DR.

RAM MANOHAR LOHIYA NATIONAL LAW UNIVERSITY

2019-2020

Standard Essential Patents: ​IPR​ ​vis-á-vis Competition Laws

SUBMITTED BY- SUBMITTED TO-

Ankana Mukherjee Mr. Vikas Bhati

ROLL NO. 150101018 ASSISTANT PROFESSOR LAW

B.A. LLB (Hons.)

VIII Sem
 SEC. A

INTRODUCTION
1. ​Definition

A patent may be defined as a statutory privilege granted by the government to inventor and to
other persons deriving their rights from the inventor for a fixed period of years, to exclude other
persons from manufacturing, using or selling a patented product, or from utilizing a patented
method or process. At the expiration of time for which the privilege is granted, the patented
invention is available to the general public or it is sometimes put into the public domain. A
patent is a statutory right. It is a legal monopoly granted to the owner of a new invention which is
capable of industrial use, for a limited period of time. It is a properties which like any other
1
business commodity, may be bought, sold, hired or licensed .

Patent is issued in the form of a document by Government office which describes invention and
creates a legal situation in which the patented invention can normally be exploited with the
2
authorization of patentee . A patent is a creation of statute and is therefore territorial in existence.
Thus a patent granted in one country cannot be enforced in another country unless the invention
3
concerned is patented in that country also . A license authorizes the person to whom it has been
granted to make use of the patent legally and this authorization is given by the patent holder. A
licensee has no interest in the property. His right is only to do or continue to do something
which, in the absence of such right, would be unlawful. License is thus a permission given by the
patentee to work the patent, otherwise it would be illegal. The legal ownership over a patent is
not separated. It continues with the patentee. Only permission is granted to make use of the
4
patented invention.

STANDARD SETTING ORGANIZATIONS AND STANDARD ESSENTIAL PATENTS

1. Standard Setting Organizations (SSO’s)

An SSO is an entity performing functions of maintaining standards which cater to the interest of
users. These functions are developing, coordinating, promulgating, revising, amending, reissuing
and interpreting the set standards.

1
D.P Mittal, ​Indian Patent Law and Procedure​ (Taxmann, 2002), 4.
2
Ibid.
3
P. Narayanan, ​Patent Law ​ (Eastern Law House, Fourth Edition),7.
4
D.P Mittal, '​Patent Rights –Transfer of’, Indian Patent Law and Procedure​(Taxmann, 2002), 187.
SSO tries to set standards or make recommendations which, when widely implemented,
become ​de facto ​standards that means it is considered to be the actual or genuine standard which
everybody should follow. There are many SSOs, national, regional as well
as industry-based which set standards. A formal SSO refers to one that is recognized directly or
indirectly by a government entity as the national standards body and which has the authority to
designate a specification as the national standard for the country. Thus, for example,
in ​India, ​the ​Bureau of Indian Standards ​(BIS) is the national standards body; in
the ​USA, ​the ​American National Standards Institute ​(ANSI) is the official body; while in the
United Kingdom, ​it is the ​British Standards Institute ​(BSI).

Now when we talk about setting of standards for a particular technology, the very first question
that comes to our mind is what does the term standard mean? The possible answer could be that
standard is virtually a characteristic by which classes of objects are compared. More exactly a
“standard” is a set of technical specifications which either does, or is intended to provide a
5
common design for a product or process. Standards are widely acknowledged to be one of the
engines driving the modern economy. Standards can make products less costly for firms to
produce and more valuable to consumers. They can increase innovation, efficiency, and
consumer choice; foster public health and safety; and serve as a "fundamental building block for
international trade." Standards make networks, such as the Internet and wireless
telecommunications, more valuable by allowing products to interoperate. The most successful
standards are often those that provide timely, widely adopted, and effective solutions to technical
6
problems. Standards can be established in several ways. Industry may agree upon them;
government may impose them; or the market may determine them. Often a standard is
established by the dominant producer of a new technology, but such de facto standards can take
considerable time to emerge if several competitors offer different designs. Major consumers can
also create de facto standards, as in the case of military standards and specifications on certain
electronic assemblies.

