Biology 1 - Characteristics of Living Organisms

Mrs.Gren

5. Do all plant cells have chloroplasts ? Explain your answer.

No because some are under the ground and aren’t exposed to sunlight, so there is no need for them

Cell Parts
Nucleus
Controls cell activities; contains genetic material.

Cytoplasm
Site of chemical reactions; contains organelles. Composed of water and dissolved substances such
as glucose (sugars) and salts (metal ions)

Cell Membrane
Controls what goes in and out. Selectively permeable.

Plant cells only

Cell Wall
Maintains shape of cell & helps support plant.

Chloroplasts
Photosynthesis (making glucose from carbon dioxide
& water.., using sunlight energy).

Large vacuole
Contains dilute solution (called cell sap which pushes
out on the cell wall., helping support plant.

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Plant cells Animal cells
Cell wall of cellulose No cell wall
Large Vacuoles Small Vacuoles
Some have chloroplasts Don’t have chloroplasts
up to 1 mm long usually less than 0.05 mm long
Examples
palisade cells

liver cells

phloem sieve tube elements root
cheek lining cells muscle fibres
hair cell

red blood cells
guard cells

Root Hair Cell

Function
To absorb water and nutrients from the soil

Adaptations to carry out function:

It has a large surface area and a semipermeable membrane. Does not contain chloroplasts as it is
not exposed to sunlight this ensures energy is not wasted in making chloroplasts.

Red Blood Cell

Function:
To carry oxygen from the lungs to the cells in the rest of the body. To carry carbon dioxide from the
cells to the lungs.

Adaptations to carry out function:

Biconcave structure increases it’s surface area to absorb more oxygen.
Thin membrane also helps absorption.
Also, they are very small (approx. 10 micrometers) so that they can fit through small capillaries.
No nucleus, giving more room for hemoglobin and gases.

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Why Cells Become Plasmolysed: There is a high water concentration inside the cell, and
a low water concentration outside the cell. Water moves out of the cell along a concentration
gradient via osmosis. The large vacuole shrinks, and the cytoplasm is pulled inwards, away
from the cell wall. This causes a separation between the cell wall and cell membrane.

Plant cells contain a strong cell wall which maintains their shape and hence don’t burst unlike
red blood cells

Water movement through a plant

Water moves into root cells from the soil by osmosis because the solution in the soil has a higher
concentration of water, or water potential than the solution in the cells.

How Cells Move From Soil to Plant: There is a high concentration of water molecules in
the soil. There is a low concentration of water molecules in the root hair. Water therefore
moves along a water concentration gradient in to the root hair, via osmosis.

Mineral ions move from the the soil into the root through active transport.

Active Transport: Active transport is the movement of ions in or out of a cell through the cell
membrane, from a region of their lower concentration to a region of their higher concentration
against a concentration gradient, using energy released during respiration eg. mineral ion
uptake by root hairs in plants or uptake of glucose by epithelial cells in the small intestine.

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If we divided one millimetre into one thousand parts the unit we have would be a micrometer.
Biologists measure cells in micrometers.

Magnification = Drawing size ÷ Actual size

Diffusion
Diffusion is the net movement of molecules from a region of their higher concentration to a region of
their lower concentration down a concentration gradient, as a result of their random movement.

Starch + iodine = Blue solution

Starch = Big Molecules

Iodine = Small Molecules

Diffusion
How we obtain oxygen
1. We breathe in
2. Our lungs fill with air
3. There is a high concentration of oxygen in our lungs
4. There is a lower concentration of oxygen in the blood
5. Due to respiration, there is a concentration gradient between the oxygen in the lungs and the
oxygen in the blood
6. So oxygen diffuses from the lungs to the blood
7. The concentration gradient is maintained by the blood now rich in oxygen being carried away

How we remove CO2

1. The blood rich in CO2 is carried to the lungs
2. There is a high concentration of CO22 in the blood
3. There is a low concentration of CO2 in the lungs
4. Due to breathing out
5. There is a concentration gradient between the CO2 in the blood, and the CO2 in the lungs
6. So CO2 diffuses from the blood to the lungs
7. The concentration gradient is maintained
8. By CO2 being removed from the lungs while breathing CO2 out.

Osmosis
Osmosis is the diffusion of water molecules from region of their higher concentration (dilute solution) to
a region of their lower concentration (concentrated solution), through a partially permeable membrane.

Rate of Osmosis = Distance Travelled

Time Taken

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 Biology 2 - Transport In Plants
Photosynthesis is the fundamental process by which plants manufacture carbohydrates using
energy from light.

Carbon Dioxide (stomata) and Water (roots) is needed for photosynthesis to occur (raw materials)

Gas exchange in plant leaves

Stomata are openings in the surface of plants which allow gases to pass in or out. Guard cells on
either side of the stomata can change shape to widen or reduce the opening and control gas
exchange. They are most common on the underside of leaves. They let water vapour and oxygen out
and let carbon dioxide in.

Photosynthesis Formula

Glucose is used as food for the plant

Starch is used a reserved food. It is

reserved in the plant

Cellulose is used in parts of the plant

such as the cell wall because it is strong
Chloroplasts contain a green substance called chlorophyll. Chlorophyll traps light energy. This
energy is used in the reactions which produce glucose (a sugar) from carbon dioxide and water which
can be converted into starch and stored.

Testing leaves for starch

1. Take a leaf and dip it into boiling water bath to weaken cell wall
2. Add ethanol to melt the chlorophyll
3. Cover the leaf with iodine solution
4. A blue / black colour shows that the leaf contains starch. 


Testing for starch is the best because it can be easily detected from the iodine and sugar does not
stay in it’s form for too long.

Conditions for Photosynthesis

Light: Plants need light to produce food (glucose)
CO2: Without CO2 in the air (soda lime), there was no starch present.

Variegated leaf: leaf with part’s covered up.

Factors That Affect Photosynthesis:

Light
CO2

Minerals required by Plants

Mineral are present in the soil and they are taken into the plant as ions by active transport. The
minerals are then carried in the phloem vessels to all parts of the plant.

Two minerals especially required by plants are:

5. Nitrates: Otherwise stunted growth. Weak stem.

6. Magnesium: Part of chlorophyll. Leaves can turn yellow without magnesium (No chlorophyll) 


How do plants make protein?
- The raw materials in photosynthesis are carbon dioxide and water.
- Nitrates form amino acids.
- Amino acids can be linked together to form proteins, which are an important part of all living
organisms.

A PROBLEM OF TOO MUCH FERTILISER - Eutrophication

Too much fertiliser in the lake causes too much algae causes too much oxygen to be consumed while
they are decomposed when they are dead. Hence animals die and even more oxygen is taken and in
the end no one lives.

Air Space: Gaps within the spongy mesophyll. These gaps are filled with gas that the plant uses
(carbon dioxide) and gases that the plant is expelling (oxygen and water vapour).
Chlorophyll: Turns water and carbon dioxide gas into sugar and oxygen (this process is called
photosynthesis). Chlorophyll is magnesium-based and is green.
Cuticle: The waxy, water-repelling layer on the outer surface of a leaf to protect it from bacteria etc.
Thicker on plants in dry areas to prevent drying out.
Epidermis: The protective, outer layer of cells. Contain guard cells (and stomata)

Guard Cell: Surround a stoma (a pore in a leaf). Guard cells change shape (as light and humidity
change).
Palisade Mesophyll: A layer of elongated cells located under the upper epidermis. These cells
contain most of the leaf's chlorophyll.
Photosynthesis: The process in which plants convert sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide into food
energy (sugars and starches), oxygen and water. Chlorophyll or closely-related pigments (substances
that colour the plant) are essential to the photosynthetic process.
Spongy Mesophyll: The layer below the palisade mesophyll; it has irregularly-shaped cells with many
air spaces between the cells. These cells contain some chlorophyll. The spongy mesophyll cells
communicate with the guard cells (stomata), causing them to open or close, depending on the
concentration of gases.

