Technical Developments and Recent Trends in Crankshaft

Materials
Haruyoshi KUBO, Technology Department, Steel Casting & Forging Plant, Steel Casting & Forging Division,
Iron & Steel Sector
Dr. Hiroyuki MORI, Production Department, Steel Casting & Forging Plant, Steel Casting & Forging Division,
Iron & Steel Sector

Diesel engines are required to have higher out-puts with engines employ materials with strength as high as
smaller sizes. Semi-built-up and solid crankshafts, which 950 MPa. Along with the strengthening of
are main parts of diesel engines, are subject to severer materials, higher reliabilities are required more
service conditions to meet such requirements. As a than ever for the crankshafts.
result, crankshaft manufacturers are driven to improve This article describes the technical history of
fatigue strength, quality and reliability of the crankshaft materials and refers to notable trends in
crankshafts. This article describes technical their technical developments.
developments and recent trends in crankshaft
manufacturing, including steel-making processes, new 1. Manufacturing methods for crankshafts
materials with higher strength, and new fillet hardening
processes. 1.1 Manufacturing method of built-up type crankshafts

Introduction Photo 1 shows an example and Figure 1 shows

the names of parts of a built-up type crankshaft.
A crankshaft for vessel engine is one of the most As described above, a built-up type crankshaft is
vital parts for ships. Crankshafts are roughly made by shrink fitting parts called "journals" to
classified into two categories; built-up type other parts called "crankthrows". All the journals
crankshafts for 2-cycle diesel engines and solid are made of forged steel and the crankthrows are
type crankshafts for 4-cycle diesel engines. made of either cast or forged steel. The
Built-up type crankshafts are made by shrink- crankthrows made of cast steel have advantage in
fitting journals to crankthrows for the numbers of productivity over the ones made of forged steel.
cylinders and are widely used for marine diesel Table 1 shows a typical manufacturing process for
engines with cylinder bore-diameters larger than a built-up type crankshaft with cast steel
approx. 400 mm. The two oil shocks forced low- crankthrows. Elemental technologies required for
speed, two cycle, engine manufacturers to pursue the crankshaft with cast steel crankthrows are ①
lower energy consumptions and lower fuel costs.
As a result, the engine strokes have become longer
and the cylinder pressures have become higher.
Also, the recent increasing size of ships has
resulted in a requirement for higher powers and, at
the same time, the needs to reserve maximum
cargo space require downsizing of engines. The
technical trend in the low-speed engine requires
the built-up type crankshafts to have higher
strength and higher reliability. Photo 1 Built-up type crankshaft
Solid type crankshafts are press-formed from
steel ingots and are used for mid- to high-speed, Web
Pin

four cycle, engines with cylinder bore-diameters

of less than 600 mm. Several developments are
progressing for the 4 cycle engines to improve
overall efficiencies. These include higher cylinder
pressures, longer strokes and utilization of exhaust
energy. As in the case of built-up type crankshafts,
longer strokes and down-sizing are required for Journal Journal
Fillet
solid type crankshafts. An important requirement Crankthrow

for solid type crankshafts is strength. Some of the Fig. 1 Illustration of built-up type crankshaft

37 KOBELCO TECHNOLOGY REVIEW NO. 26 DEC. 2005

Table 1 Manufacturing sequence of built-up type crankshaft Table 2 Manufacturing sequence of solid type crankshaft
made of cast steel crankthrow Melting
RR forging
(Electric furnace)
Casting Rough Forging Flame
design machining design cutting Refining (Vacuum
Heat treatment
Cast Forged holding furnace)
throw shafts
Pattern Hot rolling (Journal) Mechanical property
making on pin & fillet
Ingot making
Steel making Heat test
Ingot making treatment

Molding
Heat Forging Final machining
treatment
Rough Non-destructive
Heating
Steel making Preliminary machining Machining
tests
& pouring final machining

