China’s National Defense

in the New Era

The State Council Information Office of

the People’s Republic of China

July 2019

First Edition 2019

ISBN 978-7-119-11925-0

© Foreign Languages Press Co. Ltd., Beijing, China, 2019

Published by Foreign Languages Press Co. Ltd.

24 Baiwanzhuang Road, Beijing 100037, China

Distributed by China International Book Trading Corporation

35 Chegongzhuang Xilu, Beijing 100044, China

P.O. Box 399, Beijing, China

Printed in the People’s Republic of China

 Contents

Preface 1

I. International Security Situation 2

II. China’s Defensive National Defense Policy in the New Era 7

III. Fulfilling the Missions and Tasks of China’s Armed Forces

in the New Era 14

IV. Reform in China’s National Defense and Armed Forces 22

V. Reasonable and Appropriate Defense Expenditure 35

VI. Actively Contributing to Building a Community with a Shared

Future for Mankind 42

Closing Remarks 52

Appendices 53

Acronyms 67

Preface

Today, with their interests and security intertwined, people across the world are
becoming members of a community with a shared future. China is at a critical stage of
completing the building of a moderately prosperous society in all respects and
embarking on the new journey of building a modernized socialist country in an all-
round way. Socialism with Chinese characteristics has entered a new era.
The Chinese government is issuing China’s National Defense in the New
Era to expound on China’s defensive national defense policy and explain the practice,
purposes and significance of China’s efforts to build a fortified national defense and a
strong military, with a view to helping the international community better understand
China’s national defense.

I. International Security Situation

The world today is undergoing profound changes unseen in a century. As economic

globalization, the information society, and cultural diversification develop in an
increasingly multi-polar world, peace, development and win-win cooperation remain
the irreversible trends of the times. Nonetheless, there are prominent destabilizing
factors and uncertainties in international security. The world is not yet a tranquil
place.

The International Strategic Landscape Is Going Through

Profound Changes
As the realignment of international powers accelerates and the strength of
emerging markets and developing countries keeps growing, the configuration of
strategic power is becoming more balanced. The pursuit of peace, stability and
development has become a universal aspiration of the international community with
forces for peace predominating over elements of war. However, international security
system and order are undermined by growing hegemonism, power politics,
unilateralism and constant regional conflicts and wars.
International strategic competition is on the rise. The US has adjusted its national
security and defense strategies, and adopted unilateral policies. It has provoked and
intensified competition among major countries, significantly increased its defense
expenditure, pushed for additional capacity in nuclear, outer space, cyber and missile
defense, and undermined global strategic stability. NATO has continued its
enlargement, stepped up military deployment in Central and Eastern Europe, and
conducted frequent military exercises. Russia is strengthening its nuclear and non-
nuclear capabilities for strategic containment, and striving to safeguard its strategic
security space and interests. The European Union (EU) is accelerating its security and
defense integration to be more independent in its own security.
Global and regional security issues are on the increase. International arms control
and disarmament efforts have suffered setbacks, with growing signs of arms races.
The non-proliferation of weapons of mass destruction remains problematic. The
international non-proliferation regime is compromised by pragmatism and double
standards, and hence faces new challenges. Extremism and terrorism keep spreading.
Non-traditional security threats involving cyber security, bio-security and piracy are
becoming more pronounced. The Iranian nuclear issue has taken an unexpected turn,
and there is no easy political solution to the Syrian issue. The security of individual
countries is becoming increasingly intertwined, interlinked and interactive. No
country can respond alone or stand aloof.

The Asia-Pacific Security Situation Remains Generally

Stable
Asia-Pacific countries are increasingly aware that they are members of a
community with shared destiny. Addressing differences and disputes through dialogue
and consultation has become a preferred policy option for regional countries, making
the region a stable part of the global landscape. The Shanghai Cooperation
Organization (SCO) is forging a constructive partnership of non-alliance and non-
confrontation that targets no third party, expanding security and defense cooperation
and creating a new model for regional security cooperation. The China-ASEAN
Defense Ministers’ Informal Meeting and the ASEAN Defense Ministers’ Meeting
Plus (ADMM-Plus) play positive roles in enhancing trust among regional countries
through military exchanges and cooperation. The situation of the South China Sea is
generally stable and improving as regional countries are properly managing risks and
differences. Steady progress has been made in building a coordinated counter-
terrorism mechanism among the militaries of the regional countries. A balanced,
stable, open and inclusive Asian security architecture continues to develop.
As the world economic and strategic center continues to shift towards the Asia-
Pacific, the region has become a focus of major country competition, bringing
uncertainties to regional security. The US is strengthening its Asia-Pacific military
alliances and reinforcing military deployment and intervention, adding complexity to
regional security. The deployment of the Terminal High Altitude Area Defense
(THAAD) system in the Republic of Korea (ROK) by the US has severely
undermined the regional strategic balance and the strategic security interests of
regional countries. In an attempt to circumvent the post-war mechanism, Japan has
adjusted its military and security policies and increased input accordingly, thus
becoming more outward-looking in its military endeavors. Australia continues to
strengthen its military alliance with the US and its military engagement in the Asia-
Pacific, seeking a bigger role in security affairs.
Regional hotspots and disputes are yet to be resolved. Despite positive progress,
the Korean Peninsula still faces uncertainty. South Asia is generally stable while
conflicts between India and Pakistan flare up from time to time. Political
reconciliation and reconstruction in Afghanistan is making progress in the face of
difficulties. Problems still exist among regional countries, including disputes over
territorial and maritime rights and interests, as well as discord for ethnic and religious
reasons. Security hotspots rise from time to time in the region.

China’s Security Risks and Challenges Should Not Be

Overlooked
China continues to enjoy political stability, ethnic unity and social stability.
There has been a notable increase in China’s overall national strength, global
influence, and resilience to risks. China is still in an important period of strategic
opportunity for development. Nevertheless, it also faces diverse and complex security
threats and challenges.
The fight against separatists is becoming more acute. The Taiwan authorities, led
by the Democratic Progressive Party (DPP), stubbornly stick to “Taiwan
independence” and refuse to recognize the 1992 Consensus, which embodies the
one-China principle. They have gone further down the path of separatism by stepping
up efforts to sever the connection with the mainland in favor of gradual independence,
pushing for de jure independence, intensifying hostility and confrontation, and
borrowing the strength of foreign influence. The “Taiwan independence” separatist
forces and their actions remain the gravest immediate threat to peace and stability in
the Taiwan Strait and the biggest barrier hindering the peaceful reunification of the
country. External separatist forces for “Tibet independence” and the creation of “East
Turkistan” launch frequent actions, posing threats to China’s national security and
social stability.
China’s homeland security still faces threats. Land territorial disputes are yet to
be completely resolved. Disputes still exist over the territorial sovereignty of some
islands and reefs, as well as maritime demarcation. Countries from outside the region
conduct frequent close-in reconnaissance on China by air and sea, and illegally enter
China’s territorial waters and the waters and airspace near China’s islands and reefs,
undermining China’s national security.
China’s overseas interests are endangered by immediate threats such as
international and regional turmoil, terrorism, and piracy. Chinese diplomatic missions,
enterprises and personnel around the world have been attacked on multiple occasions.
Threats to outer space and cyber security loom large and the threat of non-traditional
security issues posed by natural disasters and major epidemics is on the rise.

Global Military Competition Is Intensifying

Major countries around the world are readjusting their security and military
strategies and military organizational structures. They are developing new types of
combat forces to seize the strategic commanding heights in military competition. The
US is engaging in technological and institutional innovation in pursuit of absolute
military superiority. Russia is advancing its New Look military reform. Meanwhile,
the UK, France, Germany, Japan and India are rebalancing and optimizing the
structure of their military forces.
Driven by the new round of technological and industrial revolution, the
application of cutting-edge technologies such as artificial intelligence (AI), quantum
information, big data, cloud computing and the Internet of Things is gathering pace in
the military field. International military competition is undergoing historic changes.
New and high-tech military technologies based on IT are developing rapidly. There is
a prevailing trend to develop long-range precision, intelligent, stealthy or unmanned
weaponry and equipment. War is evolving in form towards informationized warfare,
and intelligent warfare is on the horizon.
Great progress has been made in the Revolution in Military Affairs (RMA) with
Chinese characteristics. However, the People’s Liberation Army (PLA) has yet to
complete the task of mechanization, and is in urgent need of improving its
informationization. China’s military security is confronted by risks from technology
surprise and growing technological generation gap. Greater efforts have to be invested
in military modernization to meet national security demands. The PLA still lags far
behind the world’s leading militaries.

II. China’s Defensive National Defense

Policy in the New Era

The socialist system of China, the strategic decision to follow the path of
peaceful development, the independent foreign policy of peace, and the best of
cultural traditions – considering peace and harmony as fundamentals – determine that
China will pursue a national defense policy that is defensive in nature.

Resolutely Safeguarding China’s Sovereignty, Security

and Development Interests
This is the fundamental goal of China’s national defense in the new era.
China’s national defense aims:
•to deter and resist aggression;
•to safeguard national political security, the people’s security and social
stability;
•to oppose and contain “Taiwan independence”;
 •to crack down on proponents of separatist movements such as “Tibet
independence” and the creation of “East Turkistan”;
•to safeguard national sovereignty, unity, territorial integrity and security;
•to safeguard China’s maritime rights and interests;
•to safeguard China’s security interests in outer space, electromagnetic space
and cyberspace;
•to safeguard China’s overseas interests; and
•to support the sustainable development of the country.
China resolutely safeguards its national sovereignty and territorial integrity. The
South China Sea islands and Diaoyu Islands are inalienable parts of the Chinese
territory. China exercises its national sovereignty to build infrastructure and deploy
necessary defensive capabilities on the islands and reefs in the South China Sea, and
to conduct patrols in the waters of Diaoyu Islands in the East China Sea. China is
committed to resolving related disputes through negotiations with those states directly
involved on the basis of respecting historical facts and international law. China
continues to work with regional countries to jointly maintain peace and stability. It
firmly upholds freedom of navigation and overflight by all countries in accordance
with international law and safeguards the security of sea lines of communication
(SLOCs).
To solve the Taiwan question and achieve complete reunification of the country
is in the fundamental interests of the Chinese nation and essential to realizing national
rejuvenation. China adheres to the principles of “peaceful reunification”, and “one
country, two systems”, promotes peaceful development of cross-Strait relations, and
advances peaceful reunification of the country. Meanwhile, China resolutely opposes
any attempts or actions to split the country and any foreign interference to this end.
China must be and will be reunited. China has the firm resolve and the ability to
safeguard national sovereignty and territorial integrity, and will never allow the
secession of any part of its territory by anyone, any organization or any political party
by any means at any time. We make no promise to renounce the use of force, and
reserve the option of taking all necessary measures. This is by no means targeted at
our compatriots in Taiwan, but at the interference of external forces and the very small
number of “Taiwan independence” separatists and their activities. The PLA will
resolutely defeat anyone attempting to separate Taiwan from China and safeguard
national unity at all costs.

Never Seeking Hegemony, Expansion or Spheres of

Influence
This is the distinctive feature of China’s national defense in the new era.
 Though a country may become strong, bellicosity will lead to its ruin. The
Chinese nation has always loved peace. Since the beginning of modern times, the
Chinese people have suffered from aggressions and wars, and have learned the value
of peace and the pressing need for development. Therefore, China will never inflict
such sufferings on any other country. Since its founding 70 years ago, the People’s
Republic of China (PRC) has never started any war or conflict. Since the introduction
of reform and opening-up, China has been committed to promoting world peace, and
has voluntarily downsized the PLA by over 4 million troops. China has grown from a
poor and weak country to be the world’s second largest economy neither by receiving
handouts from others nor by engaging in military expansion or colonial plunder.
Instead, it has developed through its people’s hard work and its efforts to maintain
peace. China has made every effort to create favorable conditions for its development
through maintaining world peace, and has equally endeavored to promote world peace
through its own development. China sincerely hopes that all countries will choose the
path of peaceful development and jointly prevent conflicts and wars.
China is committed to developing friendly cooperation with all countries on the
basis of the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence. It respects the rights of all
peoples to independently choose their own development path, and stands for the
settlement of international disputes through equal dialogue, negotiation and
consultation. China is opposed to interference in the internal affairs of others, abuse of
the weak by the strong, and any attempt to impose one’s will on others. China
advocates partnerships rather than alliances and does not join any military bloc. It
stands against aggression and expansion, and opposes arbitrary use or threat of arms.
The development of China’s national defense aims to meet its rightful security needs
and contribute to the growth of the world’s peaceful forces. History proves and will
continue to prove that China will never follow the beaten track of big powers in
seeking hegemony. No matter how it might develop, China will never threaten any
other country or seek any sphere of influence.

