Abuse and Violence: Working With Our Patients in General Practice (4th Edition)
Abuse and Violence: Working With Our Patients in General Practice (4th Edition)
Abuse and Violence: Working With Our Patients in General Practice (4th Edition)
Disclaimer
This text is directed at health practitioners possessing appropriate qualifications and skills in
ascertaining and discharging their professional (including legal) duties.
The information set out in this publication is current at the date of first publication and is intended
for use as a guide of a general nature only and may or may not be relevant to particular patients
or circumstances. This publication is not exhaustive of the subject matter. Persons implementing
any recommendations contained in this publication must exercise their own independent skill or
judgement or seek appropriate professional advice relevant to their own particular circumstances.
Compliance with any recommendations cannot of itself guarantee discharge of the duty of care
owed to patients and others coming into contact with the health professional and the premises from
which the health practitioner operates.
Accordingly, The Royal Australian College of General Practitioners (RACGP) and its employees and
agents shall have no liability (including without limitation liability by reason of negligence) to any users
of the information contained in this publication for any loss or damage (consequential or otherwise),
cost or expense incurred or arising by reason of any person using or relying on the information
contained in this publication and whether caused by reason of any error, negligent act, omission or
misrepresentation in the information.
Recommended citation
Abuse and violence: Working with our patients in general practice, 4th edn. Melbourne:
The Royal Australian College of General Practitioners, 2014.
The Royal Australian College of General Practitioners
RACGP House
100 Wellington Parade
East Melbourne VIC 3002 Australia
Tel 1800 626 901
Fax 03 9696 7511
www.racgp.org.au
ISBN 978-0-86906-384-2
First edition published 1992
Second edition published 1998
Third edition published 2008
Fourth edition published June 2014
© The Royal Australian College of General Practitioners 2014
Abuse and violence
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Acknowledgements
The Commonwealth Department of Social Services provided funding for this project as part of the
National Plan to Reduce Violence against Women and their Children 2010–2022.
The Royal Australian College of General Practitioners (RACGP) gratefully acknowledges the contributors
listed below.
Clinical editors
Dr Elizabeth Hindmarsh, MBBS, FRACGP, RACGP Co-Chair of the RACGP Faculty of Specific Interests –
Abuse and Violence Network
Professor Kelsey Hegarty, MBBS, FRACGP, DRANZCOG, PhD, General Practice and Primary Health Care
Academic Centre, University of Melbourne, Victoria; RACGP Co-Chair of the RACGP Faculty of Specific
Interests – Abuse and Violence Network
Contributors
Dr Jill Benson MBBS, DCH, FACPsychMed (Chapter 14), Medical Director, Kakarrara Wilurrara Health
Alliance, South Australia
Associate Professor Jan Coles PhD, MMed (Women’s Health), MBBS, DCH, GCHPE (Chapter 6),
Department of General Practice, Monash University, Victoria
Dr Kyllie Cripps BA (Hons), PhD (Chapter 11), Indigenous Law Centre, The University of New South Wales,
New South Wales
Dr Gillian Eastgate MBBS, FRACGP, Grad Cert Health Studies (Chapter 10), School of Medicine, The
University of Queensland
Ms Kirsty Forsdike BA (Hons), PgDipLaw, PgDipLegalPractice (Chapters 10, 13 and administrative
coordination), General Practice and Primary Health Care Academic Centre, University of Melbourne, Victoria
Ms Kerry Haarsma BBSc, BA (Hons) (Chapter 4), Department of General Practice, Flinders University, South
Australia
Professor Kelsey Hegarty, MBBS, FRACGP, DRANZCOG, PhD (Chapters 1–5, 13), General Practice and
Primary Health Care Academic Centre, University of Melbourne, Victoria; RACGP Co-Chair of the RACGP
Faculty of Specific Interests – Abuse and Violence Network
Dr Elizabeth Hindmarsh, MBBS, FRACGP (Chapters 6, 8, 10, 13), RACGP Co-Chair of the RACGP Faculty
of Specific Interests – Abuse and Violence Network
Associate Professor John Litt MBBS, PhD, FRACGP, FAFPHM, MSc (Epid), DipRACOG (Chapters 4, 7),
Discipline of General Practice, Flinders University, South Australia
Dr Ronald McCoy MBBS (Chapter 9), Central Clinical School, University of Sydney, New South Wales
A/Prof Ruth McNair MBBS, DRANZCOG, DA (UK), FRACGP, FACRRM (Chapter 2), General Practice and
Primary Health Care Academic Centre, University of Melbourne, Victoria
A/Prof Vanita Parekh MBChB, FAChSHM, FACLM, DipVen, GradCertHE, DFSRH, DFFP (Chapter 9), ANU
Medical School, Australia National University, Canberra
iv Abuse and violence
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Dr Gwenneth Roberts PhD, Bbus (HealthAdmin) (Chapter 10), School of Medicine, University of
Queensland, Queensland
Professor Phillip Slee BA (Hons), DipEd, PhD (Chapter 7), School of Education, Flinders University,
South Australia
Professor Angela Taft MPH, PhD (Chapters 5, 12), Judith Lumley Centre, La Trobe University, Victoria
Table 1. Coding scheme used for levels of evidence and grades of recommendation
Levels of evidence
Level Explanation
I Evidence obtained from a systematic review of level II studies
II Evidence obtained from a randomised controlled trial (RCT)
III–1 Evidence obtained from a pseudo-RCT (ie alternate allocation or some other method)
III–2 Evidence obtained from a comparative study with concurrent controls:
• non-randomised, experimental trial
• cohort study
• case-control study
• interrupted time series with a control group.
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Table 1. Coding scheme used for levels of evidence and grades of recommendation
Levels of evidence
III–3 Evidence obtained from a comparative study without concurrent controls:
• historical control study
• two or more single arm study
• interrupted time series without a parallel control group.
IV Case series with either post-test or pre-test/post-test outcomes
Practice Opinions of respected authorities, based on clinical experience, descriptive studies or reports
point of expert committees
Grades of recommendations
Grade Explanation
A Body of evidence can be trusted to guide practice
B Body of evidence can be trusted to guide practice in most situations
C Body of evidence provides some support for recommendation(s) but care should be taken in
its application
D Body of evidence is weak and recommendation must be applied with caution
Acronyms
Contents
Key messages
• Interpersonal abuse and violence includes intimate partner abuse, adult survivors of child abuse,
sexual assault, child abuse, bullying and elder abuse. Violence is not just physical; it includes
emotional, sexual, economic and social abuse9
• Interpersonal abuse and violence is very common, with the main perpetrators of such violence
being men, but women can also be perpetrators10
• Abuse and violence is an issue for the whole community. Health practitioners have a role in dealing
with these issues and need to play their part in prevention, identification and response (refer to
Appendix 1. Nine steps to intervention – the 9 Rs)3
Recommendations
• Safety is a concept that should be foremost when working with patients experiencing abuse and
violence3 Practice point
• Health practitioners should have a system in place that includes the whole of practice and referral
pathways to safety and healing3 Practice point
• It is important to receive training that includes our own attitudes and assumptions about abuse
and violence as they can affect the way we respond to patients experiencing abuse and violence3
Practice point
Introduction
In this manual, abuse and violence encompasses:
• Intimate partner abuse (often known as domestic violence) – any behaviour within an intimate
relationship that causes physical, emotional, sexual, economic and social harm to those in the
relationship.9 An intimate relationship may refer to a survivor’s current or previous partner or living
companion, including same sex relationships
• Perpetrators of intimate partner abuse – a person who commits, or knowingly allows, acts of abuse,
neglect or exploitation to occur
• Children in violent families – children who are members of a family in which abuse and violence occurs,
whether or not they themselves are abused
• Child abuse – any type of abuse that involves physical, emotional, sexual, or economic abuse or neglect
of a child under 18 years of age (16 years of age in New South Wales, 17 years of age in Victoria)
• Adult survivors of child abuse – adults who experienced physical, sexual, or emotional abuse or
neglect during their childhood or adolescence
• Sexual violence – any sexual act, attempt to obtain a sexual act, or other act directed against a
person’s sexuality using coercion, by any person regardless of their relationship to the victim, in any
setting. It includes rape, defined as the physically forced or otherwise coerced penetration of the vulva or
anus with a penis, other body part or object3
2 Abuse and violence
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• Elder abuse – any type of abuse (physical, emotional, sexual, economic) or neglect of a person 65 years
of age or over, either in a residential aged care facility (RACF), in private care, or living independently. It
can be a single or repeated act, or lack of appropriate action, occurring within any relationship where
there is an expectation of trust, which causes harm or distress to an older person.11
Family violence is broader than intimate partner abuse or domestic violence and child abuse as it includes
any violence or abuse that is occurring within a family – between, for example, siblings, uncles, aunts,
cousins, grandparents and in-laws.
While it is acknowledged that not all survivors of abuse are women and not all perpetrators are men,
research supports that men are the perpetrators in the majority of cases for child abuse, sexual assault and
intimate partner abuse. Intimate partner abuse incidents that are reported show that the majority of those
affected are women.12
The WHO categorises all of the above forms of violence within interpersonal violence (refer to Figure 1). This
manual does not address acquaintance violence (apart from child and young person bullying) or stranger
violence (apart from sexual assaults by strangers). It also does not cover the large burden of abuse and
violence that occurs in global conflict zones, refugee camps and asylum detention centres.
Interpersonal
Family/partner Community
Physical
Sexual
Psychological
Deprivation or neglect
Reproduced with permission from: Krug EG, Dahlberg LL, Mercy JA, Zwi AB, Lozano R, editors. World report on violence and
health. Geneva: WHO, 2002. Available at www.who.int/violenceprevention/approach/definition/en (Accessed 17 February 2014).
This manual includes guidance on intimate partner abuse (Chapters 2–5), child abuse (Chapter 6) young
people and bullying (Chapter 7), adult survivors of child sexual abuse (Chapter 8), sexual assault (Chapter
9). It also addresses specific populations such as the elderly and disabled (Chapter 10), Aboriginal
and Torres Strait Islander peoples (Chapter 11), and migrant and refugee communities (Chapter 12). It
concludes with reference to legal issues (Chapter 13) and, importantly, doctor self-care (Chapter 14). There
is an emphasis on particular issues for rural populations and same-sex populations throughout the manual.
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Prevalence
The Australian Bureau of Statistics found that young people aged 18–24 are the most likely group to have
experienced some form of violence over the past year.10 More than one in 10 young women, and nearly one
in four young men had experienced some form of violence during 2012.
Both men and women were more likely to have experienced physical violence than sexual violence.
However, sexual violence was four times more common for women than men: 19% of women had
experienced sexual violence since the age of 15 compared to 4.5% of men.10
Since the age of 15, women were more likely to have experienced violence from someone they knew than
by a stranger, while the reverse was true for men.10
This manual concentrates on the more prevalent form – violence against women by someone they know.
The prevalence of different types of violence and abuse are detailed in individual sections of this manual.
• Physical abuse – injuries may range from minor trauma, which may or may not be visible, to broken
bones and lacerations, head injuries and injuries to internal organs. For many victims, the abuse occurs
regularly. Some are threatened with weapons, such as knives, or household items such as a hot iron,
cigarettes or a length of rubber hose. Physical abuse can take many forms such as smashing property,
or killing or hurting family pets.
• Emotional abuse – may include subtle or overt verbal abuse, humiliation, threats or any behaviour
aimed at scaring or terrorising the person experiencing the abuse. The victim may lose their confidence,
self-esteem or self-determination. Emotional abuse can take many forms including threats of suicide,
extreme jealousy and stalking or harassment at work or through the use of technology.
• Child sexual abuse – for children, sexual abuse may involve forcing or enticing them to take part in
sexual activities, whether or not the child is aware of what is happening. The activities may involve
physical contact, including penetrative or non-penetrative acts. The abuse may include non-contact
activities such as involving children in looking at, or in the production of, pornographic material or
watching sexual activities, or encouraging children to behave in sexually inappropriate ways.
• Adult sexual assault – involves any type of sexual activity to which there is no consent. This may or may
not involve penetration or physical contact with the victim (for example, exposure). It is important to note
that people with a disability or the elderly may not have consented, or they may have lost their ability to
consent (for example, those with dementia).
• Economic abuse – restricting access to money and essential needs, fraudulently using another’s money
for personal gain, or stealing from the victim; the illegal taking, misuse, or concealment of funds, property
or assets.
• Social abuse – isolating the victim from family and friends, and other contacts in the community.
• Neglect – the persistent failure to meet the basic physical and/or psychological needs of a person for
whom you are caring, such as failing to protect from physical harm or danger, or failure to ensure access
to appropriate medical care or treatment. It may also include neglect of, or unresponsiveness to, the
other person’s basic emotional needs.
Types of abuse are across populations and ages, however, all of them involve an abuse of power. The next
section illustrates how a partner uses power.
Abuse and violence can take many forms in intimate relationships, and is often not recognised as such by
the victim. For example:
At the time I felt that it was not really abuse but the longer I thought about it the more that I felt it
was abuse. Emotional abuse is more severe than physical abuse as there are no outward marks
or bruises. When this was realised by myself I got out. Living alone is far better than what was
happening in the relationship.
4 Abuse and violence
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ARGUMENT
DOMESTIC ABUSE
• We expect the family to nurture, protect, guide and provide refuge for all its members.
• Family violence forces us to acknowledge that for some families this is not the case and that, for some,
the greatest danger lies in the home itself.
• As a community, we believe that the family is the basis of a good community and a strong nation. The
existence of family violence challenges our sense of security.
• The high level of violence we tolerate as a society – for example, in some sports, in film and television –
can be seen as normalising this behaviour.
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5
• The broader context of community gender norms of discrimination against women and men controlling
women’s behaviour.
The WHO endorses an ecological multidimensional framework of risk factors for family violence (refer to
Figure 3). A society that endorses rigid gender roles or male entitlement and ownership of women, and
communities that experience high rates of unemployment, poor health, overcrowding, alcoholism and few
support services are most at risk. Male dominance within the family, male control of wealth, use of alcohol
and marital conflict can be risk factors in relationships, while experiencing abuse as a child or witnessing
abuse as a child can be individual risk factors.15
Reproduced with permission from: Krug EG, Dahlberg LL, Mercy JA, Zwi AB, Lozano R, editors. World report on violence and
health. Geneva: WHO 2002. Available at www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/violence/world_report/en/summary_en.pdf
(Accessed 17 February 2014).
This manual particularly addresses vulnerable populations, including disabled women, women from
culturally and linguistically diverse populations and Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander women, all of whom
may be subjected to a higher prevalence of abuse and violence. Rural populations, which may have less
access to services and information, are also highlighted.
Attitudes in society
Attitudes within the Australian community regarding family violence have been improving over time, although
there are some gender differences. A 2009 survey16 by the Victorian Health Promotion Foundation explored
attitudes towards violence in Australia. The strongest predictors for holding violence-supportive attitudes
were being male and having low levels of support for gender equity or equality. There is a developing
awareness that interpersonal abuse and violence is a crime and is not acceptable.
• 1 in 5 people (22%) believe that domestic violence can be excused if the perpetrator later regrets what
they have done.
• 22% of people believe that domestic violence is perpetrated equally by both men and women.
• 14% of Australians regard domestic violence as a private matter.
• 4% of Australians condone the use of physical force by a man against his wife.
In this community survey,16 women are more likely than men to be aware that intimate partner abuse
can consist of both psychological and physical abuse. Women also tend to attach a greater degree of
seriousness to such abuse. Both men and women identify men as more likely to be perpetrators.
Many myths (refer to Box 1 and 2) however, are still held as beliefs by health practitioners, despite more
training on family violence being available to clinicians in the last decade.
Box 2. Myth 2 – Abuse and violence only occurs in certain groups, for example only
poor women are abused
In reality …
Numerous studies, in Australia and internationally, show that both victims and perpetrators are
found in all social classes and across all ethnic groups.18 The abuse may be more hidden in higher
socioeconomic groups, even among GPs themselves.
These myths and GPs’ own experience of abuse (refer to Chapter 14) may impact on their work with
patients experiencing family violence.
Resources
Please refer to Appendix 7 for resources nationally and in your area.
Further information
The further reading and information listed below will assist GPs in this role.
Key messages
• The majority of intimate partner abuse victims are women in heterosexual relationships; however,
intimate partner abuse also occurs in same-sex relationships22
• Intimate partner abuse is common. It is one of the leading contributors to death and disability for
women of child-bearing age23 and has major effects on the health of children24
• Most women are open to enquiry about intimate partner abuse25 and the gender of a patient’s
health practitioner does not affect disclosure of intimate partner abuse26
Recommendations
• Health practitioners should ask patients who are showing clinical indicators of the mental and
physical effects of intimate partner abuse about their experiences of abuse3 Level II B
• Health practitioners should provide first line support – listening, inquiring about needs, validating
women’s disclosure, enhancing safety and providing support – to women who disclose abuse3
Practice point
Introduction
Intimate partner abuse (or domestic violence) is the most common form of assault perpetrated against
adult women in Australia today.10 Globally, one in three women experience physical or sexual violence at
the hands of their partners.3 Because it occurs in the privacy of the home, and those involved are often
reluctant to talk about it, intimate partner abuse remains a hidden problem in all strata of society. Intimate
partner abuse occurs in heterosexual and homosexual relationships for men and women. However, as
intimate partner abuse is perpetrated more often against women, this chapter focuses on women (and their
children) as victims of abuse. That said, the overarching statements and recommendations in this chapter
relate to both genders.
This chapter outlines an appropriate initial response by GPs and their practices to survivors of intimate
partner abuse. Chapter 4 outlines the ongoing management and response for survivors. Chapter 3 provides
an overview of documentation, risk assessment and mandatory reporting and Chapter 5, the response to
perpetrators. In particular, doctors working in the Northern Territory need to be aware of the mandatory
reporting requirements for domestic and family violence. Visit www.1800respect.org.au/workers/fact-
sheets/mandatory-reporting-requirements for further details.
Understanding and naming intimate partner abuse is the first important step in breaking the silence. This
manual employs a broad definition that includes abuse of a physical, sexual or emotional nature (Figure 4).
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9
Forms of violence
Violence used by partners can take many forms:
• punching, hitting, slapping, shoving, throwing objects, pulling hair, twisting limbs, choking and other
forms of physical assault including use of weapons and homicide, threats to injure or otherwise harm
adults, children or pets
• sexual abuse or assault
• harassment by telephone, email or at the workplace
• deprivation of finances and basic human needs (access to food, sleep, medical care)
• erosion of self-esteem through humiliation and verbal abuse
• social isolation through denial of outside contact with friends or relatives
• use of technology to abuse, for example, sexting.
Although many victims of intimate partner abuse experience physical abuse, most victims say that the
constant fear of the next episode is as bad as the actual violence:
• You don’t know what the limit is when he’s attacking you. It is very frightening.
• Each time you think: This will be the last. He’s going to kill me.
Physical injuries heal. Emotional abuse, if not dealt with, can cause long-term suffering for the survivor:
Person Verbal
Property Economic
Social
Harrassment
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Prevalence
The Australian Bureau of Statistics 2012 Personal Safety Survey10 collected information about the nature
and extent of violence experienced by men and women since the age of 15. It includes men’s and women’s
experience of current and previous partner violence, lifetime experience of stalking, physical and sexual
abuse before the age of 15 and general feelings of safety. The report shows that:
clinics had experienced partner abuse in their lifetime. Abused women were more likely to be younger,
separated or divorced, have experienced child abuse and come from a violent family.28
It is important that we have an idea of the level of abuse and violence in general practice populations and
the intergenerational transmission of abuse in families. This heightened awareness may help to identify
health issues related to abusive episodes.