Stem: The main support of the plant.
Stomata: A pore (or opening) in a plant's leaves where water vapor, Carbon dioxide and oxygen leave
and enter the plant. Stomata are formed by two guard cells that regulate the opening and closing of
the pore. More common on the bottom of the plant. 

Vein (Vascular Bundle): = Xylem + Phloem. Veins provide support for the leaf and transport both
water and minerals (via xylem) and food energy (via phloem) to the rest of the plant.
Xylem: Cell walls thickened with lignin. Conducts water (osmosis) and mineral salts and gives
mechanical support. This travels upwards. Carries water an minerals from the soil to the leaves.
Lower Epidermis: This layer has guard cells which control the opening and closing of stomata
Phloem: Supports the leaf when the cells are turgid. Covered by waxy cuticle. This travels downward.
It carries organic compounds (glucose, protein, sucrose) and amino acids to the whole plant.

Movement of Water through the Leaf

Water leaves the xylem and moves by osmosis from cell to cell. Some of it moves to cells for turgor or
to be used in photosynthesis, but about 90% of water leaves via the stomata. This water evaporates in
the air spaces of the spongy mesophyll and exits as a gas. This is called transpiration. As
transpiration continues, more water molecules are 'pulled' from the xylem vessels. This is what causes
the transpiration stream.

Situation Effect On Rate Explanation

Increased Increased The water moves so the water moves out faster as well.
Temperature
Wind Slightly Increase The wind pulls more water from the leaves hence the water is
brought up from the transpiration pull.
Humidity Deacrease A lower concentration gradient hence less evaporation.

Germination:
1. Water is needed for the seed to swell and burst open. It is also needed for stored food to be
made soluble.
2. Oxygen is need for the embryo to respire. Respiration supplies energy to grow and develop.
3. Warmth is needed by most seeds. This is why seeds do not normally germinate till the spring or
summer. The degree if warmth varies from one type of plant to another.
 Biology 3 - Enzymes and Animal Nutrition
Nutrient Polymer Subunits - Monomer Elements
Carbohydrate Starch Glucose CHO

Protein Polypeptides Amino acids CHON

Lipids (fats) Fats Fatty acids CHO

Nutrient Function
Carbohydrate Gives body energy. Made of starch and sugar.

Protein Body growth and repair.

Fat Concentrated sources of energy and insulation

Vitamin D Strong bones/teeth. Absorbs calcium.

Vitamin C Healthy skin, helps absorb iron

Calcium Aids in the formation and maintenance of bones and teeth

Iron Factor in red blood cell formation

Nutrient Disease Symptoms

Vitamin D Rickets Bones stop hardening

Vitamin C Scurvy Bleeding gums

Calcium — Poor bone development

Iron Anaemia Low red blood cells with less haemoglobin. Pale skin.

Nutrition
Taking in of nutrients which are organic substances and mineral ions, containing raw
materials or energy for growth and tissue repair, absorbing and assimilating them.

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 Identifying Nutrients
Test Positive Result
Starch If iodine goes from brown to blue/black then starch is
(Iodine Solution) present
Glucose Add Benedict’s solution and boil. If sugar present, the
(Benedict’s solution) colour will go from Blue —> Green —> Yellow —> Red
(BGYR) based on the amount of sugar.
Protein Add sodium hydroxide and then copper sulphate. If final
(Biuret Test) purple colour. Protein is present.
Fat On the addition of ethanol, a cloudy white image
(Ethanol) indicates the presence of fats.

Enzymes
Enzymes are biological catalyst’s and are very efficient catalysts for biochemical
reactions. They speed up reactions by providing an alternative reaction pathway of
lower activation energy.

!
Substrate: The original substance
Product: The substance after being split etc.

Enzymes can be used to break down long chained molecules into their smaller
sub units, or sometimes help build long chain biological molecules.

They work by a method called the lock and key method. The substrate you wish to
break down fits into the active site of the enzyme. The active site will have a specific
shape that will only fit one type of substrate.

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 Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity
Enzymes are proteins. Enzymes will normally denature (Lose shape) at temps
above 40ºC and the effectiveness will start to decrease.

Temperature
- At low temperatures, enzyme reactions are slow.
- They speed up as the temperature rises until an optimum temperature is reached.
- After this point the reaction will slow down and eventually stop.

pH
-Most enzymes work fastest in neutral conditions.
-Making the solution more acidic or alkaline will slow the reaction down.
-At extremes of pH the reaction will stop altogether.
-Some enzymes, such as those used in digestion, are adapted to work faster in
unusual pH conditions and may have an optimum pH of 2 (very acidic) if they act in
the stomach.

Substrate Concentration
Enzymes will work best if there is plenty of substrate available. As the concentration of
the substrate increases, so does the enzyme activity. However, the enzyme activity
does not increase without end. This is because the enzyme can't work any faster even
though there is plenty of substrate available

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Mechanical digestion – Breaking down food by physical means. Eg teeth

Chemical digestion – Large molecules into small soluble molecules, using enzymes.

Process Description Part of Digestive

System involved
Ingestion Taking food into the body. Mouth/esophagus

Digestion Large insoluble molecules are broken down into 1. Pancreas

small soluble molecules.
 2. Stomach
Starch digestion begins. Protein digestion begins. 3. Liver
All types of digestion occur.

Absorption The transfer of digested substances from the 1. Small Intestine

intestine into the blood.
 2. Large Intestine
Majority of absorption.

Water absorption

Assimilation The soluble products of digestion are taken to cells Liver cells

and used to make structures in the cells.
 Muscle cells

Examples:
 Fatty tissue under skin
glucose converted to glycogen Amino acids built
up into proteins

Fatty acids and glycerol turned into lipid for
storage.

Egestion Removable of waste material that could not be Rectum/Anus

digested.

Digestive System
Mouth
Digestion starts here when taking the first bite of food. Saliva mixes with food to begin
the process of breaking it down into a form your body can absorb and use.

Salivary Glands: These secrete amylase, which breaks down starch into maltose, so
the substance can more easily be digested.

Oesophagus
Located in your throat near your trachea (windpipe), the esophagus receives food from
your mouth when you swallow. By means of a series of muscular contractions called
peristalsis, the esophagus delivers food to your stomach.

Stomach
Cells in the lining of the stomach secrete a strong acid and powerful enzymes that are
responsible for the breakdown process. When the contents of the stomach are
sufficiently processed, they are released into the small intestine.

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Small intestine
Breaks down food using enzymes released by the pancreas and bile from the liver.
Peristalsis also is at work in this organ. The duodenum is largely responsible for the
continuous breaking-down process, with the ileum mainly responsible for absorption of
nutrients into the bloodstream.
Contents of the small intestine start out semi-solid, and end in a liquid form after
passing through the organ. Water, bile, enzymes, and mucous contribute to the
change in consistency. Once the nutrients have been absorbed and the leftover-food
residue liquid has passed through the small intestine, it then moves on to the large
intestine, or colon.

Pancreas
The pancreas secretes digestive enzymes into the duodenum, the first segment of the
small intestine. These enzymes break down protein, fats, and carbohydrates.

