 edition}, Supplement E.
D. PRECAUTIONS
1. All personnel to be engaged in eddy current inspection programs at operating plants shall have
received instructions in and understand the radiation protection rules and guidelines in effect on the
plant site.
2. All personnel to be engaged in the test program shall wear protective clothing to the extent of the
type defined by the exclusion area work permit.
3. All personnel entering a radiation work area will have proven their ability to work in a face mask by
successfully passing the pulmonary function test during their annual physical.
4. No entries shall be made into the steam generator channel head without the presence of a qualified
health physics technician.
5. Ensure that nozzle covers (when applicable) are securely in place inside the vessel before
commencement of the eddy current inspection program.

E. PERFORMANCE
1 . Preparation
a. Establish location of data acquisition control center.
b. Arrange power distribution at data acquisition control center.
c. Install communications system control box at the data acquisition control center.
d. Establish communication with one or more headsets at the steam generator.
e. Install XXXX!XX eddy current test instrument, pusher puller and fixture control boxes as the steam generator.
f. Install remote digital data acquisition computers and recording devices at the data acquisition control center.
2. Equipment Calibration
a. Prior to the commencement of the eddy current examination, of the steam generator tubes and after the
replacement of any component, the equipment shall be calibrated in accordance with the following steps:
Insert the reference bobbin coil probe into a reference standard.
i. Insert the test bobbin coil probe into a section of the reference standard, which is tree of discontinuities.
ii. Select the desired frequencies as per the Site Specific Data Acquisition Procedure.
iii. Select the probe drive voltage and channel gain as per the Site Specific Data Acquisition Procedure.
iv. Perform a hardware null.
v. Remotely pull the test probe through the reference standard at the speed selected for actual testing in the heat
exchanger. Data from the heat exchanger will also be acquired on the pull unless noted.
vi. Set the display sensitivity setting for each channel per the site specific calibration procedures.
vii. Set the rotation (phase) value so that the probe motion signals in the discontinuity sensitive differential channels
are horizontal (as per the specific calibration procedure) with the first lobe of the 100% through the wall drill hole
going down first as the probe is withdrawn from the standard.
viii. Set the rotation (phase) value so that the probe motion signals in the discontinuity sensitive absolute channels are
horizontal (as per the specific calibration procedure) with the response of the 100% through the wall drill hole
going up as the probe is withdrawn from the reference standard.
ix. Complete the digital calibration summary form, update it with all pertinent information and store this information to
the selected digital storage device.

3. Tube Inspection General
(Refer to Site Specific Calibration Procedure QA 2)
a. Eddy current inspection activities shall be performed with equipment sensitivities and speeds set
per the Site Specific Data Acquisition Procedure.
b. Visual verification of the identity of the specific tube being inspected shall be performed before and
after each fixture change and at the beginning and end of each row or column. Verification of the
positive identification of tube location shall be noted by a digitally recorded message.
c. Should the performance of the tube identity verification reveal an error has occurred in the
recording of probe location, all tubes examined because the previous verification of location shall
be reexamined.
d. The equipment calibration shall be verified and recorded at the beginning and end of each
calibration cycle. At a minimum, the calibration will be verified at 4 hours intervals and after any
equipment change.
e. Should the equipment be found to be out of calibration, the equipment will be recalibrated as per
Section E-2 of this procedure. The data interpreter will determine if it is necessary to re-inspect any
of the tubes.
4. Tube Inspection Manual

a. The data recording shall be made during probe withdrawal. Withdrawal speed is 14 in. per second
maximum. No minimum speed specification is required, but a good uniform pull of 12 in. per second
is preferred.
b. Because no inspection is performed during probe insertion, the speed may be as rapid as possible.
c. Due to radiation exposure probe pusher/pullers should be used to facilitate the inspection.

5. Tube Inspection Automatic Remote
NOTE: Ensure that all probe positioner, probe feeder and probe and communication connecting cables
are clear of access walkways and secured to available supports.
a. Install remotely operated probe feeder local to steam generator.