5
Mark MacCarthy, Georgetown University, ‘Open Standards, Competition and Patent Policies’(July 2009),
<​https://www.google.co.in/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=8&cad=rja&ved=0CGEQFjAH&url=http
%3A%2F%2Fwww18.georgetown.edu%2Fdata%2Fpeople%2Fmaccartm%2Fpublication-43082.doc&ei=3zj-UOA1
y5SuB_76gZgD&usg=AFQjCNHU-N6Kok6DtM3_X-omLXIC9q3K0w&sig2=g4lgQICaUB-T8XgMetF6Eg&bvm
=bv.41248874,d.bmk>​ accessed 27 February 2019.

6
‘Competition Concerns When Patents Are Incorporated into Collaboratively Set
Standards’<​http://www.justice.gov/atr/public/hearings/ip/chapter_2.htm>​ accessed 27 February 2019.
The importance of technological standards has grown tremendously over the past two decades.
The growing recognition of the importance of the standardization process has been attributed in
large part to the growth of the information technology and communications industries, for which
7
standards are critical. The commercial stakes attached to standards and patents have become so
important, that the adoption of technical approaches covered by specific patents, the requirement
of backwards compatibility with earlier technologies, and the relative emphasis on cost and
8
performance has all been highly contentious issues.

They are especially important in the information and communication technology industries,
where the need for devices and networks to interoperate creates strong pressure for industry
participants to devise common technical standards. In economic terms, the basis for this strong
pressure on standards in this industry is the presence of strong network effects. A network effect
exists when the value of a product or service crucially depends on the number of people who use
it. Many economists have therefore coined the term “network industry” to describe an industry in
9
which this characteristic is especially strong.

These organizations develop standards by collaborating with industries which will be beneficial
for the competition. For example, interoperability standards, like those governing certain aspects
of the Internet and electrical outlets, enable consumers to exchange information and interconnect
products from a variety of manufacturers without any effort, and performance standards can
enhance quality and improve consumers’ health and safety. Moreover, coordinating the selection
of industry standards can expedite the implementation of new technologies, facilitate entry, and
reduce costs.

These standards are mostly exclusive and are the means by which one can point the finger at the
10
patent concerned. These offer significant benefits in "avoiding customer 'lock-in' and "creating

7
Benjamin Chiao, Josh Lerner, and Jean Tirole,‘The Rules of Standard Setting Organizations: An Empirical
Analysis’( May 31, 2006) <​http://www.nber.org/papers/w11156>​ 27 February 2019.
8
Ibid.
9
Ibid.

10
Lock in Period means Period for which a patent owner agrees to hold steady the agreed upon ​interest rate ​on the
terms irrespective of the ​market rate.
<​http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/lock-in period.html#ixzz2JLaCWQCx​> accessed 127 February
2019.
markets by enabling firms to achieve scale economies in production. The various ways in which
standards are created: through formal, long-lived SSOs, informal unplanned associations of
interested parties formed for a certain purpose, and de facto standards developed as markets
11
characterized by network effects tip towards one product.

2. Standard Essential Patents (SEPs)

An SEP is a patent that claims an invention that must be used to comply with a technical
standard.

The patent system promotes innovation and economic growth by providing incentives to
inventors to apply their knowledge, take risks, and make investments in research and
development and by publishing patents so that others can build on the disclosed knowledge with
further innovations. These efforts, in turn, benefit society as a whole by disseminating
knowledge and by providing new and valuable technologies, lower prices, improved quality, and
12
increased consumer choice.

Standards offer significant benefits, such as enhancing product interoperability and increasing
competition. But standards may not be utilized where the owner of intellectual property
(hereinafter referred as IP) that is essential to the implementation of the standard refuses to
license it. Not surprisingly, then, many SSOs have adopted rules restricting their members' use of
IP. These rules typically require members to search for, disclose, and license at a "reasonable and
13
non-discriminatory" rate any IP (usually patents) that is implicated by the standards.