Implementing the Military Strategic Guideline for a New

Era
This is the strategic guidance for China’s national defense in the new era.
The military strategic guideline for a new era adheres to the principles of defense,
self-defense and post-strike response, and adopts active defense. It keeps to the stance
that “we will not attack unless we are attacked, but we will surely counterattack if
attacked”, places emphasis on both containing and winning wars, and underscores the
unity of strategic defense and offense at operational and tactical levels.
Implementing the military strategic guideline for a new era, China’s armed forces
strive to keep in alignment with and contribute to the general strategies of the
Communist Party of China (CPC) and the country, adopt a holistic approach to
national security, strengthen the awareness of potential dangers, crises and wars, and
actively adapt to the new landscape of strategic competition, the new demands of
national security, and new developments in modern warfare, so as to effectively fulfill
their tasks and missions in the new era.
To respond to the security threats facing the country, China’s armed forces
take solid steps to strengthen military preparedness and comprehensively enhance
combat capabilities for the new era. Efforts have been made to build the military
strategy into a balanced and stable one for the new era, which focuses on defense
and coordinates multiple domains. Based on the idea that China’s national defense
is the responsibility of all Chinese people, China’s armed forces give full play to the
overall power of the people’s war by innovating in its strategies, tactics and
measures.
China is always committed to a nuclear policy of no first use of nuclear
weapons at any time and under any circumstances, and not using or threatening to
use nuclear weapons against non-nuclear-weapon states or nuclear-weapon-free
zones unconditionally. China advocates the ultimate complete prohibition and
thorough destruction of nuclear weapons. China does not engage in any nuclear
arms race with any other country and keeps its nuclear capabilities at the minimum
level required for national security. China pursues a nuclear strategy of self-
defense, the goal of which is to maintain national strategic security by deterring
other countries from using or threatening to use nuclear weapons against China.

Continuing to Strengthen the Military in the Chinese Way

This is the path forward for China’s national defense in the new era.
Building a fortified national defense and a strong military commensurate with the
country’s international standing and its security and development interests is a
strategic task for China’s socialist modernization. Drawing lessons from history,
China strengthens its national defense and military to provide security guarantee for
its peaceful development.
To strengthen China’s national defense and military in the new era, it is
imperative to comprehensively implement Xi Jinping’s thinking on strengthening the
military, thoroughly deliver on Xi Jinping’s thinking on military strategy, continue to
enhance the political loyalty of the armed forces, strengthen them through reform and
technology, run them in accordance with the law, and focus on the capabilities to fight
and win. Efforts will be made to advance the integrated development of mechanization
and informationization, speed up the development of intelligent military, create a
modernized military force structure with Chinese characteristics, improve and develop
socialist military institutions with Chinese features, and constantly enhance the
capabilities to fulfill the missions and tasks in the new era.
The strategic goals for the development of China’s national defense and military
in the new era are:
•to generally achieve mechanization by the year 2020 with significantly
enhanced informationization and greatly improved strategic capabilities;
•to comprehensively advance the modernization of military theory,
organizational structure, military personnel, and weaponry and equipment in step with
the modernization of the country and basically complete the modernization of national
defense and the military by 2035; and
•to fully transform the people’s armed forces into world-class forces by the
mid-21st century.

In the Service of Building of a Community with a Shared Futu

re for Mankind
This is the global significance of China’s national defense in the new era.
The dream of the Chinese people is closely connected with the dreams of peoples
around the world. Peace, stability and prosperity in China present opportunities and
benefits to the rest of the world. A strong military of China is a staunch force for
world peace, stability and the building of a community with a shared future for
mankind.
China’s armed forces advocate common, comprehensive, cooperative and
sustainable security, uphold justice while pursuing shared interests, and actively
participate in the reform of global security governance system. Efforts are made to
deepen bilateral and multilateral security cooperation, promote a coordinated,
inclusive and complementary cooperation among security mechanisms, and contribute
to a security architecture featuring equality, mutual trust, fairness, justice, joint
contribution and shared benefits.
Committed to the principle of win-win cooperation, China’s armed forces will
fulfill their international responsibilities and obligations, and provide more public
security goods to the international community to the best of their capacity. They
actively participate in the UN peacekeeping operations (UNPKOs), vessel protection
operations, and international efforts in humanitarian assistance and disaster relief
(HADR), strengthen international cooperation in arms control and non-proliferation,
play a constructive role in the political settlement of hotspot issues, jointly maintain
the security of international passages, and make concerted efforts to respond to global
challenges such as terrorism, cyber security and major natural disasters, thus making a
positive contribution to building a community with a shared future for mankind.
III. Fulfilling the Missions and Tasks of C
hina’s Armed Forces in the New Era

In the new era, to meet the strategic demands of national security and
development, China’s armed forces firmly implement the missions and tasks entrusted
by the CPC and the people. They endeavor to provide strategic support for
consolidating the leadership of the CPC and the socialist system, safeguarding
national sovereignty, unity and territorial integrity, protecting China’s overseas
interests, and promoting world peace and development.

Safeguarding National Territorial Sovereignty and Maritime R

ights and Interests
China has a land border of more than 22,000 km and a coastline of over 18,000
km, China surpasses most of countries in the number of neighboring countries, the
length of land border, and the complexity of maritime security. Therefore, it is a
daunting task for China to safeguard its territorial sovereignty, maritime rights and
interests, and national unity.
China’s armed forces maintain a rigorous guard against encroachment,
infiltration, sabotage or harassment so as to safeguard border security and stability.
China has signed border cooperation agreements with 9 neighboring countries and set
up border meeting mechanisms with 12 countries. China’s armed forces have
established mechanisms for exchanges with neighboring countries at three levels:
national defense ministry, Theater Commands (TCs), and border troops. They conduct
regular friendly mutual visits, working meetings, joint patrols and joint exercises
targeting transnational crime with their foreign counterparts. They work together with
Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia and Tajikistan to implement the border disarmament
treaty. They strive to promote stability and security along the border with India, and
take effective measures to create favorable conditions for the peaceful resolution of
the Donglang (Doklam) standoff. They enhance control along the border with
Afghanistan to guard against the infiltration of terrorists. They strengthen security
management along the border with Myanmar, so as to secure stability and public
safety in the border areas. Since 2012, China’s border troops have completed over
3,300 joint patrols and conducted over 8,100 border meetings with their foreign
counterparts. They have cleared mines from 58 square kilometers of land, closed 25
square kilometers of landmine area, and disposed of 170,000 explosive devices such
as landmines along the borders with Vietnam and Myanmar.
 China’s armed forces defend important waters, islands and reefs in the East
China Sea, the South China Sea and the Yellow Sea, acquire full situation awareness
of adjacent waters, conduct joint rights protection and law enforcement operations,
properly handle maritime and air situations, and resolutely respond to security threats,
infringements and provocations on the sea. Since 2012, China’s armed forces have
deployed vessels on over 4,600 maritime security patrols and 72,000 rights protection
and law enforcement operations, and safeguarded maritime peace, stability and order.
China’s armed forces conduct air defense, reconnaissance and early warning,
monitor China’s territorial air and peripheral air space, carry out alert patrols and
combat takeoff, and effectively respond to emergencies and threats to maintain order
and security in the air.
Aiming at safeguarding national unity, China’s armed forces strengthen military
preparedness with emphasis on the sea. By sailing ships and flying aircraft around
Taiwan, the armed forces send a stern warning to the “Taiwan independence”
separatist forces.

Maintaining Combat Readiness

Maintaining combat readiness is an important assurance of effective response to
security threats and fulfillment of tasks. The Central Military Commission (CMC) and
the TCs’ joint operations commands perform combat readiness duties strictly, and
conduct regular inspections and drills to ensure combat readiness at all times.
Consistent efforts are made to improve the capabilities of joint operations command to
exercise reliable and efficient command over emergency responses, and to effectively
accomplish urgent, tough and dangerous tasks. In 2018, the CMC conducted surprise
inspections throughout the armed forces and organized readiness drills for the units,
covering 21 provinces, autonomous regions and municipalities directly under the
central government, and parts of the East China Sea and South China Sea.
The PLA and the People’s Armed Police Force (PAP) give greater priority to
combat readiness. Efforts are made to strictly act on relevant regulations and procedures,
fulfill readiness duties, conduct targeted exercises and training, and maintain
standardized order, with a view to staying ready to act when required and effectively
carrying out readiness (combat) duties.

Carrying Out Military Training in Real Combat Conditions

Military training is the basic practice of the armed forces in peacetime. China’s
armed forces put military training in an important position and take combat
effectiveness as the sole and fundamental criterion. In order to enhance realistic
training, they optimize the policy framework and criteria in this respect, establish and
improve the relevant supervision system, conduct supervision on military training for
emergencies and combat across the services, implement the responsibility system for
training and readiness, and organize extensive contests and competitions to encourage
officers and soldiers to step up military training.
Military training in real combat conditions across the armed forces is in full
swing. Since 2012, China’s armed forces have carried out extensive mission-oriented
training tailored to the specific needs of different strategic directions and exercises of
all services and arms, including 80 joint exercises at and above brigade/division level.
The TCs have strengthened their leading role in joint training and organized
serial joint exercises codenamed the East, the South, the West, the North and
the Central, to improve joint combat capabilities.
The PLA Army (PLAA) has organized training competitions and conducted live
exercises codenamed Stride and Firepower. The PLA Navy (PLAN) has extended
training to the far seas and deployed the aircraft carrier task group for its first far seas
combat exercise in the West Pacific. It has organized naval parades in the South China
Sea and the waters and airspace near Qingdao, and conducted a series of live force-on-
force exercises codenamed Mobility and systematic all-elements exercises. The PLA
Air Force (PLAAF) has strengthened systematic and all-airspace training based on
operational plans. It has conducted combat patrols in the South China Sea and security
patrols in the East China Sea, and operated in the West Pacific. It has completed a
series of regular system-vs.-system exercises such as Red Sword. The PLA Rocket
Force (PLARF) has organized force-on-force evaluation-oriented training and training
based on operational plans at brigade and regiment levels, strengthened training for
joint strikes, and completed regular exercises such as Heavenly Sword. The PLA
Strategic Support Force (PLASSF) has made active efforts to integrate into the joint
operations systems. It has carried out confrontational training in new domains and
trained for emergencies and combats. The PLA Joint Logistic Support Force
(PLAJLSF) has striven to align itself with the joint operations systems, and conducted
exercises such as Joint Logistics Mission 2018. The PAP has developed to meet
the requirements of nationwide coverage, effective connectivity, all-area response and
integrated functions, and conducted a series of exercises including Guard.

Safeguarding Interests in Major Security Fields

Nuclear capability is the strategic cornerstone to safeguarding national
sovereignty and security. China’s armed forces strengthen the safety management of
nuclear weapons and facilities, maintain the appropriate level of readiness and enhance
strategic deterrence capability to protect national strategic security and maintain
international strategic stability.
Outer space is a critical domain in international strategic competition. Outer
space security provides strategic assurance for national and social development. In the
interest of the peaceful use of outer space, China actively participates in international
space cooperation, develops relevant technologies and capabilities, advances holistic
management of space-based information resources, strengthens space situation
awareness, safeguards space assets, and enhances the capacity to safely enter, exit and
openly use outer space.
Cyberspace is a key area for national security, economic growth and social
development. Cyber security remains a global challenge and poses a severe threat to
China. China’s armed forces accelerate the building of their cyberspace capabilities,
develop cyber security and defense means, and build cyber defense capabilities
consistent with China’s international standing and its status as a major cyber country.
They reinforce national cyber border defense, and promptly detect and counter
network intrusions. They safeguard information and cyber security, and resolutely
maintain national cyber sovereignty, information security and social stability.