Cold rolling Final machining

Riser cutting Forging for shrink
on fillet
fitting

Final machining
Annealing for shrink
fitting Shrink Final
fitting machining

Fig. 2 RR forging

methods today. Figure 2 shows an example of the

RR forging method used in our company. The RR
(TR) forging method yields higher fatigue strength
compared to free-forging because the outermost
layers of steel ingots appear on fillets which are
Photo 2 Solid type crankshaft
the most important portions of crankshafts. The
casting design, ② steel making and material important elemental technologies required for
technology and ③ strengthening of crankshaft. solid type crankshafts are ① forging method, ②
steel making and material technology and ③
1.2 Manufacturing method of solid type strengthening of crankshaft.
crankshafts
2. History and latest trend of materials for built-
Photo 2 shows an example and Table 2 shows a up type crankshafts
typical manufacturing process of solid type
crankshafts. Solid type crankshafts are made from 2.1 History of main elemental technologies for
ingots of steel, which are forged into pre-designed built-up type crankshafts
shapes using special forging equipment. The
special forging methods include the RR forging Table 3 shows the technical developments of built-
and TR forging, both of which are commonly used up type crankshafts. The following describes the

Table 3 Technical development of built-up type crankshaft

1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
Full built-up type
Semi built-up type crankthrow
Casting design
Solidification analysis
Mold filling and solidification analysis
Open-hearth furnace
Electoric furnace
Steel making
process Tap degassing process (TD method)
Ladle furnace process (LF)

Grade 1
Grade 2
Grade 3
Cast steel
material Grade 4
Grade 5
Low-Si
Cold rolling (Old type equipment)
Cold rolling (New type/Small size)
Fillet rolling Cold rolling (New type/Large size)
Hot rolling

Ultrasonic test Automatic apparatus

apparatus

KOBELCO TECHNOLOGY REVIEW NO. 26 DEC. 2005 38

 history and trend of steel making process, 2.3 History of materials
materials, and additional technologies.
The down-sizing and high-power generation of
2.2 History of steel making technology diesel engines require higher fatigue strengths of
the pin fillets and improved gripping strength of
Advances in steel making technology are essential the shrink fit journals. Figure 5 shows the
for reducing impurities in the materials for mechanical properties and heat treatments of cast
crankshafts. The removal of phosphorous (P) and steel crankthrows developed to date. In the last 30
sulfur (S) are especially important along with years the yield point of the material has increased
degassing. As shown in Table 3, we used the tap by a factor of 1.5.
degassing process (TD process) until around 1988.
Subsequently we employed the ladle furnace 2.4 History of additional technologies
process (LF process) in which the molten steel is
transferred from an electric furnace to a ladle and The most important characteristic of a crankshaft is
refined in there. A schematic of the LF process is the fatigue strength of fillets. One way to improve
shown in Figure 3 and the result of refining is the fatigue strength further is by applying external
shown in Figure 4. The LF process efficiently forces to the material surface. We have developed
removes impurities such as sulfur, and gasses such a strengthening method of cold rolling the fillets
as oxygen, and is proven to be an effective method (Photo 3, cold rolling method) and have adopted
of reducing non-metallic inclusions.1)-3) the method in production. Various improvements
have been made on the fillet, cold rolling,
equipment to roll in the narrow spaces of the pin-
fillet between large webs, which are becoming even
100ton electric narrower with the down-sizing of diesel engines.1),
arc furnace 4)
A significant improvement in fatigue strength is
obtained by the cold rolling, which causes work
Arc heating hardening and compressive residual stress on the
furnace
material surface.5)-12) The effect of cold rolling is
confirmed on actual-sized crankthrows using our
in-plane, resonance type, fatigue testing machine
Vacuum
treatment Vac.
Normalizing Quenching
＋ ＋
Tempering Tempering
Tensile strength or yield point (MPa)

600

500
Adjustment

400

Fig. 3 Ladle furnace process

300

P S O 200 Tensile strength

Yield point
TD LF TD LF TD LF
100
X 100 93 X 96 11 X 46.0 26.3 Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade S2 Grade 3 Grade 4
σo 28.8 18.2 σo 53.0 4.3 σo 12.6 8.1
Fig. 5 Mechanical properties and heat treatment of cast steel
ppm ppm
materials for crankthrow
170 150 TD ppm
150 130 70
TD TD
130 110 60
LF
110 90 50
90 70 40
LF
70 50 30
50 30 20
LF
10 10
0

