Outline

¾ Optical absorption
¾ Absorption coefficient
¾ Band gaps of semiconductor relative to optical spectrum

¾ Photoconductors
¾ Operation
¾ Performance parameters
¾ Fabrication
¾ Applications

¾ Diodes
¾ Basic ideas
¾ Behaviour as photo detector and solar cell

OPTOELECTRONIC DETECTORS 2
Outline … continued

¾ Solar cells
¾ Basic operation
¾ Efficiency parameters and ways to improve efficiency
¾ Calibration
¾ Fabrication
¾ Designs used
¾ Other factors

¾ Photo detectors
¾ General consideration
¾ P-N junction photodiode
¾ P-i-n photodiode
¾ Metal-semiconductor photodiode
¾ Hetero junction photodiode
¾ Avalanche photodiode

OPTOELECTRONIC DETECTORS 3
Outline … continued

¾ Photoconductors and photo detectors

¾ noise and bandwidth

¾ Infrared detectors
¾ Classification
¾ Application

¾ Photo transistors
¾ Basic working
¾ Structure

¾ Photo FETs
¾ Charge coupled devices
¾ Summary

OPTOELECTRONIC DETECTORS 4
Optical Absorption

Monochromator
„ Photons of a particular λ incident on a semi- I0
conductor
„ 2 cases : l It
„ hν ≥ Eg – electrons excited to CB - lose
energy to lattice – velocity reaches equilibrium It = I0 exp (-αl)
thermal velocity – all electrons near CB Assuming reflection is negligible
„ hν < Eg – unable to excite electron from VB to
CB
Typical plot of α vs λ
„ Hence the notion of cutoff wavelength (λc)

Beam of photons (hν > Eg) – some amount hν=Eg

α (cm-1)
„
absorbed …some amount transmitted
„ Assuming none of light is reflected
„ I(x) = I0 exp(-αx)
„ α : Absorption coefficient – cm-1
„ Hence α is a function of wavelength as well
as material used

hν

OPTOELECTRONIC DETECTORS 5
Optical Absorption Absorption coefficient

„ 1/ α : effective absorption length

„ 1/ α : distance within which 63.2%of
incident light is absorbed
„ For e.g. 104 cm-1 corresponds to an
effective absorption length of 1μm

„ Indirect band gap semiconductors -

α at a given energy is generally low
for higher Eg materials (Ge, Si)
„ Direct band gap semiconductors
(GaAs) - α is higher even though
they have larger Eg compared to
indirect band gap semiconductor
„ For a given photon energy – a
thinner layer of GaAs is required –
compared to Si.

OPTOELECTRONIC DETECTORS 6
Optical Absorption Band gaps relative to optical spectrum

YELLOW

VIOLET
GREEN
RED

BLUE
INFRARED ULTRAVIOLET

GaAs GaP

InSb Ge Si CdSe CdS SiC ZnS

0 1 2 3 4 Eg(eV)

„ GaAs, Si, Ge, InSb – outside visible region – in infrared – hence absorbs band gap
light (1μm) and also in the visible spectrum
„ GaP, CdS – have band gaps wide enough to pass photons in visible range

OPTOELECTRONIC DETECTORS 7
Photo Conductors Basic operation

„ A slab of semiconductor – intrinsic or

extrinsic – no junction necessary
„ Shine with light hν > Eg
„ Transition of electrons - VB to CB
„ Increase in conductivity

„ Generation rate = G
‰ Δp = Gτp
‰ Δn = G τn
‰ Δσ = qG(τpμp+ τnμn)

„ Spectral response
‰ Photon energy < Eg – no absorption
‰ Photon energy >> Eg – creation of e- hole
pairs at surface – high probability of I
recombination
„ Cutoff wavelength λc (μm) = 1.24 / Eg(eV)

