Ocean and Coastal Management 179 (2019) 104838

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Ocean and Coastal Management

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Assessing the changes of mangrove ecosystem services value in the Pars T

Special Economic Energy Zone
Qadir Ashournejada, Farshad Amiraslania,∗, Majid Kiavarz Moghadama, Ara Toomaniana
a
Remote Sensing and GIS, Department of Remote Sensing and GIS, Faculty of Geography, University of Tehran, Azin Alley, Ghods Street, Tehran, Iran

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The Pars Special Economic Energy Zone (PSEEZ) is the largest global special economic zone in the field of oil,
Ecosystem services gas, and petrochemical industry. The Nayband national marine park is located in the PSEEZ and mangrove
Mangrove forest forests are spread throughout the estuaries (Bidkhun or Asaloyeh, Basatin and Haleh) of the park. Despite im-
Remote sensing portant goods and ecosystem services of mangroves and their high economic value, mangroves within the PSEEZ
NDVI
are threatened by activities of the oil industry. Thus, it is necessary to monitor and assess the mangroves and
Nayband bay
PSEEZ
their ecosystem services. In this context, remote sensing technologies provide effective tools for spatio-temporal
Iran analysis of mangrove distribution. In this study, Landsat-5, 7, 8 images were used from 1986 to 2018. Support
Vector Machine (SVM) and Sen's slope was employed for monitoring mangrove cover changes and estimating
Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) trends. In assessing the economic value of the ecosystem ser-
vices of the Mangrove forests, the mangrove distribution changes and global values of mangrove ecosystem
services were integrated. The results revealed that the coverage of mangroves had increased to about nearly
204.93 ha in area from 1986 to 2003, followed by a drop to 169.29 ha in 2018. The economic value of mangrove
forests of the PSEEZ in 1986, 1998, 2003, 2015 and 2018 was estimated to be about 3.3, 3.8, 6.7, 6.5 and 5.5
million US dollars per year, respectively. Based on Sen's slope, the NDVI trend in Basatin estuary decreased at a
rate of −0.001, but showed significant increases of about 0.008 and 0.006 for the Bidkhun and the Haleh
estuaries, respectively. Despite the suitable distribution and an economic value of $1.9 million in 1986, con-
ditions of the Basatin estuary seem to have diminished from 1986 to 2018 (economic value of $0.71 million in
2018). The Bidkhun estuary, which showed a positive trend in distribution changes, has also been downgrading
since 2015 to about 30.43 ha in size, and an economic value of $1 million. Since 1998, the mangroves of Haleh
estuary have been improving distribution-wise, with further elevations in economic value ($ 0.26 million in
2018).

1. Introduction of domestic and foreign investment are all among the main instigators
for creating such areas (Chaudhuri and Yabuuchi, 2010; Wang, 2013;
Ecosystem services are among the many benefits that humans have Bräutigam and Tang, 2014; Ortega et al., 2015; Ambroziak and
gained from ecosystems and will always require for their survival Hartwell, 2018). The Pars Special Economic Energy Zone (PSEEZ) in
(MEA, 2005). Recently, ecosystems have become the subject of the southern Iran and the northern coasts of the Persian Gulf can be con-
ever-increasing activities of mankind (Spence et al., 2016). A clear sidered as an example of a special economic zone (SEZ), which has
example of such human-led activities with rapid changes in landuse/ transformed from a rural and rather obscure area to both a national and
landcover can be observed in the special economic zones (SEZs) defined transnational city as the result of activities related to the extraction,
within the national boundaries of a country, which are themselves exploitation, refinement and export of gas (Saadatian and Dola, 2007).
subject to different business laws and regulations of the corresponding The Nayband national marine park is located in the PSEEZ (Davoodi
nation (Rubini et al., 2015; Sosnovskikh, 2017). The establishment of et al., 2017). Among the most primary natural resources of this area are
international trades, the production of goods, the transfer of tech- its mangrove forests, situated in the estuaries of the area (Fig. 1).
nology, the creation of productive employment and the encouragement Mangroves are woody plants commonly found in tropical and

∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (Q. Ashournejad), [email protected] (F. Amiraslani), [email protected] (M.K. Moghadam),
[email protected] (A. Toomanian).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2019.104838
Received 15 November 2018; Received in revised form 1 May 2019; Accepted 30 May 2019
0964-5691/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Q. Ashournejad, et al. Ocean and Coastal Management 179 (2019) 104838

Fig. 1. a: the mangrove trees of the Nayband bay in the PSEEZ; b: the mangrove plantation in the PSEEZ; c: Pipes used in the mouth of the Basatin estuary for road
construction and limiting tidal flow to the Basatin estuary; d: Drying mangrove trees in the Basatin estuary.