b. Check the operation of the remotely operated eddy current positioner and connect the flexible
probe conduits to the probe guide tube and the probe pusher.
c. Install remotely operated probe positioner on the manway or the tube sheet of the steam generator
to provide coverage of the area to be examined.
d. Connect power and air supply lines to remote hardware as required.
e. Verify the correct operation and control of the remotely operated platform hardware.
f. Operate the position er to locate the probe beneath the tube to be examined.
g. If probe insertion is to be done manually, utilize the probe pusher controls to feed the probe into
and up the tube to the desired height. Monitor the extent of insertion by reference to impedance
signals from known tube reference locations (tube end, top of tube sheet, supports) on the display
screen.
h. If operating in the Auto Acquire mode, verify that the proper landmark tables have been installed,
axial encoders are functioning properly and that the correct voltage thresholds have been
established for auto locate of supports and tube ends.
i. If performing manually or automatically ensure that the tube alphanumeric identifier has been
properly updated. Monitor the withdrawal of the probe from the tube until the impedance signal on
the screen indicates that the probe is clear of the tube sheet. Concurrent with the probe withdrawal,
visually monitor the signals on the display screen while recording all data in real time.
j. Reposition the probe beneath the next tube selected for examination.
k. Repeat the procedures described in the preceding steps until all the tubes selected for inspection
have been examined.

F. INSPECTION RESULTS AND DOCUMENTATION
1 . Requirements
a. The data interpreter shall be certified to Level IIA or IIIA as per Procedure QA 101.
b. Data shall be collected with an eddy current test system with a current certification
of calibration as per CSP procedure.
c. The data collection system shall be calibrated with an approved reference
standard that is serialized and traceable to a master reference standard.
d. The identify of the plant site, the steam generator, the operators name and
certification, the date, the test frequencies, the reference standard serial numbers,
equipment serial numbers and certification dates, software revisions and probes
design and serial number shall be recorded at the start of each calibration cycle.
e. data collection station shall be set up and calibrated as per Procedure OA 3.

2. . Performance
a. The data interpreter shall:
i. Determine that all tubes selected for inspection have been tested.
ii. Report tubes whose data are incomplete or un-interpretable.
iii. Require a retest of any tubes exhibiting excessive noise or unusual responses.
iv. ln-service inspections
a. Report all discontinuities > 19%.
b. Report all other indications that appear to be relevant.
c. Identify the axial position of all indications with respect to a known structural member.
v. Pre-service inspections
a. Report all indications observed. Include the axial position of the indication with respect
to a known structural member.
b. Interpretation
i. All data shall be reported on a digital Final Report form.
ii. The conversion from signal phase angles (or amplitudes) to discontinuity depths shall be
accomplished per calibration curves established on the appropriate channels using the
calibration standards and techniques defined in the site specific data analysis specifications.
iii. All data shall be reviewed in its entirety.
iv. Any abnormal signals observed shall be reported.

G. REFERENCES
The following documents or files are required for the performance of eddy
current inspection programs utilizing the methods described in this procedure.
1. Required Documentation
a. Eddy current inspection specific calibration procedure documents applicable to the plant to
be inspected.
b. Inspection plans showing tube sheet maps marked to designate the extent of examination to
be performed and extent of completion.
c. Final Reports including all indications resolved by the Data Resolution Analyst.

Chapter 9
Review Questions

Answers

Q.9.1 A precise statement of a set of requirements to be satisfied by a
material, product, system or service is a:
A. standard.
B. specification.
C. procedure.
D. practice.
Q.9.2 A statement that comprises one or more terms with explanation is a:

A. practice.
B. classification.
C. definition.
D. proposal.
Q.9.3 A general statement of applicability and intent is usually presented in

the of a _____ standard?
A. summary
B. scope
C. significance
D. procedure

Q.9.4 Military Standards are designated by MIL-C-(number).
A. True
MIL-STD-XXXXX
B. False
Q.9.5 In the structure of American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)

the subcommittee reports to the subgroup.
A. True
B. False
Q.9.6 In example QA 3, personnel interpreting results must be:

A. Level I or higher.
B. Level II or higher.
C. Level IIA or higher.
D. Level Ill.

Q.9.7 The prime artificial discontinuity used to calibrate the system described
in QA 3 is:
A. 20% inside diameter.
B. 50% outside diameter.
C. 100%.
D. 50% inside diameter.
Q.9.8 In QA 3, equipment calibration must be verified at least:

A every hour.
B. each day.
C. every 4h.
D. every 8 h.
Q.9.9 QA 3 specifies a maximum probe traverse rate of:

A. 305 mm/ s (12 in./ s).
B. 355.6mm/s (14in./s).
C. 152.4 mm/s (6 in./s).
D. not specified.

Q.9.10 The system in QA3 is calibrated with an approved standard that is
traceable to:
A. NBS.
B. American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME).
C. a master standard.
D. American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM).
Q.9.11 In accordance with QA 3, a tube whose data are incomplete must be:
A. reinspected.
B. reported.
C. reevaluated.
D. removed from service.