Countering Terrorism and Maintaining Stability

China firmly opposes all forms of terrorism and extremism. As mandated by law,
China’s armed forces participate in operations for maintaining social order, prevent
and combat violence and terrorism, safeguard political security and social stability,
and secure the public’s right to live and work in peace.
The PAP fulfills missions such as guarding key targets, on-site security
protection, setting check points on key passages, and armed urban patrols. In
accordance with the law, the PAP supports civil authorities in law enforcement
operations to combat criminal gangs and terrorist activities, actively participates in the
maintenance of public order, and prevents and responds to potential threats to China’s
political security and social order, thus making a significant contribution to the
Peaceful China initiative. Since 2012, the PAP has deployed large numbers of troops
annually in security duties, counter-terrorism, emergency response, and maritime
rights protection and law enforcement. It has completed around 10,000 security
assignments during major events such as the G20 Summit, the APEC Economic
Leaders’ Meeting, the Belt and Road Forum for International Cooperation, the BRICS
Leaders Meeting, and the SCO Qingdao Summit, and participated in the response to
671 hostage situations, incidents of severe violence, and terrorist attacks. Since 2014,
the PAP has assisted the government of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region in
taking out 1,588 violent terrorist gangs and capturing 12,995 terrorists.
The PLA supports the civil authorities in maintaining social stability, provides
security for major events, and responds to emergencies in accordance with the law. It
is mainly tasked with missions such as counter-terrorism, NBCE detection and test,
medical relief, and transport support. It disposes of potential safety hazards in the
waters and protects security in the air over and around major event venues.
 Protecting China’s Overseas Interests
Overseas interests are a crucial part of China’s national interests. One of the
missions of China’s armed forces is to effectively protect the security and legitimate
rights and interests of overseas Chinese people, organizations and institutions.
The PLA actively promotes international security and military cooperation and
refines relevant mechanisms for protecting China’s overseas interests. To address
deficiencies in overseas operations and support, it builds far seas forces, develops
overseas logistical facilities, and enhances capabilities in accomplishing diversified
military tasks. The PLA conducts vessel protection operations, maintains the security of
strategic SLOCs, and carries out overseas evacuation and maritime rights protection
operations.
In August 2017, the PLA Djibouti Support Base entered service. The base has
provided equipment for the maintenance of four escort task groups, offered medical
services for over 100 officers and sailors on board, conducted joint medical exercises
with foreign militaries, and donated over 600 teaching aids to local schools.
When the security situation in Yemen deteriorated in March 2015, a PLAN escort
task group sailed to the Gulf of Aden, berthed for the first time directly in an
engagement area, and evacuated 621 Chinese citizens and 279 foreign citizens from
15 countries including Pakistan, Ethiopia, Singapore, Italy, Poland, Germany, Canada,
the UK, India and Japan.

Participating in Disaster Rescue and Relief

Participating in national development and protecting the public’s rights to work
in peace are the responsibilities of China’s armed forces mandated by the Constitution
of the PRC. As stipulated in the Regulations on Participation in Emergency
Rescue and Disaster Relief by China’s Armed Forces, China’s armed
forces are mainly tasked with rescuing, transferring and evacuating trapped
populations; ensuring the security of important targets; salvaging and transporting
important materials; conducting specialized operations such as restoration of transport
facilities including roads, bridges and tunnels, maritime search and rescue, NBC
rescue, epidemic control and medical relief; eliminating or controlling other major
threats, dangerous situations and disasters; and supporting civil authorities in post-
disaster reconstruction.
Since 2012, the PLA and the PAP have deployed 950,000 soldiers, 1.41 million
militia, 190,000 vehicles and items of equipment, and sortied 26,000 vessels and 820
aircraft in emergency response and disaster relief. They have participated in rescue
and relief efforts such as the earthquake in Ludian County of Yunnan Province, the
rainstorm and flood in the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River, and the
removal of the barrier lake in the Yarlung Zangbo River. They have assisted local
governments to rescue and transfer over 5 million people, treated over 210,000 patients,
transported over 360,000 tons of goods, and reinforced over 3,600 km of levees. In
2017, the PLA Macao Garrison sent 2,631 soldiers and over 160 vehicles to assist the
government of Macao Special Administrative Region in its relief efforts in the wake
of Typhoon Hato.

IV. Reform in China’s National Defense and

Armed Forces

The history of the people’s armed forces is a history of reform and innovation. In
the new era, China is advancing defense and military modernization across the board
and deepening reform in national defense and armed forces in all respects, with a
focus on removing institutional barriers and solving structural and policy-related
problems to adapt to the trends of worldwide RMA and the demands of national
security. Historic strides have been made in strengthening the armed forces.

Reforming the Leadership and Command System

The reform in the leadership and command system is a significant measure in
response to the call of a modern and specialized military capable of fighting and
winning wars in the information age, aiming to improve the operational effectiveness
and development efficiency of the military. Adhering to the general principle of “the
CMC exercising overall leadership, the TCs responsible for military operations and
the services focusing on developing capabilities”, the PLA endeavors to enhance the
CMC’s centralized and unified leadership and its functions of strategic command and
strategic management. The PLA has dismantled the long-established systems of
general departments, military area commands (MAC) and the force composition with a
dominating land force, and established new leadership, management and operational
command systems.
Reorganizing and establishing new CMC functional organs. To
optimize the functional and institutional setup of the CMC organs, the former General
Staff Headquarters, General Political Department, General Logistics Department and
General Armaments Department have been reshuffled into 15 organs under the
centralized CMC leadership to advise, execute and serve. Thus, the chains of
command, development, management and supervision are more streamlined, and the
responsibilities of decision-making, planning, execution and assessment are more
properly delegated.
Improving the leadership and management system for services
and arms. The PLA has:
•Established the PLAA leading organs by integrating the functions of the
former general departments concerning the development of the land force;
•Established the PLASSF by combining strategic support forces across the
services and CMC organs;
•Renamed the Second Artillery Force the PLARF; and
•Established the PLAJLSF by integrating strategic and campaign level forces
mainly for general-purpose support.
Thus, a CMC-Services-Troops leadership and management system has been put
in place.

Figure1: Leadership and Management Structureof thePLA

CMC

PLAA PLAN PLAAF PLARF PLASSF PLAJLSF

Troops

Establishing and improving the joint operations command

system. By improving the joint operations command organ of the CMC and setting
up those at the theater level, the PLA has established a lean and efficient joint
operations command system composed of permanent and specialized commanding
establishments for both peacetime and wartime operations. The former Shenyang,
Beijing, Lanzhou, Jinan, Nanjing, Guangzhou and Chengdu MACs have been
reorganized into 5 TCs: Eastern Theater Command (ETC), Southern Theater
Command (STC), Western Theater Command (WTC), Northern Theater Command
(NTC), and Central Theater Command (CTC). Thus, a CMC-TCs-Troops operations
command system has been established.
 Figure2: Operational Command Structureof thePLA

CMC

ETC STC WTC NTC CTC

Troops

Building and improving the law-based supervision system. The

Chinese military has established the CMC Discipline Inspection Commission
(CMCDIC, also the CMC Supervision Commission, CMCSC) under the direct
leadership of the CMC, and dispatched disciplinary inspection teams to the CMC
functional organs and all TCs. It has set up the CMC Politics and Law Commission
(CMCPLC) and established regional military courts and procuratorates. It has put into
place the CMC Audit Office (CMCAO), reformed the audit-based oversight system,
and implemented PLA-wide resident auditing. Thus, power is exercised in a way that
decision-making, execution and supervision check each other and function in
coordination.

Optimizing Size, Structure and Force Composition

Reform in size, structure and force composition is a pivotal step to optimizing
military organizational structure and establishing a modern military force structure
with Chinese characteristics. Following the instruction to optimize structures, develop
new-type forces, adjust proportions and reduce sizes, the PLA is striving to transform
from a quantity-and-scale model to that of quality and efficiency, as well as from
being personnel-intensive to one that is S&T-intensive.
Adjusting scale and proportion, and restructuring force
composition. 300,000 personnel have been cut to keep the total active force at 2
million. Reform measures have been taken to transfer more officer positions to non-
commissioned officers and civilian staff, downsize the leading organs at all levels by
reducing their subordinate sections, leadership hierarchies and staff, and streamline
the institutions and personnel in arts, sports, press, publication, logistical support,
medical facilities, depots, and educational and research institutes. Thus, the number of
personnel in the leading organs at and above regiment level has been cut by about
25%, and that of non-combat units by almost 50%. The PLA has significantly
downsized the active force of the PLAA, maintained that of the PLAAF at a steady
number, moderately increased that of the PLAN and PLARF, and optimized the force
structures of all services and arms. The PLA has restructured the defense reserves.
The deployment of combat forces has been adjusted for a strategic configuration that
meets the demands of safeguarding China’s national security in the new era.
Reorganizing the troops and rebuilding new-type combat forces.
The previous 18 group armies have been reorganized into 13 new ones. All major
combat units of the PLA follow a group army-brigade-battalion system. Reform
measures have been taken to reinforce the combat capacity of the arms, reduce the
command hierarchies and combine the troops at lower levels. New types of combat
forces have been enhanced to conduct special operations, all-dimensional offense and
defense, amphibious operations, far seas protection and strategic projection, aiming to
make the force composition complete, combined, multi-functional and flexible.
Rebalancing and reorganizing military educational and research
institutions. The PLA and the PAP have restructured the previous 77 universities
and colleges into 44. The National Defense University (NDU) and the National
University of Defense Technology (NUDT) have been reorganized. China’s armed
forces have established the CMC Steering Committee on Military Scientific Research
and reorganized the Academy of Military Sciences (AMS) and the research institutes
of the services. Thus, the military scientific research forces have been rebalanced with
the AMS as the lead, the research institutes of the services and arms as the main
forces, and the research components in educational institutions and the troops as
supplements.

Reforming Military Policies and Institutions

China’s armed forces take combat effectiveness as the criterion in the reform of
military policies and institutions and encourage the initiative, enthusiasm and
creativity of all members of the armed forces. Reform is designed to build and
improve the system of socialist military policies and institutions with Chinese
characteristics.
They have deepened reform in the institutions for Party building in the military to
uphold the authority of the CPCCC and its centralized and unified leadership, and
ensure the absolute leadership of the CPC over the military. Rules and regulations
including the Decision of China’s Armed Forces on Strengthening Party
Building in the Military in the New Era have been formulated to improve the
Party’s institutions in the military in order to enhance its political and theoretical
buildup, consolidate organizations, improve conduct, and enforce discipline.
They have innovated in policies and institutions for military force employment in
a bid to effectively perform all missions and tasks in the new era. Rules and
regulations have been formulated including the Regulations on Vessel
Protection Operations (Trial). The institutions of military strategic guidance,
regulations on combat readiness duties, and rules and regulations on joint operations
have all been optimized.
They have reformulated policies and institutions to further develop combat
capabilities. Laws and regulations have been formulated and amended including the
Law of the People’s Republic of China on National Defense
Transportation, the Law of the People’s Republic of China on the
Protection of Military Installations and the Regulations on Civilian
Personnel in the Military. Newly-updated military training regulations and
outlines have been promulgated. They have made progress in establishing the career
officers system, optimizing the institutions of military welfare and support, improving
the military honors system, and refining policies and institutions in training,
equipment development, logistics, military research and national defense
mobilization. Meanwhile, bigger legislative steps have been taken in relation to
military officers and military service.
They have reformed the policies and institutions for military management to
elevate the efficacy of military systems and boost quality de velopment of the
military. Rules and regulations have been formulated including the newly-updated
Regulations on Routine Service of the People’s Liberation Army
(Trial), the Regulations on Discipline of the People’s Liberation Army
(Trial), the Regulations on Formation of the People’s Liberation Army
(Trial), and the Regulations on Military Legislation. China’s armed forces are
enhancing institutional innovation in strategic management, defense expenditure
management, and the military judicial system.
They have suspended all paid services. As of June, 2018, paid services provided
by leading organs, operational units, and military-affiliated public institutions at all
levels had been basically suspended, involving 15 sectors such as real estate lease,
agricultural and associated products, and hospitality. Over 100,000 such projects have
been suspended as scheduled, accounting for 94% of the total. The armed forces have
achieved the goal of withdrawing from running businesses.