subtropical areas between land and sea (Vo et al., 2015). Mangroves et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2018b). Accordingly, Landsat-5, 7, 8 images
provide a unique and valuable range of goods and ecosystem services were used for the period 1986–2018. This study seeks to estimate the
including provisions (e.g., timber, fuel wood, charcoal, paper, phar- ecosystem service values of mangroves in the PSEEZ and to assess
maceuticals, honey, and fodder), regulation (e.g., coastal protection changes in mangrove forests aiming at reaching a more comprehensive
from flood, storm and erosion; protection from salt intrusion, carbon understanding of this product of nature.
sequestration and storage), habitat (e.g., breeding, spawning and nur-
sing habitat for commercial shrimp and fish species; biodiversity), and
cultural services (e.g., ecotourism and recreation, aesthetics and edu- 2. Study area
cation) (MEA, 2005; Dehghani et al., 2010; Brander et al., 2012; Vo
et al., 2012; Das and Crépin, 2013; Uddin et al., 2013; Mukherjee et al., The PSEEZ is the largest special economic zone for oil, gas, and
2014; Carney et al., 2014; Stringer et al., 2015; Aziz et al., 2016; petrochemical industries throughout the globe. The zone was estab-
Mehvar et al., 2018). lished in 1998 to extract oil and gas from the South Pars Gas Field1 and
Table 1 shows global estimates for these services. Based on the given to conduct economic activities in the city of Asaloyeh, Bushehr (PSEEZ,
figures (Costanza et al., 2014), the value of ecosystem services of 2018). The PSEEZ is one of the areas which has attracted extensive
mangroves ($193,843 per ha/yr) is highest among the 16 biomes esti- industrial investments within the last 10 years (Talebian et al., 2008).
mated. Mukherjee et al. (2014) estimated the mean economic value of PSEEZ is primarily characterized by facilities and infrastructure related
the first 10 ecosystem services from the 16 identified ecosystem services to the activities of oil, gas, and petrochemical industries, alongside the
of Mangrove forests at $ 50,349.49 per hectare per year (Table 1). development of transportation infrastructures (Abbasi et al., 2018)
Despite the important goods and ecosystem services of mangroves (Fig. 2).
and their high economic values, mangroves of the PSEEZ are threatened In terms of socioeconomic status, industrial development have not
by oil pollution, development of coastal roads, as well as becoming appear to have any role in improving the livelihood of indigenous
animal food and harvested as timber (Azizi et al., 2014; Momayez and people nor the establishment of public infrastructure. Population at-
Qasemi, 2017; Davoodi et al., 2017). These threats in conjunction with traction, rising rates of unemployment and environmental pollution are
the high sensitivity of mangroves to environmental stresses, greatly some of the socioeconomic consequences of the establishment of the
influence the mangroves of the PSEEZ (Duke, 2016). So far, no research PSEEZ. Unemployment has increased significantly due to the loss of
has been conducted on monitoring mangrove forests of the PSEEZ or traditional jobs (agriculture and livestock) caused by the conversion of
economic evaluation of their ecosystem service, highlighting the ne- agricultural lands into industrial entities. Escalations in the rate of air
cessity of monitoring and assessing mangroves and their ecosystem and water pollution have also had great impacts on the overall health of
services. Information obtained from monitoring and evaluation could local citizens (Talebian et al., 2008; Mohammadi Yeganeh et al., 2013).
indeed provide a better understanding of the Biology of Mangroves and The climate of PSEEZ is warm and humid with very hot summers
aid in further planning and decision making. (Kaplowitz, 2001; Zhang
et al., 2007). In this context, remote sensing provides spatio-temporal 1
- South Pars Gas Field (the North dome in Qatari side) is the world's largest
information on mangrove distribution (Kuenzer et al., 2011; Kuenzer gas field located on the joint border line between Iran and Qatar in the Persian
and Tuan, 2013; Vo et al., 2015; Pham et al., 2017; Hauser et al., 2017; Gulf. This gas field covers an area of 9700 square kilometers, of which 3700
Cárdenas et al., 2017; Castillo et al., 2017; Proisy et al., 2018; Brown square kilometers (South Pars) is located in Iranian territorial waters and
6,000 km (North Dome) is located in Qatari territorial waters..l.

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Q. Ashournejad, et al. Ocean and Coastal Management 179 (2019) 104838

Table 1
Mangrove ecosystem services and corresponding mean economic values.
Ecosystem Service Valuations of Mangrove Ecosystems (Mukherjee et al., 2014) Global value of ecosystem services (Mangrove biome)
Costanza et al. (2014)

Mangrove Ecosystem services Mean economic value (2007 Int$/ha/yr) Mangrove Ecosystem services Mean economic value (2007 Int$/ha/yr)

1 Fisheries (nursery and aquaculture) 17,090.1 1 Waste Treatment 162,125

2 Ecotourism and recreation 14,072.14 2 Habita/Refugia 17,138
3 Coastal protection 8,459.12 3 Disturbance Regulation 5,351
4 Pollution abatement 7,859.92 4 Erosion Control 3,929
5 Food (for Wild animals) 1,535.21 5 Recreation 2,193
6 Protection from sedimentation 579.28 6 Water Supply 1,217
7 Energy resources 306.92 7 Food Production 1,111
8 Wood and timber 247.34 8 Raw Materials 358
9 Carbon sequestration 195.23 9 Genetic Resources 311
10 Honey 4.23 10 Climate Regulation 65
11 Fodder a – 11 Nutrient Cycling 45
12 Water bio-remediation a –
13 Protection from salt intrusion a –
14 Aesthetic value a –
15 Pharmaceuticals a –
16 Environmental risk indicator a –