Prevention
Preventing intimate partner abuse requires culturally safe strategies involving community institutions and
opinion leaders, including primary care.29 However, there is very limited evidence to guide healthcare
organisations in primary prevention activities.30 Some examples of workplace-based strategies31 that a
primary care organisation may choose include:
• training of staff in respectful relationships or bystander education to gain the skills and confidence
required to identify, speak out about or seek to engage others in responding to specific incidents of
violence, attitudes, practices or policies that contribute to violence32
• appointing practice or hospital champions who will assist with instituting prevention awareness activities
across the workplace33
• acknowledging, as an organisation, significant days relating to the elimination of violence against women
• improving the workplace climate and peer support to work with this sensitive issue.
Depression appears to be one of the strongest clinical predictors of intimate partner abuse. One in five
currently depressed women attending Victorian general practices has experienced severe physical,
emotional and sexual abuse by a partner or ex-partner in the past 12 months.36 Multiple physical symptoms
are also a key indicator of abuse.28
Long-term consequences of intimate partner abuse include post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD, refer to
DSM-V criteria for PTSD, available at www.dsm5.org/Documents/PTSD%20Fact%20Sheet.pdf), which
is recognised as being likely to manifest itself following a ‘psychologically distressing event that is outside
the range of usual human experience’. Intimate partner abuse and sexual assault are recognised as being
events that can result in PTSD due to the abuse being experienced with feelings of terror, fear for one’s
life, loss of control and a sense of helplessness. Abuse is also associated with other symptoms such as
phobic avoidance of similar situations to where the abuse happened, anxiety, fear, withdrawal, isolation,
depression, appetite and sleep disturbances, as well as problems with intimate and sexual relationships.
More general clinical indicators include a delay in seeking treatment or inconsistent explanation of
injuries, frequent presentations to general practice, noncompliance with treatment or attendances, an
accompanying partner who is over-attentive or identifiable social isolation.
happening to them, and were caught in our society’s demand to make the marriage work. While
in the relationship, they minimised the rapes, they blamed themselves or they feared even worse
consequences if they didn’t comply.38
Thus, there are many reasons why disclosure is not immediate and is often sporadic. It has been called
the ‘dance of disclosure’, where women reveal only partially, often get frightened after they disclose and
disappear for some time and then disclose at another time and place.
In relation to same-sex relationships, additional barriers to disclosure of intimate partner abuse include:39
• internalised homophobia – the internalisation of negative attitudes and assumptions about homosexuality
• declaration – the fear of being ‘outed’ to friends, family and/or work colleagues
• emasculation – men declaring abuse at the hands of another man may be disempowering
• police heterosexism – a number of studies indicate that homophobic behaviours and violence are both
permitted and committed by the police
• societal homophobia – society tends not to promote disclosure, whether this be due to homophobia or a
tendency to view the world in terms of heterosexuality.
Studies show that there is a need for patients to be encouraged to discuss abuse and to see it as
affecting their health. We need to have a high level of suspicion and to be able to ask direct questions in a
sensitive way. There is insufficient evidence for screening in clinical settings,3,2 with the possible exception
of antenatal care. However, there should be a low threshold for asking about abuse, particularly when
underlying psychosocial problems are suspected. Possible questions to ask and statements to make are
listed in Table 3.
Table 3. Questions and statements to make if you suspect intimate partner abuse
• Has your partner ever physically threatened or hurt you?
• Is there a lot of tension in your relationship? How do you resolve arguments?
• Sometimes partners react strongly in arguments and use physical force. Is this happening to you?
• Are you afraid of your partner? Have you ever been afraid of any partner?
• Have you ever felt unsafe in the past?
• Violence is very common in the home. I ask a lot of my patients about abuse because no-one should have
to live in fear of their partners.
• too terrorised to be able to always protect their children, and too worn down by repeated violence to
seek help
• living in fear of violence with the use of weapons
• in real fear of losing their children to authorities whom they fear will disapprove of their home life and take
the children into care
• at greater risk themselves of abusing their children
• unable or reluctant to recognise the cycle. The patient continues to see each episode as a discrete event
‘caused’ by another specific event.
14 Abuse and violence
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• fear of reprisals – many women are subjected to threats of injury and violence to themselves or their
children if they leave. Approximately 40–45% of women killed by their spouse are separated or in
the process of separating40,41
• social isolation – a number of social factors contribute to why women feel they cannot leave;
having dependent children, being deliberately isolated from friends and family by the perpetrator,
and shame relating to injuries. Abused women often have no-one to turn to and are unaware of
available services
• financial dependence – women generally do not have equivalent earning capacity to men. To leave
their partner condemns many women, and their children, to a substantial decline in their standard
of living42
• emotional dependence and fear – many abused women are committed to their relationship, love
their partner and are hoping for a change in the relationship. Some abused women are fearful that
their partner will not cope with a separation and/or the partner may be threatening to suicide if
she leaves
• poor self-esteem – after years of physical violence and verbal abuse, many victims lose their self-
confidence and doubt their ability to cope on their own.
Management
In a meta-analysis of 25 interview studies of women’s expectations and experiences when they encounter
clinicians, there were consistent messages about how GPs can respond appropriately to the issue of
partner violence (Table 4).43
Even if a woman does not choose referral to specialist intimate partner abuse services, our validation of her
experience (Table 5) and the offer of support is an act that may contribute to her being able to change her
situation. These questions and responses are applicable for both male and female victims. The readiness to
action model can be very helpful in understanding a patient’s current position within the journey of change
(refer to Chapter 4).
In addition to offering support, we need to make an initial assessment of the patient’s safety (Table 6). This
may be as simple as checking if it is safe for her (and her children) to return home. A more detailed risk
assessment (refer to Chapter 3) will include questions about escalation of abuse, the content of threats, and
direct and indirect abuse of any children.
Specific populations
Pregnant women
GPs involved in obstetric or shared antenatal care need to be aware that pregnancy is a risk factor for
intimate partner abuse. Evidence suggests that four to nine women in every 100 pregnant women are
abused.44
We ask pregnant patients about smoking, alcohol and breastfeeding, and we also need to screen for
intimate partner abuse.3,2
For many women, pregnancy and the post partum period exacerbates the violence and threats within their
relationship.45 For some, pregnancy may even provoke it. A violent and jealous partner may resent the
pregnancy because he is not prepared to ‘share’ her. There may be financial or sexual pressures, which are
compounded by the pregnancy.
Abused pregnant women are twice as likely to miscarry than non-abused pregnant women. An abusive
partner will often target the breasts, stomach and genitals of their pregnant partner.3 Often the abuse will
start with the first pregnancy, and as a result the woman may avoid prenatal check-ups. Women who do
not seek antenatal care until the third trimester should raise suspicion.
Consider asking about intimate partner abuse in the antenatal period.3
• waiting areas – displaying materials specific to GLBT people including a rainbow flag sticker and specific
information pamphlets on local services and support groups
• staff training – ensuring that all staff are trained not to make assumptions about the gender of patients
and their partners, and to be aware of other forms of heterosexism
• practice policy – including anti-discrimination statements specific to sexual orientation and gender identity
• communication within the consultation – the use of gender-neutral language when discussing partners,
being openly non-judgemental about different lifestyles, and being willing to ask direct questions about
the possibility of abuse and discrimination.
Conclusion
In 2013, the WHO released clinical and policy guidelines for GPs responding to intimate partner violence
and sexual violence.3
The guidelines recommend that GPs ask women about intimate partner abuse as a part of assessing the
conditions that may be caused or complicated by intimate partner abuse. These include mental health
symptoms, alcohol and other substance use, chronic pain or chronic digestive or reproductive symptoms.
Minimum requirements for GPs to ask women about violence include that it is safe to do so – that
the abusive partner is not present, for example – and that they have training and systems in place.
Domestic violence posters and pamphlets should also be available in women’s bathrooms within the
practice or service.
GPs should provide immediate first-line support to women who disclose violence including:
• being non-judgemental and supportive, and validating what the woman is saying
• providing practical care and support that responds to her concerns, but does not intrude
• asking about her history of violence, listening carefully, but not pressuring her to talk
• helping her to access information about resources, including legal and other services that she might
think helpful
• assisting her to increase safety for herself and her children
• providing or mobilising social support.
GPs are often the only health practitioners seeing the victim, the perpetrator and the children, which can
create difficulties for doctors. The major principles of management are safety and confidentiality within legal
limits. Chapter 3 outlines documentation, safety and risk assessment issues, Chapter 4 ongoing follow-up
and management of patients and Chapter 5 management of perpetrators.
Resources
Please refer to Appendix 7 for resources nationally and in your area.
Further information
• Responding to intimate partner violence and sexual violence against women: WHO clinical and policy
guidelines. Available at http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/85240/1/9789241548595_eng.pdf
• When she talks to you about the violence – a tool kit for GPs on domestic violence that was developed
in NSW. Available at www.itstimetotalk.net.au/gp-toolkit/
• Management of the whole family when intimate partner violence is present: Guidelines for primary care
physicians – this guide outlines information relating to management of the whole family. Developed by
an international group, it explores the evidence surrounding identification and management of patients
experiencing intimate partner abuse. Available at www.latrobe.edu.au/jlc/research/reducing-violence-
against-women-and-children
• For more information on implementing change at a practice level, refer to the RACGP’s Putting
prevention into practice: guidelines for the implementation of prevention in the general practice setting
(the Green Book). Available at www.racgp.org.au/your-practice/guidelines/greenbook
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19
Key messages
• Health practitioners should express their concern about a patient’s safety and likelihood of risk but
it is a woman’s right to decide on her own pathway to safety3
• Mandatory reporting of child abuse is required throughout Australia (refer to Chapter 6)
• In the context of intimate partner abuse, where the child or young person does not appear to have
directly experienced any violence, you may consider a referral to a vulnerable children’s organisation
(see Resources)
Recommendations
• Health practitioners should work closely with specialist services including police, to enhance safety
for women and children3 Practice point
• Safety assessments need to be undertaken by health practitioners when seeing any patient
experiencing abuse and violence3 Practice point
• Documenting carefully what a patient has said about the abuse and violence in the record is
important for communication with others and potentially for legal processes (refer to Chapter 9
and Chapter 13)3 Practice point
Introduction
Chapter 2 outlines issues around identification of intimate partner abuse including how to ask and provide
an initial response. This chapter outlines how GPs can provide an initial assessment of risk and safety for
women and children. This does not preclude consulting and referring to specialist services including police,
women’s and domestic violence services for a more detailed assessment of risk and safety.
Risk assessment
Any assessment of risk to victims of intimate partner abuse must be structured and informed by:
Risk indicators
Risk indicators of ongoing family violence include:
• perpetrator history of violent behaviour both within and outside of the household
• perpetrator access to lethal weapons
• perpetrator use of alcohol and drugs
• recent separation or divorce
• perpetrator stressors such as unemployment or recent loss
• perpetrator history of witnessing or being the victim of family violence as a child
• evidence of mental health problems or personality disorder in perpetrator
• perpetrator resistance to change and lack of motivation for treatment
• attitude of perpetrator that supports violence towards women.58
Some researchers have developed risk assessment tools,54 for example, the Danger Assessment Scale
(www.dangerassessment.org/DA.aspx)59 was developed for use by GPs in consultation with women to
enhance women’s reflection on safety and self-care.
Women might be feeling unsafe to go home and may need urgent crisis referral (refer to Resources) and
an urgent safety plan. Many women feel safe to go home after the consultation that day. For these women
further discussion of ongoing detailed safety planning may be delayed until the next follow-up visit.
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21
Safety planning
Safety planning is the development of a plan to achieve and maintain safety of women and their children.
It includes:
• Enter in the medical record any health complaints, symptoms, and signs, as you would for any other
woman, including a history of who injured her.
• Describe physical injuries, including type, extent, location and age.
• If you are sure the records will be kept confidential, it may be helpful to note the cause or suspected
cause of these injuries or other conditions. This is important for follow-up purposes, to remind yourself or
alert another provider at later visits.
• Some practices use a code, located either on the medical record or an electronic medical system or
special coloured sticker, to indicate cases of abuse or suspected abuse.
• If the confidentiality of records cannot be guaranteed or a woman requests that you not keep notes, it is
better not to overtly document actions or interventions, for example, risk, any discussion about onsite or
external services, secondary consultation or referral.
• At the end of the medical record entry, document the plan for the woman, for example, follow-up or
referral to services.
22 Abuse and violence
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It is important to document two things: information the woman has given you in a factually accurate way,
and your own observations of injuries, affect, any other health conditions and anything else that is relevant.
The notes should be detailed, and include what the patient said using quotation marks. Record any relevant
behaviour you observed, for example, ‘patient cried when she spoke about …’ (refer to www.itstimetotalk.
net.au/gp-toolkit). Documentation is critical for adequate care for the woman, as well as for follow-up
should there be a legal process, which is often unknown at the time of medical intervention (refer to
Chapter 9 and Chapter 13).
To ensure confidentiality of records in the health setting, it is important that neither patients nor their visitors
or support persons are able to gain access to the medical records unless this has been formally requested
and in adherence to the relevant confidentiality protocol.
Conclusion
Within your practice there are a number of steps you can take to assist with dealing with abuse and
violence issues. It is important to discuss issues surrounding abuse with all staff and to decide upon a
practice policy related to reporting. This will give you a clearer framework within which to operate. Each
state and territory police force now has trained domestic and sexual assault teams, including trained
domestic violence officers who may be a helpful resource for managing these issues in general practice.
If you suspect that an adult patient is being repeatedly assaulted, and that patient is not willing to approach
the police, you should still provide the patient with the appropriate information on, for example, family and
domestic violence or sexual assault services (refer to Resources, Chapter 9 and Chapter 13). Also consider
approaching the police yourself. Remember, if there is a serious and imminent threat to the life and health
of an individual, it may be appropriate to provide a report to the police on the basis that there is an
overriding duty to disclose information in the public interest. These are often difficult and complex cases
and you are encouraged to seek advice from colleagues and/or your medical indemnity insurer if faced
with this situation.
Resources
Please refer to Appendix 7 for resources nationally and in your area.
Further information
• 1800RESPECT is a 24-hour telephone line that provides online and telephone crisis and trauma
counselling. More information is available at www.1800respect.org.au
24 Abuse and violence
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Key messages
• Intimate partner abuse is strongly associated with mental health issues, which should be treated by
health practitioners with a good understanding of violence against women3
• Women and their children are at increased risk at the time of separation. This process needs to be
carefully planned to maintain safety65
• Intimate partner abuse is an issue for the whole community. Health practitioners have a role to play3
and need to see themselves as part of the wider intervention – domestic violence services, legal,
police, housing – that needs to occur to support survivors
Recommendations
• A range of counselling approaches, including motivational interviewing strategies, provide support
and are effective in assisting women to discuss safety and reduce depressive symptoms in general
practice2 Level II B
• Health practitioners should offer to refer women who have post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
and who are no longer experiencing violence for trauma-informed cognitive behavioural therapy
(CBT)3 Level I B
• Pregnant women who disclose intimate partner abuse should be offered empowerment
counselling and advocacy support by trained health practitioners3 Level I B
• Health practitioners should offer children who have been exposed to intimate partner abuse a
referral for psychotherapeutic counselling or small group therapy3 Level I B
Introduction
Once we have overcome the many barriers to identification (Chapter 2), there is a role for ongoing follow-
up, support and referral. GPs working in the Northern Territory need to be aware of the mandatory reporting
requirements for domestic and family violence (visit www.1800respect.org.au/workers/fact-sheets/
mandatory-reporting-requirements).
Key ingredients to effective engagement, counselling and support include:
• continuity of care
• a sensitive, non-judgemental approach to enquiry
• a good understanding of available community resources and barriers that these women face
• ongoing support (refer to Chapter 2).
• effective
• appropriate and possible in a GP setting
• acceptable to patients and GPs
• cognisant of the issues of disclosure and engagement.
Counselling approaches
In addition to safety assessment and planning (Chapter 3), effective counselling strategies that can assist
survivors include CBT, motivational interviewing66–69 and an understanding of the behaviour change
process.70–79
Motivational interviewing
Motivational interviewing (MI) is a patient-centred clinical intervention intended to assist in strengthening
motivation and readiness for action.67 With intimate partner abuse, a woman’s ability to change her situation
may be very limited. It is important that MI is done with safety as the foremost concern for women and
their children.
One goal of MI is to elicit and reinforce ‘change talk’ from the patient.67,69,80 In MI, the focus is on reflections
and questions on topics that relate to ambivalence and action – what might promote action and what
makes it difficult or inhibits it. The skillful MI counsellor is attuned to change-relevant content in the patient’s
behaviour and communication. Their thoughtful reflective listening statements help to facilitate action. At the
same time, adopting the spirit of MI helps to affirm explicitly the client’s autonomy and choice with respect
to what, whether, and how to change.
A core component of the MI approach is the MI spirit – a mix of skilful counselling style blended with a clear
patient-centred approach. Key elements of the MI spirit include:69
• A collaborative, rather than authoritarian, approach – the GP actively fosters and encourages power
sharing in the interaction in such a way that the patient’s ideas substantially influence the direction and
outcome of the interview. Gaining a better understanding of the patient’s ideas, concerns, expectations
and preferences through using the MI approach increases shared decision making. Information is actively
shared and the patient is supported to consider options and to achieve informed preferences.
• Evocation – the focus is on the patient’s own motivation rather than trying to instil it. The GP works
proactively to evoke the patient’s own reasons for action and ideas about how change should happen.
All patients have goals, values and aspirations. Part of the MI approach is to connect health-related
behaviour with the things that patients care about.
• Honouring and respecting the patient’s autonomy – the MI process actively supports autonomy by
26 Abuse and violence
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building good relationships, respecting both individual expertise and competence and interdependence
on others. Patients can and do make choices and it is ultimately their right to choose what they wish
to do – patient self-determination is respected. Specifically, patients have the right to follow their own
preferences and make their own decisions even if these are regarded as problematic by others.
MI is different to the transtheoretical model of behaviour change. The latter is intended to provide a
comprehensive conceptual model of how and why changes occur, whereas MI is a specific clinical method
to enhance personal motivation for change.81
The transtheoretical model of behaviour change (TTM) is commonly referred to as the ‘stages of change’
model and has been used in many clinical settings to determine patient readiness for action, including
intimate partner abuse and other types of abuse and violence.2,82–84 While the stages of change model can
be useful, transition through the model is not usually linear. External factors, for example, social isolation or
a lack of finances, may inhibit a woman being able to make any changes to her situation. More importantly,
there is limited rigorous evidence of the effectiveness of the stages of change approach as the preferred
counselling approach for women who are victims of intimate partner abuse.2,83,85 It is preferable to maintain
a degree of flexibility rather than adopting a rigid approach when choosing intervention strategies.86
The stages of change, as applied to intimate partner abuse, can be categorised into five components
outlined below. It is important to keep in mind the limitations outlined above.