Liver
The liver produces bile, which emulsifies (mixture of two or more liquids) fats, to allow
absorption. Bile is stored in the gallbladder where it is then released to small intestine
via bile duct.

Gallbladder
The gallbladder stores and concentrates bile, and then releases it into the duodenum
to help absorb and digest fats.

Colon (large intestine)

The colon connects the small intestine to the rectum. The large intestine is a highly
specialised organ that is responsible for processing waste so that emptying the bowels
is easy and convenient.
Stool, or waste left over from the digestive process, is passed through the colon by
means of peristalsis, first in a liquid state and ultimately in a solid form. As stool passes
through the colon, water is removed.

Rectum
Connects the colon to the anus. Hold the stool until evacuation happens. When
anything (gas or stool) comes into the rectum, sensors send a message to the brain.

Anus
The anus is the last part of the digestive tract. Egestion.

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Page 6 of 8
 Teeth

Incisors are the eight teeth in the front and

centre of your mouth (four on top and four on
bottom). These are the teeth that you use to
take bites of your food.
Canines: Your four canines are the next type
of teeth to develop. These are your sharpest
teeth and are used for ripping and tearing food
apart.
Molars: Primary molars are also used for
chewing and grinding food.
Third molars: Third molars are commonly
known as wisdom teeth. These are the last
teeth to develop.
Enamel: The hard outer layer of the crown.
Enamel is the hardest substance in the body.
Dentine: Not as hard as enamel, forms the
bulk of the tooth and can be sensitive if the
protection of the enamel is lost.
Pulp Soft: tissue containing the blood and
nerve supply to the tooth. The pulp extends
from the crown to the tip of the root.

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 Enzymes in Digestive System
Amylase, Protease/Pepsin, Lipase,
Mouth - Saliva:
Starch ———— Amylase ————> Glucose

Stomach - Stomach Wall:

Protein ———— Protease/Pepsin ————> Amino Acids

Small Intestine - Pancreas:

Lipids/Fat ———— Lipase ————> Fatty Acids
Protein ———— Protease/Pepsin ————> Amino Acids
Starch ———— Amylase ————> Glucose

Bile is made in the liver and stored in the gall bladder. It’s an alkaline liquid. Bile
neutralises the acidic contents, which come out of the stomach and enter the small
intestine, it also breaks lipids/fats into small droplets to increase the surface area for
digestion by the lipase enzyme. This is called emulsification it allows fats to be soluble.

Adaptations for Absorption

The small intestine is highly adapted to allow for the most efficient absorption of
nutrients. The inner lining of the intestine is highly folded, forming structures called villi.
This allows for greater surface area available for absorption. The villi are also one cell
thick to speed up diffusion. Each villi has a rich blood supply and a lacteal at its
centre. On the surface of the villi are microvilli, in order to further increase the
surface area.

Villi Adaptations
Microvilli: Increases the surface
area
Blood Capillaries: Helps with
diffusion. Blood has low
concentration because it quickly
flows away
Lacteals: Absorbs the fatty
acids because fat does not
easily mix with water
One Cell Thick: Get’s Diffusion/
absorption done quickly

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 Biology 4 - Energy Flow In Ecosystems
Habitat: The place where an organism lives

Community: All of the organisms in a given area

Ecosystem: A unit containing all of the organisms and their environment, interacting together, in a
given area
Decomposer: Organism that obtains its energy from dead or organic waste matter.
Trophic Level: The position an organism lies in the food chain/pyramid/web.

!
Food chains show how living things get their food.
They also show how they get their energy.
This is why they are sometimes written to include the Sun.
ARROWS SHOW THE DIRECTION OF THE FLOW OF ENERGY

The sun is the principal source of energy input to biological systems

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 Stages of a food chain

Producers are the green plants (such as grass). They make their own organic nutrients,
usually by photosynthesis, using energy from the Sun.

Consumers are organisms that get their energy by feeding on other organisms. Primary
consumers are animals that eat plants or parts of plants, such as fruit. They are also called
herbivores.

Secondary consumers eat other animals. They may be called carnivores or predators.

Herbivores are animals that get their energy by eating plants whereas carnivores get their energy
by eating other animals. Animals that eat both plants and animals are called omnivores.

Tertiary consumers (such as snakes) are animals that eat some secondary consumers. They
are also called carnivores or predators. The animals hunted and eaten by predators are called
prey.

An animal that feeds on tertiary consumers would be called a quaternary consumer.

The different stages of a food chain are called trophic levels

Energy Flow
Not all the energy that enters an animal or plant is available to the next trophic level. Only energy
that has resulted in an organism’s growth will be available to the animal that eats it.

At each trophic level a large amount of energy is lost to the system. This is why food chains rarely
have more than four steps. Because:
- Not the entire organism is digested/consumed. When the rabbit eats the plant, it might not have
consumed the entire plant. Obviously not….
- Energy is lost through excretion.
- Energy is lost through respiration.
- Energy is consumed through transport and movement of organism.

If Tadpoles were to eat weed, some of the weed will not be digested by the tadpole and will be
passed out unused. Of the energy the tadpoles do ingest (eat), they will use only a small proportion
for growth. The rest of the energy will be used by the tadpole in its life processes, e.g. for
movement, digestion etc. or lost as heat.

Sun is the source of all energy

Light energy is converted into chemical energy in the biomass, which is passed along the food
chain when one organism is consumed by another.

Food webs - Networks of interconnected food chains showing the energy flow through part of
the ecosystem. (Food chains are part of food webs). They can help us see what might happen if
the food web is disturbed in some way.

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Nutrient Cycles
The minerals that plants need from the soil are mostly released from the decayed remains of animals
and plants and their waste. This is one example of natural recycling. There is only a limited amount (on
Earth) of the elements that living things need and use.

The only way that animals and plants can continue to take in and use substances containing these
elements is if the substances are constantly cycled around the ecosystem for reuse.

The Carbon Cycle

1. When we respire and combust fuels in industrial places, carbon is released into the atmosphere as
carbon dioxide.
2. Plants first make sure of this carbon dioxide for making nutrients through photosynthesis.
3. Animals eat the plants and the carbon is passed across the food chain.
4. However, as we discussed previously, most of the energy is lost and the same applies for carbon
dioxide. Alot of the carbon dioxide is lost through respiration of the organism.
5. When the organism dies, they are eaten by decomposers and the carbon they receive is released
back into the atmosphere as good old carbon dioxide.
6. This cycle is called the carbon cycle.

Fertilizer can negatively effect the environment and cause water pollution. = Eutrophication

What processes add the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane to the
atmosphere?
CO2 - respiration & combustion of fossil fuels
Methane – fossil fuel mining, livestock (anaerobic fermentation) & landfill

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Coal and oil contain sulphur. When fossil fuels are burned, they release sulphur dioxide (SO2) into the
air. Sulphur dioxide itself is harmful to living organisms when it comes into contact with them as dry
fallout. The SO2 dissolves in rainwater to form sulphuric acid, or acid rain. Nitrogen oxide combines
with water to form nitric acid. These substances can make the rain acidic (acid rain). Acid rain can
have a pH of between 5 and 2 and is very damaging:

Some things cannot break down hence they are non-biodegradable

Plankton ➔small fish ➔large fish ➔fisherman

The fishermen are poisoned by the mercury, but the other organisms in the food chain are not affected
because mercury bioaccumulates /does not break down and reaches toxic levels in fishermen.