Total Value per ha (2007 Int$/ha/yr) 50,349.49 Total Value per ha (2007 Int$/ha/yr) 193,843

a
These ecosystem services lacked any adequate valuations in the peer-reviewed ecological economic literature (Mukherjee et al., 2014).

and mild winters. The warmest months are July and August, with 3. Materials and methods
average temperatures of around 35 °C (95 °F). The amount of pre-
cipitation from June to September is zero. Most precipitation occurs at The Landsat data archive (with more than 40 years of data archive)
an average of 39.8 and 38.1 mm in November and January with provided a unique opportunity for monitoring and evaluating man-
average temperatures of 24.1 and 18 °C (75.3 and 64.4 Fahrenheit), groves in the PSEEZ for the given period of 32 years from 1986 to 2018
respectively. January is the coldest month of the year. The precipitation (Kuenzer et al., 2011; Carney et al., 2014; Aziz et al., 2015; Van et al.,
level varies by 38 mm between the driest month and the wettest month 2015; Giri et al., 2015; Ibharim et al., 2015; Zhang et al., 2017; Wang
(IRIMO, 2017). et al., 2017; Cissell et al., 2018; Jia et al., 2018; Jayanthi et al., 2018).
The main vegetative cover of the area includes palm trees and Given the effects of tides on the accuracy of the mangrove data obtained
mangrove forests. Mangrove forests in the PSEEZ are solely of the from remote sensing images, all images were selected at the time of the
Avicennia marina species. The mean collar diameter, height, and canopy ebb of the region (Zhang et al., 2017; Xia et al., 2018). The atmo-
diameter of the mangroves in this area are 14 cm, 2.9 m and, 2.7 m, spherically corrected Landsat images offered by the USGS in the form of
respectively. According to measurements, the mean carbon storage in a spectral reflection are used (USGS, 2018a; USGS, 2018b; Favretto,
these trees is 15.02 ton per hectare. Comparing the carbon storage of 2018). Geometric accuracy of the images was configured for further use
these trees with the same species in other parts hints at a lower amount in this study. A total of 99 scenes of the Landsat images generated from
of storage, primarily due to the factor of latitude (Moradi and Ghasemi, Thematic Mapper (TM), Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+), and
2016). In fact, the amount of carbon storage in mangrove forests varies Operational Land Imager (OLI)) were used to evaluate the mangroves in
based on the species and area in which they are located. Therefore, high the PSEEZ both before and after the establishment of this zone in 1998.
latitudes and distance from the equator have reduced the area, di- Supervised classification was used for estimating mangrove dis-
mension, and size of the mangrove, which in turn, has affected carbon tribution and monitoring their changes in 28 February 1986, 18 April
storage (Ren et al., 2010; Donato et al., 2011; Mao et al., 2011). 1998, 8 April 2003, 28 February 2015, and 24 March 2018. Among a
The Mangrove forests in the PSEEZ are observed in three Estuaries set of commonly-used machine learning methods for classification
of Bidkhun or Asaloyeh, Basatin and Haleh in the Nayband Bay, located (Green et al., 1998; Xia et al., 2018) two methods of Support Vector
between 27°23′ to 27°28′ N latitude and 52°38′ to 52° 41′ E longitude Machines (SVMs) and Random Forest (RF) (Belgiu and Drăguţ, 2016)
(Fig. 2). The Bidkhun Estuary, also referred to as the Asaloyeh Estuary were selected and compared. Despite the high speed of the RF method
(Davoodi, 2016; Davoodi et al., 2017), is located in the northeast of the in the classification of mangroves in the study area in 1986, the accu-
Nayband Bay, and the Basatin Estuary and the Haleh Estuary are to the racy of SVMs was higher and therefore SVMs were employed for the
southeast and south of the Bay. Nayband Bay along with a part of classification of other Landsat images into three categories of man-
Nayband's headland, with an area of 19500 ha, were designated as the grove, water and, other land covers. The capability of SVMs in learning
Nayband protected area in 1978. This area together with parts of the and training, as well as their high capacity for processing large volumes
Persian Gulf waters, with an approximate area of 49815 ha, were re- of data, have led to its general acceptance (Mountrakis et al., 2011). In
gistered as the first Iranian national marine park in 2003 (Owfi and aiming to evaluate the classification results following visual controls, an
Owfi, 2018). The area has a wide range of terrestrial and marine ha- Error Matrix was obtained and used to calculate the overall accuracy,
bitats including coastal sand dunes, rocky, muddy and sandy shores, Kappa coefficient, user's accuracy, and producer's accuracy (Congalton,
coral reefs, mangrove forests, seagrass meadows and estuaries (EBSAs, 1991). The Stratified Random Sampling method was used to select the
2018). There are also various aquatic species, marine mammals such as validation samples (Lyons et al., 2018).
dolphins and whales, endangered reptiles such as the green and eagle The results obtained from the mangrove distribution were applied to
tip turtle and various species of aquatic birds in the area (Zahed et al., the ecosystem service value (ESV) estimation model presented by
2010; Owfi and Owfi, 2018). Costanza et al. (1997) for assessing the economic values of the man-
grove ecosystem services in the PSEEZ. Since the sole ecosystem service
value of mangroves is estimated in this research, the model was mod-
ified as so:

3
Q. Ashournejad, et al. Ocean and Coastal Management 179 (2019) 104838

Fig. 2. Study area, a) Iran; b) PSEEZ; c) Location of the Mangrove forests in three Estuaries of Bidkhun or Asaloyeh, Basatin and Haleh in the Nayband Bay; d)
Infrastructure of the PSEEZ before its establishment in 1995; e) Infrastructure of the PSEEZ after its establishment in 2018.

n
other organisms benefit from. MESVt is the value of mangrove eco-
MESVe = ∑ Ae × VCf
system services of all the estuaries. Given the complexity and multi-
f =1 (1)
dimensionality (ecological, socio-cultural and economic) of the eco-
m nomic evaluation of each of the mangrove ecosystem services in con-
MESVt = ∑ MESVe junction with the fact that local economic values of these services were
e=1 (2)
not previously calculated for the study region, the global values of
where MESVe is the value of mangrove ecosystem services of es- ecosystem services of mangrove forests obtained by Mukherjee et al.
tuary e, Ae is the area (ha) of mangroves for estuary e, which is derived (2014) were applied. They used the Delphi technique to identify the
from the Landsat image classification, and VCf is the value coefficient mangrove ecosystem services and invited 106 mangrove experts (sci-
for mangroves with ecosystem service function type f that humans and entists, reserve managers and field-based conservationists) to

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Q. Ashournejad, et al. Ocean and Coastal Management 179 (2019) 104838

participate in the survey. The experts identified 16 ecosystem services, 169.29 ha in 2018 (Table 2 and Figs. 3 and 5). The greatest increase,
of which 6 ecosystem services (fodder, water bio-remediation, protec- 87.75 ha, occurred between 1998 and 2003 and the largest decline,
tion from salt intrusion, aesthetic value, pharmaceuticals and en- 30.78 ha, occurred between 2015 and 2018. The situation is indicative
vironmental risk indicator) did not achieve adequate evaluations in the of an overall decrease in the area of mangroves.
peer-reviewed ecological economic literature and values of other eco- The Bastian estuary had the largest area of mangrove forests
system services were determined based on their mean economic values (57.87 ha) in 1986, but subsequently declined extensively to 21.69 ha
(Table 1). in 2018. The mangroves at the end of this estuary were completely
On the grounds that the increase in the spatial extent of the man- destroyed (Fig. 3). Between 1986 and 2018, the Bidkhun estuary had
groves is not always a good indicator of a positive trend and has in fact the largest increase of about 106.73 ha, which subsequently fell by
been shown to conceal quality degradation, an alternative indicator 30.43 ha between 2015 and 2018. The Haleh estuary, after the total
should be used for assessing the ecological condition of mangrove for- destruction of 10.08 ha of mangroves in 1998, is being restored with
ests. Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) is a strong re- 7.92 ha of area in 2018. In contrast to Bidkhun and Basatin estuaries,
motely-sensed indicator which is following a decreasing trend due to which faced a reduction in area\ between 2015 and 2018, the Haleh
deterioration of vegetation phenology (Alatorre et al., 2016). In addi- estuary had increased by 3.51 ha in area.
tion, NDVI also displays the density of mangrove forest cover (Yuvaraj Fig. 4 shows changes in spatial distribution of the Mangroves based
et al., 2014) and is widely used in the environmental assessment of on the integration of the obtained maps (Fig. 3) of three classes of
mangroves (Alatorre et al., 2016). NDVI is calculated according to vulnerable mangroves (present in the first year but not in the other
Equation (3) (Rouse et al., 1974): years), resilient mangroves (present only in the last year) and resistant
mangroves (present in all years). Vulnerable, resilient and resistant
RNIR − RRed
NDVI = mangroves contributed to 29.79 ha)4, 81 and 15% for Bidkhun, Basatin
RNIR + RRed (3)
and Haleh estuaries), 142.65 ha)80, 15 and 5% for Bidkhun, Basatin
, where RNIR and RRed are spectral reflections in near-red and near- and Haleh estuaries) and 26.64 ha)97, 3 and 0% for Bidkhun, Basatin
infrared ranges, respectively. The spectral range of near-infrared and and Haleh estuaries) in area, respectively.
red bands in TM/ETM + sensors varies with OLI sensors. These dif- In addition to the spatial distribution of mangroves, morphological
ferences affect the values obtained for NDVI (NDVIOLI is greater than changes have also occurred at the Basatin estuary (Fig. 3). According to
NDVITM, ETM+). Therefore, Equation (4) was used to unify them into a measurements, the width of the estuary was 600 m in 1986, but reduced
new parameter NDVIOLI (Roy et al., 2016; Pan et al., 2018): to 37 m in 2018.
Based on the global estimates of mangrove ecosystem services, hu-
NDVIOLI = 0.0235 + 0.9723NDVITM , ETM + (4)
mans and other organisms in the PSEEZ benefit from eight ecosystem
Trends in NDVI were estimated using the Sen's slope developed by services of mangroves of which food (for wild animals), wood and
Sen (1968). This non-parametric index is based on the assumption of a timber, and honey are placed in the category of provisioning services,
linear trend and is calculated according to Equation (5): and coastal protection, protection from sedimentation, carbon seques-
tration and pollution abatement are placed in the category of regulation
Sen’s slope = Median{(x i − xj )/(i − j )}, i > j (5) services, and ecotourism and recreation fall within the category of
, where xi and xj are the NDVI values at time i and j, respectively cultural services. The approximate value of all of these services is
(i > j). The median is the median function. The negative values of $32,952.47 per hectare per year, presented in Table 3 for all three es-
Sen's slope indicate a negative trend while positive values indicate a tuaries.
positive trend (Baniya et al., 2018). The nonparametric Mann-Kendall Based on the results (Table 3 and Fig. 5), the economic value of the
test was also used to evaluate the significance of vegetation changes mangrove services in the PSEEZ for the years 1986, 1998, 2003, 2015
(Mann, 1945; Kendall, 1975). and 2018 is estimated at 3.32, 3.86, 6.75, 6.59 and 5.57 million US
The significant differences in the stages of mangrove phenology dollars per year, respectively. Bidkhun estuary had the highest eco-
were assessed using a three-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) nomic value of all mangrove services ($ 5.6 million per year) in 2015.
(Cabrera-Bosquet et al., 2011). Year (six-levels), season (four-levels) With the reduction of the mangroves from 170.1 to 139.67 ha in 2018,
and Estuary (three-levels) comprised the independent variables, while the economic value of these services reached 4.6 million dollars per
NDVI was selected as the dependent variable. Significance levels were year. Between 1986 and 2018, the Basatin estuary fell by 36.18 ha in
compared at a 95% confidence interval (α = 0.05) (Abdalla Ibrahim, area and its value ranged from $1.9 million to $ 0.71 million per year.
2016). The mangrove forests of the Haleh estuary, which have always had
lower economic value, showed an economic value of $0.26 million per
4. Results year in 2018, being lower than the corresponding value in 1986 ($ 0.33
million per year). Fortunately, the economic value of Mangrove forests
4.1. Spatial distribution and economic valuation of mangroves in the PSEEZ in the Haleh estuary, has been increasing since 2003, and each period
has added to its economic value.
The results indicate that the area of mangroves in the PSEEZ has
increased to 204.93 ha from 1986 to 2003, followed by a decrease to