• Pre-contemplative – the woman is not aware that she has a problem or holds a strong belief that it is
her fault. Awareness is a key issue that you will wish to work on with your patient.
–– Suggest the possibility of a connection between symptoms and feelings of fear using the woman’s
terms.
• Contemplation – she has identified a problem but remains ambivalent about whether or not she wants
to or, more importantly, is able to make changes. If the perpetrator is also a patient of the GP, this may
generate ambivalence in the GP.
–– Encourage possibilities for change should she decide she needs them. Point out that you are available
to help and support her on the journey.
• Preparation/decision – the catalyst for change has arisen, whether it is concern for children or a
realisation her partner won’t change. Change talk is more apparent.
–– Explore resources. Respect her decision about what she wants to do – for example, talk to family/
friends/counsellor, leave the relationship, obtain a restraining order.
• Action – a plan devised in the previous stage is put into action.
–– Offer support to carry out the plan and ensure safety planning is in place.
• Maintenance – the woman’s commitment to the above actions is firm.
–– Praise whatever she has managed to do and support her decision.
• Returning/relapsing – the woman may feel compelled to reverse action. Reasons include finding life too
stressful, having limited or no access to children or resources.
–– Support her even if she returns to the relationship, doesn’t see a counsellor or fails to report abuse.
Reassure her that this pattern of behaviour is common for women.
It may be important that you simply suggest the possibility of a connection between what may be
happening at home or in the past and their presenting symptoms.
Often people who have these types of health problems are experiencing difficulties at home.
Is this happening to you?
Sometimes these symptoms can be associated with having been hurt in the past.
Did that ever happen to you?
It is useful at this, and any, time to signal your support and acknowledgement that any violence is not
acceptable. It is ineffective at this point to suggest leaving the relationship, but any message of support and
identifying that alternatives exist, may be a trigger for action.2,72,85,87 Remember that women are at greatest
risk of being a victim of homicide around the time of leaving. Therefore, planning when, and how, to leave
needs to be done carefully to maintain safety.
There are a number of barriers (refer to Chapter 2) to disclosure, particularly in small or rural communities –
for example, not wanting the GP to think badly of the perpetrator, particularly if there is a family doctor who
also sees other family members. There is often also a fear of repercussions and consequences, particularly
in small, interconnected and isolated communities where anonymity cannot be maintained. Women in rural
and remote areas may also find it more difficult to seek help or end a violent relationship. A range of factors
may compound the isolation that survivors already experience as part of the abuse, such as:
• access to services
• concerns about maintaining confidentiality and anonymity
• the stigma attached to the (public) disclosure of violence
• lack of transport and telecommunications.89,90
Table 8 outlines some of the contributors to both disclosure and engagement.
Table 8. Strategies to increase disclosure, engagement and readiness for action in women
who experience intimate partner abuse
Issue What is needed Description and comments References
Healthcare Clinician attitudes, • Clinicians need to be non-judgemental, 43, 91
worker judgements and empathetic, active listeners, respectful, and
characteristics behaviours compassionate. There must be development of
trust
• Importance of recognising/supporting patient
autonomy
Raising the Setting the agenda Open questions, reflection and active listening, 2, 43, 92
issue communication sensitivity non-judgemental enquiry, expressing
and counselling empathy
skills
Enquiry Ask about • Ask about the woman’s fears and concerns 43, 91
emotions and – anxiety, shame, self-blame, loneliness,
safety humiliation and embarrassment are commonly
associated with a reluctance to disclose
• Assessment of safety (victim and any children) is
important – What does she need in order to feel
safe? How safe does she feel? Has the violence
been escalating?
Reluctance to Linkage to the Increasing awareness of how intimate partner 2, 95
disclose presenting abuse is a contributor to the woman’s presenting
complaint complaint – have a suspicion of intimate partner
abuse when women present with anxiety,
depression, substance abuse and chronic pain
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Table 8. Strategies to increase disclosure, engagement and readiness for action in women
who experience intimate partner abuse
Issue What is needed Description and comments References
Complexity Insight Women want GPs to have a deeper understanding 43, 71, 96
of the complexities of their situation and
circumstances. GPs need to gain an understanding
of how the woman views intimate partner abuse
and what are their identified supports
Validation Legitimisation of Affirmation of experiences – address 43
experiences misconceptions eg it’s my fault, I deserve it
GP: You do not deserve this and it is not your fault
Vulnerability Asking about and • Cognitive behavioural strategies and motivational 2, 68, 93, 97,
acknowledging interviewing techniques 98
vulnerability
• Promotion of patient autonomy, empowerment 92, 93, 99
Time Sufficient time to Even brief interventions are valued, allowing the 43, 91
discuss woman to progress at her own pace
Decision making Collaborative Shared decision making, identifying turning points: 78, 85, 100
approach
• protecting others from the abuse/abuser
• increased severity or humiliation with abuse
• increased awareness of options/access to
support and resources
• fatigue/recognition that the abuser is not going
to change
• partner betrayal or infidelity
Ambivalence Exploration of the • Enquiring about ambivalence and motivation to 69
value of changing do something
and eliciting
• Change talk includes:
change talk
–– desire to change (I wish ... I would like to …)
–– ability (I could, I can, I might ...)
–– reasons (specific arguments for change), need
(statements about the need to change)
–– commitment (I will, I am going to …)
–– taking steps (this week I started …)
Privacy and Secure Reassurance of privacy and confidentiality, ensuring 43, 71, 100
confidentiality environment continuity of care
Exploring ambivalence
Many women who are abused express ambivalence about taking action, even if they have identified a
concern (or perhaps even a problem).
Yes, I know my husband beats me occasionally, but in between he’s okay. He’s not nasty to the
children and he treats me well.
Yes, my father was very hard on us … but we were really a happy family.
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29
‘Yes, but’ is the classic phrase associated with ambivalence. Part of the person wants to acknowledge the
abuse and another part does not.
It is useful to encourage patients to look at possibilities should they decide to do something. Just pointing
out that there are options, that violence in any form is wrong and that they do not have to put up with it, will
help to establish trust, build self-esteem and identify you as a supportive agent.100
Whatever you decide to do about the situation, if you think I can help, please let me know. I am
happy to discuss this with you and we can explore the options together.
To gain some understanding of how a relationship is perceived by your patient, you could get her to fill out a
healthy relationship tool and motivational interviewing tool. Ask her to rate how the relationship is going, on
a scale from 1 to 10. If she rates it as only 1 or 2, ask what she would need to happen to change this to a 4
or 5. This should provide some insight into what the woman thinks might contribute to a turning point.
Similarly, if she rates it as a 7 or more out of 10, try to get a more complete picture of her situation by
asking her why the rating was a 7 and not a 2 or 3. This should give you a sense of why this relationship is
important to the patient. Asking what would make it a 9 or 10 may also shed light on what else needs to
happen. A decision-balance matrix is also a constructive tool to explore a patient’s ambivalence about her
partner and the relationship.80 Emphasise that the reasons entered in the boxes should be her own reasons,
not what someone else has told her.
The GP needs to consider both dimensions of exploring a ‘decision balance’ – the emotional as well as the
cognitive. On an intellectual level the woman may have a clear understanding of her circumstances and may
acknowledge that she should leave. However, the fear associated with leaving the relationship and coping
alone may be incredibly strong, and she may feel emotionally ill equipped for the enormous physical and
emotional effort involved in making the changes.
Fear and the sense of powerlessness engendered by intimate partner abuse can be a prevailing deterrent
for survivors trying to move forward and away from abusive partners. Often regaining confidence and
emotional strength can be a gradual process, so that even small advances are initially viewed as real
hurdles. GPs need to be aware that moving out of an abusive relationship may take quite some time;
sometimes years. The GP can be an important source of ongoing support and strength if they are non-
judgemental of the rate of change and supportive of the decisions and choices the survivor makes along
the way.
Useful interventions include:
• stop excusing her partner of being sick, mentally ill, alcoholic, unemployed or under great stress
• stop blaming herself, and stop believing she is bad, provocative or responsible for the violence
• stop believing and hoping that if she is good her partner will not abuse her
30 Abuse and violence
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• stop pretending that nothing is wrong, and hiding or minimising her injuries
• stop believing her children would be disadvantaged if she and they were to leave
• stop believing that her partner will change
• start believing that there are other options.
Turning points
Often something happens to tip the scales in favour of taking action. This may be triggered by a specific
event or just an accumulation of experiences.
Common reasons given for reaching a turning point include:85
• protecting others (eg children) from the abuse and the abuser. It may be that the perpetrator has started
to hit the children. Many women in abusive home situations tolerate the violence ‘for the sake of the
children’, but when they too are subjected to it, this can be the catalyst for change
• increased severity or humiliation with abuse. The abuse may have escalated to a ‘new’ level. It may be
that the first incidence of physical abuse has occurred or a more serious episode of physical abuse has
occurred causing injury, or a serious threat has been made which leads to a change in the woman’s
sense of her and her family’s personal safety if she does nothing
• increased awareness of options and access to support and resources
• fatigue or recognition that the abuser is not going to change
• partner betrayal or infidelity.
Common ‘change talk’ statements when a women has reached a turning point may relate to desire to
change (I would like to …), ability (I can ..., I might be able to ...), reasons (I would probably feel better if I
..., I’ve had enough), need (I ought to, I really should …) commitment (I am going to, something has got to
change) and taking steps (this week I started to …).
It is important that the GP is aware of local and other resources the patient may have within their own social
network and family. It is good to clarify:
• What is it that the patient wants to do? Is this realistic and possible? The patient may need to explore
alternative options.
• How does she intend to go about it? Assess current level of risk and discuss a safety plan.
• What role does she want you to play? Consider the legal issues – for example, documenting injury and
impact and referrals to intimate partner abuse counselling and services).
The GP has a role when the patient has decided to act and taken some initial steps. Non-directive problem-
solving techniques can help at this time (refer to Appendix 5. Non-directive problem-solving/goal-setting tool).
Understanding and discussing her plan is helpful. Actions may include:
Warm referrals
Many women do not follow through with GP referrals. There are some things you can do to make it more
likely that a woman seeks the help you have recommended. If she accepts a referral, here are some things
you can do to make it easier for her:
• Offer to call to make an appointment for her if this would be of help – for example, if she doesn’t have a
phone or a safe place to make a call.
• Provide her with the written information she needs – time, location, how to get there, name of the person
she will see.
• Tell her about the service and what she can expect from it.
If she expresses problems with going to a referral for any reason, help her to make a decision using non-
directive problem-solving techniques. Barriers may include childcare, transport, fear that the partner may
find out. Always check to see if she has questions or concerns, and to be sure she has understood.
Conclusion
If GPs want to undertake supportive counselling, there are specific techniques that are helpful, including
MI and non-directive problem solving. Not all GPs will feel comfortable providing this. Active listening is a
simple supportive intervention in itself. Warm referrals to other professionals can also assist women on a
pathway to safety, healing and recovery.
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This time I did not go back even though I considered it many times … I knew I would not survive if I did and the
many small steps I had made towards independence with the help of a number of people, including my GP, meant
that I now had the strength, health and support to leave.
Resources
Please refer to Appendix 7 for resources nationally and in your area.
Further information
• When she talks to you about the violence – a tool kit for GPs on domestic violence that was developed in
NSW. Available at http://itstimetotalk.net.au/gp-toolkit
• Supporting patients experiencing family violence – resource from Australian Medical Association (AMA).
Available at https://ama.com.au/article/ama-family-violence-resource
• When she talks to you about the violence – video resource developed by AMA NSW. Available at https://
vimeo.com/105645549
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35
Key messages
• Mainly perpetrators are men and victims are women, although men may be victims as well101
• Perpetrators are not a homogenous group; they come from all socioeconomic, cultural and
social groups102
• It is not recommended for one health practitioner to counsel both the victim and the perpetrator4
Recommendations
• Health practitioners need to have an index of suspicion of the possibility of men using violence
when they are also experiencing substance abuse issues103 Practice point
• Men’s behaviour change programs are the referral options of choice for men who perpetrate
domestic violence Practice point
Introduction
While it is important to focus on the survivors of abuse and violence, it is equally important to acknowledge
the entire family when considering care. General practice, unlike other health services, may come into
contact with the victim, the perpetrator and/or the children. Intimate partner abuse affects all members of
the family. Most perpetrators of intimate partner abuse will be men, but it is also possible for a woman to
be the abuser.3
Perpetrators of intimate partner abuse come from all social, cultural and religious backgrounds. One of the
main problems in acknowledging the extent of abuse and violence is the fact that there is no distinguishing
characteristic of a man who will be violent towards his partner.
We need to be aware that perpetrators of intimate partner abuse tend to minimise responsibility for their
use of violence, blame the victim or other issues and greatly under-report their use of violence. They
generally have developed ways of convincing themselves and others that they aren’t responsible for
their violence, and can invite GPs and other practitioners to collude with those attitudes and beliefs that
minimise responsibility.
Prevalence
In research conducted with perpetrators, self-reporting mechanisms are often used. This has led
to fundamental issues of under-reporting,104 with the most consistent evidence coming from reports by
survivors. These figures place prevalence rates of perpetration of violence at 20–25% of the
general population.9
In order to understand why particular men become perpetrators, it is important to understand that there
are larger community and societal issues – norms, expectations – that create a complex framework in
which perpetrators operate. Perpetrators use physical, sexual, emotional, social, financial and other
forms of violence to maintain their power and control in the relationship. This is often based on societal
acceptance of male dominance, stereotyping of gender roles, linking masculinity to dominance and
acceptance of violence as a way to resolve conflict. These are all attitudes that are associated with intimate
partner abuse.105
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While gender-based power and control is an underlying factor in men’s perpetration of intimate partner
abuse, other factors are involved. Perpetrators are more likely to come from families where intimate partner
abuse occurred, where they experienced child abuse or an absent or rejecting father. However, some
perpetrators report well-adjusted childhoods and peaceful family-of-origin environments. Other factors that
have been linked to intimate partner abuse are mental disorders15 and substance abuse106,107 and these
have also been correlated with more significant risk of injury to the victim.108,109 Poverty, unemployment and
associating with delinquent peers in the community are also risk factors for perpetration of intimate partner
abuse. However, perpetration occurs across the socioeconomic spectrum.
Personal, situational and sociocultural factors all play a part in shaping perpetrators, so it is important
for GPs to view a clinical intervention as only one tool in a wider response. Legislation, policing, social
sanctions and community attitudes are also critical to ending the violence.110
It is extremely important to qualify here that while some of the factors outlined above may be risk factors for
intimate partner abuse, they are not causal. It cannot be assumed that perpetrators are mentally ill and/or
substance abusers. Profiling the characteristics of perpetrators is a new field of research.
• it is not possible for one person, however skilled, to counsel both parties in this sort of conflict
• of the danger of a GP inadvertently revealing some of the information provided by the victim to the
perpetrator. Many perpetrators are very alert and extremely sensitive to what they think the victim might
be telling others, and can feel threatened or ‘less in control’ if they believe that the victim is disclosing
about the violence. If the GP ‘lets something slip’, even subtly, about what the victim has disclosed to the
perpetrator, in some situations this can lead to the perpetrator retaliating against the victim
• perpetrators can appear very persuasive in minimising, denying, excusing and justifying their use of
violence. They can appear quite convincing in blaming their partner, pathologising their partner – ‘she is
so hysterical, you know what women are like …’ – or blaming their use of violence on the relationship
or communication problems. Many perpetrators have quite intricate violence-supporting narratives and
other methods that they use to absolve themselves of responsibility for their use of violence
• many perpetrators try to directly or indirectly invite professionals and others to collude with these
responsibility minimising narratives. It is therefore important for a different GP to hear the victim’s stories,
so as not to be influenced by the perpetrator’s violence-supporting narratives.
Management
Immediate safety of abuse survivors – the partner and any children – should be the predominant concern
when a perpetrator is identified. Management objectives also include:
• taking a history – especially suicidality, substance abuse, mental health and weapon ownership
• reinforcing that abuse and violence are not okay – condemn the actions, not the person
• encouraging ownership – help the perpetrator take responsibility and encourage active change.
Broaching the subject of violence with perpetrators may be difficult for a number of reasons including:
Then, after you have established some trust you may wish to move onto more specific questions, such as:
Anger
Perpetrators do not use violence only when they are angry. The perpetrator might be feeling a range of
emotions when they use violence. Furthermore, many perpetrators use forms of violence when they are
fairly calm – controlling tactics used to restrict their partner’s life and to instill fear. Most perpetrators choose
not to use violence in other settings when they feel anger, such as in the workplace. Many perpetrators will
try to direct the conversation back to blaming their partner: ‘You don’t live with her, she keeps screaming
at me, and is hopeless with the finances …’. It is important not to allow the perpetrator to rehearse his
violence-supporting narratives like this for too long, and to assertively yet calmly bring the attention back to
him. For these reasons, anger management programs are not recommended for perpetrators of intimate
partner abuse.
Men’s behaviour change programs are not anger management programs, though they might include
components of anger management. Community-based intimate partner abuse perpetrator programs by
and large come from a gender-based perspective that conceptualise men’s use of intimate partner abuse
as a choice based on gender-based power and privilege, entitlement and sexist attitudes towards women,
intentional choices towards coercively controlling women and restricting their lives for men’s benefit. The
types of violence are seen as an intentional interlocking of tactics to control women’s lives. The programs
often are based on a combination of this power model and approaches such as CBT or narrative. A CBT
approach involves pointing out the pros and cons of violence, social skill training, and anger management
techniques to promote alternatives to violence.116 In a systematic review that focused on CBT for men who
use physical violence against their partners, there were very few evaluation studies.117
38 Abuse and violence
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Keep in mind the stages of change model (refer to Chapter 4) and try to identify the most appropriate
time to refer to an adequate program. This may be a specific behaviour change program for perpetrators
run by an accredited agency (also providing support for the victim), drug/alcohol rehabilitation or a mental
health specialist. Men’s behaviour change programs are the referral option of choice, even with men who
have substance abuse or mental health issues. Men’s behaviour change programs include a thorough
assessment and can work with, or refer men to, accompanying substance abuse or mental health services.
If the substance abuse or mental health issues are urgent, or if the man is not ready to accept a referral to a
men’s behaviour change program, then a referral to a drug/alcohol rehabilitation or mental health service is
certainly better than no referral at all.
In most states (refer to Resources) there is a statewide telephone information, referral and counselling
service for men who perpetrate family violence. These can assist you to locate men’s behaviour change
program options. Men who do not appear ready to attend a men’s behaviour change program might be
more comfortable taking the initial step of calling such a service. The service will then attempt to motivate
them to attend a men’s behaviour change program. As the GP, you can also phone any of these services
to find out information about local men’s behaviour change referral options, or you can encourage the
perpetrator to phone this service direct. Check your local area for counselling and accredited groups
available to perpetrators.
Note that providing the perpetrator with a referral is not the end of our involvement. Supporting the
perpetrator’s change and monitoring the safety of the family is an important and ongoing task. If you
are seeing the victim and the perpetrator for medical care (not counselling), it is important to check with
the victim as to how they perceive the perpetrator is progressing. It is also very important to do the best
possible to ensure that the victim is receiving counselling and support from a specialist family violence
service. Indeed, this should be the first priority – that the victim is receiving specialist services.