Technical standards are essential to the smooth functioning of society. For instance, the 802.11
Wi-Fi standards allow consumers to connect any Wi-Fi equipped device to any network.
Interoperability standards have covered half the way for moving many important innovations

11
Ibid.
12
United States Department Of Justice And United States Patent & Trademark Office,‘Policy Statement on
Remedies for Standards-Essential Patents Subject to Voluntary F/Rand Commitments’ (08 January, 2013)
<​http://www.justice.gov/atr/public/guidelines/290994.pdf> ​accessed 27 February 2019​.

13
Michael A. Carrier, ‘Why Antitrust Should Defer to the Intellectual Property Rules of Standard
Setting Organizations: A Commentary on Teece & Sherry’
< ​http://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?collection=journals&handle=hein.journals/mnlr87&div=55&id=&page>
accessed 27 February 2019.
into the marketplace, including the complex communication networks and sophisticated mobile
computing devices that are the building blocks of the modern age. These technical standards are
not set by the government agencies but by the industrial organizations such as the Institute of
Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). Such organizations provide information regarding
hundreds of different standards on different subjects like aerospace, electronics, and computer
14
technology, nuclear power, wired and wireless.

Standards are clearly integral to the functioning of almost any kind of technical product. These
essential standards are established by technical or industrial experts and these experts are usually
the insiders of the industry because every company or industry involved has proprietary
technology and they want to see their technology used in the standard. Involvement of industries
and technology naturally brings patent into play while setting standards. As soon as the
organization agrees to cover a patent as part of the standard the company demands for the
licensing of that patent on fair, reasonable and non-discriminatory terms and then that becomes
the standard essential patent. The problem arises when the patent owner tries to holdup the patent
that happens when an owner of an SEP uses that patent to either exclude a competitor from the
market or to set an unreasonably high price for a royalty which would give the patent owner an
unfair advantage in the marketplace. Since the costs of switching to a different standard are so
high or in some cases there are no alternatives left then the patent owner has much greater power
and leverage than is usually the case. To sort this problem there has to be a reasonable
15
compromise between the patent owner and the interest of the public at large.

COMPETITION CONCERNS RELATING TO SEPs

1. FRAND/RAND Terms
F/RAND or FRAND stands for "Fair, Reasonable, and Non-Discriminatory” terms of a licensing
agreement. Standard-setting organizations commonly have rules that govern the ownership of
patent rights that cover the standards they adopt. One of the most common rules is that a patent

14
IP Nav ‘Antitrust and Standard Essential Patents’,
<​http://www.ipnav.com/blog/antitrust-and-standard-essential-patents/>​ accessed 27 February 2019.

15
Ibid.
covering the standard must be adopted on "reasonable and nondiscriminatory terms" (RAND) or
"fair, reasonable and non-discriminatory terms" (FRAND). The two terms are generally
16
interchangeable; FRAND is preferred in Europe and RAND in the United States.

In licensing, FRAND terms refer to the obligation that is often required by SSOs for members
which participate in the standard setting process. SSO’s include this obligation in their bylaws as
a means of enhancing the pro-competitive character of their industry. A patent owner who
commits to license its patents on F/RAND terms and conditions has irrevocably committed to
allow the standard to be implemented on a FRAND basis and thereby waived the right to exclude
others from practicing the standard. Once the patent owner commits to license its patents on
FRAND terms and conditions he/she cannot use its hold-up power resulting from the
incorporation of its technology into the standard to demand royalties that do not comply with
17
FRAND.

Fair terms means terms which are not anticompetitive and that would not be considered unlawful
if imposed by a dominant firm in their relative market.

● Reasonable refers mainly to the licensing rates. A reasonable licensing rate is a rate
charged on licenses which would not result in an unreasonable aggregate rate if all
licensees charge a similar rate. Clearly aggregate rates that would significantly increase
the cost to the industry and make the industry uncompetitive are unreasonable.
● Non-Discriminatory term requires that licensors treat each individual licensee in a similar
manner. This does not mean that the rates and payment terms cannot change dependent
on the volume and creditworthiness of the licensee. However it does mean that the
underlying licensing condition included in a licensing agreement must be the same
18
regardless of the licensee.