Fig. 4 Comparison of P, S and O contents between tap

degassing process and ladle furnace process Photo 3 Fillet cold rolling equipment

39 KOBELCO TECHNOLOGY REVIEW NO. 26 DEC. 2005

 Main body

Throw
Burner

Cylinder

Back-up roll
Work roll
Turn table

Photo 4 Fatigue testing machine for actual-sized crankthrow Fig. 7 Illustration of hot rolling

Table 4 Results of fatigue tests on actual-sized crankthrow 180

Hot rolled area
160
Fatigue strength
Type of Tensile Area with no
Fillet 140

Pin
crankshaft strength Fatigue Degree of increase micro-shrinkage
Material cold

Y position (mm)
(Pin diameter σB strength Amount Rate 120
rolling
in mm) (MPa) σW (MPa ) (MPa) (％)
100 10
Type 80 Cast steel Non 557.6 176.4 − − Fillet
(730) (Grade 2) Treated 80 20
557.6 313.6 137.2 78
30
60

550 40
Cast steel ：Shallowest micro-shrinkage observed
500 20  under hot rolled area
Forged steel
Grade 5
Yield point (MPa)

450 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
400 Grade 4 X position (mm)
S34MnV Fig. 8 Effect of hot rolling
350

300
Grade 3 S44S
250

200
500 600 700
Tensile strength (MPa)

Fig. 6 Mechanical properties of cast steel materials and

forged steel materials for crankthrow

shown in Photo 4. Table 4 summarizes the results

of fatigue tests, showing 78% increase of the fatigue
strength by cold rolling. All the cast crankthrows
Photo 5 Automatic ultrasonic inspection equipment
produced today are processed by cold rolling.

2.5 Latest trend are known to yield slightly lower fatigue strength
compared to the forged throw of the same strength
The built-up type crankshaft, using cast-steel level. We apply hot plastic forming (hot rolling) to
crankthrows, has been regarded to be superior in important parts including pins and pin-fillets.
productivity but inferior in fatigue strength Figure 7 shows the hot-rolling equipment and
compared to the one using forged-steel Figure 8 shows the effect of hot rolling. As shown
crankthrows. Therefore some type of engines in the figure, the micro-shrinkages within 20 mm
restricted the use of cast-steel crankthrows. depth from the surface disappeared due to the
We have developed a high strength, cast steel press-bonding by the hot rolling.14)
for crankshaft throws (Grade 5) having fatigue A crankshaft is an important part which
strength comparable to the forged ones.13) Figure 6 requires very stable performance, and strict
shows the relationship between the yield point and management is needed on its quality. The
tensile strength of cast steels and forged steels. The automatic ultrasonic inspection machine 15)
high strength cast steel (Grade 5) enables the developed (Photo 5) eliminateshuman measurement
application of the same crankshaft designs as used errors, and detects and records the positions and
for forged steel. sizes of defects even within the acceptance limits.
The inherent micro-shrinkages in cast throws

KOBELCO TECHNOLOGY REVIEW NO. 26 DEC. 2005 40

 3. History and latest trend of materials for solid Such technologies include cold rolling, induction
crankshafts hardening, nitriding and shot-peening.17), 18) The
cold rolling, among others, is one of the most
3.1 History of main technologies for the solid-type commonly used techniques. The technique ensures
crankshaft materials high dimensional precision since it does not
involve heating which tends to cause deformation
Mid- to high-speed diesel engines used for ships and had been applied to the cast steel throw since
and power generators are tending towards higher around 1970 as described previously. We apply
power, lower fuel consumption and down-sizing. cold-rolling also to the solid type low-alloy
Higher strength is required more than ever for crankshafts and confirmed its effect (Figure 10)11), 12)
solid type crankshafts. by using a fatigue testing machine as shown in
The RR forging and TR forging developed so Photo 6. These additional technologies are
far yield higher fatigue strength compared to free- expected to be applied to an increasing number of
forging, and the crankshafts forged by those crankshafts in the future.
methods, called CGF (Continuous Grain Flow)
crankshafts, are widely used. Currently the 3.4 Latest trend
majority of crankshafts are designed based on the
CGF. The most important parts of a solid type The trend for higher strength will accelerate in
crankshaft are also the fillets and various solid type crankshafts as described previously. The
improvements of the fillets, including development of 1,000MPa class steel19) will be
strengthening of materials, have been conducted needed along with the reduction of non-metallic
for higher fatigue strengths. inclusions as suggested in the study by Nippon
Kaiji Kyokai.20) Considerable achievement has been
3.2 History of material strength and made in the reduction of non-metallic inclusions
characteristics by the recent improvements in steel making
technologies, however, we will continue
Until around 1960, carbon steels of 450MPa class development to further improve the quality.
had been used for the solid type crankshaft.
Subsequently, low-alloy steels began to be used 900
Stress amplitudeσa (MPa)