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There are a number of reasons for planting trees:
●  Providing wood for a building or for fuel
●  To reverse soil erosion, particularly valuable in areas that have become deserts
●  To provide valuable wildlife habitats — for example, Scots pine plantations are important
habitats for red squirrels

Causes of Extinction/lower animal number:

●  Pest control
●  Commercial exploitation
●  Loss of habitat

When you burn a fossil fuel, you are essentially burning a hydrocarbon with oxygen to
produce carbon dioxide and water. Hence, combustion of fossil fuels will decrease the
oxygen concentration, but increase the carbon dioxide concentration.

- Water Pollution
- Air Pollution
-

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 Biology 5 - Transport In Humans
Blood is pumped through the Circulatory System powered by the Heart.

Blood Enters right atrium and this then pushes into the right ventricle. The Tricuspid Valves
close and the blood pushes into the pulmonary artery which goes to the lungs. On it’s way back
from the lungs, the blood is oxygenated and enters the heart through the pulmonary vein. This
oxygenated blood from the lungs is then pushed into the left atrium and then into the left
ventricle. The mitral valves close and the blood is pushed into the aorta which feeds the blood
to the whole body after which the the blood comes back in from the vena cava and enters the
right atrium where the process starts all over.

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Vein Blood towards heart
Artery Blood away from heart
Renal Kidney
Hepatic Liver
Clots (cholesterol) form in the artery = Heart Attack
Blood Contains
- Plasma
- Water
- Minerals
- Hormones
- Vitamins
- Platelets
- Cells
- Red
- White

Arteries Veins Capillaries

Allow
Blood away Blood towards
Function exchange of
from heart heart
substances
Wall
Thick medium One cell
thickness
Elastic fibres present no no
Muscle layer Yes Yes thinner no
Width of Medium lumen One cell
Large lumen
vessel inside changes diameter
Valves none Yes none

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 Red Blood Cells Adaptations
It is small
- Fits through capillaries
It is biconcave
- Increased surface area for diffusion of oxygen
- Allows it to fold through capillaries
No Nucleus
- Larger Hemoglobin holding capacity
Contains Heamoglobin
- Allows it to hold oxygen

White Blood Cells

- Have a nucleus
- Transparent
- They defend the body against viruses, bacteria etc.
- Phagocytes and Lymphocytes

Phagocytes
These white blood cells engulf foreign material

Lymphocytes
These secret antibodies
- All cells have antigens or recognition markers on their surface that stimulates a lymphocyte
- Antibodies disable or destroy the foreign cell usually together with the phagocyte
- If memory lymphocytes are produced for a particular disease, you become immune to it

Platelets
- Tiny fragments of cells in the blood
- They help clot a wound by clumping together
- Can release chemicals for a permanent clot

Plasma
- Liquid part of the blood
- Transports the vitamins, minerals etc. (Glucose, Amino Acids, Minerals, CO2, hormones)


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 Biology 6 - Transport In Humans
AEROBIC RESPIRATION
Releases a relatively large amount of energy from food

Purpose/Energy Used For

• Muscle contraction
• Protein synthesis
• Keeping warm
• Passing nervous impulses
• Growth and repair of cells 


———————————————————————————————————————————
ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION
Releases a relatively small amount of energy through the breakdown of glucose in the
absence of oxygen

Lactic acid is a poisonous substance

Much less energy released
Energy released when there isn’t sufficient oxygen for the muscles
Causes tiredness and cramps
One can only anaerobically respire for a short amount of time
After stopping the race, there is an oxygen debt where oxygen is needed to get rid
of the lactic acid produced.

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 Respiration involves chemical reactions that break down nutrient molecules into
living cells resulting in the release of energy.

Yeast cells can also anaerobically respire - fermentation:

Used for brewing and baking

How To Bake Dough

1. Mix yeast with flour and water to make a DOUGH.
2. The yeast turns some of the starch in the flour into sugar. It has an enzyme that
can do this.
3. The yeast uses the sugar for anaerobic respiration. (It cannot get oxygen while
it is in the dough). The glucose is broken down by enzymes from the yeast as
shown in the equation below. 

Glucose Ethanol + Carbon Dioxide + Energy
4. The carbon dioxide gas makes the dough rise as the gas bubbles spread
through the dough giving it a 'spongy' texture.
5. The dough is cooked. This evaporates the alcohol and kills the yeast.
———————————————————————————————————————————
Respiration is in all living cells and is basically:
Food + Oxygen → Carbon Dioxide + Water + Energy


Organisms require oxygen for aerobic respiration. This process produces carbon
dioxide as a waste product.
Therefore the following must happen in order for respiration to occur :
(a)  Oxygen needs to get into the body.
(b)  This oxygen needs to be transported to all body cells.
(c)  Carbon dioxide needs to be collected from the cells.
(d)  Carbon dioxide needs to be removed from the body. 


We are far too big to have the necessary gas exchange through the surface of our
body. Therefore we use a breathing system.
Our breathing system is made up of our lungs and windpipe (trachea)

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Epiglottis
Opens and closes the trachea

Larynx
Voice box

Trachea
Windpipe- passes air to and from the lungs

Our breath + Limewater = Cloudy = CO2 present

Are lungs efficient?

- Large surface area for diffusion (Mane alveoli)
- Thin walled alveoli (one cell thick) for quick/short diffusion
- Moist (To dissolve O2)
- A good transport system

Air —> Alveoli —> Blood stream

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 Smoking
Nicotine
- Addictive
- Makes heart beat faster
- Increases blood pressure

Tar
- Damages the alveoli by covering it
- Can cause cancer

Carbon Monoxide
- Reduces the ability of the red blood cells to carry oxygen
- Combines permanently with the hemoglobin in the cells rendering them unable
to bond to oxygen

Mucus traps dirt and pathogens, microbes which is then pushed up and out of our
system by the ciliated cells. But excess use of this when the cilia needs to
constantly puss smoke particles out of the system, paralyses the cilia cells.

Smoke particles slow the rate of diffusion in the alveoli

Cancerous Tumor - Uncontrollable division of cells

Smoke Particles/Microbes - Cause irritation

Similarities OR Differences
Aerobic Anaerobic
Uses oxygen Doesn’t use oxygen
Doesn’t make ethanol or lactic acid Makes ethanol and lactic acid
Lot’s of energy released. Complete Glucose Little energy released. Partial Glucose
Breakdown Breakdown
Products - Water + Carbon Dioxide Products - Lactic Acid
(In yeast, ethanol and CO2)

Page 7 of 7
 Biology 7 -
Co-ordination and Response
Central Nervous System
Made of the Brain and Spinal cord.

Peripheral Nervous System

This consists of the things that carry information to an from the central nervous system. This
consists of Sensory Nerves (carry information to the CNS) and Motor Nerves (carry information
from the CNS). These nerves are made from collections of long nerves called neurones.

Together, the nervous systems work to regulate body functions.

There are 3 types of Neurones:

1. Sensory Neurone

This neurone has a receptor on one end and carries electrical impulses from the receptor to
the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord).
2. Connector/Relay Neurone

This neurone is in the CNS. This neurone connects the Sensory and Motor Neurone.
3. Motor Neurone

This neurone carries electrical impulses from the CNS to an effector (muscle or gland)

The dendrites collect the electrical signals.

The cell body compiles the incoming signals and coverts them to outgoing signals to the axon.
The axon then passes the signal along usually to the dendrites of the relay neurone.
1
Neurone always pass electrical impulses in one direction. These travel extremely fast.