16
<​http://itlaw.wikia.com/wiki/FRAND​> accessed 27 February 2019.
17
'Frand: Challenge for Competition Authority' (abstract) <http://jcle.oxfordjournals.org/content/7/3/523> accessed
on 27 February 2019.
18
Roger Miselbach and Ron Nicholson N&M Consultancy Limited ‘Determination of Fair and Reasonable Royalty
Rates’ <​http://www.licensingforstandards.co.uk/docs/fairroys.pdf ​on 16/09/2013> accessed on 27 February 2019.
Take for instance, an SSO beginning to consider technologies for a particular feature that limits
undesirable noise in audio transmissions and the preferred choices may be patented technologies

‘A’, ‘B’, and ‘C’, and also technology ‘D’, who’s patent, has expired. ‘D’ may not be quite as
good as the patented alternatives, but it is free. Until the owners of patented technologies ‘A’,
B’’ and ‘C’ have made commitments they are all likely to have positive but uncertain costs. To
the extent that any questions persist about the validity or scope of A’s, B’s, or C’s patents there
19
may be additional uncertainty.

This is where the FRAND royalty comes in. FRAND refers to a firm’s commitment to make its
technology available at a “fair, reasonable and non-discriminatory royalty” if it is adopted as the
standard. Patent owners can grant license to an unlimited number of applicants on a worldwide,
non-discriminatory basis and on reasonable terms and conditions to use the patented material
necessary in order to manufacture, use, and/or sell implementations of the standard considered.

This commitment permits the members of the SSO to focus on technical issues and worry about
the price later. The nondiscrimination provision creates at least a strong presumption that the
terms given to a first licensee will also apply to subsequent licensees. Of course, patentees can be
expected to claim that their particular patent is unusually valuable because of the features that it
20
covers.

As soon as a patent is declared by an SSO to be standards essential and incorporated into

technology, the bidding is over. If we ignore the FRAND commitment, the patent’s value is
largely determined by the costs of extraction from that particular technological element, not from
anything inherent in the patent itself. Further, firms know all of this in advance, so if they wish to
assert later that a particular patent within their standards-adaptable portfolio is unusually
valuable, they can always say so and leave the SSO to decide whether or not to adopt it. Absent

19
Ibid.
20
Herbert J. Hovenkamp, ‘Competition in Information
Technologies: Standards-Essential Patents, Non-Practicing Entities and FRAND Bidding’
<​http://ssrn.com/abstract=2154203​on 18/09/2013> accessed 27 February 2019.
that, there does not seem to be any good reason for not treating all patents alike, and the cost of
21
determining individual value would very likely swamp the entire system.

The underlying rationale of this system is that any patentee which is a member of the standard-
setting organization benefits because its technology is promoted by using a patent as a standard.
In return, patentees must grant any entity that wants to make use of its essential patents a license
under FRAND terms. More specifically, this system prevents a patentee from obtaining an
injunction against any entity that offers to take a license under FRAND terms. The benefit for
patentees is that there is possibility of receiving more license revenues than if their patent were
not standard essential. The benefit for entities that seek to make use of the standard is that they
are entitled to do so, subject to entering into a license agreement with the patentees of essential
22
patents and paying the necessary license fees.

2. Competition Concerns
Standard setting raises a variety of antitrust/competition issues. These standard setting
organizations involve competitors agreeing on certain specifications of the product they plan to
23
market which is connected with the competition issues and collusions. Such issues arise only
when patent owners tend to hold up their patent by creating a gap between economic
commitments and subsequent commercial negotiations which enables one party to capture part of
the fruits of another's investment. Hold-up can arise, in particular, when one party makes
investments specific to an agreement before all the terms and conditions of the agreement are
24
agreed. It leads to economic inefficiency.