OPTOELECTRONIC DETECTORS 8
Photo Conductors Performance

„ Performance parameters SENSITIVITY

Log (Resistance)
‰ Sensitivity - how resistance varies with light
‰ Photoconductivity gain - number of charge
carriers passing b/w contact electrodes per
sec for each photon absorbed per sec
„ Gain = (ΔI)/(qGpair) = τ / ttr , τ : carrier
life time ; ttr : carrier transit time
‰ Response time of detector Log (Illumination)
„ Bulk photoconductor resistance –
SPEED OF RESPONSE

Bulk Photoconductor resistance

decrease with light
Fall time
„ Fall times longer – traps due to
imperfections Rise time

Light off Light on Time

OPTOELECTRONIC DETECTORS 9
Photo Conductors Other parameters

„ Spectral response - each photoconductive

material has spectral response …
depends on band gap of semi conductor
„ Temperature coefficient of resistance -
variation with temperature
„ Dark resistance - resistance under zero
illumination - gives idea of leakage current
- range 500k to 15M
„ Resistance tolerance – like normal
resistor … a particular resistance value + SPECTRAL RESPONSE
a tolerance

OPTOELECTRONIC DETECTORS 10
Photo Conductors Fabrication

„ Given photoconductive material – at

certain illumination – has certain
resistivity
„ RH=ρH(w/l) , w , l : width and length of
electrode gap , w/l – can be varied,
RH : resistance per sheet thickness

„ Start with an insulating substrate –

ceramic
„ Deposition of semi-conductor layer
‰ Vapour deposition
‰ Sintering photoconductive material
‰ Metal-contacts evaporated on
surface

OPTOELECTRONIC DETECTORS 11
Photo Conductors Fabrication

„ Thin films – high resistance

„ Space b/w contacts is narrow
„ Inter digitated pattern - more photo
conductivity gain
‰ Low resistance – under light
conditions
‰ Greater area exposed

„ Contact resistance must be minimized

„ Made as an ohmic contact

„ Materials used :
‰ Cadmium Sulphide, Lead Sulphide
‰ Germanium, Silicon and Gallium
Arsenide

OPTOELECTRONIC DETECTORS 12
Photo Conductors Advantages & disadvantages, applications

„ Advantages
‰ High sensitivity
LIGHT SENSOR CIRCUIT
‰ Low cost
‰ No junction potential

„ Disadvantages
‰ Narrow spectral response
‰ Light-history effects
‰ Slower response times

„ Applications
‰ Light meters
‰ Street light automatic switch on-off
‰ Burglar alarms
‰ Obstacle detection

OPTOELECTRONIC DETECTORS 13
Diodes p-n junction diode - basics

„ p-type semiconductor and n-type

semiconductor
„ Allows current readily in FB but not in RB
„ p-n junction is formed
‰ Electrons diffusion from n to p
‰ Leaves behind +ve charge on n-side and
–ve on p-side
„ Formation of depletion region
„ Presence of in built electric field

OPTOELECTRONIC DETECTORS 14
Diodes p-n junction diode – band diagram

„ Band diagram of p-n junction diode

under zero bias
„ Alignment of Fermi-levels – absence of
current
„ Results in bending of bands at junction
„ Presence of barrier potential ... electric
field at the junction

„ Illumination under light – energy > Eg

hν
„ Electron hole pairs – both p and n
„ Contribution to current – generation in
depletion region
hν
„ Current opposite to normal FB diode hν

Electron diffusion Drift space Hole diffusion

OPTOELECTRONIC DETECTORS 15
Diodes p-n junction diode – I-V characteristics

I
Dark
„ Modification of diode equation and
diode characteristics
„ I = I0 [exp(V/VT)-1] – IL
„ VOC ~ VT ln (IL / Io)
„ Characteristics – 1st , 3rd and 4th
quadrant
„ Third quadrant – photo detector V
„ Fourth quadrant – solar cell
Photo detector Solar cell

With illumination

OPTOELECTRONIC DETECTORS 16
Solar Cells Basic operation

„ Conversion of solar energy to electrical

energy
„ Operated in the 4th quadrant I-V
characteristics
„ Operated in unbiased mode