Table 2
Changes in the area of mangroves in the PSEEZ from 1986 to 2018.
Year Bidkhun Basatin Haleh All trend of User's accuracy Producer's accuracy Overall Kappa Coefficient
Estuary Estuary Estuary change (Mangrove class) (Mangrove class) Accuracy

1986 32.94 57.87 10.08 100.89 – 96.42 87.09 93.5 90.04

1998 92.34 24.84 0 117.18 +16.29 95 88.37 92.2 87.87
2003 155.25 47.52 2.16 204.93 +87.75 85.71 100 94.8 91.71
2015 170.10 25.56 4.41 200.07 - 4.86 91.11 95.34 94.8 91.68
2018 139.67 21.69 7.92 169.29 - 30.78 91.3 91.3 94.8 91.85

(Units for columns 2 to 5: hectare and Units for columns 6 to 9: %).

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Q. Ashournejad, et al. Ocean and Coastal Management 179 (2019) 104838

Fig. 3. Spatial distribution of the Mangroves in the PSEEZ from 1986 to 2018.

4.2. NDVI of mangroves in the PSEEZ and declined to 0.44 ± 0.100 in 2018. In 1987, Basatin estuary had
better conditions than the Haleh estuaries, however the mean NDVI in
The results of annual NDVI for the mangroves of PSEEZ in 1987, this estuary declined from 0.25 ± 0.069 to 0.23 ± 0.049 in the given
1990, 2000, 2014, 2016, and 2018 show mean and standard deviations period from 1987 to 2018. The Haleh estuary, which has a lower annual
of 0.27 ± 0.069, 0.33 ± 0.056, 0.38 ± 0.098, 0.44 ± 0.091, NDVI range than the other two, showed an increasing trend in NDVI,
0.45 ± 0.094 and 0.40 ± 0.089, respectively. The lowest amount rising from 0.15 ± 0.017 to 0.30 ± 0.063, indicating an improvement
occurred in 1987 and the highest in 2016. Based on Sen's slope, the in its status compared to the previous one.
NDVI trend in Basatin estuary decreased at a rate of −0.001, but Results of ANOVA revealed significant differences between factors
showed significant increases of nearly 0.008 and 0.006 for the Bidkhun of year (F = 4.89, df = 5, P < 0.05), season (F = 13.99, df = 3,
and the Haleh estuaries, respectively (Table 4 and Fig. 6). P < 0.05) and estuary (F = 89.87, df = 2, P < 0.05), with NDVI va-
The minimum annual NDVI was found to be 0.14 ± 0.022 in 2000 lues.
in the Haleh estuary, and the highest annual NDVI was 0.47 ± 0.098 in
2016 in the Bidkhun estuary. In Bidkhun estuary, the annual NDVI
increased between 1987 and 2016 (0.29 ± 0.074 to 0.47 ± 0.098)

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Q. Ashournejad, et al. Ocean and Coastal Management 179 (2019) 104838

Fig. 4. Spatial distribution changes of the Mangroves in the PSEEZ from 1986 to 2018.