In an effort to reduce these hold ups in the adoption of standards, while encouraging participants
to include the best available technology in standards, some Standard Developing Organizations
(hereinafter referred as SDO) have relied on voluntary licensing commitments by their
participants, including commitments to license the patents they own that are essential to the

21
Ibid.
22
​Supra​ Note 28
23
Joseph Farrell, John Hayes, Carl Shapiro and Theresa Sullivan, ‘Standard setting, Patents and Hold up: A
Troublesome Mix’
<​http://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?collection=journals&handle=hein.journals/antil74&div=23&id=&page>
accessed on 27 February 2019.
24
Ibid.
standard on FRAND terms. SDOs and their members rely on these voluntary F/RAND
commitments to facilitate the bilateral licensing negotiations necessary for successful widespread
adoption of a standard and to provide assurances to implementers of the standard that the
patented technologies will be available to parties seeking to license them.

In making such voluntary F/RAND licensing commitments, patent holders that also sell products
and services related to the standard benefit from expanded marketing opportunities, and patent
holders that focus on licensing their inventions benefit from an expanded source of revenue.
These incentives encourage patent holders to contribute their best technology to the
standardization process. F/RAND commitments may also contribute to increased follow-on
innovation by allowing non-discriminatory access to networks both to new entrants and to
established market participants to introduce new generations of network-operable devices.

A patent owner’s voluntary F/RAND commitments may also affect the appropriate choice of
remedy for infringement of a valid and enforceable SEP. In some circumstances, the remedy of
an injunction or exclusion order may be inconsistent with the public interest. This concern is
particularly acute in cases where an exclusion order based on F/RAND-encumbered patent
appears to be incompatible with the terms of a patent holder’s existing F/RAND licensing
commitment to an SDO. A decision maker could conclude that the holder of a F/RAND-
encumbered, SEP had attempted to use an exclusion order to pressure an implementer of a
standard to accept more onerous licensing terms than the patent holder would be entitled to
receive consistent with the F/RAND commitment, in essence concluding that the patent holder
had sought to reclaim some of its enhanced market power over firms that relied on the assurance
that F/RAND-encumbered patents included in the standard would be available on reasonable
licensing terms under the SDO’s policy. Such an order may harm competition and consumers by
degrading one of the tools SDOs employ to mitigate the threat of such opportunistic actions by
25
the holders of F/RAND-encumbered patents that are essential to their standards.

Fortunately, antitrust concerns have not prevented a great many co-operative standard setting
efforts from proceeding forward. Some participants go so far as to say that much of the

25
​Supra​ Note 24
innovation taking place now in the telecommunications, internet, and computer areas is standard
based.

Litigation on standard essential patents has recently become a very hot topic worldwide.
Numerous decisions have been issued by courts of various jurisdictions specializing in IP in
these last month concerning the enforceability, in preliminary injunction proceedings, of these
rights. Essential patents contain one or more claims that are necessary to implement a standard
for which they are essential.

In order to balance the conflicting and opposing interests of the companies that have obvious
economic interests and needs to implement a standard, and therefore to use essential patents, and
those of the patentees, the SSO requires their members to disclose any patents they consider
essential for the implementation of the standard, and to grant irrevocable licenses to use these
26
patents on FRAND terms.

SEPs are patents that include a standard and are declared essential to practicing that standard by
27
their owners and have attracted the attention of competition authorities all over the world.
28
In ​Rambus Inc. the FTC filed a complaint alleging that Rambus had unlawfully obtained
monopoly power by participating in an SSO process for several years without disclosing that it
was actively seeking patents for technologies that were ultimately adopted as the relevant
standards. The Commission determined that Rambus’ deceptive conduct constituted exclusionary
conduct that contributed to the company’s acquisition of monopoly power. The Commission
required Rambus to license its technology, setting a maximum royalty rate. Rambus appealed,
and the D.C. Circuit overturned the Commission’s decision. The court held that the FTC did not
establish that Rambus’ conduct “created or reinforced” its market power because there was
insufficient evidence that the SSO would have selected an alternative standard or demanded a