The importance of this ongoing care is underscored by the fact that men’s behaviour change programs are
not successful with all perpetrators. For some perpetrators, these programs work to drastically reduce or
even stop their use of violence. For some others, the programs produce mixed results, such as benefits
that do not sustain over time, the man stopping some forms or tactics of violence and not others. For other
men, these programs produce little discernable benefit, or they drop out after the first few sessions.118
Finally, as a note of caution, many experts suggest that couple or family counselling is not appropriate until
the abusive behaviour has ceased112 as it is not possible to provide couple or family counselling where there
is such a power imbalance.
A resource for GPs managing these issues, Management of the whole family when intimate partner violence
is present: Guidelines for primary care physicians, is available at at www.latrobe.edu.au/jlc/research/
reducing-violence-against-women-and-children
Conclusion
This chapter has provided an overview of the prevalence, identification and management of perpetrators
in general practice. There is a lack of research in this area and GPs need to keep the safety of women and
children at the forefront of their minds when discussing issues with perpetrators.
Abuse and violence
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39
Resources
Please refer to Appendix 7 for resources nationally and in your area.
Further information
• Management of the whole family when intimate partner violence is present: Guidelines for primary
care physicians – outlines information relating to management of the entire family. Developed by an
international group, this document explores the evidence surrounding identification and management of
IPV. Available at www.latrobe.edu.au/jlc/research/reducing-violence-against-women-and-children
• Roberts G, Hegarty KL, Feder G, editors. Intimate partner abuse and health professionals: New
approaches to domestic violence. London. Churchill Livingstone Elsevier, 2006 – provides an overview of
the literature on abuse and violence in primary healthcare. Explores the prevalence and barriers faced by
GPs addressing abuse and violence.
40 Abuse and violence
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Recommendations
• Health practitioners have a role in prevention of child abuse by identifying families at risk (eg where
domestic violence is co-occurring) and referring to parent training programs and nurse home
visitation programs122–124 Level I A
• Harmful alcohol and drug use has a strong link with child abuse. Alcohol screening and brief
interventions in health settings have proved effective in reducing alcohol use. The WHO
recommends working to reduce alcohol consumption in adults with children in their care125
Practice point
Introduction
Child abuse is often called child maltreatment or non-accidental injury in the literature. In this guide, the term
child abuse is used as defined by the WHO as:
physical and/or emotional ill-treatment, sexual abuse, neglect, negligence and commercial or other
exploitation, which results in actual or potential harm to the child’s health, survival, development or
dignity in the context of a relationship of responsibility, trust or power.
In addition, child abuse includes exposure to domestic violence, due to the long-term damage on children
of experiencing or witnessing parental intimate partner abuse.60
Child abuse includes a wide range of behaviours:7,127
• physical abuse – intentional use of physical force or objects against a child that results in, or has the
potential to result in, physical injury which includes hitting, kicking, punching, beating, stabbing, biting,
pushing, shoving, throwing, pulling, dragging, shaking, strangling, smothering, burning, scalding, and
poisoning
• emotional/psychological abuse – intentional behaviour that conveys to a child that he/she is worthless,
flawed, unloved, unwanted, endangered, or valued only in meeting another’s needs which can include
blaming, belittling, degrading, intimidating, terrorising, isolating, or otherwise behaving in a manner that is
harmful, potentially harmful, or insensitive to the child’s developmental needs, or can potentially damage
the child psychologically or emotionally. This includes threatening, yelling, taunting, debasing (eg ‘you’re
worthless’, ‘you’re dumb’, ‘no-one likes you’). Witnessing intimate partner abuse can also be classified
as exposure to emotional/psychological abuse
• sexual abuse – any completed or attempted sexual act, sexual contact, or non-contact sexual
interaction which includes penetration, touching a child inappropriately and exposure to sexual activity,
filming or prostitution
Abuse and violence
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41
• neglect – failure to meet a child’s basic physical, emotional, medical/dental, or educational needs; failure
to provide adequate nutrition, hygiene, or shelter; or failure to ensure a child’s safety which can include
failure to provide adequate food, clothing, or accommodation; not seeking medical attention when
needed; allowing a child to miss long periods of school; and failure to protect a child from violence in the
home or neighbourhood or from avoidable hazards
• exposure to intimate partner abuse – children living in families where intimate partner abuse (any
incident of threatening behaviour, violence, or abuse (psychological, physical, sexual, financial, or
emotional) between adults who are, or have been, intimate partners or family members) occurs are
considered to be victims of child abuse, whether directly or indirectly abused. Therefore you need to
ensure, where possible, that the child or children and the non-abusive parent are in a safe environment.
Mandatory reporting may be required in this situation if safety cannot be ensured.
All these above behaviours occur across all socioeconomic strata in society.127
Prevalence
Internationally 20% of women and 5–10% men report childhood sexual abuse, while 25–50% children
report being physically abused.126
In Australia from 2011 to 2012 there were 37,781 substantiated reports of child abuse and neglect made to
Australian state and territory community services departments. These figures are the substantiated reports
and are an underestimate of the prevalence of child abuse in Australia. These reports involved children aged
<1 year to 17 years of age. Very young children aged <1 year had the highest rates of substantiation with
children aged 15–17 years the least likely. During 2011–12, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children
had nearly eight times the substantiation rates of child abuse and neglect compared with non-Indigenous
children.120
The most common form of substantiated childhood abuse is emotional abuse (36%), followed by neglect
(31%), physical abuse, which varied across states and territories (13–29%) and sexual abuse (12% with a
range 13–29%). Girls were more than twice as likely to experience substantiated sexual abuse while boys
were more likely to experience neglect. Physical and emotional abuse was more likely to be substantiated
for boys in most states and territories.120
Prevention
Preventive measures and identifying families at risk
Family situations change over time and GPs are often aware of these changes and the potential stress that
it places on families. Because of this awareness, GPs are well placed to monitor families for a potential
situation that may give rise to child abuse. These situations may include family break up, work stress,
additions to the family, or moving location.
However, children in families where there is parental substance abuse, mental illness and/or domestic
violence are at greater risk of child abuse.132 As the highest incidence of abuse and neglect happens in the
first year of life, families with infants and toddlers may require specific attention and support.120 Children in
the first 4 years of life are particularly vulnerable to the impact of child abuse on brain development.133
Other established risk factors for child abuse include:
Identification
Identifying suspected child abuse involves detection and response.
This is a very sensitive issue in general practice consultations for a number of reasons:
Table 9. Summary of the strength of the evidence for related health outcomes136
Robust evidence Weak/inconsistent evidence Limited evidence
Physical abuse
Depressive disorders Cardiovascular diseases Allergies
Anxiety disorders Type 2 diabetes Cancer
Eating disorders Obesity Neurological disorders
Childhood behavioural/conduct Hypertension Underweight/malnutrition
disorders
Suicide attempt Smoking Uterine leiomyoma
Drug use Ulcers Chronic spinal pain
Sexually transmitted infection Headache/migraine Schizophrenia
(STI)/risky sexual behaviour
Arthritis Bronchitis/emphysema
Alcohol problems Asthma
Emotional abuse
Depressive disorders Eating disorders Cardiovascular diseases
Anxiety disorders Type 2 diabetes Schizophrenia
44 Abuse and violence
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Table 9. Summary of the strength of the evidence for related health outcomes136
Robust evidence Weak/inconsistent evidence Limited evidence
Suicide attempt Obesity Headache/migraine
Drug use Smoking
STIs/risky sexual behaviour Alcohol problems
Neglect
Depressive disorders Eating disorders Arthritis
Anxiety disorders Childhood behavioural/conduct Headache/migraine
disorders
Suicide attempt Cardiovascular diseases Chronic spinal pain
Drug use Type 2 diabetes Smoking
STIs/risky sexual behaviour Alcohol problems
Obesity
For more information, view this short presentation by Dr Vince Felitti MD, which provides a summary of
the important links between childhood adversity and poor adult health:
www.youtube.com/watch?v=GQwJCWPG478
Barriers to disclosure
There are many barriers to disclosure of child abuse, including:
In identifying sexual abuse, GPs must remember the underlying thread of ‘lack of consent’. The child or
young person may be forced to participate or cannot properly judge what their participation means. The
display of pornography, or an adult exposing themselves to a child is considered abuse, despite the fact
that this act may not contain any physical contact with the perpetrator.
Examining children
When you examine children, it is important to talk to them. Explain that you are only examining them
because you are a doctor and to help them to understand why they are sick; other adults are not allowed
to do the same things.
Questions you can ask during the examination include:
• Sometimes children are good at keeping secrets. What type of secrets do you think children are good
at keeping?
• Sometimes I see children I worry about. I saw another child who was sore like you, what do you think
happened to them?
• Some children can get scared at home, what do you think makes them scared?
• Sometimes kids worry about lots of things, like when they have a fight with their friend, or they feel their
teacher was mean to them. Kids also worry about things in their homes, maybe about mum and dad
fighting or when their mum or dad was mean to them. Sometimes kids are scared and don’t know what
to do. Do you sometimes worry about things like that?
• Does anything happen that makes it hurt for you to wee?
• How good are the good days? What makes them so good?
• How bad are the bad days? What makes them bad?
Advice from an experienced colleague or child abuse service can also be helpful and this sharing of
information may resolve the dilemma in circumstances of doubt.
Provided there is no disclosure of patient identity, there is no impediment to seeking assistance, in
confidence, without patient consent.
46 Abuse and violence
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In rural and remote areas there may be fewer services available and issues of confidentiality are very
important and need to be meticulously implemented. However there is the opportunity for the community to
come together and devise ways of dealing with child abuse issues. This takes leadership and commitment
but also provides the chance for community empowerment.
Mandatory reporting
GPs have a responsibility to report child abuse or neglect. The laws are different in every state and territory.
If you need advice you can ring your local reporting number and discuss your concerns without revealing
personal details. Your medical defence organisation may provide other help and advice. Refer to Table 10
for the key features of ‘state of mind’ that activate the duty to report and the extent of harm.
The family, or the child’s needs, may require services additional to medical assistance, such as counselling
or family services, or they might be managed appropriately in another way. Mandatory reporting does not
affect a GP’s continuing professional obligation to the patient.
Management
GPs have a role in prevention, identification, mandatory reporting and helping to minimise the long-term
effects of abuse.
Conclusion
This chapter has described the prevalence and major health effects of child abuse. GPs have a role in
prevention, detection, mandatory reporting and minimisation of the long-term impacts of child abuse. GPs
are ideally placed, as they see children frequently. There is good evidence that prevention through parenting
training programs and nurse home visitation is effective.
Table 10. Key features of legislative reporting duties: ‘state of mind’ that activates reporting
duty and extent of harm142
Jurisdiction State of mind Extent of harm
ACT Belief on reasonable Not specified: ‘sexual abuse ... or non-accidental physical
grounds injury’
NSW Suspects on reasonable A child or young person ‘is at risk of significant harm if current
grounds that a child is at concerns exist for the safety, welfare or wellbeing of the child
risk of significant harm or young person because of the presence, to a significant
extent, of ... basic physical or psychological needs that are not
being met ... physical or sexual abuse or ill-treatment ... serious
psychological harm’
NT Belief on reasonable Any significant detrimental effect caused by any act, omission
grounds or circumstance on the physical, psychological or emotional
wellbeing or development of the child
QLD Becomes aware, or Significant detrimental effect on the child's physical,
reasonably suspects psychological or emotional wellbeing
SA Suspects on reasonable Any sexual abuse; physical or psychological abuse or neglect to
grounds extent that the child "has suffered, or is likely to suffer, physical
or psychological injury detrimental to the child's wellbeing; or
the child's physical or psychological development is in jeopardy"
TAS Believes, or suspects, on Any sexual abuse; physical or emotional injury or other abuse,
reasonable grounds, or or neglect, to extent that the child has suffered, or is likely to
knows suffer, physical or psychological harm detrimental to the child's
wellbeing; or the child's physical or psychological development
is in jeopardy
VIC Belief on reasonable Child has suffered, or is likely to suffer, significant harm as a
grounds result of physical injury or sexual abuse and the child's parents
have not protected, or are unlikely to protect, the child from
harm of that type
WA Belief on reasonable Not specified: any sexual abuse
grounds
Australia Suspects on reasonable Not specified: any assault or sexual assault; serious
grounds psychological harm; serious neglect
Resources
Please refer to Appendix 7 for resources nationally and in your area.
Further information
• Oates, RK. Role of the medical community in detecting and managing child abuse. Med J Aust 2014,
200:7–8.
• Ampe akelyernemane meke mekarle – Little children are sacred. Available at www.inquirysaac.nt.gov.au/
pdf/bipacsa_report_summary.pdf
• McCutcheon LK, Chanen AM, Fraser RJ, Dew L, Brewer W. Tips and techniques for engaging and
managing the reluctant, resistant or hostile young person. Med J Aust 2007;187:S64 –7.
• Never shake a baby – the Children, Youth and Women’s Health Service has produced this guide that
explains why you shouldn’t shake a child and gives alternative methods to quieten a child. Available at
www.cyh.com/HealthTopics/HealthTopicDetails.aspx?p=114&np=305&id=1913
• Everyone’s got a bottom by Tess Rowley and illustrated by Jodi Edwards is a good book to consider
having in the practice waiting room. It is available from Family Planning Queensland at www.fpq.com.au/
publications/teachingAids/everyones_got_a_bottom.php.
• Specific information for children of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander descent and their communities
is available: Through young black eyes: A handbook to protect children from the impact of family
violence and child abuse can be obtained from the Secretariat of National Aboriginal and Islander Child
Care at www.snaicc.org.au/tools-resources/dsp-shop.cfm?loadref=141&id=55933BE0-2219-A8B0-
B6948391962AFAC3
• The Convention on the Rights of the Child is an interesting example of international responses to child
abuse. Available at www.unicef.org/crc/files/Implementation%20Handbook%203rd%20ed.pdf
• Benefits of programs: A detailed description by Professor Louise Newman and Peta Murcutt, available at
www.abc.net.au/radionational/programs/lifematters/trauma-and-kids/4896956
• ASCA factsheet for general practitioners: Understanding complex trauma, available at www.asca.org.au/
Portals/2/ASCA Fact Sheet_GPs.pdf
• Supporting patients experiencing family violence – resource from Australian Medical Association (AMA).
Available at https://ama.com.au/article/ama-family-violence-resource
• When she talks to you about the violence – video resource developed by AMA NSW. Available at https://
vimeo.com/105645549
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49
Key messages
• Bullying is a common factor in the life of many Australian children and young people. Bullying is
physically harmful, socially isolating and psychologically damaging143
• Young people with special needs, eg autism spectrum disorder (ASD) or other disability, are
particularly at risk144
Recommendations
• Health practitioners should ask young patients with chronic physical, social or mental health
indicators about their experience of bullying143 Level III-2 C
• Health practitioners should understand that school programs can be very effective to deter and
deal with bullying if supported across the whole school145 Level I A
Introduction
Bullying can be broadly defined as:
acts intended or perceived as intended to cause harm. It is unwanted, aggressive behaviour among
children that involves a real or perceived power imbalance. The behaviour is often but not always
repeated, or has the potential to be repeated, over time146–149
Cyberbullying is defined as:
repeated, harmful interactions which are deliberately offensive, humiliating, threatening and power-
assertive148, 149
Cyberbullying interactions are enacted using electronic equipment, such as mobile phones or the internet,
by one or more individuals towards another. Cyberbullying can take the form of instant or email messages,
images, videos, calls and also the exclusion or prevention of someone being a part of a group or an online
community.150
Sexting is the act of:
creating, sharing, sending or posting of sexually explicit messages or images via the internet,
mobile phones or other electronic devices by people, especially young people151,152
Intimate images taken with consent during a relationship may, when that relationship falters, be distributed
to others for the purposes of humiliation and denigration of reputation, which raises moral, ethical, legal
and parenting concerns. This is particularly worrisome because the behaviour occurs at a significant
period in young people’s lives, just as they are developing their sexual identity and engaging in early
romantic relationships.
It is important to understand that there may be legal implications and that there are laws in place that
address the issue of sexting. As Butler et al have noted, ‘Schools should be aware of the potential for
cyberbullying to amount to criminal behaviour, so they may better gauge when it may be appropriate
to contact police.’153 For example, under the Criminal Code Act 1995 (Commonwealth) the misuse of
telecommunications to menace, threaten or hoax other persons is potentially a criminal act.
Bullying can be characterised by its mode (for example – online, in person), type (verbal, relational), and the
environment (school, home). The relationship context can be either explicit – sibling, dating partner, friend or
acquaintance – or implicit, due to differences in popularity, economic status, academic status that may not
be clearly apparent.154
50 Abuse and violence
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It is worth noting that bullying behaviour doesn’t have to be repeated to have an impact; some isolated
violent bullying situations can have a lasting impact. A further challenge is that there is usually an imbalance
of power between the victim and the bully. On occasions, the power differential can be difficult to define or
identify.146–149
Social norms also influence whether the behaviour is classified as bullying – for example, until fairly
recently, many regarded sibling bullying as the normal ‘rough and tumble’ of growing up. This is despite
the emerging evidence of both the extent and negative impact of sibling bullying which has been shown to
compound school and other forms of bullying.155–157 Other social norms may make it difficult to distinguish
between ‘healthy competition’ and physicality and bullying. In these situations, the repetition of such actions
would tend to skew them towards bullying.
Prevalence
Bullying is a significant children’s health issue for GPs and the community. It has a high annual prevalence
with up to 56% of young people involved either as victim, perpetrator or both.156,158–162 These figures may be
underestimates as there is often a reluctance to disclose.163–165
The pattern of bullying varies, with verbal bullying occurring more frequently than physical or cyberbullying.
Typically, there are repeated incidents over a period of time.
Cyberbullying is emerging as a significant new form as bullies move from ‘behind the scenes to behind the
screens’. The recent emergence of the phenomenon of ‘sexting’, involving the sending and/or exchange of
sexually explicit images by electronic means, is of concern to educators, healthcare providers, lawmakers
and police.
The prevalence of cyberbullying and sexting has been hard to quantify given the variability in the definition. A
national survey in 2010 revealed 59% of teenagers have sent sexually suggestive emails or messages.151 A
government study found 7–10% of Year 4 to 9 students reported they were bullied by means of technology
over the school term.162
The probability of any one child being victimised is directly related to the number of risk factors she or he
experiences.166 Children with special needs are particularly vulnerable to bullying with, in one study, over
60% of children diagnosed with ASD reporting they had been bullied.167,168
It is unclear whether the prevalence of bullying is higher in rural areas although the consequences may be
worse due to:169
Research is now identifying factors that may be associated with the increased likelihood that children
will engage in bullying others. For example, parental anger with their children is associated with the
increased likelihood of children engaging in bullying behaviour, while parental communication with their
children and meeting their child’s friends is associated with a lower likelihood of children bullying others.166
In relation to young people who are victimised, recent research suggests that interventions are more likely
to be successful if they focus on both the psychosocial skills of adolescents and their relationships with
their family.173
Identification
Adverse health impact of bullying
There is a considerable burden of illness in both the short and long-term for both victims and
bullies.155,176–182
The impact of cyberbullying on mental health and emotional response is only just beginning to be
understood.183–185 It has been suggested that it will be significant due to the 24 hour nature of it, the
anonymity aspects and the broader audience that can be targeted through the visual electronic media.