Reflexes
Involuntary actions which usually occur to protect the body from harm. They are extremely fast
since they only involve 2 or 3 neurones. Each reflex has a predefined nerve pathway such as a
needle would only move that part of the body and not another random part.
A stimulus is anything that causes the nervous system to produce a response which is voluntary
or involuntary.

Reflex Arc:

Reflex arc is Stimulus —> Receptor —> Sensory Neurone —> Relay Neurone in spinal cord —>
Motor Neurone —> Effector —> Reflex action

The reflex arc for sight is 2x faster since the receptor (retina) is not far from the spinal cord.
To measure the speed of the reaction, simply use distance = speed*time
The eye (receptor) perceives the object moving hence the message is sent via the sensory
neurone. However, with touch, the response is given via the motor neurone.

2
 The Human Eye (Receptor)
Structures Notes
Conjunctiva Top layer of the cornea. Fights off infection.
Cornea Top transparent covering allowing light into the pupil. Bends /refracts the light.
Aqueous Watery substance in the front of the eye in front of the lens
humour
Pupil Empty space/ Allows light to reach the retina. Accommodates for light.
Constricts = less light Dilates = more light
Iris Controls the amount of light entering through the pupil into the retina. Contains
the ciliary/radial muscles and the pupil.
Lens A hard jelly that gets thick and thin to allow the eye to focus on objects.
Ciliary Circular muscle behind the iris, around the lens. Contracts the lens to see closer
Muscle
Suspensory Attached to the lens. Pulls lens tight to see far. Let’s the lens go thick when
ligament slacked.
Vitreous Thick gooey substance behind the lens in the eye
humour
Retina Contains light receptor cells. Detects light, forms an image, detects different
wavelengths of light (colour). At the back edges of the eye.
Blind spot Point at which the axons of the sensory neurones from the retina leave the eye.
There are no light receptors at this spot. Where the optic nerve lease the eye.

3
 Accommodation
The changing of the lens to be able to see and focus on objects far and close.

Since the lens is naturally elastic, it can be:

- Pulled thin by the suspensory ligament (See far)
- Made thicker by the ciliary muscles (See close)

Structures Seeing Near Seeing Far

Ciliary Muscle Contracted Relaxed
Suspensory Ligament Slack Taut

Lens Thick Thin

4
 The Pupil Reflex
The pupil changes in bright or dim light. The pupil is in the iris and the iris contains to muscles:
- The circular muscles which are around the iris to make the pupil narrower
- The radial muscles which run from the centre of the iris to the outside make the pupil larger

Structure Dim Light Bright Light

Radial Muscles Contract Relax
Circular muscles Relax Contract

Pupil Dilates (wider) Constrict (narrow)

Hormones
A hormone is a chemical substance which is produced by a gland and carried by the blood. It
alters the activity of one or more organs which is targets. The hormone then gets destroyed by
the liver. They are basically chemical messengers.

The glands that produce the hormones form part of the endocrine system.
Hormone Gland produced Target organ(s)
Insulin Pancreas liver, muscles
Oestrogen (females) ovaries uterus

Adrenaline Adrenal Glands Chemical activity Increase glucose

concentration in blood and pulse rate.
5
Comparison Nervous System Endocrine system
Speed of action Very rapid Can be slow
Nature of message elctrical impulses travelling Chemical messengers (hormones) travelling
along nerves in the blood stream
Duration of Usually completed in Vary, may take years e.g. effect of growth
response seconds hormone
Area of response Often confined to an area Usually noticed in many organsresponse is
of the body localized wideapread
Examples of Reflexes like pupil reflex/ Examples: Growth/development of
processes muscle contraction reproductive system/sugar regulation
controlled movement of limbs

Tropic Responses
There are two types of tropic responses in plants:
- Geotropism is a response where the plant grows in response to gravity
- Phototropism is a response where the plant grows in response to light

Auxin is made at the tip of the shoot. It move through diffusion. The auxin stimulates the cells to
grow by making them expand on that side because that side receives more water.

In phototropism, the auxin passes down the side with less light hence the plant grow towards it.
In geotropism, the auxin rests on the lower side and hence the plant (roots usually) grows down.

Shoots which grow towards light are positively phototropic. This allows it to allow it to do
photosynthesis, reach the light and be able to manufacture it’s food. The tip of the shoot is the
one sensitive to light hence is the tip is covered, the plant won’t bend.
Roots which respond to gravity and grow towards it are positively geotropic. This allows it to
reach into the soil, get water and minerals which are absorbed through the roots.
6
 Homeostasis
Homeostasis means 'same state', and it is the maintenance of a constant internal environment.
Many organs contribute to homeostasis, eg. liver, kidneys, pancreas, brain, skin.

It is necessary to stabilise the blood and plasma concentration which diffuses in and out of
capillaries. It also stabilises the enzymes because they need a constant temperature to operate
in.

The Skin

Skin has temperature receptors which is responds to as well. Hair is pulled tall by the muscle
7
It is important to maintain a constant body temperature to:
- Keep enzymes working at their optimum temperature
- Have less fragile cell membranes hence keep them tough
- Keep diffusion rates constant

8
Action If body temperature falls If body temperature rises
Sweat glands Inactive Produce sweat. It evaporates. Cools skin.
Small arteries in skin Vasoconstriction
 Vasodilation
Constrict/less blood flows More blood flows near the surface of the
near the surface/less skin/more heat lost through radiation
radiation
Hairs Stick up/trap more air/ Flat/trap less air/less insulation
insulation
Erector muscles Contract/pull base of the Relax/follicle goes to back to normal
(raise and flattens hair follicle/shft of hair position/shaft of hair goes flat
hair on the skin) straightens

Vasoconstriction
Is what happens when body is too cold. This makes the hair stand up (erector muscle contracts).
Its when the blood capillaries in the skin move away from the skin to prevent heat loss via
radiation.

Vasodilation
Is what happens when the body is too hot. Body produces sweat which cools the body when it
evaporates. Hairs flatten. Its when the blood capillaries move to the surface of the skin to allow
heat loss through radiation.

Negative Feedback
Homeostasis involves negative feedback. Its where a change sets off a response that cancels
out that change to return everything back to normal.

Basically it’s when something usually at a constant value changes. This triggers a signal from the
control centre which sets off a response and this response cancels out that change and returns
it to its original state.

Blood Sugar Levels

One negative feedback which is common in controlling blood sugar and glucose levels.
Blood sugar is controlled by a hormone. Hormones are chemicals secreted by glands (called
endocrine glands) directly into the blood. Hormones travel in the blood. The hormones travel in
the blood to the organ / organs which they are going to work on, called their target organs. 