Reshuffled PLA and PAP Troops

The PLAA plays an irreplaceable role in maintaining China’s national
sovereignty, security and development interests. It comprises maneuver operation,
border and coastal defense, and garrison forces. Under the PLAA, there are 5 TC army
commands, the Xinjiang military command, and the Tibet military command. The
ETC Army has under it the 71st, 72nd, and 73rd group armies; the STC Army has the
74th and 75th group armies; the WTC Army has the 76th and 77th group armies; the
NTC Army has the 78th, 79th and 80th group armies; and the CTC Army has the 81st,
82nd and 83rd group armies. In line with the strategic requirements of maneuver
operations as well as multi-dimensional offense and defense, the PLAA is speeding up
the transition of its tasks from regional defense to trans-theater operations, and
improving the capabilities for precise, multi-dimensional, trans-theater, multi-
functional and sustained operations, so as to build a new type of strong and
modernized land force.
The PLAN has a very important standing in the overall configuration of China’s
national security and development. It comprises submarine, surface ship, aviation,
marine, and coastal defense forces. Under the PLAN, there are the ETC Navy
(Donghai Fleet), the STC Navy (Nanhai Fleet), the NTC Navy (Beihai Fleet), and the
PLAN Marine Corps. Under the TC navies there are naval bases, submarine flotillas,
surface ship flotillas and aviation brigades. In line with the strategic requirements of
near seas defense and far seas protection, the PLAN is speeding up the transition of its
tasks from defense on the near seas to protection missions on the far seas, and
improving its capabilities for strategic deterrence and counterattack, maritime
maneuver operations, maritime joint operations, comprehensive defense, and
integrated support, so as to build a strong and modernized naval force.
The PLAAF plays a crucial role in overall national security and military strategy.
It comprises aviation, airborne, ground-to-air missile, radar, ECM, and
communications forces. Under the PLAAF, there are 5 TC air force commands and
one airborne corps. Under the TC air forces, there are air bases, aviation brigades
(divisions), ground-to-air missile brigades (divisions) and radar brigades. In line with
the strategic requirements of integrating air and space capabilities as well as
coordinating offensive and defensive operations, the PLAAF is accelerating the
transition of its tasks from territorial air defense to both offensive and defensive
operations, and improving its capabilities for strategic early warning, air strikes, air
and missile defense, information countermeasures, airborne operations, strategic
projection, and integrated support, so as to build a strong and modernized air force.
The PLARF plays a critical role in maintaining China’s national sovereignty and
security. It comprises nuclear missile, conventional missile and support forces, and
subordinate missile bases. In line with the strategic requirements of having both
nuclear and conventional capabilities and deterring wars in all battlespaces, the
PLARF is enhancing its credible and reliable capabilities of nuclear deterrence and
counterattack, strengthening intermediate and long-range precision strike forces, and
enhancing strategic counter-balance capability, so as to build a strong and modernized
rocket force.
The PLASSF is a new type of combat force for safeguarding national security
and an important driver for the growth of new combat capabilities. It comprises
supporting forces for battlefield environment, information, communications,
information security, and new technology testing. In line with the strategic
requirements of integrating existing systems and aligning civil and military endeavors,
the PLASSF is seeking to achieve big development strides in key areas and accelerate
the integrated development of new-type combat forces, so as to build a strong and
modernized strategic support force.
The PLAJLSF, as the main force for joint logistics as well as strategic and
campaign level support, is an important component of the modern military force with
Chinese characteristics. It comprises the support forces for inventory and
warehousing, medical services, transport, force projection, oil pipelines, engineering
and construction management, reserve assets management, and procurement. Under
the PLAJLSF, there are 5 joint logistic support centers located respectively in Wuxi
(Jiangsu Province), Guilin (Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region), Xining (Qinghai
Province), Shenyang (Liaoning Province), and Zhengzhou (Henan Province), as well
as the PLA General Hospital and the PLA Center for Disease Prevention and Control.
In line with the requirements of joint support for joint operations and joint training,
the PLAJLSF is being integrated into the joint operations system to enhance the
capabilities of integrated joint logistics, so as to build a strong and modernized joint
logistic support force.
The PAP shoulders important responsibilities in safeguarding national security,
social stability and public wellbeing. China has adopted a CMC-PAP-Troops
leadership and command system with the basic duties and nature of the PAP
unchanged. The PAP is not in the force structure of the PLA. The PAP border
defense, firefighting and security guard forces have been decommissioned. The coast
guard under the leadership of State Oceanic Administration has been transferred to the
PAP. PAP goldmine, forest and hydroelectricity forces have been reorganized into
specialized forces of non-active service under corresponding state authorities.
Meanwhile, the PAP customs guard forces have been withdrawn. In this way, the
leadership, management, command and employment of the PAP has become more
coherent. Following adjustment and reorganization, the PAP is mainly composed of
the internal security corps, the mobile corps, and the coast guard. In line with the
strategic requirements of performing multiple functions and effectively maintaining
social stability, the PAP is enhancing capacity in guard duties, emergency response,
counter-terrorism, maritime rights protection, administrative enforcement and disaster
relief, so as to build a strong and modernized armed police force.

Promoting Defense and Military Development in All Respects

Placing theoretical and political buildup at the top of the agenda
of the armed forces. China’s armed forces unswervingly take Xi Jinping’s
thinking on strengthening the military as the guidance, firmly uphold General
Secretary Xi Jinping as the core of the CPCCC and the whole Party, firmly uphold the
authority of the CPCCC and its centralized and unified leadership, and follow the
CMC Chairman responsibility system, in an effort to further strengthen the
consciousness of the need to maintain political integrity, think in big-picture terms,
follow the leadership core and keep in alignment. In accordance with the Decision
on Issues Relating to the Military Political Work in the New Era issued
in December 2014, China’s armed forces have improved their political work and
embarked on a new journey of development. In order to fully strengthen the Party
leadership and Party building of the military in the new era, a CMC meeting on party
building was held in August, 2018. Great efforts are being made to cultivate
revolutionary officers and soldiers of the new era with faith, ability, courage and
integrity, and build troops with iron-like faith, conviction, discipline and commitment.
Promoting innovation in defense S&T and military theory. China’s
armed forces are accelerating the implementation of the strategy to develop the
military through S&T in a bid to maintain and enhance the strength of the areas where
they lead, and intensify innovation in emerging areas. They have made great progress
in independent innovation in some strategic, cutting-edge and disruptive technologies,
and succeeded in developing strategic hi-tech products such as the Tianhe-2
supercomputer. Focusing on war and fighting wars, China’s armed forces have
innovated in military doctrines and delivered outcomes in military strategy, joint
operations and informationization, which have provided a theoretical support to
defense and military development.
Establishing a modernized weaponry and equipment system.
China’s armed forces are optimizing the overall composition of weaponry and
equipment, coordinating the efforts of all services and arms in this regard, promoting
the balanced development of main battle equipment, information systems, and support
equipment, with a view to comprehensively raising standardization, serial
development and interoperability. Old equipment is being phased out, and a system
created that mainly comprises new and high-tech weaponry and equipment. Type 15
tanks, type 052D destroyers, J-20 fighters, and DF-26 intermediate and long-range
ballistic missiles have been commissioned.
 Building a combat-oriented modern logistics system. China’s armed
forces are putting in place a support mechanism combining centralized and
decentralized support, as well as general and special-purpose supplies, with PLAJLSF
as the backbone force and service logistics units as supplements. They are also
building a joint, lean and efficient logistic support system with the strategic and
campaign level forces as the main force, the affiliated forces as the support, and the
civil sectors as supplements. Logistics units have been incorporated into TC-level
joint training, trans-theater training by services and arms, and joint exercises and
training with foreign militaries to strengthen the integrated training of logistical and
operational forces. China’s armed forces have acquired a rapid, multi-dimensional and
precise support capability.
Strengthening strategic management. Adopting demand-oriented
planning and planning-led resource allocation, China’s armed forces have established
and improved the strategic management procedures of demand-planning-budgeting-
execution-evaluation. They have completed a system of strategic plans and programs
composed of the development strategies of the military as a whole, and its key areas,
branches, and the PAP. They have regulated military strategic planning, promulgated
and implemented the Outline of the 13th Five-Year Plan for Military
Development, and optimized the mechanisms for evaluation, supervision and
control.
Governing the military with strict discipline and in accordance
with the law. China’s armed forces are building a military legal system with
Chinese characteristics and pressing ahead with a fundamental transformation in how
the military is run. They are strengthening oversight and supervision in military
training and combat readiness to uproot peacetime ills. They are promoting legal
awareness through public communication and education campaigns, establishing and
improving the support mechanism of legal consultation and service, and advancing
law-based management in the military. China’s armed forces are striving to manage
the troops more strictly in all respects. They have fully implemented military rules and
regulations, restored and improved the traditional mechanism of using bugles to
communicate and command, carried out safety inspections to identify and tackle
potential problems, stepped up garrison military policing, strengthened the
management of military vehicles by targeted measures, and set up a mechanism of
regular notification on garrison military policing. These efforts have contributed to
maintaining the positive image of the armed forces.
Improving Party conduct, upholding integrity and continuing the
fight against corruption. China’s armed forces are tightening political discipline
and rules, investigating and dealing strictly with grave violations of CPC discipline and
state laws as in the cases of Guo Boxiong, Xu Caihou, Fang Fenghui, and Zhang Yang.
China’s armed forces punish corruption in strict accordance with CPC discipline and
relevant laws, and rectify any malpractice in key construction projects and the
procurement of equipment and material. Points-of-contact for discipline supervision
have been designated at the small-unit level to investigate and combat “micro
corruption” and misconduct in all its forms among service members. China’s armed
forces have intensified political inspection by completing disciplinary inspections
and re-inspections over all CMC functional organs, the TCs, services, AMS, NDU,
NUDT and the PAP. They have worked to implement full-spectrum audit, intensify
the audit of major fields, projects and funds, and perform strict audits over the
economic liabilities of officers in positions of leadership. Active efforts have been
made to monitor the cost-effectiveness of applied funds, conduct whole-process audit,
and combine civil and military efforts in auditing. Since 2012, they have carried out
audits over 39,000 units and 13,000 PLA and PAP officers in positions of leadership
at and above regiment level. As a result, notable achievements have been made in the
fight against corruption in China’s armed forces, and a healthy political atmosphere of
integrity has formed.
Modernizing national defense mobilization. China has refined the
system of national defense mobilization to enhance the development of its defense
reserves. China is streamlining the number of primary militia nationwide, driving
deeper reform of militia and reserve forces in their size, structure and composition,
promoting integrated development and employment of the reserve and active forces,
and extending the function of national defense mobilization from mainly supporting
the land force to supporting all branches at a faster pace.
In the process of deepening the reform of the CPC and governmental institutions,
the Ministry of Veterans Affairs of the PRC has been set up. Through a series of
preferential measures, the veteran support system is progressing at provincial,
prefectural, county, town and township (sub-district), and village (community) levels.
Substantial steps have been taken to enhance the government’s efforts to support the
military and their families, and to strengthen the military’s support to the government
and the people. China’s armed forces play an active role in poverty alleviation. The
relationships between the military and the government and between the military and
the people are getting even closer. There is a growing consensus across communities
to respect and give preferential treatment to all service members.

V. Reasonable and Appropriate

Defense Expenditure
 China attends to both development and security. It is making an integrated effort
to build a prosperous country and a strong military, and striving for the coordinated
development of national defense and the economy. Following the principle of building
the armed forces through diligence and thrift, China takes into consideration the
development of the economy and the demands of national defense, decides on the
appropriate scale and composition of defense expenditure, and manages and applies
these funds in accordance with law.
Since reform and opening-up, China has increased its defense expenditure from a
level of sustainability to moderate growth. On the whole, defense expenditure has
grown in tandem with the growth of the national economy and government
expenditure. Defense expenditure as a percentage of GDP has fallen from a peak of
5.43% in 1979 to 1.26% in 2017. It has remained below 2% for the past three decades.
Defense expenditure as a percentage of government expenditure was 17.37% in 1979
and 5.14% in 2017, a drop of more than 12 percentage points. The figures are on a
clear downward trend.
 China’s Defense Expenditure Since 2012
In the new era, to keep pace with the country’s modernization, China is focusing
on building a fortified national defense and a strong military commensurate with the
country’s international standing, and its national security and development interests.
China is striving to narrow the gap between its military and the world’s leading
militaries, and make up the deficiencies in the military’s capabilities in modern
warfare. Defense expenditure is growing steadily and the breakdown of spending is
being continuously optimized.
In terms of usage, China’s defense expenditure is assigned to three sectors –
personnel, training and sustainment, and equipment. Personnel expenses mainly cover
the salaries, allowances, food, bedding, clothing, insurance, subsidies and pensions for
officers, non-ranking officers, soldiers and contracted civilians, as well as retirees
supported from the defense budget. Training and sustainment expenses mainly cover
training of the troops, institutional education, construction and maintenance of
installations and facilities, and other expenditure on routine consumables. Equipment
expenses mainly cover R&D, testing, procurement, repairs, maintenance, transport
and the storage of weaponry and equipment. In terms of scope, defense expenditure
covers all active forces, reserve forces and militia.
Since 2012, the increase in defense expenditure has been primarily spent for the
following purposes:
1. Adapting to national economic and social development, improving the
wellbeing of service personnel, ensuring regular increases in military salaries, and
bettering the working, training and living conditions of the troops;
2. Increasing input in weaponry and equipment development, phasing out the
outdated, upgrading the old, and developing and procuring the new, such as aircraft
carriers, fighters, missiles and main battle tanks, to steadily modernize weaponry and
equipment;
3. Deepening national defense and military reform, supporting major reforms in
military leadership and command systems, force structure and composition, and
policies and institutions;
4. Supporting training in real combat conditions, enhancing strategic-level
training, joint training at TCs’ level and training of services and arms, and improving
the conditions for simulated, networked and force-on-force training; and
5. Supporting diverse military tasks including the UNPKOs, vessel protection
operations, humanitarian assistance operations and disaster relief efforts.
From 2012 to 2017, China’s defense expenditure increased from RMB669.192
billion to RMB1,043.237 billion. China’s GDP and government expenditure grew at
average rates of 9.04% and 10.43% respectively, calculated on the price of the
indicated years, while its defense expenditure increased by an average of 9.42%.
Defense expenditure accounted for 1.28% of GDP and 5.26% of government
expenditure on average. The percentage of China’s defense expenditure in GDP
remained stable and grew in coordination with the increase of government
expenditure.
China applies strict mechanisms of fiscal allocation and budget management on
its defense expenditure. It pursues a level of defense spending that is demand-
oriented, planning-led and consistent with its capacity. It endeavors to strengthen
unified management, coordinate existing and incremental expenditure, gradually
practice cost-effectiveness management, and steadily press ahead with reform that is
centered on efficacy and efficiency. To improve and strengthen budget management,
China’s armed forces are extending reform of the centralized collection and payment
of military funds, accelerating standardization in relation to defense expenditure, and
improving the management of assets and funds.