Bullying has a consistent, strong and graded association with a large number of physical and psychological
symptoms.143,158,178,179,186–190 In the short-term, it is associated with:
• physical health/symptoms
–– injury, headaches, abdominal pain, repeated sore throats, recurrent colds, breathing problems
• social health issues
–– loneliness and isolation though a more limited ability to make friends
–– lack of assertiveness, social immaturity
–– decline in school performance/functioning, absenteeism from school/ home, withdrawal/avoidance
• mental health problems
–– psychosomatic symptoms, eg bedwetting, sleeping problems, abdominal pain, difficulty
concentrating, dizziness, poor appetite, and feelings of tension or tiredness
–– anxiety, depression, increased suicide ideation and suicide
–– eating disorders, smoking, drug and alcohol problems
–– low self-esteem/withdrawal
–– behavioural symptoms, eg aggressiveness, self-harming.
Myth Reality
Bullying only • Bullying is a broader social problem that often happens outside of
happens at school schools148,198 and in homes156
• Physical aggression/bullying between siblings has been reported to be the
most common form of family violence and is experienced by up to half of all
children in the course of a year157
Most bullying is Other forms of bullying are collectively more common:
physical
• cyberbullying: email, mobile phone, texting and social networking
• psychological bullying: threatening, manipulation and stalking
• social/covert/relational: lying, deliberately excluding, spreading rumours
People who bully are • Many people who bully are popular and have average or better-than-average
insecure and have self-esteem.199 They often take pride in their aggressive behaviour and control
low self-esteem over the people they bully
• People who bully may be part of a group that thinks bullying is okay. Some
people who bully may also have poor social skills and experience anxiety or
depression. For them, bullying can be a way to gain social status200 or power
over others201
Nothing can be • School initiatives to prevent and stop bullying have reduced bullying by
done at schools to 15–50%.145,170,171,175,202 The most successful initiatives involve the entire school
reduce bullying community of teachers, staff, parents, students and community members
Kids grow out of it • For some (up to 50%), bullying continues as they become older.203 Unless
someone intervenes, the bullying is likely to continue and, in some cases,
grow into violence and other serious behavioural problems. Children who
consistently bully others often continue their aggressive behaviour through
adolescence and into adulthood178,196
• While bully/victim numbers appear to decrease during adolescence; sibling
bullying remains relatively stable over time, at least between 10 and 15 years
of age 204
Parents always Adults (including teachers) often do not witness bullying despite their good
know when their intentions164,205
child is being bullied
Up to 60% of victims of bullying have seen a GP in the last 12 months with a range of somatic or other
symptoms. GPs should ask about bullying when children and adolescents present with unexplained
psychosomatic and behaviour symptoms; when they experience problems at school or with friends; if they
begin to use tobacco, alcohol, and other drugs; and if they express thoughts of self-harm or suicide.
Management
Support includes acknowledging that:165,207
• they have shown courage in coming forward and talking about it and that they don’t have to face it on
their own
• it’s not their fault
• all students have a right to learn in a safe environment
• they should not tackle the bully by themselves
• they should tell an adult or someone in authority.
GPs can be advocates for the child who is bullied.165,206–208,210 This can be done within the consultation by
getting the family involved and encouraging them to take an active role in monitoring their children and
engaging them in positive school and community activities.
Conclusion
In summary, the issue of school bullying in all its forms is now on the national and international research and
policy agenda for all those concerned with the health, wellbeing and education of young people (refer to
www.caper.com.au and/or www.flinders.edu.au/ehl/swapv/swapv_home.cfm).
As noted in this chapter, the matter of school bullying has been identified as a significant public health issue.
GPs who are interested in treating the child and family unit as a whole are at the forefront in advocating for
the wellbeing of young people. The following case study highlights the significant role of GPs in addressing
and treating bullying.
54 Abuse and violence
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Reflections
The risk of medicalising this presentation was avoided.
The consultation satisfies the important principle ‘to consider and address biomedical and psychosocial issues
concurrently’.211
This is all done in just under 10 minutes.
Abuse and violence
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55
Resources
Please refer to Appendix 7 for resources nationally and in your area.
Further information
• National Safe Schools Framework – http://education.gov.au/national-safe-schools-framework-0
• Bullying. No way! – http://bullyingnoway.gov.au
• Child and Adolescent Psychological and Educational Resources – www.caper.com.au
• Promoting relationships and eliminating violence network (PREVnet) – www.prevnet.ca
• Stop Bullying – www.stopbullying.gov
• National Centre against Bullying – www.ncab.org.au
• Kidsmatter: a nationally recognised resource for addressing the mental health of young people –
www.kidsmatter.edu.au
• Australian Medical Association (AMA) Guidance for Doctors on Childhood Bullying – https://ama.com.au/
ama-guidance-doctors-childhood-bullying
• Student Wellbeing and the Prevention of Violence (SWAPv), Flinders University Research Centre –
www.flinders.edu.au/ehl/swapv/swapv_home.cfm
56 Abuse and violence
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Key messages
• Patients abused as children often experience a diverse range of ongoing health problems, including
mental and physical health problems, which increases their healthcare utilisation rate compared
with those who have not been abused136
• Many patients have never told anyone about their abuse, or if they have, have not been believed.
Many also have not made a link between their current health issues and their childhood abuse212
Recommendations
• Health practitioners need to recognise that child abuse is associated with a higher incidence of
comorbidity: mental health issues, suicidality, drug and alcohol problems and chronic disease in
adults136 Level 1 A
• A trauma-informed approach to care across all human and health sectors services, as well as trauma
specific services, may assist patients who have experienced abuse as children3 Practice point
Introduction
Child abuse has been outlined in detail in Chapter 6, including definitions, health consequences, and
identification and management including mandatory reporting. Although the majority of child abuse is
by someone known to the child, a number of state investigations into institutional child abuse and the
National Royal Commission into Institutional Responses to Child Sexual Abuse have established that these
issues have stayed hidden for long periods of time. It is apparent that many survivors have been unable
to disclose, and if they have were often not believed either as a child or an adult. It is also clear that child
abuse often occurs in multiple forms concurrently and frequently has long-term effects on survivors.
This chapter explores the possible presentations of adults in general practice who were abused as children,
including physical, emotional and sexual abuse, neglect and growing up in situations of domestic violence.
Research suggests that adults abused as children are at increased risk of further victimisation as adults.213
Experiences of sexual abuse as a child can affect later adult offending or victimisation. One study that
examined the relationship between child sexual abuse and subsequent criminal offending and victimisation
found that both male and female child sexual abuse victims were significantly more likely than non-abused
people to be charged for all types of offences, in particular violence and sexual offences.213
Prevalence
There has been no national, methodologically rigorous study of the prevalence or incidence of child abuse
and neglect in Australia as there is currently no consistency in data collection. There are, however, a number
of recent studies that consider one or two abuse types in detail, or have superficially measured all individual
abuse types.
Prevalence estimates for physical child abuse range from 5% to 18%, with the majority of studies finding
rates between 5% and 10%. Studies that comprehensively measured the prevalence of child sexual abuse
found that:214–224
• women had rates of 4.0–12.0% for penetrative abuse and 13.9–36.0% for non-penetrative abuse
• men had rates of 1.4–8.0% for penetrative abuse and 5.7–16.0% for non-penetrative abuse.
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Rates of neglect of both genders, along with physical and emotional abuse in general practice populations,
are less researched.
The Australian Institute of Health and Welfare indicates that, in 2011–12, there were 252,962 notifications
involving 173,502 children in Australia, a rate of 34.0 per 1,000 children. Of the notifications, there where
48,420 substantiated notifications of child abuse in Australia.120 As there is a level of under-reporting that
occurs in relation to abuse, these statistics reveal that a substantial percentage of children and young
people are abused. Consequently, a significant number of Australian adults who were abused as children
may still be experiencing the after-effects of their abuse.
Children are most likely to be abused within the family or by people known to them. The ASCA support
line has documented 4376 cases over 3.5 years, with 1686 of these recording the relationship of the
perpetrator to the survivor. It was found that 64% of callers were abused by their immediate family, 19%
by extended family, 10% by a family friend, 21% by perpetrators in institutions (for example religious,
educational, in care and health institutions), 2% by strangers and some by multiple perpetrators.225
The way in which an adult may perceive their childhood abuse experiences will vary greatly depending on a
range of factors. The needs of each patient will therefore also differ. Anecdotally, it has been suggested that
some adult survivors appear to have experienced little or, at times no effect, although many will experience
a profound effect on many aspects of their lives, without the right treatment, throughout their lifespan.
Many elements influence how well a survivor copes, including the type/s of abuse experienced, frequency,
duration, family life, response to disclosure, and adult experiences of abuse and violence.
Child abuse has also been correlated with a diverse range of ongoing health problems.136,226 Patients who
are survivors of child abuse may present to general practice in some of the following ways, illnesses which
have been found to have a much higher incidence:136,226,227
• marriage
• the birth of a child
• themselves or their child reaching a certain age
• the death of the perpetrator (eg family member)
• watching a television program relating to incest
• a particular place or smell.
• sleep disturbances
• depression
• nightmares
• perceptual disturbances, and
• anxiety at times of sexual activity.
Experiences of physical, sexual, emotional abuse or neglect can result in low self-esteem and difficulties
with trust, and impinge on the ability to form close relationships. Survivors may fear for their safety and have
difficulties caring for themselves. Asking about family relationships when they were children and the abuse
of alcohol by their parents may provide clues.
Disclosure only occurs in a relationship of trust.228 However, trust may take some time to develop as adult
survivors of child abuse have been previously abused rather than cared for in prior relationships of ‘trust’.
Patients who have been abused tend to have a very negative sense of self. This makes it more difficult for
them to care for themselves, seek help and to follow advice. GPs may be able to help by providing a safe
space in which they can discuss their needs and which over time, can help establish trusting relationships.
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It is of course crucial to always treat these patients with dignity and respect, provide them with a sense of
hope and optimism and help them improve their capacity for self-care by helping them to achieve a healthy
and safe lifestyle. Sometimes this will additionally entail referral to a health professional with specialist skills
in supporting adult survivors.
To assist with this education, the RACGP has produced a DVD, The hidden factor: the effects of child
abuse on adults. A resource for GPs and other health professionals. In this DVD, three women tell their
stories of abuse in order for doctors and other health professionals to have a better understanding of
the factors that helped with the healing process. The DVD is available from the RACGP (refer to Further
information) and can be downloaded from www.racgp.org.au/guidelines/abuseandviolence/hiddenfactor
Management
ASCA has produced Practice Guidelines for Treatment of Complex Trauma and Trauma Informed Care and
Service Delivery,230 which will assist you to understand the presentations of patients who have experienced
child abuse and respond appropriately. The Practice Guidelines contain two sets of guidelines, which have
been officially recognised as an accepted clinical resource by the RACGP. Available at www.asca.org.au/
guidelines
The first presents the principles of trauma-informed care, which work from a premise of ‘do no harm’,
focusing on what happened to the person rather than what is wrong with the person. Implementing trauma-
informed care involves working in the domains of:
The second presents the principles of clinical treatment of ASCA, stressing the importance of establishing
safety as a core part of any therapeutic work.
There are also the Australian Guidelines for the Treatment of Acute Stress Disorder and Post Traumatic
Stress Disorder (refer to Further information).
• being believed
• not being judged
• working from a narrative approach
• availability of services outside of office hours (eg groups in the evenings)
• assurance of confidentiality
• complementary therapies – for example, music and art therapies.
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GP ongoing care
For patients who have been disempowered in childhood as a result of their abuse, the trauma-informed
principle of being able to choose from a range of treatment options is an important part of their care.
Appropriate treatment options to consider with the patient may include individual counselling/therapy,
referral to specialist service, therapeutic groups and self-help groups.
It is important to note that certain procedures and investigations – for example, Pap smears in some
women who have been sexually abused – may be especially challenging for these patients. Providing a
choice about having or not having these procedures is empowering for people who have previously been
disempowered. It may be appropriate to use the concept of ‘continual consent’ if you think a patient may
feel uncomfortable with a particular procedure or investigation. Using this technique, the doctor talks
through a procedure, letting the patient know what they are about to do. Throughout the dialogue, the
doctor asks the patient if they are comfortable and happy to proceed. This provides the patient with the
freedom to stop the procedure at any time.
Survivors may present with physical symptoms that need to be explored, but some of these may be
triggered by or stem from the actual abuse. Examples include a sore throat, gagging related to former oral
sex, or pelvic pain. Such symptoms of possible prior abuse need to be kept in mind, as does the need to
minimise any potential for re-traumatising patients with particular sensitivities.
Boundary issues
Patients abused as children have often had their boundaries violated. All workers and practitioners engaging
with survivors, including GPs, need to model clear boundaries. They need to do what they can to make
their patients feel and be safe and this means being very respectful of the patient’s physical and emotional
space. Should they inadvertently intrude on their patient’s boundaries, they may replicate aspects of prior
abuse and this can be re-traumatising for survivors. Maintaining the role as a GP while the patient seeks
help from the counsellor, psychologist or psychiatrist further models good boundaries and helps provide the
comprehensive model of care many survivors need.
GPs can make an important contribution, but may not always be able to provide everything the patient
needs. Sometimes they will see patients who are in counselling or who are in need of therapeutic support
but are unable or unprepared to access it. Either way, patients with a history of child abuse are likely to
be facing a number of challenges and will often require support. A listening empathic ear, respect, and
validation coupled with a sense of hope and optimism for future recovery are invaluable.
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Keep in mind that resources will vary from one area to another and it is often difficult to find sufficient,
adequate or appropriate resources. Information from the ASCA website (www.asca.org.au) or ASCA
professional support line on 1300 675 380 may be of assistance.
Referrals could be to:
The following are two case studies that illustrate these principles
Discussion
This case illustrates a scenario in which the effects of past abuse appear to have been triggered by having a child. This
has presented as nightmares and anxiety. John seems also to be having some problems with authority figures – his
boss at work, for example – and this would be consistent, as abuse occurs in situations of inherent power imbalance.
The benzodiazepine, while providing short-term symptom relief for his anxiety, has not addressed the true cause for the
symptoms, which, at the time was not identified. John is ultimately helped over a period of time through sessions with a
psychologist. As he works through his abuse issues he comes to understand what was contributing to his anxiety and how it
was linked to the birth of his son. He is able to stop using the benzodiazepines.
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• sexual dysfunction
• child sexual abuse.
Management
Together you explore the options – for example, counselling/therapy (individual or group) and whether she wants to see a
counsellor at the sexual assault centre or an allied health practitioner with expertise and experience in supporting patients
with past abuse. Should she not be able to see a counsellor/therapist immediately, it would be important to see her
regularly in the interim. You could discuss strategies that might provide some relief to her sleep disturbance; explore her
diet, exercise and self-care and assess her supports by way of friends and relatives, encouraging her to reach out to those
she trusts and with whom she feels safe. If you were concerned that she was deeply depressed and/or suicidal, you could
consider contacting the local crisis team or psychiatric help.
Outcome
Susan opts to go and see a counsellor at the local sexual assault service. As the waiting period is 3 months you offer to
see Susan on a weekly basis for support. She agrees to this arrangement and you are able to work with her to help her
feel safe and improve her capacity for self-care. Nine months later she comes to see you for a Pap test. Although Susan is
slightly tense, she can relax sufficiently for the examination to be performed successfully. Susan is relieved and says that in
counselling she has been feeling that she is making good progress and being able to have a Pap smear is indicative of her
progress as well. She thanks you for your involvement.
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Conclusion
This chapter has outlined the long-term impacts of childhood abuse as they present in general practice, and
issues in management. Louis Cozolino has said, ‘It stands to reason that the most devastating
types of trauma are those that occur at the hands of caretakers’.230 GPs need to be aware that early trauma
in childhood may underlie a diverse number of physical and mental health presentations.
A trauma-informed approach to patients by GPs can help minimise the risk of re-traumatisation and
enable pathways to recovery through appropriate referrals to health practitioners with specialist skills in
supporting adult survivors.
Resources
Please refer to Appendix 7 for resources nationally and in your area.
Further information
• ASCA Practice Guidelines for Treatment of Complex Trauma and Trauma Informed Care and Service
Delivery. Dr Cathy Kezelman and Dr Pam Stravopoulos. Available at www.asca.org.au/guidelines
• Australian Guidelines for the Treatment of Acute Stress Disorder and Post Traumatic Stress Disorder.
Available at http://guidelines.acpmh.unimelb.edu.au/adults
• After Abuse – this book, written by Victorian psychiatrist Dr Gita Mammen, outlines types of treatment
and may be helpful to GPs trying to find an appropriate referral or seeing patients in a counselling role
• Better Access Initiative – the MBS item relating to the GP Mental Health Care Plans may be useful
for patients wanting to initiate ongoing mental healthcare. See the RACGP information relating to the
scheme, available at www.racgp.org.au/your-practice/mh/better-outcomes
• The hidden factor DVD is available to RACGP members for loan, from the RACGP library: email
[email protected], phone 03 8699 0519 or download from www.racgp.org.au/guidelines/
abuseandviolence/hiddenfactor
• Living well – a website for men who were sexually abused as children or who have been sexually
assaulted as adults, available at www.livingwell.org.au
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Key messages
• Sexual assault is very common, with one in five women and one in twenty men having experienced
an assault in their adult lives231
• Many victims do not report sexual assault; therefore the effects, both physical and psychological,
may go untreated231
• Particular groups are at greater risk of sexual assault, including young people, those with a
disability, and those who have previously experienced abuse231
Recommendations
• Offer first-line support to women and men who are survivors of sexual assault by any perpetrator3
Practice point
• Consider and ask about post trauma responses by assessing for mental health problems – acute
stress, PTSD depression, alcohol and drug use problems, suicidality or self-harm and offering
appropriate support and treatment3 Practice point
• Offer emergency contraception if within 72 hours of assault and offer all women sexually
transmitted infection investigation, prophylaxis and treatment as appropriate3 Practice point
Introduction
Sexual assault is any behaviour of a sexual nature that makes a person feel intimidated, threatened or
frightened. It is behaviour that is unwanted and uninvited where another person uses physical, emotional or
psychological forms of coercion. It is committed more frequently than many people realise and can include
any activity from sexual harassment through to life-threatening rape. The latter is defined as the physically
forced or otherwise coerced penetration of the vulva or anus with a penis, other body part, or object, and
may also include oral penetration.3
Every person 16 years and over has the right to choose about participating in sexual activity and must
be afforded the opportunity to form free agreement (consent). Free agreement may be negated by many
factors, including age, intellectual ability, use of force, threats or fraud, and the effects of drugs and/
or alcohol. In some states, including NSW, it is specifically recognised that a person who is substantially
intoxicated cannot consent to sex. Sexual assault is always violence – never a legitimate expression of a
person’s sexuality, love or affection.
Sexual assault is a distressing experience and people who have been sexually assaulted report higher rates
of adverse health outcomes.232–234 It is important to make it clear that sexual assault is never the fault of
the victim. Above all sexual assault takes away the person’s control over what happens to their body so an
understanding of this and a non-judgemental approach is essential. Many survivors access specialist sexual
assault counselling when they are ready to do so, and find this helpful. The provision of high quality forensic
and medical care is critical to successful patient outcomes following a recent sexual assault. GPs not
familiar with forensic care should consult an appropriate sexual assault centre (refer to Resources).