■ωσμ∙Ωπ∆º≠δ≤>η

More Reading
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Further Reading

Discussion
Subject: discuss on the standard requirements on the differences in frequency Hz
used on specific applications for thickness checks and weld examination.
BS EN 1711:2000
6.4.2 Surface probes
6.4.2.1 Probes for measuring thickness of coating and material evaluation relative to calibration block
To be acceptable for this purpose, the probe shall be capable of providing a full screen deflection lift off signal on the instrument
when moved from an uncoated spot on a calibration block to a spot covered with the maximum coating thickness expected on the
structure to be tested. The probe shall operate in absolute mode at a selected frequency in the range from 1 kHz to 1 MHz. All the
probes shall be clearly marked with their operating frequency range. (See Figure 1).
6.4.2.2 Probes for weld examination
For examination of ferritic welds, probes specially designed for this purpose shall be used. The probe assembly shall be
differential, orthogonal, tangential or equivalent which is characterized by having a minimal dependency on variations in
conductivity, permeability and lift off in the welded and heat-affected zones. The diameter of the probe shall be selected relative to
the geometry of the component under test. Such probes shall be able to operate when covered by a thin layer on non-metallic
wear-resistant material over the active face. If the probe is used with a cover, then the cover shall always be in place during
calibration. The probe shall operate at a selected frequency in the range from 100 kHz to 1 MHz.
Key
• 1,2,3,4 Deflections representing variations of thickness of
simulated coatings on calibration block
• 5 Deflection representing material of calibration block
• 6,7 Deflection representing range of material to be examined
using calibration block 0 Balance
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang BS EN 1711:2000

Discussion
Subject: discuss on the standard requirements on the frequency used on the
specific applications for thickness testing and defect detections.
BS EN 1711:2000
6.4.2 Surface probes
6.4.2.1 Probes for measuring thickness of coating and material evaluation relative to calibration block
To be acceptable for this purpose, the probe shall be capable of providing a full screen deflection lift off signal on the instrument
when moved from an uncoated spot on a calibration block to a spot covered with the maximum coating thickness expected on the
structure to be tested. The probe shall operate in absolute mode at a selected frequency in the range from 1 kHz to 1 MHz. All the
probes shall be clearly marked with their operating frequency range. (See Figure 1).
6.5.2 Procedure for examination of welds in ferritic materials
6.5.2.1 Frequency
The frequency shall be optimized with respect to the sensitivity, the lift off and other unwanted signals. Underusual conditions a
frequency of about 100 kHz is recommended.
Key
• 1,2,3,4 Deflections representing variations of thickness of
simulated coatings on calibration block
• 5 Deflection representing material of calibration block
• 6,7 Deflection representing range of material to be examined
using calibration block 0 Balance
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang BS EN 1711:2000

Comparison of OD and ID Eddy Current
Inspection of Tubing
Scope
The Eddy Current test (ECT) test is the primary nondestructive test (NDT) used in
tube mill certification testing for condenser, feedwater heater, and balance of plant
(BOP) power generation tubing.
When tested at the tube mill, the procedure is performed using encircling differential
outside diameter (OD) coils. Such OD testing techniques are well accepted by industry
and consumers alike. This technique has, in fact, been the standard tubing NDT
practice for several decades and is incorporated into the ASME Boiler & Pressure
Vessel Code.
Details of this type of test and its advantages and limitations are defined in the HEI
Tech Sheet #129. Although ultrasonic testing (UT), remote field testing (RFT) and flux
leakage testing may be acceptable alternatives, they are only used when specified by
the customer, or by a small number of product specifications such as ASTM B338. As
a result, this document will only discuss the EC test. Once the tubing is manufactured,
the owner or end user may specify an additional EC test using an ID probe. The
purpose of this document is to describe the major differences between the two tests
and what each is intended to accomplish.
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://www.heatexchange.org/pdf/techsheets/TechSheet132.pdf

Inspection from the Tube OD
Most ASTM and ASME tubular product specifications require a
nondestructive electric test NDE. The NDE tests may include eddy current
testing, ultrasonic testing, or flux leakage testing. The product specifications
do not necessarily designate which of these three must be used, and unless
agreed upon in the purchase order, the test choice is at the option of the tube
producer. The test that is the quickest, with the highest reliability and provides
good sensitivity for finding sharp, abrupt defects is the OD eddy current test. It
is the overwhelming choice of both tube manufacturers and end users.