Insulin is a hormone which is secreted in the pancreas in response to too much blood sugar/
glucose levels. It tells the liver to remove glucose from the blood by converting it to a stored
form of sugar called glycogen. Glucagon is another hormone also secreted by the pancreas for
when blood sugar levels are too low. It tells the liver to start breaking down glycogen to glucose.
Sugar levels too high —> Insulin Sugar levels too low —> Glucagon
9
 Biology 8 -Reproduction
Asexual - Genetically identical offspring
Sexual - The haploid nuclei is fused to for a diploid zygote to make genetically varied offsprings

Petal Protects flower and attracts pollinators

Sepal Protection for flower in bud and petal support
Petiole Joins leaf to a stem
Stamen Produces pollen grains - Male reproductive organ
Anther Produces male sex cells (pollen grains) - inside stamen
Filament Holds anther high
Carpel Made of Stigma, Style and Ovary
Stigma Landing zone for pollen grains
Style The stalk supporting stigma and connects it to the ovary
Ovary Secretes hormones - contains ovule that becomes a seed when fertilized

Page 1 of 7
 Pollination
Transfer of pollen grains from the male part of the plant (anther) to the female part (stigma)

- Insects/animals
- Wind/Oxygen
- Water

Insect Pollinated Flowers

The flower’s petal acts as a landing platform which allows the bees to collect nectar from the
flower. In return, the bee would collect pollen from the  anther  and help to pollinate the other
flowers.
- Scent
- Large Petals
- Colorful
- Nectar

Wind Pollinated Flowers

Lots of pollen is generated in wind pollinated flowers. Many plants which are wind pollinated
are adapted to have pollen grains which have air sacs.
- Produces lots of pollen
- Small petals to allow pollen to be blown away

Germination

Page 2 of 7
Part of Seed Structure Function
Testa Tough protective covering Protects embryo, controls germination
Cotyledons Food store Part of embryo. First leaves of seedling
Radicle Part of embryo First thing to come. Reaches for the water
Plumule Part of embryo Shoot/stem to allow photosynthesis
Micropyle Tiny hole in testa Opening for pollen tube
Hilum A scar near the micropyle Let’s the seed dry out

Things required for germination

Absorbed through micropyle, needed to activate enzymes which convert
Water insoluble food stores into soluble foods needed for growth and energy
production.
Needed for respiration, to release energy for growth and chemical
Oxygen
changes for mobilization of food reserves
Temperature For enzymes to work as enzymes work best at optimum temperature
Not usually a requirement for germination but some seeds need a period
Light
of exposure to light before they germinate

Seed dispersal
When seeds are mature, the whole fruit or individual seeds fall from the parent plant to the
ground and the seeds may then germinate.

- Prevents plants growing too close

- Lessens competition for light/food/water
- Allows plant to cover more areas

Page 3 of 7
 Reproduction
Males Structure Function
The testes are the male reproductive
organs. They produce the male Testes To produce sperm from their coiled tubes
gametes- sperm cells. The testes also and make the male sex hormone at puberty
produce the male sex hormone, A sac in which a testis is located. It is
testosterone. suspended outside the main body cavity
Scrotum
where sperm production is more rapid due
to the cooler conditions
Sperm Conveys sperm to the urethra
Duct
To lead the sperms to the outside through
Urethra
the penis
To introduce the sperm cells into the vagina
Penis
of the female during intercourse
To produce a fluid to nourish the sperm cells
Prostate
and help them swim vigorously. This fluid
Gland
together with the sperm cells is called semen

Females
The ovaries are the female reproductive organs. They produce the female gametes- egg cells
or ova. The ovaries also make the female sex hormones oestrogen and progesterone.

Structure Function
Ovary To produce eggs/ova at puberty and female sex hormones
Oviduct To lead mature ova to the uterus; it is also a region where fertilisation of
(Fallopian) ova by sperm takes place
Uterus For the implantation and development of the embryo
Cervix Connects the uterus to the vagina
Vagina To receive sperm cells during intercourse. Birth canal for the baby

Page 4 of 7
Sperm (Male Gamete)
- Small
- Has a tail to be able to move
- Millions produced for increasing chance of fertilization
Ovum (Female Gamete)
- Large for easy penetration

Mensuration
1. Lasts for 5 days
2. Uterus lining breaks down and blood and cells pass out the vagina
3. Happens during a decrease of progesterone

Ovulation
1. Ovum released
2. Happens at the peak of oestrogen concentration

Describe the menstrual cycle in terms of changes in the uterus and ovaries

Page 5 of 7
 Fertilisation
Fusion of the Sperm and ovum nucleus
Sperm + Ovum = Zygote

The 9 months = gestation period

The amnion contains amniotic fluid which allows the fetus to float.
Amnion Amniotic Fluid Provides Protection From
Encloses the amniotic fluid Drying out
Produces amniotic fluid Temperature Fluctuations
Unequal Pressures on the fetus
Physical damage

Page 6 of 7
The Placenta
Is connected to the fetus by the umbilical cord.
The blood of the mother and fetus flow closely but don’t mix to:
- Prevent blood pressure changes
- Blood type incompatibility
- Prevents transmission of pathogens

The Placenta also

- Secretes oestrogen and progesterone
- Stimulates growth of milk producing tissue
- prevents more eggs (ova) being released

HIV
HIV would kills off and stop the production of white bloods cells that make antibodies called
CD4 or Helper T Cells.
When the amount of these cells are so low and even simple viruses can affect you. You have
AIDS.

Page 7 of 7
 Unit 9 - Inheritance
The transmission of genetic information from generation to generation
Variation is all the small differences which exist between members of the same species

Discontinuous Variation - Variations caused by genes alone. Shows limited number of

phenotypes (physical characteristics) such as only 3 colors of the eye.
Continuous Variation - Variations influenced by both the environment and genes. Such as
height. Lots of values possible.

Genes and chromosomes

All the information for the development of an organism is in a chromosome (threads of DNA)
Gene - A length of DNA with codes for a protein. Each chromosome has many genes which
would be passed on to the next generation. Chromosomes come in pairs hence so go genes.

23 chromosomes from each parent. 46 in total.

23 from sperm, 23 from egg.

Cell Division
Diploid Nucleus - Each body cell has two sets of chromosomes
Haploid Nucleus - The sperm and egg have a haploid nucleus. Only 1 set/23 chromosomes.

1
Mitosis Meiosis
Aesexual Sexual
Identical daughter cells Different daughter cells
1 cell division 2 cell divisions
DIPLOID HAPLOID

Occurs in body cells for tissue/cell repair Occurs in sex organs for reproduction

Allele Two versions of the same gene (Black hair, White Hair)
Chromosome Carries information on long thread like structures

Gene Makes up chromosomes

DNA A length of coding for a protein
Diploid Nucleus Full set of 46 chromosomes
Haploid Nucleus Singe set of chromosomes

Dominant An allele which always shows it’s affect.

Recessive An allele which is only shown when two of them are present
Genotype Genetic characteristics
Phenotype Physical characteristics

Heteryzygous Different types of a gene

Homozygous One type of gene
Mutation A change in a gene or chromosome
Gamete Sex cells (Sperm and Egg)

A dominant gene represented as a capital letter. If one of them is present. It is shown.

A recessive gene shown as small letter. Only shown when there are two of them active.

Black eyes are dominant. So - B

Green eyes are recessive - b
BB - Homozygous - Black eyes
Bb - Heterozygous - Black eyes
bb - Homozygous - Green eyes
2
 Mutations
A change in a gene of chromosome.

A mutation in a gamete (sperm or egg) is likely to be passed on during birth.

High frequency waves such as cosmic, gamma, x-rays, are harmful to humans.
Sometimes mutations are essential for evolution.

Artificial Selection
Artificial insemination uses genes from a good animal (eg. cow) and uses it’s sperm to get the
next offspring to have that gene. Over multiple years, this gene would get stronger. It can
improve things like milk production, muscle, amount of fat for beef.

Natural Selection and Evolution

1. Sometimes new alleles can occur due to mutations.
2. If mutations occur in the gametes they can be passed on to the offspring.
3. A few of these mutations will give the organism concerned an advantage over others in the
struggle for existence. These are beneficial alleles.
4. These individuals are more likely to outcompete other less well adapted individuals and
survive to reproduce, hence pass these adaptations onto the next generation.