GPs may not see many acute sexual assault presentations and may more often be involved in follow-up or
other health issues, such as patients asking for emergency contraception or STI checks. The most frequent
presentation of sexual-assault-related health issues to GPs will be for physical and other health conditions
that are the long-term impacts of child sexual abuse. Commonly, patients may also be experiencing sexual
harassment and intimate partner sexual assault.
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Prevalence
In 2011, there were 17,238 reports of sexual assault in Australia or 76 reports per 100,000 people.231 This is
likely to be lower than the true prevalence, due to under-reporting.
The age patterns for reports of sexual assault victims in Australia are similar for both sexes, peaking in the
10–14 year age group and then declining, but with rates of assaults against females being consistently
higher in all age groups than in males.231
For females aged 10–14 years, the rate of sexual assault was 494 per 100,000 population, compared with
96 per 100,000 for males.3
The Australian Bureau of Statistics 2012 Personal Safety Survey10 showed that 17% of women (1,494,000)
aged 18 years and over and 4% of men (336,000) aged 18 years and over have experienced at least one
episode of sexual assault since the age of 15.
Relationship to perpetrator
Both men and women who had experienced sexual assault since the age of 15 were more likely to have
been sexually assaulted by someone they knew, for example a friend or family member, than by a stranger.
Specifically, in 2011, almost half of all victims were sexually assaulted by a ‘known other’ and 31% by a
family member. Strangers accounted for only 15% of sexual assaults in 2011.231
Using a broad and inclusive definition of sexual coercion, an Australian survey found that 2.8% of men and
10.3% of women reported sexual coercion under the age of 16 years.214 Only 31.5% of men and 37.9% of
women had ever talked to someone about the assault, with the majority talking solely to a friend.214 A low
2.6% of men and 8.4% of women reported the incident to police. These data provide a small insight into
how common sexual coercion is in our society, and how infrequently disclosure is made or legal
action instigated.214
Identification
Types of presentations in general practice
A patient may disclose a sexual assault immediately, or years after the event.
GPs working in casualties and within sexual assault services will be seeing patients presenting immediately
or very soon after the sexual assault. They will be trained to provide forensic assessment and to arrange
follow-up.
Other presentations to general practice following a recent sexual assault may be for emergency
contraception or STI checks. The patient may report that her behaviour was atypical – ‘not like me’. If
patients present for these reasons, it is important to consider asking gently whether this was consensual
sex. Later presentations may be for mental health and other health problems.
Sexual assault is extremely damaging to the victim’s sense of safety and self-esteem. It can result in a range
of physical, mental and emotional disturbances.
Medical consequences of sexual assault can include:
• immediate effects
–– physical injuries
–– unintended pregnancy, terminations and STIs
–– psychological affects
• long-term effects
–– recovering from sexual assault can take many years. There are many ways of dealing with the
experience. Some of the more common presentations are listed in Table 11.
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Any post-assault reactions such as those outlined are important to note – nearly one-third of victims will
develop rape-related PTSD. Victims are also three times more likely to experience a major depressive
disorder compared to those who have not been sexually assaulted.245
• being non-judgemental and supportive, and validating what the woman/man is saying
• providing practical care and support that responds to her/his concerns, but does not intrude
• asking about their history of violence, listening carefully, but not pressuring the patient to talk
• helping them access information about resources, including legal and other services that the patient
might think helpful
• assisting the patient to increase safety for themselves
• providing or mobilising social support.
Survivors’ concerns can revolve around issues of confidentiality (especially relatives and friends finding out),
issues of blame, shame and medical issues – for example, pregnancy and STIs. The issue of confidentiality
can present ethical dilemmas. The GP cannot maintain confidentiality when the safety of the patient,
especially a child, is at risk. GPs are mandated to report child sexual abuse (refer to Chapter 6). Discussion
with a colleague, sexual assault service and/or medical defence organisation may help clarify any dilemmas
the GP may have in making such a report.
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Management
Management will vary depending on when the assault occurred. It is important to listen to the patient,
believe their story, and be non-judgemental and supportive. Management includes:
Source: Mein JK, Palmer CM, et al. Management of acute adult sexual assault. Med J Aust 2003; 178(5):226-230
© Copyright 2003 The Medical Journal of Australia – adapted with permission. The MJA accepts no responsibility for any error
in the adaptation.
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Source: Mein JK, Palmer CM, et al. Management of acute adult sexual assault. Med J Aust 2003; 178(5):226-230
© Copyright 2003 The Medical Journal of Australia – adapted with permission. The MJA accepts no responsibility for any error
in the adaptation.
Source: Mein JK, Palmer CM, et al. Management of acute adult sexual assault. Med J Aust 2003; 178(5):226-230
© Copyright 2003 The Medical Journal of Australia – adapted with permission. The MJA accepts no responsibility for any error
in the adaptation.
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Conclusion
Sexual assault requires a multidimensional team of providers to assist survivors on a pathway of healing and
recovery. A GP who is trained in gender-sensitive sexual assault care and examination should be available
at all times of the day or night at a district level.
Clinical care of survivors of sexual assault,3 in addition to first line support – listening, practical care and
support, offering comfort – includes using shared decision making by:
Diagnosis
Sarah has been sexually assaulted and now has concerns about pregnancy and STI. She appears to have continued to
function for the last 2 weeks and wishes to address her feelings and seek help now.
Management
You need to acknowledge that Sarah has been sexually assaulted and then help her deal with the consequences. Is she
pregnant? Does she have an STI? All these issues need to be addressed in this and subsequent consultations.
Emotionally, Sarah needs to talk about what has happened to her so that she can perhaps understand and be aware of how
this may be affecting her. You should explore the options with Sarah of reporting the incident to the police, being referred
to a sexual assault service for counselling, and considering if she could share this with a member of her family or with a
friend. Sarah is also given the option of seeing the GP once a week for 4–5 sessions to begin to work through these issues.
Consider using a mental health plan and using a mental health referral to someone with appropriate training in this area if this
is needed.
Outcome
Sarah is not pregnant nor has she contracted any STIs. She opted to see you for four sessions and was able to discuss this
with her family who were very supportive. She may need further help. Other victims may feel more comfortable talking with a
counsellor or attending a sexual assault centre.
Resources
Please refer to Appendix 7 for resources nationally and in your area.
Further information
• Adult sexual assault – this article discusses forensic care for those who have experienced adult sexual
abuse. Available at www.australiandoctor.com.au/cmspages/getfile.aspx?guid=effc01e4-be26-4703-
9145-127f7fed3ca1
• Better Access Initiative – the MBS item relating to GP Mental Health Care Plans may be useful for
survivors wanting to initiate ongoing mental healthcare. Available at www.health.gov.au/internet/main/
publishing.nsf/content/mental-ba-fact-pat
• RACGP information relating to GP Mental Health Care Plans. Available at www.racgp.org.au/education/
gpmhsc/gps/mhtp
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Key messages
• Abuse may be physical, emotional, sexual or financial and may include neglect. It can occur in an
aged care facility or in the community11
• Risk factors for elder abuse can be related to the individual, the perpetrator, relationships and the
wider environment248, 249
Recommendations
• Elder abuse needs to be considered by any health practitioner seeing elderly patients, as they have
a pivotal role in the recognition, assessment, understanding and management of elder abuse and
neglect250 Practice point
• If confronted with elder abuse, establish the patient’s capacity to make decisions. Help may
need to be sought from the person legally responsible for giving consent for their healthcare. If
this person is the abuser, then seek help from the appropriate advocacy source in your state or
territory251 Practice point
Introduction
Elder abuse is defined as any type of abuse – physical, emotional, sexual, economic – or neglect of
people aged 65 years or over, either in an residential aged care facility (RACF), in private care, or living
independently. It can be a single, or repeated act, or lack of appropriate action, occurring within any
relationship where there is an expectation of trust, which causes harm or distress to an older person.11 Elder
abuse occurs in all cultural and socioeconomic strata whenever there is an imbalance of power252 and is
linked to increased mortality and disability.253
Abuse may occur to an elderly person being cared for by family or other community carers, or in an RACF
and hospital when the frailty of elderly residents renders them unable to defend themselves. An abuser may
be a family member or carer, and in the case of older persons in residential care, the abuser may be another
resident (sometimes with dementia), a staff member (including volunteers), visitors or family members.
Elder abuse may occur for many reasons, covering individual, relationship, community and sociocultural
causative factors.252 For example, caring for a family member means there may be a change in role
where the carer becomes the ‘parent’ and the ‘parent’ becomes the ’child’. This increasing dependency
can be frustrating and act as a catalyst for abusive behaviour by the carer, particularly if the carer is
insufficiently supported.
The ongoing safety of the patient is paramount. Safety may only be achieved by transferring the patient
from home or from the RACF. For elderly people the fear of retribution is strong and may be contributing to
their unwillingness to disclose.11
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Prevalence
There are no recent national statistics in relation to elder abuse254 and few worldwide. A NSW study of
clients referred to an Aged Care Assessment Service showed that 4.6% of older people living in the
community and referred to the Aged Care Assessment Service had experienced elder abuse.255 A study of
four Aged Care Assessment Teams in QLD, WA and NSW showed a prevalence rate of 2.3%256 and a study
in a large regional aged care service in NSW found 5.4% of clients referred had also experienced elder
abuse.257 In studies in the United States (where participants aged 60 and over are included), the prevalence
of elder abuse ranged from 11.4% to 14.1%.248,258 Apart from the age of those participants included in the
studies, discrepancies in prevalence rates may be due to issues of definition as some types of elder abuse
were not included.254
In addition, there may be five unreported instances of abuse to every one reported.259 The real prevalence of
elder abuse is obscured due to a number of factors, including fear of retribution when reporting a complaint.
The ageing of Australia’s population and the increasing numbers of adults with dementia contribute to the
anticipated growth in the prevalence of elder abuse.260
Identification
Understanding the risk factors for people who abuse vulnerable elders can provide information for
intervention and preventive strategies.260
Risk factors can include:248,249
• individual
–– cognitive impairment
–– behavioural problems
–– psychiatric illness or psychological problems
–– functional dependency
–– poor physical health or frailty
–– low income or wealth
–– trauma or past abuse
–– ethnicity
• perpetrator
–– caregiver burden or stress
–– psychiatric illness or psychological problems
• relationship
–– problems within the family
–– relationship conflicts
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• environment
–– low social support
–– living with others (except for financial abuse).
Physical abuse
• A history of physical abuse, accidents or injuries
• Injuries such as skin trauma, including bruising, skin tears, burns, welts, bed sores, ulcers or unexplained
fractures and sprains
• Signs of restraint (eg at the wrists or waist)
• Unexplained behaviour changes suggesting under-medication or over-medication
• Unusual patterns of injury
Sexual abuse
• Bruising around the breasts or genital area
• Unexplained genital or urinary tract infections
• Damaged or bloody underclothing
• Unexplained vaginal bleeding
• Bruising on the inner thighs
• Difficulty in walking or sitting
Emotional abuse
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Economic abuse
• History of fraudulent behaviour or stealing perpetrated on the patient
• Lack of money to purchase medication or food
• Lack of money to purchase personal items
• Defaulting on payment of rent or RACF fees
• Stripping of assets from the family home or use of assets for free
Neglect
• A history of neglect
• Poor hygiene, bad odour, urine rash
• Malnourishment, weight loss, dehydration (dark urine, dry tongue, lax skin)
• Bed sores (sacrum, hips, heels, elbows)
• Being over-sedated or under-sedated
• Inappropriate or soiled clothing, overgrown nails, decaying teeth
• Broken or missing aids such as spectacles, dentures, hearing aids or walking frame
If the possibility of abuse is suspected or concern is raised, you can use the consultation time to observe
the emotional reactions and body language of the older person and the suspected abuser. Also, you can
observe face-to-face interactions between the two. If the patient is in an RACF, remember that an abuser
may be another resident (sometimes with dementia), a staff member (including volunteers), visitors or
family members.
Management
If the patient has the capacity to give a history, it should be taken without others present. If this history
differs from that given by carers or other family members, suspicions should be raised.251 Ask the patient
direct questions (refer to Appendix 6. Elder Abuse Suspicion Index), and if suspicion of abuse is confirmed,
you can request permission from the patient to report the information to the appropriate parties (Table 16).
However, although there is no legal compulsion requiring GPs to report elder abuse, any abuse affects the
health and wellbeing of the patient and therefore the GP needs to have a response that ensures safety for
the patient (refer to Chapter 13).
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A rural perspective
Rural and remote communities present another set of challenges associated with the lack of RACFs and
access to other services.263 In some rural communities people living in an RACF will be some distance from
their families and will be more isolated. There is also the understated issue of maintaining confidentiality
within small community groups. Below is a case study from a rural area that illustrates some of the issues.
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Diagnosis
GPs need to acknowledge that abuse may be happening in this situation. The Elder Abuse Suspicion Index can help with an
assessment.
Management
You may involve the home nursing service, home help, day centre, carer support groups or other local services to relieve the
pressure on this family. Another alternative is to seek the help of an aged care assessment team if available. Respite care or
admission to an RACF are other options, depending on what is available.
Outcome
Winnie remains in her daughter’s house with some extra aids – for example, a toilet raise, home help for bathing, respite care
– which allows her daughter time out of the house; and Winnie attends the day centre once a week. It is unclear that this will
alleviate the situation, so it is important to maintain a close watch on Winnie with weekly house calls.
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Recommendations
• Health practitioners should be aware that people with disabilities, particularly those with a mental
illness, are at a much greater risk of violence – physical, sexual, or intimate partner – than those
without a disability266 Level I C
Introduction
People with disabilities are a vulnerable group within our society and among our patients. They are
at increased risk for neglect and for multiple forms of abuse including verbal, psychological, physical
and sexual.3
Prevalence of disability
The Australian Bureau of Statistics research in 2009 identified 18.5% of the community as having a
disability. Of these, 2.9% of people had a ‘profound core limitation’, indicating the need for assistance
with daily tasks such as self-care, mobility or communication. About 1.86% of the population has an
intellectual disability.267
Identification
A person with a disability may:
Management
GPs can assist by:
Conclusion
The elderly and those with disabilities are at increased risk of experiencing abuse and violence. However,
these particular patient groups may find it difficult to disclose such abuse because of their situation or even
an inability to verbally communicate. Some patients may not understand that what they are experiencing is
abuse or what their rights are because of potentially limited intellectual capacity. GPs should consider the
possibility of abuse and identify and appropriately care for patients to ensure their safety.
Where the patient has lost the capacity to make decisions, help may need to be sought from the person
legally responsible for giving consent for their healthcare. If this person is the abuser, then seek help from
the appropriate advocacy source in your state or territory (refer to Resources).
Resources
Please refer to Appendix 7 for resources nationally and in your area.
82 Abuse and violence
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Key messages
• Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander victims of violence include men, women and children. However,
women are the predominant victims of intimate partner abuse46
• The most vulnerable age group is 15–24 years followed by 25–34 years and 35–44 years. Your risk
for being a victim of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander family violence decreases after age 4546
• One factor alone cannot be singled out as the ‘cause’ of family violence, however, research has
found that the strongest risk factor for being a victim of violence as an Aboriginal and Torres Strait
Islander person is alcohol use. Other factors are being removed from one’s family, single parent
families and financial stress47
Recommendations
• Health practitioners should raise the issue with any Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander patient, no
matter where they live, who is presenting with indications of being a victim of violence3 Level III A
• At a community level, health practitioners need to show leadership through local organisations by
advocating for provision of services that meet the needs of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
peoples experiencing family violence Practice point
Introduction
Abuse and violence in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities across Australia has been the
subject of intense media coverage over the past decade. These are not new issues. However, to address
the health needs of patients, they need to be part of the care they will receive wherever they present to an
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander medical service or general practice.
Prevalence
State-commissioned inquiries and government reports since 1999 have consistently reported that the
occurrence of family violence in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities across Australia is
disproportionately high in comparison to the Australian population as a whole. They have also highlighted
that the main victims of family violence are women and children. However, men are also equally the victims
of violence perpetrated often by other men.274–280 The 2008 National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
Social Survey (NATSISS)46 confirms that:
• of the 23.4% of Indigenous people reporting to be victims of physical or threatened violence in the 12
months prior to the survey, men and women had similar levels of victimisation47
• a further, more in-depth study of the data, however, reveals that assaults by an intimate partner
represented 41.7% of the most recent incidents reported. The largest proportion of incidents were
against women46
• 2.6% of Indigenous men reported being assaulted by a current or former partner, or date.46 This figure
needs to be treated with some caution because the small numbers involved increase the risk of
sampling error
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• men were most likely to be assaulted by someone outside of the family, either a person they knew by
sight only or other known person (35.0%), friend, work colleague, fellow student or neighbour (22.8%).46
Figure 5. Reporting of physical and threatened violence by location and age in 2008 NATSISS
(expressed as percentages)
Major cities 30.7 30.3 30.5 24.3 23.4 23.9 30.0 24.8 27.2 15.7 14.5 15.1 25.3 23.7 24.5
of Australia
Regional 26.1 30.9 28.4 28.8 29.7 29.3 23.3 23.5 23.4 14.5 13.1 13.7 22.9 23.8 23.4
Australia
Total non 27.9 30.6 29.3 26.4 27.0 26.7 26.4 24.1 25.1 15.0 13.6 14.3 23.9 23.8 23.8
remote
Remote/ 30.7 30.8 30.7 25.6 22.7 24.1 22.2 18.9 20.5 9.1 10.6 9.9 21.8 20.9 21.3
very remote
Australia
Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics. National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Social Survey 2008. Canberra: AGPS; 2010.
The proportion of victimisation decreased with age and this finding is consistent with other population
groups.46 Older members of the community experience other forms of violence, including economic abuse.
It is also significant to note that, of the Aboriginal and Torres Strait women who reported in the 2008
NATSISS that they had experienced physical assault during the 12 months prior to the interview, almost
all (94%) knew the perpetrator of their most recent incident of physical assault, with the categories most
frequently recorded being a current or previous partner (32%), or a family member (28%). Aboriginal and
Torres Strait Islander men on the other hand were significantly less likely to identify a current or previous
partner as the perpetrator of their most recent incident of physical assault (2%). They were more likely to
report being assaulted by a family member (20%), friend (16%), known person by sight (20%), or other
known person (25%).46
The NATSISS conducted in 2002 and 2008 have also demonstrated that there is a strong relationship
between reported victimisation and being removed from one’s natural family.47,294 For Group 2 factors,
Weatherburn and Snowball found that the strongest risk factor for being a victim of physical violence was
alcohol use.47 In addition, they demonstrated that significant predicators of victimisation included substance
use, lone-parent families and financial stress.
Figure 6. Factors contributing to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander family violence
Colonisation:
Policies and practices
Group 1 Factors
Marginalisation as a minority
Unemployment
Welfare dependency
Past history of abuse
(child and/or adult)
FAMILY VIOLENCE
Sources: Cripps K. Enough family fighting: Indigenous community responses to addressing family violence in Australia and the
United States. Melbourne: Monash University; 2004.
Cripps K, Adams M. Family Violence: Pathways Forward. In: Dudgeon P, Milroy H, Walker R, editors. Working Together:
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Mental Health and Wellbeing Principles and Practice. Canberra: Commonwealth of Australia;
2014:399–416.