5. Discussion index, which was not considered in previous studies. Another difference
in this research with other similar studies is that various factors seemed
Compared to other similar studies on changes in mangrove forests to influence the mangroves of the PSEEZ and were therefor considered
(Long and Giri, 2011; Shapiro et al., 2015; Kanniah et al., 2015; for further analysis. One of the socioeconomic effects of the establish-
Ibharim et al., 2015; Rodriguez et al., 2016; Ghosh et al., 2016; ment of the PSEEZ on the region's mangroves is the reduction of their
Maryantica and Lin, 2017; Hu et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2018a; Jayanthi use as animal food and timber, which was most probably due to the loss
et al., 2018; Jia et al., 2018; Cissell et al., 2018; Mondal et al., 2018; Tin of traditional jobs in the region, such as agriculture and livestock. With
et al., 2019; Pham et al., 2019), this research described changes in the the establishment of the PSEEZ, Native landowners sold their lands,
distribution of mangroves based on the economic value of their eco- especially agricultural lands, to industrial owners, and agricultural
system services. In addition to evaluating these quantitative changes, lands and palm groves decreased from 717 to 1693 ha in area in 1998 to
the qualitative status of the mangroves was analyzed by the NDVI 320 and 1114 ha in 2018 (Ashurnejad et al., 2019). The supply of

Table 3
The economic value of mangrove ecosystem services in the PSEEZ from 1986 to 2018.
Ecosystem Services Provisioning services Regulation services Cultural services All values

Food (for Wood and Honey Coastal Pollution Protection from Carbon Ecotourism and
Wild timber protection abatement sedimentation sequestration recreation
animals)

Mean economic value (2007 Int 1,535.21 247.34 4.23 8,459.12 7,859.92 579.28 195.23 14,072.14 32,952.47
$/ha/yr)

Year Estuary Area (ha)

1986 Bidkhun 32.94 50,570 8,147 139 278,643 258,906 19,081 6,431 463,536 1,085,454
Basatin 57.87 88,843 14,314 245 489,529 454,854 33,523 11,298 814,355 1,906,959
Haleh 10.08 15,475 2,493 43 85,268 79,228 5,839 1,968 141,847 332,161
All 100.89 154,887 24,954 427 853,441 792,987 58,444 19,697 1,419,738 3,324,575
1998 Bidkhun 92.34 141,761 22,839 391 781,115 725,785 53,491 18,028 1,299,421 3,042,831
Basatin 24.84 38,135 6,144 105 210,125 195,240 14,389 4,850 349,552 818,539
Haleh 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
All 117.18 179,896 28,983 496 991,240 921,025 67,880 22,877 1,648,973 3,861,370
2003 Bidkhun 155.25 238,341 38,400 657 1,313,278 1,220,253 89,933 30,309 2,184,700 5,115,871
Basatin 47.52 72,953 11,754 201 401,977 373,503 27,527 9,277 668,708 1,565,901
Haleh 2.16 3,316 534 9 18,272 16,977 1,251 422 30,396 71,177
All 204.93 314,611 50,687 867 1,733,527 1,610,733 118,712 40,008 2,883,804 6,752,950
2015 Bidkhun 170.10 261,139 42,073 720 1,438,896 1,336,972 98,536 33,209 2,393,671 5,605,215
Basatin 25.56 39240 6,322 108 216,215 200,900 14,806 4,990 359,684 842,265
Haleh 4.41 6,770 1,091 19 37,305 34,662 2,555 861 62,058 145,320
All 200.07 307,149 49,485 846 1,692,416 1,572,534 115,897 39,060 2,815,413 6,592,801
2018 Bidkhun 139.67 214,423 34,546 591 1,181,485 1,097,795 80,908 27,268 1,965,456 4,602,471
Basatin 21.69 33,299 5,365 92 183,478 170,482 12,565 4,235 305,225 714,739
Haleh 7.92 12,159 1,959 34 66,996 62,251 4,588 1,546 111,451 260,984
All 169.29 259,896 41,872 716 1,432,044 1,330,606 98,066 33,050 2,382,273 5,578,524

(Unit: Int$).