The ASTM has developed recommended practices on how those tests may
be performed. These include as follows:
1. ASTM E309 / SE309 –Standard Practice for Eddy-Current Examination of

Steel Tubular Products Using Magnetic Saturation
2. ASTM E426 / SE426 –Standard Practice for Electromagnetic (Eddy-
Current) Examination of Seamless and Welded Tubular Products,
Austenitic Stainless Steel and Similar Alloys
3. ASTM E571 / SE571 –Standard Practice for Electromagnetic (Eddy-
Current) Examination of Nickel and Nickel Alloy Tubular Products
4. ASTM E2096 - Standard Practice for In Situ Examination of Ferromagnetic
Heat-Exchanger Tubes Using Remote Field Testing
5. ASTM E-690 / ASTM E690 - Standard Practice for In Situ Electromagnetic
(Eddy-Current) Examination of Nonmagnetic Heat Exchanger Tubes

Approximately 25 years ago, the ASTM A01.09/A01.10 NDE task group
recognized that the “E” practices identified above did not have sufficient detail
to ensure that tube mills were incorporating all of the necessary ASTM
requirements. In addition, there was no validation that the procedures used at
one manufacturing plant would provide similar test results as those at another
mill. As a result, the ASTM developed a number of additional requirements
which were then added into the general tubular product specifications. These
additional requirements specified items such as calibration size & location
(artificial defect size & type, i.e., drilled hole or notch), and calibration
procedures to ensure consistent & repeatable results. These requirements
also included training and certification of operators, signal to noise ratio
recommendations, and required equipment calibration standards. The
general specifications that include the additional requirements are as follows:
■ ASTM A450 / A450M – Standard Specification for General Requirements for

Carbon and Low Alloy Steel Tubes
■ ASTM A1016/A1016M - Standard Specification for General Requirements for

Ferritic Alloy Steel, Austenitic Alloy Steel, and Stainless Steel Tubes

The ASTM/ASME OD EC testing of tubes is usually accomplished using only one
frequency, typically within a range of 25 KHz to 100 KHz. As the magnetic field
penetrates the metal, the ability to receive a signal lessens or attenuates. This
phenomenon is called standard depth of penetration or alternatively, the “skin effect”.
The depth of penetration decreases with increasing frequency, conductivity and
magnetic permeability. As a result, the signal returning from an imperfection near the
OD will be stronger than an identically sized imperfection away from the OD surface.
The specifications do not address the imperfection’s location. Rejection is typically
decided on a go/no-go signal amplitude criteria from an artificial defect described in
the general specification or in the supplementary requirements of the product
specifications.
Magnetic properties or anomalies can be created in non-magnetic materials through
minor parent metal alloy excursions, manufacturing, welding, strain-induced cold work
and other processes and may not be detected using conventional OD saturation.
These signals are defined as anomalies or discontinuities and are not considered a
manufacturing defect. This magnetic coupling is achieved by using encircling coils to
create a saturating magnetic field. This magnetic saturation does not necessarily
improve the testing sensitivity or repeatability but does allow penetration of eddy
currents in magnetic materials.

One additional advantage of OD ECT inspection is that the tubing can be fully
magnetically saturated during testing to ensure the maximum level of
sensitivity and repeatability, vastly reducing the occurrence of false
indications on those materials which have ferromagnetic domains. As noted
earlier, carbon and alloy steels, stainless steels and some nickel alloys may
contain small magnetic domains that must be magnetically coupled during
testing to minimize “noise” providing for “quiet” or higher signal to noise
inspection with eddy currents.
Even austenitic stainless steels which are considered to be non-magnetic,
may have small magnetic regions from residual delta ferrite formed during the
welding process or strain induced martensite from cold working.
Special tube configurations such as integral ID and/or OD fins will require
unique technologies that are not covered in this document but should be
reviewed with the manufacturer prior to the onset of testing.

Inspection from the tube ID
ID eddy current testing employing internal probe coils was developed as an in-service
or baseline inspection tool to identify tube damage, discontinuities or operational wear.
This damage may include pitting, cracking, wear from vibration or abrasion and other
environmentally induced mechanisms. The indications are identified using ID probes
that are passed down the length of the tube on a tethered cable that is connected to
specially designed equipment containing an alternating current power source and
electronics for recording and analyzing the output. The probes can be designed with
differential encircling coils highly sensitive in identifying sharp, abrupt or axial damage
(similar to OD testing), or can use pancake coils to identify longitudinally oriented
damage. Internal probe coils can be operated in both the differential and absolute
modes simultaneously for identifying both abrupt and gradually occurring
discontinuities.
The ID test is not only sensitive to tube damage and wear but may also identify other
discontinuities including scratches and dents caused by transport and handling,
installation, and OD and ID debris that can come from a variety of sources. Therefore,
if a one-time test is performed on an existing heat exchanger, it may be difficult to
determine which indications are the results of service vs. those that are a result of the
manufacturing and installation process.