86 Abuse and violence
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Management
If your patient identifies as being Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander, is under the age of 45, lives in any
location in Australia and is presenting with indications of being a victim of violence, you should attempt to
raise the issue with the patient. For ways of asking about violence and ways of responding to disclosure
refer to Chapter 2, Chapter 3, and Chapter 4.
At a community level, GPs need to show leadership, for example through local primary healthcare
organisations and other local organisations, by advocating for provision of services that meet the needs of
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples. The case study below provides an insight into the experience
of family violence in an Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander context and identifies some key issues to be
mindful of in your interaction with an Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander survivor of abuse.
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• a broken wrist
• facial bruising
• broken ribs
• bruising.
On this occasion she has had more broken ribs, and extensive bruising down one side of her body from being repeatedly
kicked. She has come in today because the hospital told her she needed to see her GP on Monday to follow-up on the
tests they did in the hospital last Friday night.
The context
As you are reviewing Lisa’s notes you are thinking about what you know about Lisa, her partner, her broader family and the
community in which she lives. This is a community that has had a significant history of dispossession and cultural dislocation
and many of the families, including Lisa’s, have had aunts, uncles, brothers and sisters forcibly removed both as a policy of
the Stolen Generation but also as a consequence of recent Child Protection involvement.
This is a community and family who have not had opportunities to heal from the hurts they have suffered and they struggle
with day-to-day living. You know this because you have seen the high incidence of chronic illness, alcoholism and mental
health issues in some sectors of the community and it is not unusual for you to be patching up patients who have borne the
brunt of violence.
There are also many related issues that confound the problems faced by these community members. These include the
high unemployment in the area, because of seasonal work, and the low educational attainment levels related to the racism
experienced at the local school. Further, the high turnover of staff at schools and community centres, and more broadly the
high levels of both financial and personal stress experienced by most community members, also confound the problems.
It is not unusual for members to be attending funerals at least once a month and this can have a great effect on individuals’
feelings of unresolved grief and powerlessness over their own circumstances.
Ongoing care
As you reflect on this context, you think about how you can draw on available resources to support Lisa and her children, to
provide them with safety and then to begin the road to healing.
Lisa comes in with her sister Ella, whom she is staying with at the moment. Ella is well known in the community and works as
an Aboriginal GP. She will be a great asset to you as you work with Lisa in developing both a safety and care plan for her.
Lisa’s children also attend the appointment. They have no obvious injuries and Lisa says that Rob has never hit them. The
children, however, appear withdrawn – they are very quiet, appear scared, and are clingy to both their mum and their aunty.
Lisa says she hasn’t seen Rob since he got angry in the emergency department and they called security on him.
Rob will also need help. This should be provided by another GP, to assist with maintaining confidentiality. At this time the
GPs responsibility is to Lisa and the children (refer to Chapter 3. Safety and risk assessment, and Chapter 5. Dealing with
perpetrators in clinical practice).
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Lisa’s safety
You may wish to discuss with Lisa and her sister what options are available to ensure her immediate safety. These might
include:
• staying with a family member or in a refuge – if available, a refuge specifically for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
women. Finding a refuge that has space can be challenging. Call the domestic violence line in your state
• police assistance through the domestic violence liaison – remembering that many Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
peoples have had bad experiences with the police
• an Aboriginal Family Violence Prevention Legal Centre to obtain help or assistance with an intervention order.
If you are referring Lisa to the women’s refuge, or shelter, it is worth noting that they are in high demand, may not be able to
cater for the number of children and can have quite strict rules that may be unsettling for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
clients. So the ‘fit’ may not always be the best option. It is, however, still worth trying.
Conclusion
The consequences of violence within Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities continue to
be felt long after the bruises fade. A therapeutic response to the problem means thinking about the
complexities that are often inherent in these contexts, as the above case study highlights. A decade of
reports and research clearly articulates that any response or intervention must fundamentally engage with
the multilayered factors that are contributing to the violence. These interventions need to take place and
engage with the factors on an individual, familial and community basis for healing to be successful.
Resources
Please refer to Appendix 7 for resources nationally and in your area.
Further information
• Our Family Business – Spirit Dreaming DVD. Spirit Dreaming has produced a series of DVDs exploring
family violence from the perspective of Aboriginal women. These DVDs provide moving personal
accounts of family violence experienced by Aboriginal women and the impact it has had on their lives.
The resource is divided into four parts, with each section documenting real-life stories of what family
violence looks like (The Face), what family violence feels like (The Heart), what it takes to change (The
Spirit) and the wisdom gained (The Soul). The resource has also produced booklets for women, elders
and children, available at www.spiritdreaming.com.au/resources/our-family-business
• Transgenerational trauma, available at http://whatsupwithmymob.com.au
• Prevention messages: Strong families, strong culture: Use your strength wisely commercials
–– www.youtube.com/watch?v=JIyKwh9yOyY
–– www.youtube.com/watch?v=okoLytSmOZU
–– www.youtube.com/watch?v=bM8A7BMEScE
–– www.youtube.com/watch?v=ehDxwdeD7LQ
90 Abuse and violence
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Key messages
• Avoid making assumptions about a patient’s cultural beliefs. Speak to the patient as an individual
while still acknowledging that their cultural background may inform their personal beliefs and
expectations
• Health practitioners need to reflect upon their personal belief systems so that they can recognise
how these beliefs impact upon their consultations with others
• Patients from migrant and refugee backgrounds who are experiencing violence may be
disadvantaged by a lack of knowledge about their rights, lack of good support systems, and their
social isolation.297 Patients may be experiencing abuse by multiple people, including in-laws and
intimate partners298,299
Recommendations
• In working with patients from migrant and refugee backgrounds, remember that they are likely to
have similar symptoms to other victims of family violence.300 However consider that this may be in
addition to trauma experienced in their country of origin, refugee camps and in transit Practice point
• Practices need to put systems in place to ensure care is delivered in a culturally sensitive manner300
Practice point
• Assistance and support offered in a culturally sensitive manner to migrant and refugee women
helps to empower women to make positive changes in their lives. Ideally these services should be
language concordant301 Practice point
Introduction
In Australia, a country rich in cultural diversity, approximately one in four people is a first generation
migrant, and 60% of Australian migrants come from non-English speaking backgrounds.302 Many medical
practitioners, including GPs, have a migrant or refugee background.
The measure of cultural identity may not be a spoken language, religion and/or place of birth. Cultural
identity is complex and is often entangled with gender, class, socioeconomic status and other factors. The
indefinable nature of culture means it is important to be aware of the potential for cultural misunderstanding
in every day practice. Yet it is also important to avoid making assumptions about the individual. A person’s
health beliefs and values are informed by a mix of cultural understandings, personal experiences and
knowledge. Because of this, different individuals from the same culture may have very different expectations
and understandings when seeking care from a GP.
Not all members of a gender, family or culture will hold the same values. The individual patient who is
presenting to the doctor may be able to assist the doctor with how their cultural beliefs influence their
gender roles, family roles and what constitutes abuse and violence, as well as how willing they are to
disclose their concerns. However, the shame and stigma of the issue, wider family pressures, fears of
ostracism or deportation297 and ignorance of the law and supports in the Australian system are powerful
barriers to disclosure. GPs should be mindful of these issues.
Importantly, not only do patients bring culturally influenced values, beliefs and behaviours to clinical practice,
so do GPs.114 It is necessary for GPs to identify and confront their own belief systems and values to
understand how these impact upon their clinical decision making. Just as GPs develop clinical skills, they
must also develop their cultural competence and sensitivity. GPs must examine their own attitudes about
abuse and violence in their own and other cultures.
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Prevalence
The 2011 census302 found, within the Australian population, that:
• booking and using an interpreter that is not a family member (refer to Resources)
• allowing time to establish rapport and trust
• explaining and emphasising doctor–patient confidentiality, patient consent, choice and control
• understanding that confidentiality and consent issues vary dramatically in different cultures, with some
cultures understanding consent as a community issue not an individual issue
• explaining procedures and being prepared to repeat information
• providing opportunities for the patient to ask questions or seek clarification – some will have come from
other cultures in which this was not encouraged
• explaining why you are asking certain questions
• considering gender issues – for example, male GPs may consider referring female patients to a female GP
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• establishing if there are any cultural or religious factors that need to be accommodated
• taking into account a patient’s cultural or religious practices – for example, considering the need for halal
medications for patients of Muslim faiths and issues related to times of fasting.
Assistance and support offered to migrant and refugee women that is culturally appropriate and if possible,
in their own language, is extremely important in empowering women to feel that they can make changes in
their lives.301 Many larger states have services specifically for migrant and refugee women that offer direct
service support to women experiencing violence. Some also have links with ethno-specific men’s behaviour
change programs (refer to Resources).
The ethnicity of a GP and its congruence with the practice population may impact upon the clinical
consultation. GPs of a similar culture and/or ethnic background may be more aware of health disparities
experienced by the community – for example, access to services. A GP who belongs to the same cultural
group may understand how to address the issues of abuse more effectively within a culture, offering helpful
and relevant advice, often with significant cultural authority. Conversely, a GP of a similar background to the
patient may overlook the possible presence of abuse or violence or may minimise its significance or accept
it as a cultural normal, rather than engage with the definition accepted by mainstream society.
• Victims may be experiencing abuse from other family members – for example, their in-laws (mother,
father or brother-in-law).298,299 Questioning should elicit the full spectrum of abuse being perpetrated in
the family and not only focus on intimate partner abuse.
• Children from refugee backgrounds may have witnessed or experienced serious violence prior to their
arrival, and continuing violence within the home can add to the pre-migration trauma experiences and
the acculturative stress issues.
• For younger women, especially students and migrant workers on limited visas, fears about immigration
status may affect their comfort to disclose.
• If the patient is in an abusive gay or lesbian relationship, fears about confidentiality and stigma may be
very strong.
• In all cases, reassure patients about their confidentiality within limits of legal requirements (refer to
Chapter 13), explore safety and express support and offer ongoing help. If you share the same language
and culture as the patient, this reassurance at the outset will be very important.
Refer to Chapter 2 for examples of how to ask patients about experiences of violence.
Alcohol and drug abuse are potential signals for perpetration in migrant communities as they are
elsewhere,308 so you should be alert to asking about the effect of such substance misuse on other family
members, especially children. The safety of the survivor and children needs to be paramount.
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Management
Many GPs can think that their gender or ethnicity is perceived as a barrier to disclosure by a victimised
patient from a migrant or refugee background. But if a patient is reassured empathically, and if they perceive
their GP to be listening, trustworthy and understanding, then empathy within the therapeutic relationship
can overcome stereotypes of gender and culture. Feder et al6 found near unanimity among over 800
victimised women’s views about the need for GPs to be empathic and non-judgemental in their care. When
developing healing relationships with our patients, Scott et al 228 established that trust, hope and a sense of
being known were the important things identified by patients.
In order to address the cultural diversity of patients who present, the GP needs to:
Assure confidentiality
It is good practice to reassure any abused patient that the consultation – subject to legal and mandatory
reporting requirements – is strictly confidential, but for migrant and refugee patients it is vital to convey
clearly that you will NOT reveal information gathered during the consultation to anyone else. This may be
very important if you are a member of the same community and language community. It is also important
to assure the patient that trained interpreters are also bound by these rules of confidentiality. Even where
this information has been provided, confidentiality can be a difficult concept to relay within a cross-cultural
environment and it may take some time for the patient to engage with this understanding.
• what their perspective and preferences are and whether they wish to take any action
• discuss their comfort to be referred for support – for example, to a mainstream or ethno-specific agency
• assess their risk and safety and make a safety plan (refer to Chapter 3) that may include hiding copies
of all important papers and documents, including passports, visas, birth and marriage certificates if
appropriate
• the law and rights and support services in Australia (refer to Chapter 13). For example, women from
overseas who have married Australian men need to know that their visa application will be given special
consideration if there has been domestic violence. The GP may be able to provide documentation that
can assist this process
• the role of police, intervention orders and courts in Australia. This may be very different to the individual’s
country of origin. This can be especially important if the individual is in a rural community and the
perpetrator has access to weapons.
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Conclusion
While the health effects of violence are consistent across countries and cultures, there are a number of
specific issues that GPs need to be aware of when caring for people of migrant or refugee background.
Access to healthcare and specifically access to culturally sensitive services can be difficult. GPs need to
understand these issues to be able to identify and support patients from migrant and refugee communities
who are experiencing family violence. This chapter has detailed several ways to provide culturally sensitive
care, and the Resources section provides details of additional assistance – for example, interpreters.
GPs need to be able to reflect upon how their gender, ethnicity and cultural background might impact upon
a consultation with patients of migrant or refugee background. Reassuring patients by developing trust and
providing an empathic culturally sensitive consultation can help to overcome many of the barriers to care.
Resources
Please refer to Appendix 7 for resources nationally and in your area.
Further information
• The Centre for Ethnicity and Health (Vic) is a useful organisation and provides papers that explore the
impact of migration law, screening by the maternal and child health service, increasing service access
for women, and dispute resolution strategies for men. Available at www.ceh.org.au/dih/dih-program/dih-
daily-program-guides/7-june/practitioner-perspectives
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Key messages
• Health practitioners are responsible for medical care, not legal advice, but they need to have an
understanding of the legal issues around family violence and sexual assault246
• Assault occurring between family members is a criminal offence246
• Health practitioners should document any physical injuries and specific descriptions of violence, but
should leave any interpretation of physical and other observations to a suitably qualified expert246
Recommendations
• Health practitioners can assist their patients experiencing abuse and violence by providing
information on legal options and access to legal services3,312 Practice point
• In cases of recent sexual assault, if you are not trained in the collection of forensic evidence, your
patient needs to be referred to a sexual assault service246 Practice point
This chapter provides a general overview of the role of the law regarding family violence and issues to
consider when a patient presents as the victim of sexual assault. The information in this section is not legal
advice. This information may be useful as a resource to guide and to empower our patients in considering
realistic options of legal protection for their own safety. If a patient expresses an interest, the contact
references may be passed on to them. They need to take responsibility for their own legal issues.
Introduction
When a patient discloses family violence, including sexual assault and sexual assault between intimate
partners, it is valuable for the GP to have a basic understanding of the legal framework.246 This could
include an understanding of family violence orders, the role of the police, and knowledge of referral options
to community legal services.3,312,313 In cases of assault it is important for the doctor to document clearly and
accurately what the patient has said about the assault and a description of any injuries. The medical notes
may become evidence in potential criminal court proceedings.246
This chapter outlines responses to family violence and sexual assault involving legal intervention. However,
Australian states and territories have differing legislation that may apply to one or all of these types of abuse.
Legal responses to violence are not the domain of general practice.
patients by giving them back some sense of control. Further to this, a number of counselling services can
be made available to a victim of assault via victim of crime support agencies. These differ in each state and
contact can be made via the police (refer to Table 18).
There may be a range of reasons that patients may not wish to involve the police, such as fear of retribution,
the event having occurred sometime in the past, or embarrassment. In particular, barriers to disclosing
sexual violence include women not having identified the act as sexual violence or a crime, thinking that they
will not be believed, fearing how they will be treated by the criminal justice system, and considering that
they may be able to handle it themselves.
Delay in reporting an offence to the police can be for a number of other reasons including:27
Table 18. Police assault and family violence investigation teams/units in each
state or territory
ACT www.police.act.gov.au/crime-and-safety/abuse-and-family-violence.aspx
New South Wales www.police.nsw.gov.au/community_issues
Northern Territory www.pfes.nt.gov.au/Police/Community-safety.aspx
Queensland www.police.qld.gov.au/programs/adultassault
www.police.qld.gov.au/programs/cscp/dv/Response.htm
South Australia www.police.sa.gov.au/sapol/safety_security.jsp
Tasmania www.police.tas.gov.au/programs/safe-at-home
Western Australia www.police.wa.gov.au/Yoursafety/tabid/1080/Default.aspx
Victoria www.police.vic.gov.au/content.asp?Document_ID=36237
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Family violence
Generally the law can address family violence in two ways: family violence orders that are legislated under
civil law, and criminal charges. The term ‘family violence order’ is used in this chapter as a generic term
for those orders specifically for family violence, though some states may have different names for these.
Some states may use one form of order to cover both instances of family violence and assault. These can
be called ‘intervention orders’, ‘protection orders’ or ‘restraining orders’. See below for more detail on what
such orders can do.
If your patient is a victim of family violence, recommend, if appropriate, that they go to the police or relevant
local community services, obtain legal advice or approach the local magistrates’ court services assisting in
family violence orders.
Specially trained police officers can assist victims to access appropriate services and emergency orders to
provide immediate safety. Doctors or patients can seek advice and information from the police on behalf
of a patient without disclosing the patient’s name. You can also encourage patients to talk to the police
themselves, even if they don’t identify themselves – patients may be helped by meeting with a trained police
officer directly (refer to Resources).
• recent assaults, threats and/or harassment by a partner, family member, friend or stranger where the
person is fearful of it happening in the future – especially death threats
• actual or threatened damage to property.
It is preferable that a person obtaining a restraining order asks for advice about the legislation in their state
or territory – what orders are available, and what will afford them the most adequate protection (refer to
Resources for links to appropriate sources for such advice).
It is beyond the scope of this manual to advise GPs in relation to the law in each state and territory. At the
same time a complaint about criminal conduct is made to the police, their assistance should be sought
and, if necessary, further legal advice obtained.
Court support services can be very helpful for women who have experienced family violence. Availability of
these services can vary, and are offered by local community agencies. They may also be accessed at the
magistrates’ court and the police may be able to provide further information.
Please note that in the Northern Territory, mandatory reporting provisions in the Domestic and Family
Violence Act require that any adult must contact the police where they reasonably believe another person
has been, is at risk of or is experiencing, serious physical harm through domestic or family violence. This
requirement overrides issues of confidentiality.
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Sexual assault
It is useful for GPs to become aware of other services and service providers in the area for both themselves
and their patients. These may include counselling services, the police, sexual assault services dealing with
the collection of forensic evidence, local hospitals and local courts.246
No matter how long ago the sexual assault happened, a victim can, and may wish to, contact the police.
There is no ‘statute of limitations’ for sexual assault. In the event that they do, they can contact any police
station, which will, in turn, arrange for a trained officer to contact the victim. Most Australian states have
specialised crime units that deal with sexual assault issues.
A physical examination is best performed as soon as possible after the patient presents. Delay may
result in:
If the event occurred recently, forensic evidence is best collected as soon as possible and, in particular,
in the first 72 hours after the assault. Forensic evidence will be important if the patient decides to go to
court about this matter. If you are not trained in the collection of forensic evidence, your patient
needs to be referred to a sexual assault service (refer to Resources and Chapter 9). The implications
of, and consent to, the collection of this evidence will need to be discussed with the patient by a
professional qualified to do so.246 Sensitivity in both the discussion and collection of evidence is required
in order not to re-victimise the patient. Forensic and medical sexual assault clinicians are qualified to deal
with these issues.
There are other advantages to early reporting to the police. Police may be able to collect evidence from the
crime scene, from clothing or sheets, or for example from CCTV, which would otherwise be lost. In most
cases the victim will later be able to withdraw if she does not wish to continue with criminal proceedings.
Many victims of sexual assault find some satisfaction or meaning in assisting the police gather evidence that
may assist in solving other crimes, or in the protection of other potential victims, even if they themselves
choose not to proceed with the court process.