Summary of Natural Selection

1. More offspring are produced than an environment can support.
2. This leads to a 'struggle for survival' as they compete for food, space etc....
3. Individuals best fitted to the environment are more likely to survive and reproduce.
4. Over successive generations, this can lead to evolution

Mutations are random, but natural selection is not. The environment ‘tests’ the quality of the
genes, and this ultimately dictates which species survive and which do not. Species do not try to
evolve. Natural selection is important as it allows a certain good characteristic to continue to be
passed on.

3
W

Water of crystallization Water incorporated into the structure of substances when they crystallize.

Weathering Erosion of rock/breaking up of rock into smaller pieces.

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This entry was posted in Coordinated Science, Science on May 11, 2013 [http://www.acceleratedstu-
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Glossary: Biology
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Absorption The process of absorbing nutrients into oneself.

Active Site The side of an enzyme which allows fro the building or breaking of substrates.

Active Trans- The act of bringing molecules into cells even when the diffusion gradient is defied.
port

Aerobic Res- A chemical reaction which generates energy from glucose usingoxygen and which provides energy
piration for our cells to function.

Alimentary Otherwise known as one’s guts. This includes everything from the mouth to the anus and is also
Canal known as the human gastrointestinal tract.

Alveo- Air sacs contained within our lungs which allow for a large surface area to volume ratio which aids

lus/Alveoli gas exchange.

Amino Acids A nutrient molecule that can be used to make proteins.

Amylase A type of carbohydrase found in one’s saliva which breaks down starch into glucose. It is made in our
salivary gland.

Anaerobic A chemical reaction which releases energy from glucose molecules without the aid of oxygen. This
Respiration process does not release as much energy as aerobic respiration and also produces toxic lactic acid in
 humans.

Anus The organ that egests waste materials from our persons.

Aorta The main artery that brings oxygenated blood from the heart to the rest of the body.

Artery Any blood vessels which brings blood from the heart.

Assimilation The consumption, digestion and absorption of nutrients are known collectively as this.

Atria/Atrium The upper chambers of the heart that pump blood into our ventricles.

Benedict’s Solu- Used to detect the presence of sugar in substances. When sugars are present this solution
tion changes green after being heated to 70°C; when sugars are not present this remains light blue.

Bile This is a liquid produced by our livers and stored in our gall bladders. Its release is controlled
by the enzyme CCK which is released by the duodenum. Its main purpose is to emulsify and

neutralize fatty acids and glycerol.

Biuret Test Can be used to determine the presence of proteins. If present, Biuret’s reagent will turn purple,

however, if proteins are not present then this reagent will remain blue.

Bronchus/Bronchi These tubes branch from our trachea into our left and right lungs.

Calcium A mineral necessary for the growth and development of bone matter. It is stored within our bones.

Canine The name of the tooth that is responsible for holding still food during mastication.

Capillary These are the smallest blood vessels in the human body and supply blood to individual cells.

Carbohy- A nutrient that is needed for respiration and the generation of energy.

drates

(simple
sugars)

Carcino- A substance that can result in cancer.

gen

Catalyst Something (e.g. an enzyme) which speeds up reactions.

Cell Mem- The material which isolates individual cells and which is semi‐permeable to allow for osmosis and dif-
brane fusion.
Cell Sap The substance that fills the cell vacuole’s of all plant cells and certain animal cells. This substance aids
osmosis and diffusion.

Cell Wall The substance which prevents plant cells from haemolysing.

Cellulose The polysaccharide (glucose polymer) that is needed to make cell walls and membranes.

Chemical Processes which break down fodder to release nutrients through use of acids, bile, enzymes, etc.

Digestion

Chloro- The green pigment found within chloroplasts that are responsible for photosynthesis.

phyll

Chloro- An organelle within a plant cell that contains the pigment chlorophyll which is necessary for photosyn-
plast thesis.

Colon This is the final part of the alimentary canal just before the anus and removes salts and water before
they are eliminated from the body.

Constipa- Refers to bowel movements that are infrequent and/or hard to pass.
tion

Coronary Refers to the accumulation of plaques within the coronary arteries that supply the myocardium (heart
Artery muscles) with blood. This is one of the causes of Coronary Heart Disease and is the most common one

Disease known to man. (Atherosclerosis is a type of coronary artery disease).

Coronary When one of the coronary arteries supplying the muscles of your heart becomes blocked. Remember

Heart Dis- that this is different from coronary artery Disease.

ease

Cuticle A waxy layer that covers and protects leaves and which makes leaves water‐retardant.

Cyto- The substance that isolates organelles within a cell.

plasm

Diges- The process used to release nutrients from consumed food.

tion

Dis- 2 carbon ring structure. Includes things such as maltose.

accha-
ride

De- When an enzyme loses its ability to function as an enzyme should because of extremes of pH or tempera-
nature ture.

Depth The volume of air displaced by a breath.

of

breath-
ing

(tidal

vol-
ume)

Diffu- The process that allows nutrients and waste and water to pass into and out of cells from and into the
sion blood. This is caused by the random movement of particles which results in a net migration of said parti-

cles from a region of high concentration to a region of lower concentration through a concentration gradi-

ent.

Duo- The beginning of the small intestine which detects the presence of fatty acids and glycerol and triggers to
denum release of bile if said substances are present. Furthermore, this section of the small intestine is where

most chemical digestion occurs and is a very short section indeed relative to the rest of the small intes-

tine. It also serves to trigger the release of various enzymes or digestive chemicals via the use of hor-
mones.

Egestion The act of removing solid waste matter from one’s body.

Emulsify The act of mixing two immiscible liquids, often done in the duodenum to aid absorption.

Excretion The process of removing waste material that was the result of metabolic reactions from an organism.

Expiration The process of breathing out.

Fat A type of nutrient which is needed as a long‐term store of energy and as insulation of internal organs.

Fatty These are released from fat molecules along with glycerol when fat molecules are digested. They are

acids needed for the same reasons why fats are needed.

Fermen- The process of converting glucose into alcohol and carbon dioxide through the anaerobic respiration of

tation yeast.

Fibre A non‐digestible substance needed for roughage. This roughage clears out the digestive tracts and so

aids digestion.
G

Gall This is the body’s storehouse for the bile created by the liver.

bladd
er

Glu- The monomer that is needed for respiration.

cose

Glyc- This is a substance released from the digestion of fats.

erol

Glyco This is a polysaccharide often used for the mid‐term storage of glucose within muscle cells. The conversion
gen of glucose into glycogen is triggered by the hormone insulin and is a process often used to lower blood

sugar levels.

Ileum This is the final section of the small intestine and absorbs vitamin B12 along with bile salts and whatever

products of digestion that have not yet been absorbed. It is 2‐4m long in mature humans and has a pH of

7 or 8.

Incisor The teeth at the forefront of the jaw responsible for cutting and slicing food during mastication. They have

a flat and sharp tip designed for this purpose.

Inges- The act of consuming food.

tion

Inspi- The process of breathing in.

ration

Iodine Can be used to determine the presence of starch. If starch is present then this will turn blue‐black, howev-
Solu- er, if starch is not present then it will remain brown.

tion

Iron A mineral necessary for the production of haemoglobin which is the substance contained within our red

blood cells that is responsible for oxygen transfer. Without it one will soon suffer from anaemia.

Large This part of the alimentary canal connects from the small intestine and leads to the colon and the anus. It

In- is responsible for the absorption of water.

testine
Larynx Also known as the voice box. This is the organ that allows us to make sound.

Light A device which refines and magnifies microscopic images pictured through use of photons so that they

Mi- can be seen by the naked eye. An image generated by such a device is a light micrograph.

cro-
scopes

Lipase A type of enzyme designed to break down fats into fatty acids and glycerol.