The baseline eddy current test
The baseline eddy current test was developed to separate service related
damage vs. manufacturing/installation process defects. The baseline test is most
effective when performed immediately after the installation of the tubing and is
typically done in the fabricator’s shop. It should be noted however that even with
specialized electronics, the use of a bobbin coil will have considerable difficulty
determining the precise discontinuity shape. Depth can be determined with a
single frequency but multiple frequencies will improve the analysis. Signal length
and a comparison of the absolute and differential signals from the same
discontinuity can also help. The ability & knowledge of the signal analyst to
correctly & accurately interpret potential failure mechanisms for the tubes
serviced and the signals’ location in the heat exchanger becomes of paramount
importance. A baseline test can be performed for the following reasons:
■ To determine if the tube was damaged during installation in the heat

exchanger
■ To develop a database of discontinuities and anomalies, including their
locations in the heat exchanger for comparison with future examinations

An initial ID baseline map facilitates in-service evaluations by comparing the
initial readings to a second test after a given service exposure. Tracking
indication changes becomes a useful tool to understand the effect of pits,
cracks and other wall loss damage in the tubing over the service timeline.
This information can then facilitate predictive maintenance programs.
During ID testing, indications are normally identified as a percentage of wall
loss which is determined by a combination of phase angle shift and different
responses to multiple frequencies.
Because natural damage may not provide identical size data to the artificial
defects used to calibrate the equipment, accurate sizing of the damage needs
to be verified by removing samples with indications and comparing them to
the calculation made during the analysis. However, removal of actual
samples may not always be practical; in that case, the analysis must rely on
past experience.

There is no standard accept/reject criteria for ID electric testing of feedwater
heater, condenser or balance of plant heat exchangers. Steam generator
tubing has several criteria for rejection and many are associated to the
artificial defects machined into the reference standard per ASME, Section V,
Article 8, Appendix II. This reference standard does not simulate the
feedwater heater, condenser and BOP heat exchanger indications and may
result in excessive reject rates from non-injurious indications.
ID testing to develop a baseline condition map is a mature technology and
can be a very useful tool to help track tube damage and wear and future heat
exchanger tube problems. Testing should be performed after the tubing is
installed, rolled, seal welded and other surrounding manufacturing processes
are completed. Detailed test information such as frequencies, probe speeds,
phase angles and other parameters need to be carefully documented as well
as probe descriptions and model numbers. When the test is duplicated, it can
be compared easily to the baseline map to identify any changes to the tubes.

Conclusion
Investigative efforts in producing this HEI Tech Sheet have not identified any known research or studies that
have been performed comparing the results of OD EC testing vs. ID EC testing of new commercial grade tubes.
As such, this Tech Sheet is compelled to identify concerns relative to this issue as follows:
1. The impact of attenuation needs to be better understood and addressed. Testing performed from the OD
will accentuate OD imperfections while ID testing will accentuate those on the ID.
2. The use of different frequencies will also have a significant impact on the signal vs. depth of the
discontinuity.
3. With any eddy current testing, fill factor, or the distance between the coil and the tube, is critical for
determining discontinuity sizing. A high fill factor and precise coil centering improves sensitivity while a low
fill factor results in a less precise response. When OD testing is performed the tubing is rigidly held and
centering within the coil is ensured through the use of stationary rolls in both in-line and offline testing.
Depending on the calibration process, OD-tested tubes can either be held stationary or rotated during
testing. ID probes rarely have effective centering devices and no requirement or specification currently
exists to prove centering. In the case of ID probe coils, a high fill factor results in better centering. Poor
centering results in less sensitivity in the hemisphere of the tube that has a larger gap between the probe
coil and tube wall. In a baseline test, a good fill factor is usually achievable because the tubes are clean.
Testing tubes that have been in service may result in lower fill factors because of ID fouling.
4. Most ID eddy current probes do not have a method for saturation to ensure that small magnetic domains
do not produce false indications. Those probes with saturation only have sufficient energy to saturate thin
walls and the testing is significantly slower.
5. If the ID testing is performed before installation in the bundle, imperfections developed during the
installation process are typically ignored.
The OD ECT is the current industry norm for NDE certification of new tubing. Considering all of the issues above and in the
absence of detailed comparative studies, the use of ID testing as an acceptance criterion for new tubing is not only controversial
but highly subjective. In light of these concerns, it is therefore recommended that users discuss these issues in detail with the
proposed tube manufacturers before specifying an ID test.