26
Managing Intellectual Rights, ‘The cases changing enforceability of standard-essential patents in Italy’
<​http://www.managingip.com/Article/3082465/The-cases-changing-enforceability-of-standard-essential-patents-in-I
taly.html> ​accessed 27 February 2019.
27
‘Standards, Essential Patents and Antitrust’ (November 2012)
<​http://ipfinance.blogspot.in/2012/11/standards-essential-patents-and.html​>​ ​accessed 27 February 2019.
28
See ​In re Rambus Inc.,​ Dkt. No. 9302 (FTC 2002), ​www.ftc.gov/os/adjpro/d9302/index.shtm.
favorable licensing commitment “but for” Rambus’ allegedly deceptive conduct. Therefore,
29
according to the D.C. Circuit, the FTC failed to satisfy the exclusionary conduct.
30
In the ​U.S Google-Motorola case it was found that Google was trying to monopolize the market
by excluding other competitors from using its standard technology. Motorola Mobility was
acquired by Google last year for $12.5 billion, to strengthen its patent portfolio in an industry.
But there has been controversy on the extent to which companies should be able to use
standard-essential patents to seek injunctions against competitors' products. As per the deal
between FTC and Google, Google is required to withdraw its claims for injunctive relief on
standard-essential patents covered under FRAND terms, and to offer a FRAND license to any
company that wants to license Google's standard-essential patents in the future. The objective of
FTC behind this deal was to stop seeking injunctions or exclusion order against companies who
want to access the standard technology. But there still appears to be considerable ambiguity on
whether Google is required under the settlement to withdraw existing injunction actions before
the ITC ( International Trade Commission) and courts, with persons close to the situation
holding that Google was not required under its settlement with the FTC to withdraw the claims
against Microsoft. In the end Google has withdrawn its claims for exclusion orders against
Microsoft as required by FTC. A policy paper by the U.S. Department of Justice and the U.S.
Patent and Trademark Office stated that a patent owner's voluntary F/RAND commitments may
also affect the appropriate choice of remedy for infringement of a valid and enforceable
31
standard- essential patent.

29
Laura A. Wilkinson and Brianne L. Kucerik ‘Standard-Setting and Antitrust’
<​http://www.weil.com/files/Publication/300f2734-1671-4b84-83c5-3386a4f2b5ca/Presentation/PublicationAttachm
ent/f6cf91ef-17dc-44c1-9162-3676cc8c8987/Standard-Setting%20and%20Antitrust%20-%20TPL%20Feb%202010.
pdf ​on 22/09/2013> accessed on 27 February 2019.
30
Case No COMP/M.6381 –Google/Motorola Mobility
<​http://ec.europa.eu/competition/mergers/cases/decisions/m6381_20120213_20310_2277480_EN.pdf​> accessed 27
February 2019.

31
John Ribeiro, 'Google withdraws standard-essential patent claims in Xbox complaint, Microsoft told the U.S. ITC
it was an expected consequence of Google's settlement with the FTC' (January 9, 2013)
<​http://www.computerworld.com/s/article/9235502/Google_withdraws_standard_essential_patent_claims_in_Xbox
_ complaint> ​accessed 27 February 2019.
 32
In ​Samsung v. Apple , Samsung claimed to be the owner of several essential patents concerning
3G/UMTS and requested the Court of different jurisdictions to grant a preliminary injunction
against Apple, preventing the latter to produce, commercialize and advertise the smartphone
denominated iPhone4S, allegedly infringing the standard essential patents at issue. Apple argued
that it started negotiations in order to obtain a license on these patents but objected that the patent
owner failed to fulfill its obligation, refusing to provide important information and requesting a
non-FRAND royalty fee. The Court pointed out that the patent owner applying for preliminary
injunction abuses its dominant market position when it acts in bad faith. The refusal of such an
offer by the patent owner can be seen as an unreasonable conduct or when the principle of non-
discrimination is breached. In this way, the owner of essential patents is completely free to
independently determine the percentage of royalties, provided that they are FRAND and the
subject matter of negotiations. There are just two limitations to this freedom: (i) it must not
intentionally interfere with the aspiring licensee's activity or (ii) discriminate against it with
respect to other licensees. Otherwise, the refusal to grant the license due to the insufficiency of
the offer can be considered lawful. Furthermore, when the parties have been involved in
negotiations and the interested party has requested a license, injunctive relief cannot be granted.