„ Characteristics
‰ Spectral response – correspond to
solar spectrum – 500nm peak
‰ High conversion efficiency Solar cell – monocrystalline Si
wafer

OPTOELECTRONIC DETECTORS 17
Solar Cells Efficiency factors

„ Maximum power point

‰ Shown by the maximum power
rectangle
I Maximum power
rectangle
„ Energy conversion efficiency ISC
‰ % of power converted when solar Im
cell is connected to electric circuit
‰ η = Pm / (E X Ac) , E : irradiance ,
Ac : area of the solar cell

„ Fill factor
‰ Ratio of maximum power point to Vm VOC
VOCISC
V
‰ FF = Pmax / (VOC X ISC)

OPTOELECTRONIC DETECTORS 18
Solar Cells Efficiency – factors and improvement techniques

„ Large device – greater amount of optical energy is absorbed

„ Top layer is kept thin – so most light reaches base – surface absorption causes
recombination – no useful current produced
„ Requirement is diffusion lengths must be large
„ Base is made larger – n+p structures are preferred – p region – Dn is larger than for
holes
„ η = FF VOCIL / Pin - Hence we require high VOC, ISC and FF
„ Need to increase IL – heavy doping of back of cell – n+pp+ structure – potential barrier
at back pp+ junction - reduction of recombination at back surface
„ Dependence of material – as Eg increases – IO decreases – VOC increases – but with
Eg increase - hν maybe < Eg - therefore optimum efficiency depending on the
material
„ GaAs is used for space applications – Si used for terrestrial applications

OPTOELECTRONIC DETECTORS 19
Solar Cells Efficiency – factors and improvement techniques

„ Use of anti-reflective coatings – SiO2 , TiO2 , Ta2O5

„ Use of surface texturing - chemical etch ants - advantages
‰ Multiple reflections reduce light reflected back
‰ The light gets refracted as it enters and travels obliquely through the cell causing
its absorption closer to the junction
„ Use of finger contacts to reduce series resistance
„ Use of solar concentrators – using mirrors
„ Use of tracking systems to track position of the sun

OPTOELECTRONIC DETECTORS 20
Solar Cells Calibration

„ AIR MASS : measure of how far light travels through the Earth's atmosphere
„ Outer edge of Earth’s atmosphere receives around 135 mW /cm2
„ Light reaching Earth’s surface – depends on the thickness of the atmosphere
„ Air Mass 1 (AM1) : the radiation reaching sea level at high noon in a clear sky is 92.5
mW/cm2
„ Air Mass 0 (AM0) : the radiation in outer space = 135mW/cm2 (outside earth’s
atmosphere)

„ Solar cells are calibrated as AM0 or AM1 illumination

„ AM0 : Solar cells in outer space
„ AM1 : Solar cells used for terrestrial applications

OPTOELECTRONIC DETECTORS 21
Solar Cells Fabrication – simple structure

„ Start with a p-substrate

„ p-n junction formed by diffusion or ion
implantation – small n-region
„ Metal contact “fingers” on the surface
„ Metal base contact at the other end

„ Large area
„ Match of Ln , p region thickness and
mean optical penetration depth
„ Must have low series resistance
„ Compromise b/w large contact
potential and longer lifetimes

OPTOELECTRONIC DETECTORS 22
Solar Cells General designs used

„ Homo junction device - e.g crystalline Si

‰ Single material is used
‰ Depth of p-n junction, dopants and purity
of material used can be varied
„ Hetero junction device – e.g CdS , CuInSe2
‰ Top window layer – high Eg
‰ Bottom layer with low Eg
„ p-i-n and n-i-p devices – e.g. am Si and CdTe
‰ 3-layer sandwich – middle i-layer
‰ Electric field stretching across intrinsic
region
„ Multi-junction devices
‰ Cascade or tandem cell – individual cells
with different Band Gaps stacked together