Reading 1：
Pulsed Eddy Currents - PEC Technology
Conventional eddy current testing uses a single frequency sinusoidal to excite a coil
and, among many applications, measure flaw responses as voltage and phase
changes on an impedance plane. Since different frequencies present different
sensitivity behaviors, multi-frequency testing is sometimes performed. In that case,
multi-frequency eddy current measurements are either performed by simultaneous
injection or multiplexing of multiple frequency components.
In pulsed eddy current (PEC) testing, multi-frequency inspections are performed by

driving a coil with a broadband pulse instead of a monochromatic excitation. This
results in broader frequency contents than standard eddy current signals, as well as
offering a better penetration into the depth of a material. The measured response of a
PEC inspection is a waveform, similar to an ultrasonic A-Scan, from which features
can be extracted to characterize flaws or for example perform thickness
measurements. A temporal analysis of the transient response of the coil that results
from this excitation can provide useful information about the depth of a defect. Pulsed
eddy current is an ongoing research field as novel probes as well as new ways of
interpreting and quantifying results are still required to fully exploit their potential.
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://www.pecscan.ca/BasicsPECtech.html

Although still an active research field, PEC technology already has its place
among the NDT techniques. The first application that benefits from the use of
PEC is the detection of corrosion under insulation (CUI), where PEC has
been used for many years to measure the remaining wall thickness of
material buried below up to 6” of insulation material. PEC has also been used
to detect deeply embedded corrosion or cracks in the multi-layered aluminum
structures used in the aerospace industry.

PEC Definitions
Transient response:
A transient event or response is a short-lived oscillation caused by a sudden change
of voltage, current, or load. In pulsed eddy current, it expresses the time-dependant
behavior of the coil-inspected material response to the input pulse.
Balanced signal:
Result of the subtraction of a voltage response by a reference signal, generally taken
on an unflawed area of a test sample. The balanced signal is null for unflawed regions
and displays amplitude variations when a defect or thickness change is encountered.
It is similar in nature to performing a null with a standard eddy current apparatus.

LOI (Lift-Off point of Intersection):
The LOI is the location of the crossing point between a transient voltage response
acquired on a sample and a response taken with a certain probe lift-off: the LOI is a
position where the signal does not vary with probe lift-off. Monitoring the voltage
response in the vicinity of the LOI point location therefore provides a mean of
performing Pulsed Eddy Current inspections that are free of lift-off.

Monitoring the actual displacement of the LOI point also provides useful information as
the position of the LOI is dependant of the sample properties (material, thickness, etc.).
An important application of shift is the possibility to perform thickness measurements
from the variations of the LOI point coordinates.

Gap Point :
Similar to the LOI, the gap point defines a coordinates of the voltage response that is
independent of gap variations between two layers of a multi-layered sample. This
point is located further in time than the LOI.
Spectral analysis:
Spectral analysis consists of performing a conventional eddy current analysis of the
frequencies contained in a PEC signal. The spectral analysis approach is a variation
of the multi-frequency eddy current field but benefits a complete spectrum instead of
finite frequencies.

Probes
Probes play an important part in Pulsed Eddy Current inspections. Their selection basically
depends on the dimensions and shape of the flaws that need to be detected in relation with the
properties of the part (material, number of layers, etc.). The probe that is most commonly used
for Pulsed eddy current inspections is a reflection type, which means that the device used to
induce the pulsed eddy currents is different than the device that receives their effects. Different
combinations of driving/receiving sensors can be used to perform pulsed eddy current
measurements.
Driving Coil: Induction of Pulsed eddy currents

The generation or induction of the pulsed eddy currents is typically done using a coil. The
purpose of the coil is to convert an electrical pulse (driving pulse) into a magnetic field which
induces eddy currents into the tested material following Faraday's laws of induction. The physical
and electromagnetic characteristics of the driving coil partly define the bandwidth and footprint of
the induced pulsed eddy currents.