A simple request is not sufficient to protect from all claims of infringement. Instead, it is
necessary that the desire to obtain a license is followed by serious negotiations. The seriousness
of the offer can be identified by the percentage of royalties calculated by the possible licensee. In
33
light of such considerations, the Court denied the injunctive relief to Samsung.

STANDARD ESSENTIAL PATENTS- INDIAN APPROACH

Claims pertaining to Standard Essential Patents in India all have had few factors in common.
Firstly, they all pertained to patents in the telecommunications sector and secondly they all had
34
Ericsson as a party. Primarily in three claims with similar allegations, ​Telefonaktiebolaget LM

32
678 F.3d 1314 (2012)
<​http://scholar.google.co.in/scholar_case?case=8926878352616614421&hl=en&as_sdt=2&as_vis=1&oi=scholarr&
sa =X&ei=yXUHUeaoFM6OrgeV0ICYDQ&sqi=2&ved=0CCsQgAMoADAA​> accessed 27 February 2019.
33
​Supra​ note 40.
34
​Micromax Informatics Limited V. Telefonaktiebolaget LM Ericsson (Publ),​ C ​ ase No 50 of 2013; ​Intex
Technologies (India) Limited V. Telefonaktiebolaget LM Ericsson (Publ),​ ​Case No 76 of 2013; ​M/s Best IT World
(India) Private Limited (iBall) v M/s Ericsson India Private Limited​, Case No 04 of 2015.
Ericsson (Publ)​, the parent company of the Ericsson group was alleged to have to violated s.
4(2)(a)(i) and (ii) of the Indian Competition Act, 2002 which proscribes abuse of one's dominant
position (​AoD​) in the relevant market.

Generally speaking, as per the said Act, in order for a claim of AoD to materialize, the
35
Competition Commission of India (​CCI​) has to first ascertain the relevant market based upon
36 37
both the relevant product market and the relevant geographic market. Thereafter based upon
factors u/s. 19(4), 'dominance' of the accused entity has to be established and subsequently abuse
as per s.4 (providing for an exhaustive list) has to be established.

The informants in the all these cases had alleged that Ericsson was a holder various patents,
particularly relating to the 2G, 3G, 4G and EDGE technology in the telecommunication sector
and since Ericsson was a member of the ETSI, as per clause 6 of its IPR policy, Ericsson being
an IPR (patent) owner was obligated to grant irrevocable licenses only on FRAND terms. As per
the informants the policy for granting licenses for its SEP technology as formulated by Ericsson
was far from being '​fair or uniform​'. As per Ericsson the royalty fee was based upon the price of
the product in which the licensed technology was intergrated, i.e. a smartphone. By this logic
irrespective of the technology being the same, which was the case, the royalty was decided upon
the price of the smartphone and this invariably meant that the royalty fee for a cheaper phone
was lesser than that of a costlier phone although the technology remaining the same. Moreover,
with regard to the other limb of the FRAND commitment that is uniformity of royalty fee with
regard to similarly placed players, Ericsson, although claiming that it applied the same policy to
all its licensees, would not disclose the details without executing a Non- Disclosure Agreement
with the Informants. Such conditions ​inter alia were considered to be unfair and discriminatory
and therefore abusive u/s. 4(2) of the Competition Act, 2002. The Commission ​prima facie felt
38
so considering the dominance of Ericsson in the market '​Standard Essential Patents for 2G, 3G
39
and 4G technologies in GSM standard compliant mobile communication devices'​ . As per the