Comparison of Defense Expenditure in the International Conte

xt
Among countries ranking high in defense expenditure in 2017, China’s share of
defense expenditure in GDP and government expenditure, as well as per capita and
per-serviceperson defense spending, are all at a relatively low level.
China has become the world’s second largest economy. The fact that China’s
defense expenditure ranks second in the world is determined by the demands of its
national defense, the size of its economy, and the defensive nature of its national
defense policy. In terms of total spending, China’s defense expenditure in 2017 was
less than a quarter of that of the US.
 As a percentage of GDP, from 2012 to 2017, China’s average defense
expenditure was about 1.3%. Comparative figures were: the US about 3.5%, Russia
4.4%, India 2.5%, the UK 2.0%, France 2.3%, Japan 1.0%, and Germany 1.2%. China
ranks 6th among these countries in terms of defense expenditure as a percentage of
GDP on average and is the lowest among the permanent members of the UN Security
Council (UNSC).

Figure5AverageRatio of DefenseExpenditureto
GDP by Country (2012-2017) (%)

Russia
5.0
4.4

US
4.0
3.5
India
3.0 2.5 France
UK 2.3
2.0
2.0
China Germany
Japan
1.3 1.2
1.0
1.0

0.0

Countries Ranking High in Defense Expenditure in 2017

 Figure6AverageRatio of DefenseExpenditureto
Government Expenditureby Country (2012-2017) (%)

US 9.8
China 5.3
Russia 12.4
India 9.1
UK 4.8
France 4.0
Japan 2.5
Germany 2.8

0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0

Countries Ranking High in Defense Expenditure in 2017

As a ratio of spending to government expenditure, from 2012 to 2017, China’s

average defense expenditure was 5.3%. Comparative figures were: the US about 9.8%,
Russia 12.4%, India 9.1%, the UK 4.8%, France 4.0%, Japan 2.5%, and Germany
2.8%. China ranks 4th among these countries in terms of defense expenditure as a
percentage of government expenditure on average.
China’s per capita defense expenditure in 2017 was RMB750 – 5% of the US,
25% of Russia, 231% of India, 13% of the UK, 16% of France, 29% of Japan, and
20% of Germany. China’s per-serviceperson defense expenditure was RMB521,600 –
15% of the US, 119% of Russia, 166% of India, 27% of the UK, 38% of France, 35%
of Japan, and 30% of Germany. China’s defense expenditure ranks 7th and 6th in per
capita and per-serviceperson terms respectively among these countries.
China reports and releases its defense expenditure through various mechanisms.
Since 1978, the Chinese government has submitted annual budget reports to the
National People’s Congress and released the total amount of defense budget. In 1995,
the Chinese government issued a white paper, China: Arms Control and
Disarmament, releasing data concerning its defense expenditure to the world.
Since 2007, China has joined the UN Standardized Instrument for Reporting
Military Expenditures and has submitted annually to the UN the basic data on its
defense expenditure for the latest fiscal year, reporting total spending as well as
personnel expenses, training and sustainment expenses, and equipment expenses for
the active force, reserve force and the militia respectively, along with an explanation
of the application of China’s defense expenditure and its ratio to GDP.
 All in all, China’s defense expenditure is open and transparent, and its spending
is reasonable and appropriate. Compared to other major countries, the ratios of
China’s defense expenditure to GDP and to government expenditure, as well as the
per capita defense expenditure of the country, remain at a relatively low level.
As the only major country yet to be completely reunified, and one of the
countries with the most complex peripheral security environment, China faces serious
challenges in safeguarding national sovereignty, territorial integrity, and maritime
rights and interests. China is moving closer to the center of the world stage, and the
international community expects more international public security goods from the
Chinese military. In addition, China’s armed forces are moving towards
informationization and shouldering arduous tasks in following the trends of worldwide
RMA and speeding up RMA with Chinese characteristics. There is still a wide gap
between China’s defense expenditure and the requirements for safe guarding
national sovereignty, security and development interests, for fulfilling China’s
international responsibilities and obligations as a major country, and for China’s
development. In step with national economic development, defense expenditure of
China will maintain a moderate and steady growth.

VI. Actively Contributing to Building

a Community with a Shared Future for Mankind

Building a community with a shared future for mankind conforms to the trends of
the times for peaceful development, and reflects the common aspirations of all peoples
throughout the world. China’s armed forces have responded faithfully to the call for a
community with a shared future for mankind. They are actively fulfilling the
international obligations of the armed forces of a major country, comprehensively
promoting international military cooperation for the new era, and striving for a better
world of lasting peace and common security.

Resolutely Upholding the Purposes and Principles of the UN C

harter
As a founding member of the United Nations and a permanent member of the
UNSC, China unswervingly endorses the central role of the UN in international
affairs, and resolutely upholds international law and the basic norms governing
international relations based on the purposes and principles of the UN Charter. It
firmly maintains multilateralism, advances democracy in international relations,
participates extensively in global security governance, actively engages in arms
control and disarmament, and endeavors to offer Chinese proposals for resolving
major issues and formulating important rules.
China has played a constructive role in the political settlement of regional
hotspots such as the Korean Peninsula issue, the Iranian nuclear issue and Syrian
issue. China opposes hegemony, unilateralism and double standards, promotes
dialogues and consultations, and fully and earnestly implements UNSC resolutions.
China has actively participated in multilateral dialogues and negotiations on
cyberspace and outer space, and pushed for the formulation of widely accepted
international rules that are fair and equitable.
China actively participates in international arms control, disarmament and non-
proliferation. China objects to arms race and strives to protect global strategic balance
and stability. To this end, China has signed or acceded to dozens of relevant
multilateral treaties including the Treaty on the Non-proliferation of Nuclear
Weapons. In 2015 China announced the establishment of the USD1 billion China-UN
Peace and Development Fund in the following decade, which was officially put into
operation in 2016.

Building a New-Model Security Partnership Featuring Equality ,

Mutual Trust and Win-Win Cooperation
China actively develops constructive relationships with foreign militaries. A new
configuration of foreign military relations which is all-dimensional, wide-ranging and
multi-tiered is taking shape. China has engaged in military exchanges with more than
150 countries and set up 130 offices of military attachés and military representatives
at Chinese diplomatic missions abroad, while 116 countries have established military
attaché’s offices in China. In addition, China has put in place 54 defense consultation
and dialogue mechanisms with 41 countries and international organizations. Since
2012, high level Chinese military delegations have visited over 60 countries, and
defense ministers and commanders-in-chief from over 100 countries have visited
China.
The military relationship between China and Russia continues to develop at a
high level, enriching the China-Russia comprehensive strategic partnership of
coordination for a new era and playing a significant role in maintaining global
strategic stability. The Chinese and Russian militaries have continued the sound
development of exchange mechanisms at all levels, expanded cooperation in high-
level exchanges, military training, equipment, technology and counter-terrorism, and
realized positive interaction and coordination on international and multilateral
occasions. Since 2012, Chinese and Russian militaries have held 7 rounds of strategic
consultations. From August to September 2018, at the invitation of the Russian side,
the PLA participated in Russia’s Vostok strategic exercise for the first time.
China actively and properly handles its military relationship with the US in
accordance with the principles of non-conflict, non-confrontation, mutual respect and
win-win cooperation. It strives to make the military-to-military relationship a
stabilizer for the relations between the two countries and hence contribute to the
China-US relationship based on coordination, cooperation and stability. In 2014,
China’s Ministry of National Defense (MND) and the US Department of Defense
signed the Memorandum of Understanding on Notification of Major
Military Activities and Confidence-Building Measures Mechanism and
the Memorandum of Understanding Regarding the Rules of Behavior
for Safety of Air and Maritime Encounters. In 2015, the two countries agreed
on the annexes on the military crisis notification mechanism and the rules of behavior
for safety in air-to-air encounters. In 2017, the two countries established a diplomatic
and security dialogue and joint staff dialogue mechanism with a view to actively
strengthening strategic communication and managing risks and differences. The two
militaries carry out institutionalized exchanges between the defense authorities,
armies, navies and air forces, as well as practical cooperation in HADR, counter-
piracy, and exchanges between academic institutions. China resolutely opposes the
wrong practices and provocative activities of the US side regarding arms sales to
Taiwan, sanctions on the CMC Equipment Development Department and its
leadership, illegal entry into China’s territorial waters and maritime and air spaces
near relevant islands and reefs, and wide-range and frequent close-in reconnaissance.
However, in China-US relations, the military-to-military relationship remains the
generally stable one.
With a commitment to building a community with a shared future in its
neighborhood, China endeavors to deepen military partnership with its neighbors. The
PLA keeps close contacts with the military leaderships of the neighboring countries.
Given more than 40 reciprocal military visits at and above service commander level
every year, high-level military exchanges have covered almost all of China’s
neighbors and contributed to growing strategic mutual trust. China has set up defense
and security consultations as well as working meeting mechanisms with 17
neighboring countries to keep exchange channels open. In recent years, China has
regularly held serial joint exercises and training on counter-terrorism, peacekeeping,
search and rescue, and tactical skills with its neighboring countries, and carried out
extensive exchanges and practical cooperation on border and coastal defense,
academic institutions, think tanks, education, training, medical science, medical
service, and equipment and technology. In addition, defense cooperation with ASEAN
countries is moving forward. The military relationships between China and its
neighboring countries are generally stable.
China is actively developing its military relations with European countries.
Exchanges and cooperation in all areas are making sound progress. Targeting a China-
Europe partnership for peace, growth, reform and civilization, China conducts security
policy dialogues, joint counter-piracy exercises and personnel training with the EU. In
2016, China held a desktop exercise on non-combatant evacuation with the UK and a
joint military medical exercise with Germany. In 2018, China and the EU held the
third China-EU high-level seminar on security policy.
China is strengthening military exchanges with developing countries in Africa,
Latin America, the Caribbean and the South Pacific by carrying out personnel
training, conducting exchanges between mid-and-junior level officers, and providing
assistance in military development and defense capabilities. In Beijing in 2018 China
hosted the China-Africa Defense and Security Forum, the China and Latin-America
High-level
Defense Forum, and the Forum for Senior Defense Officials from Caribbean and South
Pacific Countries.
The PLA adheres to the principles of mutual trust, mutual benefit and win-win
cooperation in carrying out pragmatic exchanges and cooperation with foreign
militaries. Since 2012, China has held over 100 joint exercises and training with more
than 30 countries. These engagements have covered traditional and non-traditional
security fields, in locations extending from China’s periphery to the far seas, and the
participating forces have expanded from land forces to multiple branches including
the army, navy and air force. Cooperation and exchanges in personnel training have
intensified. Since 2012, the PLA has sent over 1,700 military personnel to study in
more than 50 countries. Over 20 Chinese military educational institutions have
established and maintained inter-collegiate exchanges with their counterparts from
more than 40 countries. Meanwhile, more than 10,000 foreign military personnel from
over 130 countries have studied in Chinese military universities and colleges.
China’s armed forces work to improve mechanisms for information release in
order to comprehensively and objectively explain China’s national defense and
military development to domestic and international audiences. In April 2011, China’s
MND started to convene monthly press conferences to release important information
on national defense and the military. Since 2012, multiple thematic press conferences
have been held to brief on important events such as national defense and military
reform and downsizing the PLA. The MND has organized multiple visits to and
interviews with PLA units and academic institutions for nearly 100 domestic and
foreign media. Since they were launched in May 2015, the official Weibo and WeChat
accounts of the MND Information Office have attracted over 6 million followers.