Driving Coil

Coil receiver: Conventional eddy current probes
Conventional eddy current probes use both a coil as the driving and receiving sensor.
The reception of the eddy currents is again based on Faraday's induction laws. When
a voltage I applied to the driving coil, it creates a magnetic field that induces eddy
currents in the tested material. In return, these eddy currents generate an additional
magnetic field that interacts with the initial one. A receiving coil picks up the variations
of that resulting magnetic field and converts it into a measurable electrical signal.
Driving Coil
Receiving Coil

Hall effect sensors
In opposition to coils which measure variations of a magnetic field, Hall effect sensors
allow for the direct measurement of a magnetic field. This difference allows for a better
measurement of magnetic fields that do not vary rapidly.
GMR sensors
Giant Magneto Resistance sensors (GMR sensors) make use of a phenomenon
discovered in 1988 and observed in thin film structures composed of alternating
ferromagnetic and nonmagnetic layers, where the electrical resistance of the GMR
varies in the presence of a magnetic field. While it does not rely on the same
principles, this sensor is equivalent to a Hall sensor in the sense that it also provides a
voltage output that is proportional to the magnetic field.
GMR sensors

PEC Results
PEC is considered a new technology rather than an improvement of conventional
eddy current. By changing the pulse excitation to a square wave, we input and receive
signals that are quite different form conventional eddy currents. For this reason, PEC
requires particular signal processing techniques which differ from the usual amplitude
and phase analysis techniques. There is no denying that considerable information is
available in the temporal and spectral analysis of these pulses. Because of the
considerable amount of information available and inherent to the technology, the
physical phenomenon must be well understood to discriminate between flaws and
other artifacts

Crack Detection using Pulsed Eddy Currents - PEC
Crack detection on multilayered aircraft structures is achieved with two different PEC analysis methods. The
PEC analysis method is selected based on the layer thickness and the rivet head physical properties. The
designated PEC system requires proper calibration to obtain the desired detection.
Introduction
The detection of cracks is of great importance in aerospace structures as they can rapidly grow to cause
catastrophic failures. Eddy currents, ultrasounds and radiography are the most common ways of inspecting this
type of defect. While radiography has a limited use in tight spaces and because of security reasons, eddy
current and ultrasonic inspections fail to detect cracks in all situations. Ultrasonic inspections require a
mechanical bonding in order to propagate through multiple layers, which is not always the case for riveted
structures. On the other hand, eddy currents can penetrate through unbounded layers, but at limited depths
(typically 2 layers). Like eddy currents, Pulsed Eddy Currents have the particular advantage of being able to
monitor multiple layers without the need for mechanical bonding. In the case of multilayered aerospace
structures, a magnetic field that is strong enough to penetrate all layers of interest must be generated. When
this is achieved, pulsed eddy currents are produced on both surfaces of each layer and, from the principles of
mutual-inductance, generate an additional magnetic field that interact with the one coming from the driving coil.
The presence of cracks affects the pulsed eddy currents and can be monitored in the resulting field. Multiple
features can be used to detect cracks from either the transient waveform or its spectral representation.
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://www.pecscan.ca/PDFs/Application-note-Cracks-Revised.pdf

Experiments
C-Scan inspections of multilayered aircraft structures can be done using the
ARMANDA scanner (figure 1a), which is a portable scanner that can be fixed
on the structure. A PEC inspection was performed using this scanner on a
riveted eddy current standard (2 aluminum layers of 0.04” with the bottom
layer containing EDM notches of lengths of 0.250”, 0.200”, 0.150” and 0.100”
on the rivet holes edge and identified from {1} to {4} on figure 2a). For sample
inspection, we selected a conventional reflection eddy current probe (700 Hz
- 15 kHz). The PecScan™ driver/receiver unit (figure 1b) is used to drive the
probe, generate and receive the PEC signals.

Fig. 1 (a) ARMANDA - Automated scanner Pulsed Eddy Current generation
and reception. utomated for PEC testing (b) PecScan™ Driver/Receiver unit
for Pulsed Eddy Current generation and reception.

A picture of the sample is presented in figure 2a. Figure 2b shows the result
obtained by analyzing the PEC waveforms using a temporal method (feature:
total energy in a time gate) in the form of a C-Scan image. On the other hand,
figure 2c shows the C obtained through spectral analysis (feature: single
frequency component of 10 kHz extracted from the PEC waveforms). This
spectral analysis allows displaying the content of the selected frequency on
an impedance plane the same way it is performed in conventional eddy
current inspections. Based on the impedance response measured on a good
rivet, a rotation is applied on the 10 kHz component to minimize the effects of
the rivet edge, leading to the result presented in figure 2 (c).