35
The Competition Act, 2002, section 19(5).
36
The Competition Act, 2002, section 19(7).
37
The Competition Act, 2002, section 19(6).
38
Case No 76/2013, 6, para 16.
39
Case No 04/2015, 6, para 12.
Commission, an SEP 'is one for which there are no non-infringing alternatives. ​A SEP holder is
therefore under an obligation to license the SEPs to every party under Fair, Reasonable and
Non-Discriminatory (FRAND) terms, in terms of the irrevocable commitment made to standard
40
setting organization, such as European Telecommunications Standard Institute (ETSI).'
41
Needless to say, the instant orders did not go down well with Ericsson, who vide a writ petition
in the Delhi High Court challenged ​inter alia ​the validity of a patent claim under the Competition
Act, 2002 itself. It claimed that s. 4 would not apply for the mere fact that Ericsson was not an
42
'enterprise' and since patents were neither products or services. It was firstly clarified that
43
patents were goods thereby making Ericsson an 'enterprise' . Thereafter, the Court on its own
accord delved into and clarified as to what would be considered to be an abuse by an SEP holder.
It was considered that '199. In view of the aforesaid, there is good ground to hold that seeking
injunctive reliefs by an SEP holder in certain circumstances may amount to abuse of its dominant
44
position.' This was in lieu of Ericsson seeking injunctions against Micromax and Intex for
45
already using its patented technology in their products . Moreover, 'clearly, in certain cases,
such conduct, if it is found, was directed in pressuring an implementer to accept non- FRAND
46
terms, would amount to an abuse of dominance.' The Court reached this conclusion after
acknowledging the similarities between article 102 of the Treaty for the Functioning of the
European Union (​TFEU​) and s. 4 of the Competition Act and acknowledging that as per the EC
refusal to license SEPs or licensing it only based upon unfair terms amounted to AoD in certain
conditions. This recognition of refusal to licence as SEP is of great import here, '​the clarification
on the interface between patent law and competition law is of immense importance to the
continuation of the SEP wars. It confirms the Indian legal position that questions of FRAND
licensing and improper refusal of SEP licences may amount to abuse of dominance. This could

40
Case No 76/2013, 3, para 5.
41
​Telefonaktiebolaget lm Ericsson v Competition Commission of India ​W.P.(C) 464/2014 & CM Nos.911/2014 &
915/2014
42
Section 2(h).
43
Shan Kohli, 'Ericsson vs CCI- The Future of Indian SEP Disputes?-I'
<http://spicyip.com/2016/05/ericsson-vs-cci-the-future-of-indian-sep-disputes.html> accessed 23 October 2016.
44
Supra ​note 58, 152-53, para 199.
45
​Telefonaktiebolaget Lm Ericsson (Publ) v Intex Technologies (India) Limited,​ MANU/DE/0774/2015.
46
​Supra n​ ote 58, 153, para 200.
potentially act as legal ammunition for SEP licence seekers when negotiations come to a halt and
47
yet their use of the said patent is essential' as was the case here.

CONCLUSION
To conclude this paper, it may be noted that Standard Essential Patents are important for the
patent owners for practicing their patents effectively and efficiently. These standards are also
important for a country’s economy as it helps in developing the collaborative market where
companies play role of pure innovators and pure implementers and by licensing such patent on
fair, reasonable and non-discriminatory terms which not only helps the multinational
corporations but also the infant industries. These patents have also attracted the attention of
competition regulating authorities all over the world. Their main concern is the alleged abuse of
the market power conferred by SEPs which has been analyzed in different cases and the leading
ones are the Rambus’s conduct of creating monopoly, Qualcomm’s licensing practices and issues
that arose after the merger of Google and Motorola. The aim of the regulating authorities in all
the above mentioned cases was to curb the antitrust practices going on and to provide equal
opportunity to the new industries coming up. The issue raised here is of complex nature as it
involves both, the interest of the patent owner and the interest of public at large which includes
consumers and other competitors in the market. It would be interesting to see that how regulatory
authorities balance the interest of public and patent owners without keeping anybody at loss and
also to see that how future developments take place particularly in relation to Google-Motorola
Merger.

47
Shan Kohli, 'Ericsson v CCI- The Future of Indian SEP Disputes?-II'
<http://spicyip.com/2016/05/ericsson-vs-cci-the-future-of-indian-sep-disputes-ii.html> accessed on 23 October
2016.