OPTOELECTRONIC DETECTORS 23
Solar Cells General designs used

„ Multi-junction cell – 2 ways

‰ Mechanical stack approach

„ Independent solar cells
„ Different band gaps
„ Mechanical stacking one on top
of other

‰ Monolithic approach
„ Fabrication of one full solar cell
„ Growing other cell on these

OPTOELECTRONIC DETECTORS 24
Solar Cells How power is produced

OPTOELECTRONIC DETECTORS 25
Solar Cells Other factors

„ Modification of diode equation

‰ I = I0 [exp(V/VT)-1] – IL

Relative response
‰ VOC=Vmax=VT * ln(IL/IS + 1)
‰ ISC = IL
‰ η = (ILkV2mp)/((1+kVmp)APin) * (1 + IL/ IS)
; k=1/VT

„ Spectral response
‰ Variation of short circuit current with
wavelength of incident light
‰ Short wavelength response – junction
close to surface ( 1/α small)
‰ Long wavelength response – junction
must be deep comparatively Wavelength of incident light

OPTOELECTRONIC DETECTORS 26
Solar Cells Other factors

„ Recombination current and series

resistance
‰ Recombination within depletion region
‰ Defects in solar cell
‰ Modification of diode equation

Current
‰ I = I0 [exp(V/nVT)-1] – IL
‰ Modification of diode characteristics –
series resistance (mainly) , shunt Rs=5ohm
resistance
Rsh=inf
„ RS – jn depth, impurity concentration,
arrangement of ohmic contacts Rs=0
Rsh=100ohm
„ Radiation effect
‰ High energy particle radiation Rs=0
‰ Production of defects in semi- Rsh=inf
conductors
‰ Reduction in solar power output
Voltage

OPTOELECTRONIC DETECTORS 27
Photo Detectors General consideration

„ Reverse biased semiconductor diodes

„ Includes p-i-n diode, the p-n junction diode, metal-semiconductor diode,
hetero junction, avalanche photodiode

„ Wavelength response, modulation-frequency response, available power, SNR

„ Wavelength response – absorption coefficient = function of Wavelength … small
for longer wavelength and vice versa
„ Modulation frequency response
‰ Diffusion of carriers – for carriers generated outside depletion region
‰ Drift time in depletion region
‰ Capacitance of depletion region compromise b/w the two
„ Available power – depends on quantum efficiency, area, incident photon flux
„ SNR – signal to noise ratio

OPTOELECTRONIC DETECTORS 28
Photo Detectors General consideration

„ Quantum efficiency η = number of useful electron hole pairs generated per incident
photon – useful EHPs – which do not recombine and contribute to current
„ η = (IL/q)/(Poptical / hν) ~ exp(-αWP) – exp {-α(W+LP)}
„ Hence WP must be small and W large – but large W ⇒ large transit time

„ Responsivity – ratio of photocurrent to the incident optical power (A/W)

„ R = IL/Poptical = ηq/(hν)

„ Dark Current – photocurrent with no optical signal – current due to background

radiation and saturation current – contributes to noise

„ Noise equivalent power (NEP) - minimum input optical power to generate

photocurrent equal to the rms noise current in a 1 Hz bandwidth
„ Detectivity D = 1/NEP

OPTOELECTRONIC DETECTORS 29
Photo Detectors p-n junction photodiode

hν
„ Absorption takes place – n/p region or P
depletion region
„ Production of electron hole pairs
„ Separation of the electron hole pairs by
N
electric field
„ Depletion region width increased –
reverse bias
hν
„ Alternative approach – using graded p-n
P
junction
„ Presence of in-built electric field

OPTOELECTRONIC DETECTORS 30
Photo Detectors p-n junction photodiode - structure

„ Similar to a p-n junction diode

„ Generally thin p+ layer – unlike solar

cells – formed by Boron diffusion –
1um

„ Response must be fast – compromise

b/w sensitivity and speed of response
– vary p, n and n+ layer

„ Materials used
‰ Silicon
‰ Germanium

OPTOELECTRONIC DETECTORS 31
Photo Detectors p-i-n photodiode

„ Most common depletion layer photo

detector
„ Principle of operation – same as p-n
junction photodiode
„ Depletion layer thickness – tailored for
sensitivity and response
„ Intrinsic region – low doping , high
carrier lifetime… most of carriers
collected
„ Large width depletion region – low
capacitance
„ High bandwidths