7
Q. Ashournejad, et al. Ocean and Coastal Management 179 (2019) 104838

Besides the numerous positive effects of the PSEEZ, destructive ef-

fects have also been introduced to the region's mangroves. As an ex-
ample, construction of the road from Asaloyeh to the Basatin, which
had been launched before the establishment of the PSEEZ, was com-
pleted after the establishment of this zone (Davoodi et al., 2016, 2018).
Pollution from oil and gas infrastructures and refineries in the PSEEZ
have been identified as other destructive factors for the region's man-
groves (Davoodi et al., 2017). These differing effects have caused a
variety of changes on the distribution and NDVI of mangroves in three
estuaries (Bidkhun or Asaloyeh, Basatin and Haleh). The results in-
dicate that the mangroves in the Basatin estuary, despite their suitable
state of distribution (economic value of $ 1.9 million) in 1986 and NDVI
(0.25 ± 0.069) in 1987, seemed to have downgraded after 1986 to
2018 (economic value of $ 0.71 million and Mean NDVI ± SD of
0.23 ± 0.049 in 2018). However, the mangroves in this estuary could
Fig. 5. The area of mangroves and the economic value of their ecosystem ser- have a higher economic value and NDVI as opposed to the Bidkhun and
vices in the PSEEZ from 1986 to 2018.
Haleh estuaries in 2018. These represent the pressure that has been
exerted on the mangroves of this estuary and has had great impact on
Table 4 their distribution and NDVI status. As indicated in the results, mor-
NDVI trends in Mangroves of the PSEEZ from 1987 to 2018. phological changes have been made in the mouth of the Basatin estuary.
Year Season Mean Mean Mean These morphological changes occurred due to the construction of the
NDVI ± SD NDVI ± SD NDVI ± SD road between Asaloyeh and Basatin. In addition, the use of pipes in the
(Bidkhun (Basatin (Hale Estuary) mouth of the estuary has limited the flow of tides. Davoodi et al. (2018)
Estuary) Estuary)
found that this reduction in size and the use of pipes in the estuary
1987 Winter 0.31 ± 0.046 0.32 ± 0.028 0.17 ± 0.009 mouth caused two major problems for the Basatin estuary. First, it
1987 Spring 0.24 ± 0.027 0.21 ± 0.016 0.15 ± 0.004 decreased the amount of water entering the sea, and second, it stopped
1987 Summer 0.25 ± 0.047 0.20 ± 0.036 0.15 ± 0.020 the sediment discharge in the eastern river of the estuary during the
1987 Autumn 0.36 ± 0.092 0.31 ± 0.072 0.16 ± 0.019
flood. Over time, this issue led to the accumulation of sediments in the
1990 Winter 0.40 ± 0.034 0.25 ± 0.036 0.18 ± 0.003
1990 Spring 0.35 ± 0.025 0.19 ± 0.016 0.17 ± 0.006
main channel of the estuary. With reductions in the depth of the
1990 Summer 0.30 ± 0.039 0.16 ± 0.009 0.15 ± 0.004 channel and lack of access to water, the mangroves were choked and
1990 Autumn 0.41 ± 0.040 0.25 ± 0.035 0.14 ± 0.004 dried.
2000 Winter 0.50 ± 0.030 0.45 ± 0.028 0.14 ± 0.019 The continued destruction of the mangroves led to the erection of
2000 Spring 0.36 ± 0.041 0.27 ± 0.054 0.12 ± 0.004
the bridge on the mouth of this estuary. With the complete collection of
2000 Summer 0.29 ± 0.050 0.20 ± 0.055 0.13 ± 0.020
2000 Autumn 0.47 ± 0.054 0.41 ± 0.040 0.15 ± 0.025 used pipes in 2016, NDVI has followed a more upward trend than ever
2014 Winter 0.50 ± 0.060 0.26 ± 0.009 0.25 ± 0.038 before. This condition of mangroves in Basatin estuary was indicative of
2014 Spring 0.44 ± 0.014 0.25 ± 0.010 0.16 ± 0.006 the high sensitivity and vulnerability of mangroves to environmental
2014 Summer 0.35 ± 0.066 0.21 ± 0.047 0.15 ± 0.021
stresses. However, it is very difficult and expensive to restore the es-
2014 Autumn 0.56 ± 0.038 0.29 ± 0.022 0.15 ± 0.007
2016 Winter 0.53 ± 0.055 0.27 ± 0.044 0.22 ± 0.031
tuary to its natural conditions. Another point about this estuary is the
2016 Spring 0.41 ± 0.081 0.22 ± 0.048 0.18 ± 0.022 expandable space of mangroves in the east of the estuary by an ap-
2016 Summer 0.40 ± 0.033 0.21 ± 0.029 0.19 ± 0.040 proximate area of 3,000 ha, which is not seen in the case of Bidkhun
2016 Autumn 0.56 ± 0.088 0.32 ± 0.051 0.29 ± 0.033 and Haleh estuaries. This space, located in the Nayband wetland, is the
2018 Winter 0.49 ± 0.058 0.23 ± 0.035 0.30 ± 0.047
guarantor of future life of the mangroves in the area and should not be
2018 Spring 0.39 ± 0.047 0.20 ± 0.025 0.28 ± 0.036
2018 Summer 0.34 ± 0.030 0.19 ± 0.009 0.26 ± 0.027 used for constructional proposes.
2018 Autumn 0.54 ± 0.100 0.29 ± 0.046 0.37 ± 0.069 The Bidkhun estuary, which showed a positive trend in distribution
Mann-Kendall Test Z 2.70 −0.47 3.25 and NDVI, has been downgrading since 2015, highlighting the need for
Signific. Significant Insignificant Significant
further investigations into what caused this demotion. The downgrade
Sen's Slope Q 0.008 −0.001 0.006
Qmin99 0.001 −0.007 0.001
was about 30.43 ha in area, equivalent to an economic value of $ 1
Qmax99 0.016 0.004 0.010 million. Disregarding this decline can lead to the destruction of a large
Qmin95 0.003 −0.006 0.002 part of the mangroves of this estuary. The impervious surfaces are lo-
Qmax95 0.013 0.003 0.009 cated within 100 m of the mangroves of the estuary. Advances of sea-
B 0.32 0.25 0.13
water and coastal squeeze threaten the future life of these mangroves.
Bmin99 0.39 0.33 0.16
Bmax99 0.23 0.20 0.07 The mangroves of Haleh estuary have been improving in distribu-
Bmin95 0.36 0.32 0.15 tion and NDVI since 1998, with rises in economic value ($ 0.26 million
Bmax95 0.25 0.22 0.09 in 2018). This is the result of cultivating 22,000 mangrove seedlings in
Haleh estuary (Dialogue and Development in Iran, 2013). This estuary
has only 20 ha of free space in the west, and the preservation of man-
energy by gas sources extracted from the PSEEZ is another factor that groves in the current location is critical.
reduces the use of mangroves as a source of fuel. Increasing people's
awareness of the value of the ecosystem services of mangroves is an- 6. Conclusion
other issue that can be mentioned with the advent of industry and
environmental institutions (Dialogue and Development in Iran, 2013). In this study, Landsat images were employed for evaluation of
The reclamation of mangroves after the establishment of the PSEEZ has mangrove ecosystem services and economic value in the PSEEZ for a
been repeatedly announced by relevant organizations such as Iranian period of 32 years from 1986 to 2018. Rapid changes in the distribution
Department of Environment. According to the said reclamations, in and NDVI of the mangroves in the PSEEZ area have reconfirmed the
addition to environmental organizations, people also play a key role vulnerability and fragility of the mangroves. The drying of the Nayband
(DOE, 2018). wetland, morphological changes of the Basatin estuary mouth and