and have gradually increased in usage. Currently 800

more than 50% of crankshafts use low-alloy steels
700
(≧ 800 MPa).
Hertzian contact
A noteworthy trend is the recent application of 600
pressure (MPa)
super-high strength steel of 950MPa class16) (Figure 500 Non-rolled
2,070
9). The trend will continue and steels of 1,000MPa 400 3,620
class will be used in the near future.
300
105 106 107
Number of cycles to failure (N)
3.3 History of additional technologies
Fig.10 Results of fatigue tests on actual-sized crankthrow
A number of technologies, in addition to the
strengthening of material, are utilized for the
improvement of fatigue strengths of crankshafts.

3.0
with TS≧950 MPa (％)

2.5
Share of crankshafts

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004
Year

Fig. 9 Share of crankshafts with tensile strength of over 950 Photo 6 Fatigue testing machine
MPa

41 KOBELCO TECHNOLOGY REVIEW NO. 26 DEC. 2005

Conclusions 6) M. Nishihara, Bulletin of the M.E.S.J., Vol.2, No.2, p.57
(1974).
7) M. Nishihara, et al., Bulletin of the M.E.S.J., Vol.5, No.5,
The long history of crankshafts, which are one of p.22 (1970).
our major product items, has been reviewed and 8) T. Kameoka, et al., Trans. I. Mar. E., Vol.83, p.205 (1971).
major technologies have been described including 9) M. Nishihara, et al., 9th International Congress on
their development background and recent trend. Combustion Engines, A5 (1971).
Diesel engines are excellent propulsion engines 10) M. Nishihara, et al., Bulletin of the M.E.S.J., Vol.7, No.1,
p.53 (1972).
from the viewpoint of fuel economy and the 11) S. Araki, et al., 21st International Congress on Combustion
crankshafts, being important parts of the diesel Engines, D17 (1995).
engines, are required to have higher performances 12) H. Nagasaka, et al., R&D Kobe Steel Engineering Reports,
and qualities. We will continue to respond the Vol.48, No.1, p.68 (1998).
needs for crankshafts from the engine 13) Y. Kagawa, et al., Proc. 70th M.E.S.J. Symposium, p.9 (2003).
14) T. Ochi, et al., R&D Kobe Steel Engineering Reports, Vo.52,
manufacturers by continuing further research and No.1, p.11 (2002).
development. 15）Y. Wasa, et al., Tetsu-to-Hagane, Vol.90, No.11, p.877
(2004).
References 16) Y. Kagawa, et al., Proc. 68th M.E.S.J. Symposium,
p.157(2002).
1) H. Mori, et al, R&D Kobe Steel Engineering Reports, Vol.50, 17) JSME Data Book, Fatigue of Metals, Ⅱ (1965).
No.3, p.41 (2000). 18) T. Shimamoto, et al., Journal of Society of Automotive
2) M. Okamura, et al., R&D Kobe Steel Engineering Reports, Engineers of Japan, Vol.44, No.6, p.95 (1990).
Vol.33, No.3, p.3 (1983). 19) S. Fukaya, et al., Proc. 72th M.E.S.J. Symposium,
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KOBELCO TECHNOLOGY REVIEW NO. 26 DEC. 2005 42