„ Modes of operation
‰ Current mode – constant RB
‰ Voltage mode – no external bias

OPTOELECTRONIC DETECTORS 32
Photo Detectors p-i-n photodiode structure

„ Two ways – planar and mesa structure

„ Planar
‰ n substrate
‰ Epitaxial growth of intrinsic region
ever the n-type substrate – 10 to
200 microns
‰ P+ diffusion or ion implantation
„ Mesa
‰ Layers grown on substrate –
dopants incorporated
hν P+

N+

OPTOELECTRONIC DETECTORS 33
Photo Detectors Metal semiconductor photodiode

„ Metal semiconductor junction Metal Semi conductor

„ Operation in various modes qφBn

A. Eg > hν > qφBn ; V << VB – photo EC
excited electrons in metal … EF
cross barrier to semi-conductor
B. Eg < hν ; V << VB – hole-electron
pairs in semi-conductor…similar
to p-i-n photodiode Ev
C. Eg < hν ; V ~ VB – can be
operated as avalanche
photodiode – when guard bands
are used

„ Can be used as UV detector also

hν
hν
hν

CASE A CASE B CASE C

OPTOELECTRONIC DETECTORS 34
Photo Detectors Metal semiconductor photodiode structure

Thin metal film Incident wave

„ n-layer substrate Anti-reflection Contact dot

„ Deposition of thin metal film coating
„ Absorption losses must be minimum
„ Usage of anti-reflective coatings
„ Inter digitated design minimizes
parasitic resistances.
n layer

„ As for p-i-n diode, the MSM speed is

determined by the transit time, and
depletion region width
„ MSMs have bandwidths up to 350
GHz

OPTOELECTRONIC DETECTORS 35
Photo Detectors Heterojunction photo diode

„ Multi layers of compound hν

semiconductors n-GaAs p-Ge
„ Band gap – varied to match incident
wavelength
„ Quantum efficiency is higher
„ Usage of window (high band gap
material)
„ Frequency response depends on
relative absorption
„ Barrier can be penetrated – tunneling
or by high energy
V

OPTOELECTRONIC DETECTORS 36
Photo Detectors Heterojunction photo diode structure

„ Contains semiconductor – semi

conductor junction
„ In0.53Ga0.47As/InP – widely used
hetero structure
„ Lattice matched
„ InP used as window
„ In0.53Ga0.47As – absorbing layer
„ Eg of In0.53Ga0.47As is 0.73eV
„ Can be used up to 1.7μm – can be
used from 1.3-1.55 μm

OPTOELECTRONIC DETECTORS 37
Photo Detectors P-i-n Heterojunction diode structure

n contact InGaAs Air bridge

active layer

Polyimide passivation

Semi-insulating InP

Optical fibre

OPTOELECTRONIC DETECTORS 38
Photo Detectors Avalanche photodiode

„ Operated at high reverse bias – under

breakdown conditions
„ Internal current gain – avalanche
effect
„ Photo multiplication factor
‰ Mph = Iph/Ipho =1/(1-(V/VB)n)

„ Increase in photocurrent and

responsivity of detector

„ Low level optical signals detection –

photodiode operated in avalanche
mode – current gain – Si APD can
have high sensitivity and response
time of 1ns – used mainly in Optical
communication

OPTOELECTRONIC DETECTORS 39
Photo Detectors Avalanche photodiode structure

Aluminium
SiO2
n+
„ Useful current gain – elimination of
micro plasmas (small areas in which
breakdown voltage is less than that of
junction)
„ Usage of guard ring – lower impurity P - type
gradient , large radius of curvature
„ Must have uniform doping Planar Type
concentration
SiO2
n+ Au contact ring

n(Sb) n(Sb)