Liver The organ within our bodies which regulates the nutrient content in our blood stream.

Lym- The white blood cell which produces antibodies tailored for use against specific pathogens. These anti-

pho- bodies bind with the antigens of specific pathogens; this causes the pathogens to lose the ability to repro-
cyte duce or to move freely (antibodies bind pathogens together making them easier to absorb for phago-

cytes). Furthermore, antibodies also neutralise any toxic substances produced by the pathogens.

Magnifi- The coefficient by which the size of an image is increased when viewed under a microscope.
cation

Malnutri- A condition where a person does not absorb enough nutrients for continued good health.

tion

Mechani- The process of breaking down food items to release nutrient molecules through use of physical

cal Diges- means. Such digestion includes mastication, and the rhythmic contractions of the stomach wall.

tion

Me- The amount of material which is made, absorbed, or destroyed within one’s body.

tabolism

Molar The type of tooth which is responsible for crushing and grinding food during mastication.

Mono- The most basic form of carbohydrates (glucose). (1 carbon ring structure) Such molecules are

saccha- monomers.
ride

Move- The process of an organism changing pose or position.

ment

Nucleus The organelle which controls a cell and which contains the genetic information of said cell.
Nutrition The process that allows an organism to absorb the materials necessary for the continuation of life.

Obesity A condition where a person has been absorbing excess nutrients for a prolonged period of time and is
usually revealed by large pouches of fatty tissue gathered about one’s abdominal or thoracic areas. This

is the herald of many different diseases./td>

Oe- The gullet. This is the tube which connects the mouth to the stomach and which is responsible for deliv-

soph- ering food from the mouth to the stomach. It is nestled against the trachea within the “mouth” of the C‐

agus shaped pieces of cartilage that surround the trachea.

Organic Something that is fully natural in origin.

Osmo- The process in which water diffuses through a semi‐permeable membrane from a region of high concen-

sis tration to a region of lower concentration down a concentration gradient as a result of the random move-
ment of water particles.

Opti- The point at which something functions best.

mum

Pancreas The organ responsible for the creation of hormones and enzymes. Alpha cells within this organ forms

glucagon and beta cells form insulin.

Partially Also semi‐permeable or selectively permeable. This describes a membrane that only allows smaller

Permeable molecules through but which stops any larger molecules from diffusing.

Peristalsis When the intestine contracts behind food molecules to push them along the intestinal tract.

Plaque substance which forms on artery walls as a result of cholesterol gathering in cracked portions of the

artery walls. As plaques build up they obscure larger and larger portions of arteries which is known as
atherosclerosis. These plaques, being hard and brittle, may crack as a result of hypertension and lead

to blood clots that may lead to heart attack or stroke.

Phagocyte The white blood cell responsible for phagocytosis (the consumption and digestion of pathogens).

Phloem The tube within plant veins that is responsible for the transport of the soluble products of photosyn-

thesis the various parts of the plant (glucose).

Polysac- Complex carbohydrate molecules such as starch. (many carbon ring structure) Such molecules are

charide polymers.
Protease A type of enzyme specifically suited to digest protein molecules into amino acids.

Protein A mineral that is essential for growth and repair. It can be broken down into amino acids.

Pseudo- The arm‐like structures on phagocytes that move around pathogens to engulf them.
podia

Pul- These blood vessels bring deoxygenated blood to and oxygenated blood from the lungs.
monary

Rec- This is a temporary storage site for faeces. As faeces enter the rectum they expand the walls of the rectum

tum which causes stretch receptors to stimulate the desire to defecate. If this urge is not heeded then the fae-
ces will be returned to the colon for more water to be absorbed.

Red The blood cells responsible for the transport of oxygen. They are produced by red bone marrow and pos-

Blood sess no nucleus when they mature. Instead they are filled with haemoglobin which can bond with oxygen

Cells to form oxyhaemoglobin and then transport this oxygen around the body to our cells.

Re- The process that allows an organism to produce an offspring.

pro-
duc-

tion

Reso- This is the same as focusing power and describes how much detail a particular light sensitive cell will be

lution able to see.

Power

Respi- The process that allows cells to release energy from different nutrients

ration

Sali- A particular type of gland located within our mouths which creates the enzyme amylase for use during

vary mastication.
Glands

Sensi- The ability to sense changes in one’s environment.

tivity

Starch A polysaccharide substance which is used by plants for the long‐term storage of glucose. It is a nutrient
polymer that many living organisms absorb to supply themselves with glucose for respiration.
Star- A severe deficiency in caloric energy, nutrients, and vitamin intake. Prolonged starvation can lead to per-

vation manent organ damage and eventually death.

Stimuli Something that may stimulate a process or reaction in one’s body.

Stom- The organ responsible for the digestion of proteins. By providing an acidic environment, it allows protease
ach enzymes to function optimally. It aids this process by rhythmic contractions of its walls.

Sub- The substance or substances that fits into the active site of an enzyme.

strate

Syn- The making of certain molecules from organic ions.

thesis

Trachea Also known as our windpipe. This joins our nasal and oral cavities with our bronchi which in turn join the
trachea with our lungs.

Tran- Transpiration is the evaporation of water at the surfaces of the mesophyll cells followed by loss of water

spira- vapour from plant leaves through the stomata.

tion

Turgid When a plant cell has been saturated with water its vacuole expands to fill all the available space within

the cell, this causes said cell to become rigid and inflexible.

Vac- The organelle which contains the cell sap and is the cell’s “warehouse” for nutrients and water.
uole

Vein Blood vessels which bring blood back towards the heart.

Vena The largest vein in the body and is split into two halves, the superior and inferior vena cava, and connects

cava directly to our right atrium.

Ventri- The lower chambers of our hearts, responsible for forcing blood into our aorta and pulmonary arteries.

cle

Water Potential Gradient The gradient which describes the osmosis of water and is akin to a diffusion gradient.
X

Xylem The tube within the veins of plants responsible for the transport of water and soluble organic ions to the

leaves of a tree.

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This entry was posted in Biology, Coordinated Science, Science on May 11, 2013 [http://www.acceleratedstu-
dynotes.com/gcse/science/7771/] by James Yang.

13.3 Action and Use of Circuit Components

1 Describe the action of thermistors and light-dependent resistors and show understanding of their
use as input transducers.

-Transducers are devices that convert one type of energy into another.

-Thermistors are semiconductors, they could conduct electricity but resistance decreases as temperature
increases. Thermistors are often used as current limiting devices that help prevent over heating. Once the
current gets to a certain limit (increasing heat lowers resistance, leads to increasing current), the circuit is
broken to prevent overheating.

-Light-dependent resistors exhibit photoconductivity; increasing light intensity promotes conductivity by

lowering resistance. LDRs can be used on street lamps as input transducers – the changing light affects the
internal resistance, which is used to control a circuit. In this case, when it gets dark, the street lamps turn
on.

2 Describe the action of a relay and show understanding of its use in switching circuits.

– A relay is an electromagnetic switch – it activates when a current is passed through it. It works by having a
coil inside. When a current is flowing it creates a magnetic field that pulls one switch contact towards or
away from another. Relays can be used to turn on second circuits. The first circuit activates the relay which
in turn turns on the second circuit.
The transfer of pollen grains from the male part of the plant
(anther of stamen) to the female part of the plant (stigma)
In the manufacture of yoghurt, microorganisms are used. Bacteria is used
to digest milk sugar using enzymes and release acids which gives yoghurt
its taste, and denature the protein in milk and make it more solid.