Building a Regional Security Cooperation Architecture

In June 2001, China, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan
co-founded the Shanghai Cooperation Organization. The SCO has now grown into a
new type of comprehensive regional cooperation organization covering the largest
area and population in the world. The Shanghai Spirit featuring mutual trust, mutual
benefit, equality, consultation, respect for diverse civilizations and pursuit of common
development has come into being. With its commitment to building an SCO
community with a shared future and developing a new model of international
relations, the organization has made a new contribution to regional peace and
development. In June 2017, the SCO expanded for the first time and admitted India
and Pakistan as member states. In April 2018, China hosted the first SCO Defense
Ministers’ Meeting since the organization expanded its membership. The member
states continue to strengthen defense and security exchanges and cooperation,
including Peace Mission exercises, and Fanfare for Peace military tattoos, to
further promote good-neighborliness and strategic mutual trust, increase military
cultural exchanges, and enhance unity and friendship.
China actively supports the institutional development of the Conference on
Interaction and Confidence-Building Measures in Asia (CICA), advocates common,
comprehensive, cooperative and sustainable security in Asia, and plays an important
role in building an Asian security cooperation architecture.
In the principles of openness, inclusiveness and pragmatic cooperation, China
actively participates in multilateral dialogues and cooperation mechanisms including
the ADMM-Plus, ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF), Shangri-La Dialogue, Jakarta
International Defense Dialogue and Western Pacific Naval Symposium, regularly
holds China-ASEAN defense ministers’ informal meetings, and proposes and
constructively promotes initiatives to strengthen regional defense cooperation. The
China-ASEAN Maritime Exercise-2018, the first between Chinese and ASEAN
militaries, was held in October 2018 and demonstrated the confidence and
determination of the countries in maintaining regional peace and stability.
China has initiated the Xiangshan Forum, a platform of exchange based in
Beijing, in the spirit of equality, openness, inclusiveness and mutual learning. In 2014,
the Xiangshan Forum was upgraded to a track-1.5 platform of international security
and defense dialogue. In October 2018, the Xiangshan Forum was renamed the
Beijing Xiangshan Forum. More than 500 participants from 67 countries and 7
international organizations attended the forum and exchanged new ideas and
approaches for addressing regional security threats and challenges. Their discussions
have played an active role in promoting security dialogue and mutual trust in the Asia-
Pacific region.

Properly Coping with Disputes over Territory and Maritime De

marcation
Upholding amity, sincerity, mutual benefit and inclusiveness in its neighborhood
diplomacy, China is committed to building an amicable relationship and partnership
with its neighbors, and peaceful resolution of disputes over territory and maritime
demarcation through negotiation and consultation. China has settled its border issues
with 12 of its 14 land neighbors and signed treaties on good-neighborliness, friendship
and cooperation with 8 countries on its periphery.
China holds it a priority to manage differences and enhance mutual trust in
maintaining the stability of its neighborhood. China has proposed a China-ASEAN
defense ministers’ hotline and established direct defense telephone links with Vietnam
and the ROK. It has kept contact through telephone or fax, and conducted border
meetings and joint patrols, with the militaries of the countries on its land borders on
regular or irregular basis. Since 2014, five high-level border meetings between China
and Vietnam have been held. To implement the important consensus reached by the
leaders of China and India, the two militaries have exchanged high-level visits and
pushed for a hotline for border defense cooperation and mechanisms for border
management and border defense exchanges. Since the second half of 2016, China and
the Philippines have increased dialogue on maritime security, bringing the two sides
back on track in addressing the South China Sea issue through friendly consultation.
In May 2018, the defense authorities of China and Japan signed a memorandum of
understanding on maritime and air liaison and put it into practice in June.
China and the ASEAN countries have comprehensively and effectively
implemented the DOC, and actively advanced the consultations on the COC. They are
committed to extending practical maritime security cooperation, developing regional
security mechanisms and building the South China Sea into a sea of peace, friendship
and cooperation.

Actively Providing International Public Security Goods

China actively supports the UNPKOs. It is a major contributor to the UN
peacekeeping budget and the largest troop contributing country among the permanent
members of the UNSC. As of December 2018, China has participated in 24 UN
peacekeeping missions and has contributed more than 39,000 peacekeepers. 13
Chinese military personnel have sacrificed their lives in the UNPKOs. In the missions,
China’s peacekeepers have built and repaired over 13,000 kilometers of roads, cleared
and disposed of 10,342 mines and various items of unexploded ordnance, transported
more than 1.35 million tons of materials over a total distance of more than 13 million
kilometers, treated over 170,000 patients, and fulfilled over 300 armed escorts and
long or short-distance patrols.
In September 2015, China joined the UN Peacekeeping Capability Readiness
System (PCRS) and built a peacekeeping standby force of 8,000 troops. In September
2017, China completed the registration of PCRS Level 1. In October 2018, 13 Chinese
PCRS Level 1 units scored high in the UN assessment and were elevated to PCRS
Level 2. Five among these units were elevated from Level 2 to Level 3 in February
2019. China has made active efforts to train international peacekeepers and trained
over 1,500 individuals from dozens of countries. In December 2018, 2,506
peacekeepers from the PLA served in 7 UN missions and in the UN Department of
Peacekeeping Operations.
In line with relevant UNSC resolutions, since December 2008, the Chinese
government has dispatched naval ships to carry out regular vessel protection
operations in the Gulf of Aden and the waters off the coast of Somalia. Chinese
PLAN task groups cooperate with multiple naval forces in the area to safeguard
international SLOCs. In the past decade, over 100 vessels and 26,000 officers and
sailors have been regularly deployed in 31 convoys, each consisting of three to four
ships, in vessel protection operations. They have provided security protection for
over 6,600 Chinese and foreign ships, and rescued, protected or assisted over 70 ships
in distress.
China’s armed forces take an active part in the international efforts for HADR.
Military professionals are dispatched to conduct disaster relief operations in affected
countries, provide relief materials and medical aid, and strengthen international
exchanges in this respect. Since 2012, China’s armed forces have participated in the
search for the missing Malaysian Airliner MH370, and in the relief operations for
Typhoon Haiyan in the Philippines, the Ebola epidemic in West Africa, the water
scarcity in Maldives, the earthquake in Nepal, and the flood caused by a dam collapse
in Laos. Since it entered service a decade ago, the PLAN’s hospital ship Ark Peace
has fulfilled 7 voyages coded as Mission Harmony and visited 43 countries.
During these visits, it provided medical services to the local communities, organized
medical exchanges, and helped over 230,000 people.
China is active in international and regional counter-terrorism cooperation. It has
strengthened such cooperation within the framework of the SCO. China hosts and
participates in joint counter-terrorism exercises, cracks down on illegal trafficking of
weapons, ammunition and explosives, cooperates with SCO members to identify and
cut off channels for terrorist infiltration, and promotes international counter-terrorism
intelligence exchange and information sharing. It hosts the Great Wall International
Forum on Counter-Terrorism, and actively participates in multilateral counter-
terrorism mechanisms such as the APEC Counter-Terrorism Working Group and the
Global Counter-Terrorism Forum. Bilateral counter-terrorism consultations have been
held with certain countries. China initiated the establishment of the Quadrilateral
Cooperation and Coordination Mechanism (QCCM), a counter-terrorism cooperation
and coordination mechanism by the militaries of Afghanistan, China, Pakistan and
Tajikistan. The QCCM has convened two military leaders’ meetings and conducted
counter-terrorism exchange and cooperation, actively safeguarding regional security.

Closing Remarks

Peace is an aspiration for all peoples, and development is an eternal theme of

humanity. Faced with global security challenges that are becoming ever more intricate
and choices that have to be made at a crossroads of human development, China firmly
believes that hegemony and expansion are doomed to failure, and security and
prosperity shall be shared. China will remain committed to peaceful development and
work with people of all countries to safeguard world peace and promote common
development.
Guided by Xi Jinping’s thinking on strengthening the military, China’s national
defense in the new era will stride forward along its own path to build a stronger
military and endeavor to achieve the great goal of developing world-class forces in an
all-round way. China’s armed forces have the determination, confidence and
capability to prevail over all threats and challenges. They stand ready to provide
strong strategic support for the realization of the Chinese Dream of national
rejuvenation, and to make new and greater contributions to the building of a
community with a shared future for mankind.

Appendices

Table 1 CMC Functional Organs

CMC Functional
Duties
Organs
Mainly responsible for comprehensive coordination, consultation on
General Office decision-making, military legal affairs, information service, supervision and
inspection
 Mainly responsible for combat planning, command and control, combat
command support, studying and formulating military strategy and
Joint Staff Department requirements, combat capability assessment, organizing and guiding joint
training, construction for combat readiness, and day-to-day combat readiness
duties
Political Work Mainly responsible for Party building in the military, organization work,
Department political education, and military human resources management
Logistic Support Mainly responsible for the planning, policy making, research,
Department standardization, inspection and supervision of logistic support
Equipment Development Mainly responsible for planning, R&D, testing, authentication, procurement
Department management, and information system buildup in equipment development
Training and Mainly responsible for organizing and guiding military training, training
Administration supervision, troops administration, and management of educational
Department institutions
Mainly responsible for organizing and guiding national defense mobilization
National Defense
and defense reserves development, and commanding and managing
Mobilization Department
provincial military commands
Discipline Inspection Mainly responsible for the Party’s discipline supervision and inspection in
Commission the military
Politics and Law Mainly responsible for organizing and guiding political and legal work as
Commission well as security protection
Mainly responsible for the strategic management of national defense S&T,
Science and Technology
organizing and guiding cutting-edge technological innovation, and
Commission
promoting the CMI of S&T
Mainly responsible for strategic planning of national defense and the
Office for Strategic
military, organizing the formulation of development plans, and coordinating
Planning
resource allocation
Mainly responsible for planning and coordinating national defense and
Office for Reform and military reform, guiding and promoting the implementation of the reforms in
Organizational Structure major areas, and the organizational structure management of the armed
forces
Mainly responsible for international military exchanges and cooperation, and
Office for International
managing and coordinating the work of the armed forces related to foreign
Military Cooperation
affairs
Mainly responsible for audit, supervision as well as organizing and guiding
Audit Office
the audit of the armed forces
Agency for Offices
Mainly responsible for serving and supporting the CMC’s functional organs
Administration

Table 2 Breakdown of China’s Defense Expenditure (2010-2017)

(in RMB billion yuan)
Training and
Personnel Equipment
Sustainment
Item Expense Expense
Expense
Total
Year Percent Percent Percent
Amount age Amount age Amount age
(%) (%) (%)
2010 185.931 34.9 170.047 31.9 177.359 33.2 533.337
 2011 206.506 34.3 189.943 31.5 206.342 34.2 602.791
2012 195.572 29.2 232.994 34.8 240.626 36.0 669.192
2013 200.231 27.0 269.971 36.4 270.860 36.6 741.062
2014 237.234 28.6 267.982 32.3 323.738 39.1 828.954
2015 281.863 31.0 261.538 28.8 365.383 40.2 908.784
2016 306.001 31.3 266.994 27.4 403.589 41.3 976.584
2017 321.052 30.8 293.350 28.1 428.835 41.1 1043.237
Sources: Data on China’s defense expenditure submitted to the UN by the Chinese government

Table 3 China’s Defense Expenditure Since 2012

Growt Real
Total Defen Defense
CPI Growth h Rate Defense
Defens se Expendit
GDP (Previ Rate of of Expenditu
e Expen ure to
Yea (RMB ous Govern Defen re Growth
Expen diture Governm
r billion Year ment se Rate
diture to ent
) = Expendit Expen (Inflation-
(RMB GDP Expendit
100) ure (%) diture adjusted)
billion) (%) ure (%)
(%) (%)

2012 54036.74 669.192 102.6 15.29 11.02 1.24 5.31 8.42

2013 59524.44 741.062 102.6 11.32 10.74 1.24 5.29 8.14

2014 64397.4 828.954 102.0 8.25 11.86 1.29 5.46 9.86

2015 68905.21 908.784 101.4 15.87 9.63 1.32 5.17 8.23

2016 74358.55 976.584 102.0 6.75 7.46 1.31 5.20 5.46

2017 82712.17 1043.237 101.6 8.17 6.83 1.26 5.14 5.23

Sources: Statistical yearbooks and government documents released by the Chinese government and data
on China’s defense expenditure submitted to the UN by the Chinese government