P - type

Mesa Type

OPTOELECTRONIC DETECTORS 40
Photo Conductors & Detectors Noise and bandwidth

„ Main two parameters – Sensitivity and response time – compromise b/w the two is
required
„ Gain-bandwidth product is also important
„ Signal to noise ratio

„ Photoconductor
‰ Source of noise – random fluctuations in dark current – noise current increases
with current and conductivity
‰ Photoconductor noise - reduced by increasing dark resistance
‰ Dark resistance inversely proportional to bandwidth

„ Pin-diode
‰ There is no gain mechanism – one photon gives at most one electron-hole pair
‰ Gain-bandwidth product – determined by bandwidth or frequency response
‰ Response time depends – width of depletion region
‰ Noise – thermal generation of EHPs – shot noise – lower than in photoconductor

OPTOELECTRONIC DETECTORS 41
Photo Conductors & Detectors Noise and bandwidth

„ Avalanche photo diodes

‰ Provide gain – avalanche multiplication effect
‰ Increased noise relative to p-i-n – due to random fluctuations
‰ Noise – can be reduced – impact ionization is due to only due to one type of
carrier – more carriers more fluctuations
‰ Si – ability for electrons – impact ionization is higher than for holes
‰ Si photodiodes – high gain and low noise
‰ Si APDs – cannot be used for optical fiber communication – Si transparent at low
loss wavelength
‰ In0.53Ga0.47As – longer wavelengths – but has more noise
‰ Use of Si-InGaAs APD – fusion of InGaAs (absorbing layer) – photo generated
electrons injected into Si – causing impact ionization at low noise
‰ Another approach is APD structure in resonant cavity

OPTOELECTRONIC DETECTORS 42
Infrared Detectors Introduction

„ Electromagnetic waves in region

0.75μm (1.65eV) to 1000 μm(1.2meV).
„ All objects with temperature > 0K emit
infrared radiation.
„ At room temperature 300K – all
radiation is in infrared region
„ Shifts towards UV – as temperature
increases

„ Difference from other photo detectors

‰ Use of cooling equipment
‰ Atmospheric absorption and
background problems

OPTOELECTRONIC DETECTORS 43
Infrared Detectors Classification

„ Infrared detectors can be divided into two types

‰ Thermal detectors – thermistors and thermocouples – respond to heating
produced by absorption of radiation
‰ Quantum detectors – similar to photodiodes discussed previously

„ Quantum type detectors feature high detectivity and fast response speed.
„ Responsivity is wavelength dependent
„ Quantum type detectors classified - intrinsic types and extrinsic types

„ Intrinsic type detectors

‰ Have detection wavelength limits determined by their inherent energy gap
‰ Responsivity drops drastically when the wavelength limit is exceeded
‰ HgCdTe or PbSnTe - wavelength of peak responsivity - changed by controlling
the composition of the ternary mixture
‰ HgCdTe detectors - 3 to 5 µm and 7 to 13 µm ranges
‰ Si, Ge can also be used

„ Extrinsic type detectors

‰ Wavelength limits determined by the level of impurities doped in high
concentrations to the Ge or Si semiconductors
‰ Operating temperatures - must be cooled liquid helium temperature

OPTOELECTRONIC DETECTORS 44
Infrared Detectors Applications

„ Others photodiodes - InGaAs, Ge , PbS, PbSe,

InAs, PtSi, InSb InSb, MCT- HgCdTe, MZT-
HgZnTe

„ Applications
‰ Infrared spectroscopy
‰ Weather observation
‰ Automatic shutdown of industrial boiler
‰ Even as sensors in robotics

OPTOELECTRONIC DETECTORS 45
Photo Transistors Basic operation

„ Detect light and provide gain

(amplification)
„ Incident photon generates electron
hole pairs in reverse bias CB junction
„ Induced holes drawn to base and
electrons to collector
„ Normal transistor operation takes
place
„ Ic = βIbdark + Iceodark + ILe(1+β) ,
ILe : current of photo generated
electrons