Fig. 2. Images of the Eddy current standard samples {1}, 0.200” {2}, 0.150” {3} and 0.100” waveforms
(energy within a time gate); all scales in analysis of the PEC waveforms: imaginary part of the 10 kHz
component after rotation of the rivet edge signals. (d) Color palette used to display the C samples. (a) Picture
showing the EDM notches of 0.250” {4}. (b) C-Scan obtained from the temporal analysis of the PEC mm. (c) C-
Scan obtained from the spectral C-Scans.

Pulsed Eddy Currents offer great potential for corrosion detection and location in thick structures. The wide
band frequency spectrum of Pulsed Eddy Currents allows the determination of a large number of parameters,
such as defect size and location. In fact, Pulsed Eddy Current techniques have the potential to become the
primary method of corrosion detection in multi-layered structures.
Our research concerning Pulsed Eddy Current technologies concentrates on the detection of corrosion and
measurement of wall thickness of insulated pipelines. In order to optimize inspection productivity and costs, it is
imperative to improve the quality of inspection and corrosion data interpretation. Our research efforts therefore
revolve around the interpretation of corrosion data and the integration of Pulsed Eddy Current techniques to
commercial inspection systems.
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://www.tecscan.ca/solutions/advanced/pulsed-eddy-current/

Reading 2：
4.9.2.3 Pulsed Eddy Current Testing.
Conventional multifrequency systems usually utilize two or three frequencies. Additional frequencies require very
complex multiplex mixing systems to analyze the information from the test. A variety of experimental techniques have utilized
the multifrequency characteristics of a short electrical pulse to achieve the same type of results as the multifrequency test
technique. In principle, this technique is advantageous in that it requires simpler electronics to process the data. It can
potentially generate higher frequencies than fixed frequency systems. This would allow testing of thinner materials, and materials
with very low electrical conductivity (high resistivity). The eddy current pulse can also be a very short, high voltage pulse that can
be used to momentarily produce magnetic saturation in a ferromagnetic part. This will allow detection of subsurface flaws in
ferromagnetic materials.
4.9.2.4 Low Frequency Eddy Current Inspection.

In the past most eddy current testing utilized test frequencies of 10 kHz to 1 MHz .Improved equipment and data
processing techniques now allow the use of test frequencies as low as 55 Hz. Along with impedance plane equipment to measure
signal phase, this has provided a means for testing multilayer materials and thick materials. Detection of deep subsurface
cracks, cracking in intermediate layers of material, and corrosion on the backside of a material are possible.
4.9.2.5 Barkhausen Noise Testing Of Ferromagnetic Materials.

Abnormal stresses induced by shot peening, other cold working processes, and grinding burns affect the structural
properties of a material and can lead to flaw growth and part failure. In ferromagnetic materials, these processes affect the ease
with which the magnetic domains in the surface of the material can be moved. In un-magnetized ferromagnetic material, the
magnetic domains are randomly oriented. If the material is subjected to a magnetic field, the magnetic domains tend to align
themselves in the direction of the magnetic field. When the domains move to align themselves, electrical pulses are generated
during the domain movement. This is called Barkhausen noise. This electrical noise can be detected and measured
by Hall effect sensors. If the material is free of abnormal stresses, the domains are relatively free to move and little
Barkhausen noise is generated. Areas of tensile stress parallel to the applied magnetic field cause an increase in Barkhausen
noise. Examples of applications of this test method are ferromagnetic engine components and landing gear.
Barkhausen noise measurements are also used to detect the quality of drilling and reaming of holes in ferromagnetic
material.
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://chemical-biological.tpub.com/TM-1-1500-335-23/css/TM-1-1500-335-23_419.htm

Good Luck

Good Luck

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Electromagnetic Testing

Study Guide Electromagnetic Testing Part 1

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Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang EN 12084 : 2001

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang EN 12084 : 2001

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d) Double differential measurement.

e) Pseudo differential measurements

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang EN 12084 : 2001

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The implications of this expression include:

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Explanation: Greater coil area presents less opposition to the formation of

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Explanation: A core material with greater magnetic permeability results in

μ0 = 4π x 10-7 H.m-1 μr = 600, μiron = 600 x μ0

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L = μr• (N2 x A /l) • 1.26 x 10-6 Henry

μ0 = 4π x 10-7 H.m-1 or 1.26 x 10-6 H.m-1

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Important observation is that

Figure 1.6 Induction current flow in a cylindrical part.

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

Important observation is that

Figure 1.6 Induction current flow in a cylindrical part.