Table 4 Major Multilateral Treaties on Arms Control, Disarmament and

Non-Proliferation Joined by China
Category Treaties Time
Nuclear Signed in May 2014, approved
Protocol to the Treaty on a Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zone in Apr. 2015 by the Standing
in Central Asia Committee of the National
People’s Congress
Protocol Additional to the Agreement Between the
People’s Republic of China and the International Atomic Signed in Dec. 1998, entered
Energy Agency for the Application of Safeguards in into force in Mar. 2002
China
Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty Signed in Sep. 1996
Category Treaties Time
Signed in Apr. 1996,
Protocol I and II to the African Nuclear-Weapon-Free
instrument of ratification
Zone Treaty
deposited in Oct. 1997
Signed in Sep. 1994, ratified
Convention on Nuclear Safety
in Apr. 1996
Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons Acceded in Mar. 1992
Treaty on the Prohibition of the Emplacement of Nuclear Acceded in Feb. 1991
Weapons and Other Weapons of Mass Destruction on the
Sea-Bed and the Ocean Floor and in the Subsoil Thereof
Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear
Acceded in Feb. 1989
Material
Agreement Between the People’s Republic of China and
Signed in Sep. 1988, entered
the International Atomic Energy Agency for the
into force in Sep. 1989
Application of Safeguards in China
Signed in Feb. 1987,
Additional Protocol II and III to the South Pacific Nuclear-
instrument of ratification
Free Zone Treaty
deposited in Oct. 1988
Signed in Aug. 1973,
Additional Protocol II to the Treaty for the Prohibition of
instrument of ratification
Nuclear Weapons in Latin America and the Caribbean
deposited in Jun. 1974
Chemical Convention on the Prohibition of Development, Signed in Jan. 1993,
Production, Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons instrument of ratification
and on Their Destruction deposited in Apr. 1997
Convention on the Prohibition of the Development,
Production and Stockpiling of Bacteriological
Acceded in Nov. 1984
(Biological) and Toxin Weapons and on Their
Biological Destruction
Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in War of Statement issued to
Asphyxiating, Poisonous or Other Gases, and of acknowledge the Protocol in
Bacteriological Methods of Warfare Jul. 1952
Conventional Protocol on Explosive Remnants of War (Protocol V) of
Convention on Prohibitions or Restrictions on the Use of
Instrument of ratification
Certain Conventional Weapons Which May Be Deemed
deposited in Jun. 2010
to Be Excessively Injurious or Have Indiscriminate
Effects
Protocol Against the Illicit Manufacturing of and
Trafficking in Firearms, Their Parts and Components and
Signed in Dec. 2002
Ammunition, Supplementing the United Nations
Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime
Protocol on Blinding Laser Weapons Annexed to the
Convention on Prohibitions or Restrictions on the Use of
Instrument of ratification
Certain Conventional Weapons Which May Be Deemed
deposited in Nov. 1998
to Be Excessively Injurious or to Have Indiscriminate
Effects (Protocol IV)
Amended Protocol on Prohibitions or Restrictions on the Instrument of ratification
Use of Mines, Booby-Traps and Other Devices Annexed deposited in Nov. 1998
to the Convention on Prohibitions or Restrictions on the
Use of Certain Conventional Weapons Which May Be
Deemed to Be Excessively Injurious or to Have
Indiscriminate Effects (Amended Protocol II)
Category Treaties Time
Signed in Sep. 1981,
instrument of ratification
Convention on Prohibitions or Restrictions on the Use of deposited in Apr. 1982;
Certain Conventional Weapons Which May Be Deemed amendment of Article 1 of the
to Be Excessively Injurious or to Have Indiscriminate Convention ratified in Jun.
Effects and Protocols I-III 2003, instrument of
ratification deposited in Aug.
2003
Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other
Acceded in Jun. 2005
Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques
Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into
Acceded in Dec. 1988
Outer Space
Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts, the Return of
Astronauts, and the Return of Objects Launched into Acceded in Dec. 1988
Others Outer Space
Convention on International Liability for Damage
Acceded in Dec. 1988
Caused by Space Objects
Treaty on Principles Concerning the Activities of States
in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space Including the Acceded in Dec. 1983
Moon and other Celestial Bodies
The Antarctic Treaty Acceded in Jun. 1983

Table 5 Major Multilateral Counter-Terrorism Treaties Signed by China

Date of Participation or
Effective
Treaty Signatu Statement by
Date
re China
Agreement on Quadrilateral Cooperation and
Coordination Mechanism in Counter Terrorism
Signed in Aug. 2017,
by the Ministry of Defense/ Armed Forces/ Aug. 2017 Aug. 2017
effective in China
Military of Afghanistan, China, Pakistan, and
Tajikistan
Convention of the Shanghai Cooperation Signed in Jun. 2009,
Jun. 2009 Jan. 2012
Organization Against Terrorism ratified in Dec. 2014
Agreement on Cooperation in Combating Illicit Approved by the State
Trafficking in Arms, Ammunition and Council in May 2012,
Explosives between the Governments of the Aug. 2008 May 2010 instrument of approval
Member States of the Shanghai Cooperation deposited in Jul. 2012,
Organization effective in China
Agreement on the Procedure for Organizing and
Approved in Jun.
Conducting Joint Anti-Terrorism Exercise
Aug. 2008 Nov. 2013 2013, effective in
within Territories of Member States of the
China since Nov. 2013
Shanghai Cooperation Organization
Cooperation Agreement in the Sphere of
Approved by the State
Identifying and Cutting off the Channels Used
Council in May 2012,
by the Individuals Involved in Terrorist,
Jun. 2006 Nov. 2008 instrument of approval
Separatist and Extremist Activities to Enter the
deposited in Jul. 2012,
Shanghai Cooperation Organization Member
effective in China
States
 Table 6 Major Joint Exercises and Training by the PLA and
the PAP with Foreign Counterparts Since 2012
States/
No. Organization Codename Location and Time
s
United Shield-2017 Joint
1 Belarus Held in Minsk, Belarus in Jul. 2017
Anti-Terrorism Training
Joint Rescue-2016 Joint
2 Germany Held in Chongqing, China in 2016
Medical Exercise
Held in Sichuan, China in Nov. 2013; in
Hand in Hand Anti- Maharashtra, India in Nov. 2014; in Yunnan,
3 India
Terrorism Joint Training China in Oct. 2015; in Maharashtra, India in
Nov. 2016; in Sichuan, China in Dec. 2018
Tabletop exercise held in Malaysia in Dec.
Peace and Friendship Joint
4 Malaysia 2014; in Malaysia in Sept. 2015; in Malaysia
Military Exercises
in Nov. 2016
Held in Ningxia, China in Dec. 2015; at
Friendship Joint
National Counter Terrorism Center Pabbi,
Anti-Terrorism Training
5 Pakistan Pakistan in Oct. 2016
Eagle/Shaheen Joint A total of 6 training sessions held in China and
Training Pakistan from 2013 to 2018
Held in the Yellow Sea waters near Qingdao in
Apr. 2012; in Peter the Great Gulf in Jul. 2013;
in the north maritime and air space of the East
China Sea to the east of Yangtze River Estuary
in May 2014; in the east of the maritime and
air space of the Mediterranean in May 2015; in
Peter the Great Gulf, off the coast of
Joint Sea Exercises Vladivostok, and the maritime and air space of
Sea of Japan in Aug. 2015; in Zhanjiang and
6 Russia the east of the maritime and air space of
Zhanjiang in Sep. 2016; in the Baltiysk, St.
Petersburg and southeast Baltic Sea in Jul.
2017; in Vladivostok and the designated area
between Peter the Great Gulf and the south
Okhotsk Sea in Sep. 2017
Aerospace Security
Computer-Enabled Held in Russia in May 2016, and in China in
Anti-Missile Command-and- Dec. 2017
Staff Exercises
Explore-2016 Joint
7 Saudi Arabia Anti-Terrorism Training of Held in China in Oct. 2016
Special Forces
Silk Road Cooperation-2015
Joint Counter Terrorism
8 Sri Lanka Held in Colombo, Sri Lanka in Jun. 2015
Training for Special
Operation Units
Cooperation-2016 Joint
9 Tajikistan Held in Badakhshan, Tajikistan in Oct. 2016
Anti-Terrorism Exercise
 States/
No. Organization Codename Location and Time
s
Held in Thailand in Nov. 2015; in Thailand in
10 Thailand Falcon Strike Joint Training
Aug. 2017; in Thailand in Sep. 2018
Non-Combatant Evacuation
11 UK Held in Nanjing in 2016; in London in 2017
Operation Desktop Exercises
Held in Beijing, Kunming and Chengdu in
2012; in Hawaii in 2013; in Guangzhou and
The US-China Disaster
12 US Haikou in 2015; in Seattle in 2015; in Kunming
Management Exchange
in 2016; in Portland in 2017; in Nanjing in
2018
China-Vietnam Joint Naval Held in the shared fishing zone in the Beibu
13 Vietnam
Patrols in the Beibu Gulf Gulf for 13 times from 2012 to 2018
Malaysia, Peace and Friendship 2018 Held in Malaysia in Oct. 2018 by militaries of
14
Thailand Joint Military Exercise China, Malaysia and Thailand
Held in Zhanjiang and the maritime and air
15 ASEAN Maritime Exercise-2018
space to the east in Oct. 2018
Cooperation-2018.10.EU
16 EU Held in the west Gulf of Aden in Oct. 2018
Joint Medical Exercise
Held in Khujand, Tajikistan in Jun. 2012; in
Zhurihe Training Base in Inner Mongolia,
Peace Mission Joint
17 SCO China, in Aug. 2014; in the Edelweiss Training
Counter-Terrorism Exercises
Area in Balykchy, Kyrgyzstan, in Sep. 2016; in
Chebarkul, Chelyabinsk, Russia, in Aug. 2018

Table 7 Major Regional Security Dialogues and

Cooperation Platforms Joined by the PLA and the PAP
(Up to Dec. 2018)
Year of
Platform Inceptio Description
n
Hosted by China’s MND, the forum was held in Beijing from 26th
Jun. to 10th Jul., 2018. With the theme of “cooperation and mutual
assistance”, in-depth discussions were held on topics including
China-Africa defense and security cooperation and Africa’s
China-Africa Defense
2018 security situation. 50 representatives attended from defense
and Security Forum
departments or militaries of African countries and African Union,
including 12 chiefs or deputy chiefs of General Staff. It is the
largest and highest-level mechanism for China-Africa defense and
security dialogue and cooperation.
The QCCM was built to provide coordination and mutual support
in situation evaluation, evidence verification, intelligence sharing,
QCCM among the capacity building, and training. China has always emphasized that
Military Forces of the mechanism is not targeted against any other country or
2016
Afghanistan, China, international organization and is ready to join all parties in
Pakistan and Tajikistan expanding cooperation, increasing counter terrorism capacity, and
safeguarding regional peace and stability. To date, two military
leaders’ meetings have been held.
Great Wall 2016 The inaugural session of the forum was held in Beijing in Nov.
 Year of
Platform Inceptio Description
n
2016 with the theme of “counter-terrorism in urban areas”.
Representatives from 25 countries including Russia, France, Egypt
Counter-Terrorism and Brazil participated. The second forum was held in Beijing in
International Forum May 2018 with the theme of “counter-terrorism in mountainous
areas”. Representatives from 27 countries including France,
Nigeria, Chile and Pakistan participated.
The biennial forum is hosted by China’s MND. With the theme of
“enhancing mutual understanding and collaboration”, the forum
aims to promote Latin-American militaries’ understanding of and
China and Latin
trust in China and its military, and facilitate continued military
America High-Level 2012
exchanges and cooperation between the Chinese and Latin-
Defense Forum
American militaries. The forum is represented by defense and
military leadership from major Spanish and Portuguese speaking
countries.
ADMM-Plus is the largest and highest-level dialogue and
cooperation mechanism on defense and security in the Asia-
ASEAN Defense Pacific region. Since 2016, under the mechanism, the PLA has
Ministers’ Meeting 2010 participated in a joint exercise on peacekeeping and demining in
Plus India, and exercises on maritime security and counter-terrorism in
both Brunei and Singapore. From 2017 to 2020, China and
Thailand co-chair the counter-terrorism expert working group.
This annual forum is co-hosted by the China Association for
Military Science and the China Institute for International Strategic
Studies. The Xiangshan Forum was upgraded to a track-1.5
platform of international security and defense dialogue in 2014. It
was renamed the Beijing Xiangshan Forum in 2018. The forum
Beijing Xiangshan
2006 advocates the principles of equality, openness, inclusiveness and
Forum
mutual learning. In Oct. 2018, the 8th Beijing Xiangshan Forum
was held with the participation of over 500 representatives from
67 countries and 7 international organizations. The forum injected
strong positive energy into regional and international security
cooperation.
The dialogue is hosted by the International Institute for Strategic
Studies, a think tank based in London, and co-hosted by the
Ministry of Defense of Singapore. It is held in early June every
year in the Shangri-La Hotel in Singapore. At the 17th Shangri-La
Dialogue in 2018, the Chinese delegation, on the topic of
Shangri-La
2002 “Strategic Implications of Military Capability Development in the
Dialogue
Asia-Pacific”, explained the important proposals of President Xi
Jinping on building a new model of international relations and a
community with a shared future for mankind, and actively
promoted a joint effort with relevant countries to maintain
regional security and stability.
SCO 2001 Established in 2001 on the basis of the Shanghai Five (China,
Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia and Tajikistan) mechanism, the
SCO aims to enhance mutual trust, good-neighborliness and
friendship among the member states, encourages the member
states to effectively cooperate in such fields as politics, economy,
culture and education. The organization is committed to
maintaining and safeguarding regional peace, security and stability
and building a new international political and economic order that
is democratic, fair and equitable. The member states have signed
important documents including the Treaty on Long-term Good-
 Year of
Platform Inceptio Description
n
neighborly Relations, Friendships and Cooperation among the
Shanghai Cooperation Organization Member States. From 9th to
10th Jun. 2018 in Qingdao, President Xi Jinping presided over the
first Council of Heads of State of the SCO with an expanded
membership, and stressed that member states will continue to
uphold the Shanghai Spirit, make joint efforts to build an SCO
community with a shared future, and promote a new model of
international relations.
Initiated by the US PACOM, the conference is held annually and
alternates between the US and other Asia-Pacific countries. China
has participated every year since 2014. At the conference in Sep.
Chiefs of Defense 2017, the Chinese side focused on explaining President Xi
1998
Conference Jinping’s vision of building a community with a shared future for
mankind and the new proposals on security, and advocated that
relevant countries should enhance strategic mutual trust and
cooperate to meet global challenges.
The forum has a membership of 27 countries and is the official
multilateral platform for security dialogue and cooperation in the
Asia-Pacific. Since 2015, China has hosted important meetings
ASEAN Regional
1994 and events including the ARF Peacekeeping Experts’ Meeting, the
Forum
ARF Defense Officials’ Dialogue, the ARF Heads of Defense
Universities/Colleges/Institutions Meeting, and the ARF Security
Policy Conference.