„ Collector to emitter radiation sensitivity

(SRCEO) = o/p collector current per unit
of incident irradiance with base open
„ Ic = SRCEP Heff

OPTOELECTRONIC DETECTORS 46
Photo Transistors Structure

„ Similar to a normal transistor

„ But larger base and collector areas
„ Top surface exposed
„ Use of window or lens
„ Fabrication using epitaxial growth –
matching lattices

„ Optical switches
„ Light sensors

Fabrication of normal transistor

OPTOELECTRONIC DETECTORS 47
Photo FETs Operation

„ Provides combination of
photosensitive p-n junction with high
impedance
ID
hν
„ Photon enter gate area – electrons
from VB to CB IG D
„ Small signal analysis – gives small
G
signal gain S
„ ΔVDS = ΔIGRGgfsRD

OPTOELECTRONIC DETECTORS 48
Charge Coupled Devices Basic operation

„ IC chip – array of MOS capacitors

„ Accumulation of charge
„ Read value after fixed time
„ Sensitive to low light levels
„ Similar to bucket brigade device
„ The depletion layer – potential well

„ When light strikes – electron hole pair

„ Electron remains in the potential well
„ Array read - transferring the charge
from one MOS capacitor to its
neighbor on one side – like shift
register

OPTOELECTRONIC DETECTORS 49
Charge Coupled Devices Fabrication

„ Photoactive region - epitaxial layer of

silicon
„ Doping of p+ (Boron) – diffusion
„ Buried channels by phosphorous ion
implantation
„ Growth of silicon dioxide, followed by
poly gate – use of photolithography
„ Two poly-silicon MOS transistors

„ Silicon dioxide grown, followed by

polygate
„ Photolithography and formation of 3
poly gates
„ Similarly an array is formed

OPTOELECTRONIC DETECTORS 50
Charge Coupled Devices Applications

„ Digital still and video cameras

„ Astronomical telescopes, scanners,
and bar code readers
„ Vision for robots
„ Optical character recognition (OCR)
CCD for UV imaging
„ Processing of satellite photographs

„ Color Cameras – 3CCD

CCD from a fax machine

OPTOELECTRONIC DETECTORS 51
Summary

„ Optical absorption
‰ α : Coefficient of absorption – 1/α mean absorption length

„ Photoconductors
‰ Conductivity increased by shining light
‰ Sensitivity and speed of response – main parameters

„ Diodes
‰ Generation of electron-hole pairs in depletion region
‰ Presence of electric field helps detect light
‰ Can be operated in photo detector or photovoltaic mode

„ Solar cells
‰ Photovoltaic mode of operation
‰ Generation of current – solar to electrical energy
‰ Operation in maximum power rectangle
‰ Designs – to trap maximum light

OPTOELECTRONIC DETECTORS 52
Summary

„ Photo detectors
‰ Used in optical fibre communication
‰ p-n junction diode, p-i-n diode
‰ Avalanche photo diode with internal current gain

„ Infrared detectors
‰ Cooling problems and background radiations
‰ Quantum type detectors – intrinsic and extrinsic

„ Phototransistors
‰ Detection of light and provide current gain

„ Charge coupled devices

‰ Potential well in MOS – stores charge
‰ Like bucket brigade device
‰ Light sensor in digital cameras
‰ 3CCD used as RGB

OPTOELECTRONIC DETECTORS 53
Books referred

„ Semiconductor Devices – Nandita Dasgupta and Amitava Dasgupta

„ Integrated Circuits and Semiconductor Devices – Deboo/Burrous
„ Solid State Electronic Devices – B.G. Streetman
„ Physics of Semiconductor Devices – Sze
„ The World of Information - INTERNET

OPTOELECTRONIC DETECTORS 54
OPTOELECTRONIC DETECTORS 55