8
Q. Ashournejad, et al. Ocean and Coastal Management 179 (2019) 104838

Fig. 6. NDVI trends in Mangroves of the PSEEZ from 1987 to 2018.

constructional works alongside the Bidkhun and Haleh estuaries are remote sensing data allow us to use and exploit them in the form of
indicative of the lack of consideration of mangrove ecosystems in the early vulnerability warning systems for mangroves. One must consider
planning and decision making of the region. These factors indicated a the significant role of economic value and impervious surfaces around
lack of adequate knowledge about such ecosystems and their economic the forests in designing systems for regular monitoring of the dis-
value on part of the decision makers and planners of the PSEEZ in tribution and NDVI status and the conservation of these mangroves and
previous years. Therefore, it is necessary to protect the current man- their ecosystem services. It is proposed such systems be designed to
groves and plan for their future life. One of the ways to protect these protect mangroves in the PSEEZ.
forests is their regular monitoring, which has been made possible Since none of the ecosystem services of the mangroves in the PSEEZ
through the development and application of remote sensing images in has ever been economically valued and their valuation should be car-
recent years. Improvements in spatial and temporal resolution of ried out on a global scale, it is suggested that other investigations be

9
Q. Ashournejad, et al. Ocean and Coastal Management 179 (2019) 104838

carried out on the local economic values of mangrove ecosystem ser- Davoodi, H., Gharibreza, M., Negarestan, H., Mortazavi, M.S., Lak, R., 2017. Ecological
vices in the PSEEZ. risk assessment of the Assaluyeh and Bassatin estuaries (northern Persian Gulf) using
sediment quality indices. Estuar. Coast Mar. Sci. 192, 17–28.
Davoodi, H., Habibi, A.R., Gharibreza, M.R., 2018. Morphological Evaluation of Coastal
Funding Changes in Basatin Estuary Using Satellite Images and Fieldwork. Third Conference
on Soil Conservation and Watershed Management, Tehran, Iran.
Dehghani, M., Farshchi, P., Danekar, A., Karami, M., Aleshikh, A.A., 2010. Recreational
This study was not supported by any funding. value of hara biosphere reserve using willingness-to-pay method. Int. J. Environ. Res.
4 (2), 271–280.
Conflicts of interest DOE (Iranian Department of Environment), 2018. Retrieved September 26, 2018, from.
http://www.bu.doe.ir/.
Dialogue and Development, 2013. In Iran: Building Multi-Stakeholder Alliances. Asaloyeh
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest. Project) Newsletter No.3. (Persian).
Donato, D.C., Kauffman, J.B., Murdiyarso, D., Kurnianto, S., Stidham, M., Kanninen, M.,
2011. Mangroves among the most carbon-rich forests in the tropics. Nat. Geosci. 5
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