Table 8 Main UNPKOs the PLA Participated

(Up to Dec. 2018)
Starting
Mission Area Troops Mission Description
Date
In Mali, the engineering unit built and
Force protection unit
repaired 2,900 m of roads, leveled 400,000
of 170 troops,
m² of ground, and installed 667
Mali engineering unit of
Jan. 2014 prefabricated houses; the force protection
(MINUSMA) 155 troops, and
unit conducted 2,710 armed patrols and
medical unit of 70
security tasks; and the medical unit treated
troops
8,120 patients.
In South Sudan, the engineering unit built
and maintained 5,365 km of roads, repaired
Infantry battalion of
7 bridges, and installed 72 prefabricated
700 troops,
houses; the medical unit treated 21,000
South Sudan engineering unit of
Jan. 2012 patients; the infantry battalion conducted 63
(UNMISS) 268 troops, and
long/short-distance patrols, and carried out
medical unit of 63
216 armed escorts and 42 inspections in
troops
refugee camps, covering a total mileage of
1,020,000 km.
Nov. 2007 Sudan Engineering unit of In Darfur, Sudan, the engineering unit built
(UNAMID) 225 troops, and repaired 89 km of roads, installed 400
helicopter unit of prefabricated houses and drilled 14 wells;
 the helicopter unit flew 800 sorties totaling
140 troops 1,150 hours, transporting 5,500 persons and
230 tons of materials.
Multi-functional
engineering unit of
In Lebanon, the engineering unit cleared
180 troops,
10,342 mines and items of unexploded
Lebanon construction
Apr. 2006 ordnance; completed maintenance tasks on
(UNIFIL) engineering unit of
houses and equipment; and received and
200 troops, and
treated 78,900 patients.
medical unit of 30
troops
Engineering unit of In the Democratic Republic of the Congo,
DR Congo 175 troops and the engineering unit built 4,650 km of roads
Apr. 2003
(MONUSCO) medical unit of 43 and 214 bridges; and the medical unit
troops treated 35,000 patients.
Notes: In addition to the units, the PLA has sent over 80 military observers, staff officers and military
officers under UN contract to the 5 above-mentioned UNPKOs, UNTSO, MINURSO and UN
Headquarters.

Table 9 Major International HADR Operations Participated by the PLA Since

2012
Starting Countries
Mission Description
Date Concerned
Papua New Guinea,
Vanuatu, Fiji, Tonga,
The PLAN hospital ship Ark Peace sailed over 30,000
Venezuela, Grenada,
nautical miles for the tasks of Mission Harmony-2018,
The Commonwealth
Jun. 2018 diagnosed and treated 50,884 people, hospitalized 288 people,
of Dominica, Antigua
performed 288 surgical operations, and provided auxiliary
and Barbuda, The
examinations for more than 20,000 people.
Dominican Republic,
Ecuador and Chile
After the collapse of the Xe Pian-Xe Namnoy hydropower dam,
under construction in southern province Attapeu of Laos, the
PLA sent its medical unit participating in the Peace Train-2018
Jul. 2018 Laos humanitarian medical relief joint exercise to the disaster-hit
area by land and air, taking ambulances, epidemic prevention
vehicles, first-aid equipment and medicine with them, to join
the rescue, medical treatment and epidemic prevention efforts.
The PLAN task group visited Sri Lanka at a time when the
country had been hit by a severe flood. The task group
participated immediately in the disaster relief efforts by sending
Aug. 2017 Sri Lanka
a medical team to the affected area to provide medical services
and epidemic prevention, and donating relief materials
including rubber boats.
After the air crash in Vietnam, the PLA sent naval vessels and
Jun. 2016 Vietnam aircraft to assist in searching for the crashed plane and rescuing
the crew.
In the severe flood in Myanmar, the PLA deployed 2 transport
Aug. 2015 Myanmar
aircraft to deliver 3 batches of tents, blankets and generators.
May. 2015 Nepal After the strong earthquake in Nepal, the PLA sent 8
Starting Countries
Mission Description
Date Concerned
specialized teams totaling 1,088 people including rescue teams,
medical and epidemic prevention teams, and transport teams to
the affected area. They treated 5,294 people, decontaminated an
area of 940,000 m2, airlifted 690 tons of relief materials and
restored over 330 km of roads.
After the severe flood in Malaysia, the PLAAF sent aircraft to
Jan. 2015 Malaysia transport relief materials such as tents, water pumps and water
purification facilities.
In the severe water scarcity in Male, the capital city of
Maldives, the PLAN submarine support ship Changxingdao
Dec. 2014 Maldives used its ship borne desalting devices to provide fresh water for
the affected population. The PLAAF provided emergency
delivery of over 40 tons of bottled water by an IL-76.
After the outbreak of Ebola in west Africa, the PLA sent 524
The Republic of
medical staff in 7 groups to conduct epidemic prevention
Guinea, Liberia, Sierra
Aug. 2014 operations. They built a treatment center, hospitalized 938
Leone and Guinea-
suspected patients and trained more than 3,000 local medical
Bissau
staff.
After the Malaysian Airliner MH370 lost contact, the PLAN
sent 9 surface vessels, 6 ship borne helicopters and 2,185
service members to the search missions in the Malacca Strait,
the Adman Sea, and waters in southwest and west to Australia.
The vessels sailed 98,000 nautical miles in 7,679 sailing hours
Mar. 2014 Malaysia, Australia
and searched 744,000 km2 of sea. The PLAAF sent 2 IL-76 and
1 Y-8C to Malaysia and Australia on multinational joint search
and rescue missions. The PLAAF organized 35 search flight
sorties totaling 267 hours and 3 minutes, and covering a total
flight distance of 167,000 km.
After Typhoon Haiyan struck the Philippines, the PLAN
hospital ship Ark Peace was sent to conduct medical aid
operations. In total, it treated 2,208 injured people, hospitalized
Nov. 2013 The Philippines
113 people, performed 44 surgical operations, transported 757
people in 76 helicopter sorties and 718 people in 104 boat
sorties.

Table 10 Participation of the PLA in the Fanfare for Peace Military Tattoos
Participating
No. Date Location Activities
Bands
The opening ceremony and marching
performance in China’s National Indoor
9 military bands from
Stadium, a parade and a pageant
China, Kazakhstan,
20th-29th Beijing and Inner performance at the Olympic Center, and
1st Kyrgyzstan, Russia
Aug. 2014 Mongolia, China the closing ceremony of the military
and Tajikistan, 660
tattoo and of the Peace Mission-2014
people in total
joint counter-terrorism exercise in
Zhurihe Training Base in Inner Mongolia
2nd 29th-30th St. Petersburg, 12 military bands A concert and a parade at the Palace
Jun. 2015 Russia from Russia, Square of Russia and a pageant
Kazakhstan, China, performance in the Peter and Paul
Tajikistan and Fortress
 Kyrgyzstan, over 300
people in total
A concert in the concert hall of the
7 military bands from
Military Museum of Kazakhstan, a
Kazakhstan, China,
7th-8th Astana, pageant performance at Bayterek Square,
3rd Kyrgyzstan, Russia
Jun. 2016 Kazakhstan and a parade for the defense ministers on
and Tajikistan, nearly
the square in front of the National Opera
350 people in total
House
6 military bands from The opening ceremony and marching
China, Kyrgyzstan, performance in Yuanshen Gymnasium, a
26th-28th
4th Shanghai, China Pakistan, Russia and pageant performance at the Expo Park of
Aug. 2017
Tajikistan, 426 people Shanghai, and a second performance in
in total the Yuanshen Gymnasium
8 military bands from
The opening ceremony and marching
China, Kyrgyzstan,
performance at the Juyongguan Pass of
Tajikistan,
21st-25th the Great Wall with the defense ministers
5th Beijing, China Uzbekistan, India,
Apr. 2018 in the audience, a parade in the Beijing’s
Pakistan, Russia and
Olympic Park and a second performance
Belarus, over 400
at the Juyongguan Pass of the Great Wall
people in total

Acronyms

ADMM-Plus ASEAN Defense Ministers’ Meeting Plus

AI artificial intelligence
AMS Academy of Military Sciences
ARF ASEAN Regional Forum
ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations
BRICS Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa
CICA Conference on Interaction and Confidence-Building
Measures in Asia
CMC Central Military Commission
CMCAO CMC Audit Office
CMCDIC CMC Discipline Inspection Commission
CMCPLC CMC Politics and Law Commission
CMCSC CMC Supervision Commission
CMI civil-military integration
COC Code of Conduct in the South China Sea
CPC Communist Party of China
CPCCC CPC Central Committee
CPI consumer price index
DOC Declaration on the Conduct of Parties in the South China
Sea
ECM electronic countermeasures
EU European Union
GDP gross domestic product
HADR humanitarian assistance and disaster relief
IT information technology
MAC Military Area Command
MINURSO United Nations Mission for the Referendum in Western
Sahara
MINUSMA United Nations Multidimensional Integrated
Stabilization Mission in Mali
MND Ministry of National Defense
MONUSCO United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the
DR Congo
NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization
NBC nuclear, biological and chemical weapons
NBCE nuclear, biological and chemical weapons and
explosives
NDU National Defense University
NUDT National University of Defense Technology
PACOM Pacific Command
PAP People’s Armed Police
PCRS Peacekeeping Capability Readiness System
PLA People’s Liberation Army
PLAA PLA Army
PLAAF PLA Air Force
PLAJLSF PLA Joint Logistic Support Force
PLAN PLA Navy
PLARF PLA Rocket Force
PLASSF PLA Strategic Support Force
PRC People’s Republic of China
QCCM Quadrilateral Cooperation and Coordination Mechanism
RMA Revolution in Military Affairs
R&D research and development
SCO Shanghai Cooperation Organization
SLOCs sea lines of communication
S&T science and technology
TC Theater Command
ETC Eastern Theater Command
STC Southern Theater Command
WTC Western Theater Command
NTC Northern Theater Command
CTC Central Theater Command
THAAD Terminal High Altitude Area Defense
UN United Nations
UNMISS UN Mission in South Sudan
UNAMID UN-African Union Hybrid Operation in Darfur
UNIFIL UN Interim Force in Lebanon
UNSC UN Security Council
UNPKO UN peacekeeping operation
UNTSO UN Truce Supervision Organization