In many Australian states there are specific sexual assault services, often situated at a hospital. A
nationwide list can be found at Forensic and Medical Sexual Assault Clinicians Australia (refer to
Resources). Patients can be referred for forensic examination and for counselling services whether they
choose to report, or not to report, the assault to police.
If there is the potential for further sexual assault to occur and the perpetrator is not considered to be related
to, or in a domestic relationship with, your patient, they may be able to apply for a form of protection order
(the name of these orders vary between states and territories). As in cases of family violence, you may direct
your patient to go to the police, relevant local community or legal services to get assistance or advice.
Child abuse
The Northern Territory requires any adult to report to police if they believe on reasonable grounds that
a child has been, is, or is likely to be at risk of a sexual offence or to experience harm or exploitation. In
other states and territories, all medical practitioners are required to report any assault perpetrated against
people under the age of 18 years (16 years in New South Wales and 17 in Victoria). Each Australian state
and territory has different legislation regarding what must be reported by whom (refer to Table 10, Chapter
6). When in doubt, it is always best to check with your medical defence organisation or with the reporting
agency, initially without mentioning the child’s name.
If you consider it professionally appropriate to take steps to assist a patient through the appointment of a
public advocate or public guardian, it may be desirable first to seek professional advice without identifying
the patient in order to ensure that their situation falls within the jurisdiction of the relevant public advocate or
public guardian.
If deemed appropriate, you can report abuse to a number of different agencies, including the police, RACF
and the public advocate or your state or territory equivalent (refer to Tables 18 and 20). Protection orders
and sexual assault services may be considered, if appropriate.
Conclusion
The service most frequently identified as the first point of contact for victims of assault is a doctor or
hospital. This initial contact is important in a patient’s decision to address the violence. It is important for
GPs to understand the legal frameworks of abuse. Remember that GPs do not need to, and should not,
provide advice to patients in these legal matters. That said, providing patients with information and links
to appropriate services is important, as this provides them with the avenues they require to make an
informed choice.
It is helpful to be able to provide patients with appropriate medical care, accurate information and referrals.
But most importantly, to provide the message that their safety is paramount and that what is happening to
them is:
Patients may make very different choices to those of their GP. It is very important to respect their choices,
stay involved and consider their readiness to seek legal action (refer to Chapter 4).
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Case study
This is a true story of a patient’s journey through the legal processes of dealing with intimate partner abuse. It helps us to
understand the stress that can be experienced as women negotiate such a journey.
This story started in the mid 1980s as I was preparing to study an arts degree. My husband at first encouraged
this, but after marriage he decided it was unnecessary for me to study. The first physical violence occurred within 6
months of the marriage, around the issue of my studying. I was shocked and confused when he first hit me. I didn’t
tell anyone. I went to the doctor because I was tired and unwell and he prescribed antidepressants.
My husband was very critical of my using antidepressants and insisted that I cancel my driver’s licence and
stopped me spending time with family and friends.
We moved away from Sydney and bought an old house, which I was primarily responsible for renovating. My
health became worse. I became more isolated. I had arranged a visit to Europe, which my husband did everything
in his power to prevent. It was a time when I could reflect on my life, my health improved and I met a family who
were very supportive. They recognised that things were not right and encouraged me to talk. Meanwhile, my
husband was demanding my return and achieved this by reporting my Visa card stolen. It was cancelled and I had
no access to funds.
I arrived home with not a friend anywhere. My husband had turned my family and friends against me. He insisted
I write to my friends overseas and cut off contact. They were alerted by this and wrote to my family. My husband
continued to abuse me, ranting that I was selfish and ungrateful. He accused me of being lazy and careless and
criticised everything I did. He also accused me of having affairs. He kept knives in his bedside table and I was
totally intimidated. I couldn’t sleep at night – I only slept 2 to 3 hours a day when he was out of the house. I lost
weight and started smoking.
The letter to my family alerted them and I was able to explain things to my parents and break my husband’s hold on
them. I began to see a counsellor, Karen, who would prove to be very helpful to me.
Why didn’t I leave earlier?
The only way for women to leave domestic violence is to leave the house. When people say: ‘Why don’t you
leave?’ I ask them how would they feel if tomorrow morning they were to walk out of their home, leaving everything
behind and in the evening they would not come back or the next night or ever again. Just leave everything behind
and try to find a new life.
To walk out into the unknown is very hard for someone who has lost all confidence and belief in themselves. It’s
hard to believe you can manage alone. Also, there is the terrible fear of the husband and what may happen if he
catches up with you. Some women not only have to leave, but also have to go far away to be safe. I had to go to
Darwin. The logistics can be very daunting.
I was slowly helped, so that I was able to go to a solicitor for advice, make a plan to leave, go to a distant place for
safety and arrange for an apprehended domestic violence order (ADVO).
This is only a very small part of the story as it has involved divorce, trying through the Family Court to get a
settlement and slowly, very slowly, rebuilding my life. The most difficult times were going to court for the ADVO (I
could not have done this without a court support worker), and the meetings at the Family Court where they tried
to force me to be in the same room with my husband. The lawyer insisted that we be kept separate as there was
an ADVO and it was not possible for any negotiations with my husband. It is as if my husband has been able to
continue his abuse through the court system.
Why have I told my story?
I do it in the hope that it will enable you to understand what may be going on behind closed doors; why it is so
hard to leave; how intimidated and exhausted one can become; how leaving needs to be planned and carefully
done; and how leaving is only the beginning of much more that needs to be organised.
I appreciate the support I have had from my counsellor, family and doctors. I hope to prevent this happening to
other women.
104 Abuse and violence
Working with our patients in general practice
Resources
Please refer to Appendix 7 for resources nationally and in your area.
Further information
• When she talks to you about the violence is a tool kit for GPs on domestic violence that was developed
in NSW. Available at http://itstimetotalk.net.au/gp-toolkit
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Key messages
• Working with those who are experiencing family violence can be emotionally challenging and result
in the experience of vicarious trauma315
• It is important to maintain an environment, both individually and in practice, where there is adequate
protection from burnout or the vicarious trauma that may come from hearing the stories of patients
involved in abuse and violence315–317
Recommendations
• Health practitioners cannot give to others if they are experiencing compassion fatigue, so it is
advised that self-care and a whole of practice approach be addressed so that patients receive the
best care318 Practice Point
• Working as a team within the practice by using a system that provides peer support and the ability
to discuss distressing cases may help protect against stress315 Practice Point
Introduction
Managing the effects of abuse and violence on our patients can be a rewarding aspect of general practice,
however, it can be stressful. If GPs feel empowered, then that empowerment can positively enhance the
doctor–patient interaction. Factors that may contribute to this enhancement are ongoing training, clearly
delineated practice policies, case management supervision, peer support, clear doctor–patient boundaries
and a developed network of resources and referrals.
As well as the usual stresses associated with difficult and time-consuming clinical encounters, there are
factors that are important for GPs to address when working with patients who have experienced abuse or
are currently being abused. The trauma that these patients have experienced constantly challenges our
individual limits and drains personal resources.319 GPs often face professional isolation, ambiguous success,
unreciprocated giving and failure to live up to our own expectations for ensuring positive change.320
Dealing with these issues is important, not just for the health of the GP, but also so that we can maintain
as objective a stance as possible to facilitate a successful outcome for the patient, and maintain good
relationships with the patient’s family, friends and community.
Vicarious traumatisation is the inner transformation of the care givers experience as ‘a result of empathic
engagement with victims, clients and their trauma material’.321 It can ‘encompass changes in frame of
reference, identity, sense of safety, ability to trust, self-esteem, intimacy and a sense of control’.322 This
is a particular danger when dealing with those who are, or have, experienced abuse and violence. GPs
who have a similar background to the community they serve are at a higher risk of vicarious trauma. This
may include GPs of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander descent, those who were refugees and many
international medical graduates (IMGs). These situations will be particularly difficult for GPs who have
personally experienced abuse or have experience abuse in their families.
It is important to maintain an environment in which there is adequate protection from burnout or the
vicarious trauma that may come from hearing the stories of patients involved in abuse and violence. The
medical profession has a ‘long and admirable, but often unhealthy, tradition of self-sacrifice to work’.316
Those who work in this field need to be vigilant about ways to overcome compassion fatigue, renew the
joy in practice, create life balance,317 and adequately care for their own physical, mental, emotional and
spiritual health.
106 Abuse and violence
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A rural perspective
GPs who work in rural areas are at a higher risk of problems with stress, burnout and vicarious trauma.
They are highly likely to find it difficult to access locums, peer support and ongoing training, and usually
have more after-hours work, are more isolated and find it more difficult to maintain clear boundaries
between themselves and their patients.316
Many rural GPs are IMGs who have the added burden of having to negotiate different cultures, ethnicities,
language, religion and the difference between rural and urban environments in Australia. They will also have
to learn about the expectations Australian patients have of their doctor and about a new health system and
its attendant bureaucracy. As well as the risk of ‘culture shock’, their anxiety, isolation and insecurity in the
face of all these differences is likely to be much higher.323
• personal
• professional
• organisational.
Using this model (Table 21) may help set the stage for good self-care319,321
The following explores this model in relation to the management of patients who are experiencing or have
experienced abuse or violence.
Awareness
Personal
• When the GP has a similar background to the patient, the possibility of family violence may be more
difficult for to consider115 as the GP may actually have ‘normalised’ the abuse and disregarded it.322
• Others may feel more personally vulnerable when abuse is disclosed.
• The GP can be drawn into the deceit; the unwillingness to openly discuss or report the violence.115
• The GP may feel powerless and fearful for the patient’s safety when that patient chooses a path the GP
considers dangerous.115
• The patient could remain at risk and the GP has to learn to live with that concern.115
• It is a difficult and stressful path supporting and empowering the patient while resisting the temptation to
be directive.115
• Hearing about abuse and violence confronts the GP’s own beliefs about the family and the world. It can
make them feel uncomfortable and challenge their own sense of security.
• Dealing with complex and seemingly hopeless situations over and over again can erode the GP’s
optimism and self-confidence, and diminish their sense of purpose and enjoyment of their career.324
• It is important for GPs to stay connected with their core reasons for choosing to work in a challenging
area and to maintain a respect for the patients themselves.325
• GPs need to recognise their personal signals of distress and find ways to articulate the feelings and act
to redress the distress.326
• The lack of safety and security in the lives of patients involved in abuse and violence repeatedly confirms
the physical and emotional perception of alarm, danger and its impact. The GP may also be left with the
same feelings of a personal sense of vulnerability and intolerance of violence.
• Courage involves stepping outside their comfort zone but not so far that they lose their own sense
of safety.
Professional
• Dealing with the perpetrator of abuse or violence is even more difficult than dealing with the victim,
especially in rural practices where the entire family is likely to be well known to the GP.115
• The GP is likely to also feel at risk, especially if they are drawn into the power dynamics of the violence or
if they are dealing with the perpetrator.115
• Maintaining an ‘intellectual engagement’ with difficult work can assist as a protective strategy.325
Organisational
• GPs have been trained to deal with individuals and to take personal responsibility but are now
moving towards working in teams.326 This brings challenges around sharing information and
maintaining confidentiality.
• Dealing with abuse and violence requires using a whole-of-practice approach and working with other
services in the community.
108 Abuse and violence
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Balance
Personal
• Lifestyle choices that promote ‘wellness’ include relationships, religion or spirituality, focusing on success,
maintaining a balance in life and a positive outlook,317 as well as simple measures such as getting enough
sleep, exercise, nutrition and laughter.
• There is a need for purposeful physical, intellectual, spiritual and relationship sustenance.317
• Without a positive countervailing exposure to human good and world order, a GP may experience the
same loss of a sense of personal control, freedom and trust.
Professional
• Appropriate support for the doctor in training and clinical practice needs to be readily available, especially
considering that 14% of male doctors and 31% of female doctors have a personal history of child abuse
or physical violence with an intimate partner.115
• GPs with less perceived control, greater stress from uncertainty, higher job demands and fewer social
supports are at greater risk of burnout.327
• One of the difficult balances in abuse and violence is the stress of maintaining confidentiality and still
getting added support from other health professionals.
• Learn to celebrate small achievements rather than feel overwhelmed by the big picture.322
• As with other complex and time-consuming occupations, it is important to have clear boundaries
between work and home, attend peer support groups and maintain professional development and
training activities.324
• As a defence against the sometimes intense feelings of helplessness, a GP may take on the role of a
rescuer or saviour. There is a fine line between caring for someone and disempowering them from finding
their own solutions.
Organisational
• Organisational balance involves a sense of control over the practice environment, social support from
colleagues and satisfaction with work demands and resources.327
• Many organisations may become caught in a struggle between promoting the wellbeing of their patients
and trying to cope with the policies and structures in a system that tends to stifle the empowerment and
wellbeing of their staff.328
• There needs to be a balance between caring for patients appropriately by giving them the time they
need, earning a reasonable income and satisfying the organisations’ requirements for performance.322
• GPs need physical security and a safe, confidential workplace, support for continuing education, and
adequate vacation and sick leave.
• Problem-solving rather than blaming helps the patient and the GP be more objective and balanced.323
• Staff will be supported by a shared aim and purpose, adequate staffing and a sense of team
management. This will decrease the risk to individuals within the practice, as well as to the organisation.
• Control working hours in the challenging area and, if possible, balance this with other less challenging
jobs.325
Connection
Personal
• Working in teams is associated with being better able to cope with stress.315,326
• If a GP is becoming burnt out, there may be increased substance use, pessimism and suspiciousness of
patients and colleagues.324
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109
• If a GP is experiencing compassion fatigue or burnout, they need to ask for help and find activities that
connect with mind, body and support networks.324
• Social support systems can provide understanding and renew emotional reserves.324
Professional
• Confidentially debriefing with colleagues can reduce stress levels by sharing the experience.
• Normalise emotional reactions, develop more understanding of reactions and learn stress
management strategies.
• Peer support groups, professional development and training activities can be replenishing and reinforce
the value and meaning of work.
Organisational
• Working and communicating well as a team with the GPs, practice nurses and receptionists within the
practice, and with public health nurses, teachers, police and other agencies, is very important in the
identification and management of abuse and violence.115
Conclusion
This chapter has highlighted the importance of self-care for the GP when working with families experiencing
violence and abuse. It encourages self-reflection, peer support and working as a whole of practice
approach to these families.
Resources
Please refer to Appendix 7 for resources nationally and in your area.
Further information
• Keeping the doctor alive – this guidebook provides information and resources on strategies for self-
care as an essential element of professional life. It aims to encourage medical practitioners to recognise
and discuss the challenges facing them, promote self-care as an integral and accepted part of the
professional life of medical practitioners, and assists medical practitioners to develop useful strategies
for self-care. It is available to purchase from the RACGP website at www.racgp.org.au/publications/
ordering/tools
• General practice – a safe place: tips and tools – available free of charge at www.racgp.org.au/your-
practice/business/tools/safetyprivacy/gpsafeplace
• Rowe L, Kidd M. First do no harm: being a resilient doctor in the 21st century. North Ryde: McGraw Hill
Australia, 2009.
• Understanding and addressing vicarious trauma. Headington Institute. Self-study available at http://
headington-institute.org/Default.aspx?tabid=2647
• Vicarious Trauma, available at www.headington-institute.org/topic-areas/125/trauma-and-critical-
incidents/246/vicarious-trauma
• RACGP GP Support Program – a free service offered by the RACGP to foster a culture of self-care. It is
available to all Australian RACGP members who are registered medical practitioners, regardless of where
you live or work. Members can access professional advice to help cope with life’s stressors which may
include personal and work related issues that can impact on their wellbeing, work performance, safety,
workplace morale and psychological health. The GP Support Program can provide help to RACGP
members with a range of issues, including: handling work pressures, managing conflict, grief and loss,
relationship issues, concerns about children, anxiety and depression, alcohol and drug issues, traumatic
incidents. More information is available at www.racgp.org.au/yourracgp/membership/exclusiveoffers/
wellbeing/
110 Abuse and violence
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322. Bloom S. Caring for the Caregiver: Avoiding and Treating Vicarious Traumatization. In: Giardino A, Datner E, Asher J,
editors. Sexual Assault, Victimization Across the Lifespan. Maryland Heights: GW Medical Publishing, 2003. p. 459–70.
323. Benson J, Thistlethwaite J. Mental Health Across Cultures. A practical guide for health professionals. Abingdon: Radcliffe
Publishing Ltd, 2009.
324. Snowdon T, Benson J, Proudfoot J. Capacity and the quality framework. Aust Fam Physician 2007;36:12–4.
325. Stevenson A, Phillips C, Anderson K. Resilience among doctors who work in challenging areas: a qualitative study. Brit J
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329. Adults Surviving Child Abuse (ASCA). Best practice guidelines for working with adults surviving child abuse. Available at
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Appendices
Appendix 1. Nine steps to intervention – the 9 Rs
Role
Abuse and violence, as defined in the manual, is very common in our communities, affecting all age groups
and socioeconomic strata. It occurs more commonly against women and children than men. Abuse and
violence has major mental and physical health effects on our patients. As a result they use health services
more frequently, although GPs often fail to identify the underlying abuse and violence. GPs are likely to be
the first professional contact for survivors of any abuse and violence, as outlined in the manual. Unless this
role is recognised and embraced, we will fail to address this major public health problem.3
Readiness
The practice can be enhanced if all members of the clinic and clinic protocols are appropriately prepared
with safety, confidentiality, choice, collaboration and empowerment as priority principles.329
Readiness to work in this area may be enhanced by undertaking training for doctors and all staff in
recognition and management of patients experiencing abuse and violence, including the management of all
family members. Placing posters and leaflets in clinic waiting areas offering support and referral to patients
may allow patients to self-refer or realise that we are interested in this sensitive area.
GPs need to pay attention to confidentiality in our quality assurance and accreditation processes – including
ensuring that the patient file is confidential and not accessible to other family members.
Practice protocols need to address the needs of these patients and the safety of staff.4
Recognise
You need to ask patients who present with typical symptoms of abuse and violence and those with
symptoms of abusive behaviour about violence and safety (case-finding).
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Respond
WHO recommends the following for all GPs:
• non-judgemental support and validation including expressing the unacceptability of any abusive
behaviour but not of the patient
• practical care and support that responds to concerns but does not intrude
• asking about history of violence, listening carefully, but not pressuring the patient to talk
• provide information about resources, including legal and other services that the patient might think
helpful
• assisting the patient to increase safety for themselves and their children, where needed
• providing or mobilising social support
• providers should ensure that the consultation is conducted in private and emphasise confidentiality within
limits of harm to herself/himself or others.
Review
Responses during later interactions need to be informed by an understanding of the chronicity of the abuse
and violence problem and to provide follow-up and continued support, which respects patient’s wishes.
This will include an assessment of the patient’s and family’s level of social support and consider children’s
access to significant supportive others. Do not offer couple counselling where there is abuse and violence in
the couple’s relationship.
Refer
Offer options for referrals for women and children to safety, advocacy and therapeutic support services.
Offer men who abuse referral to accredited behaviour change programs when available. We need to involve
ourselves in inter-agency collaboration for the benefit of our patients.
Reflect
Monitor personal and professional attitudes about abuse and violence for management bias and set up
processes and policies that support the doctor and other staff in managing what can be complex issues.4
Ensure that you take time to reflect and take care of your own health and wellbeing.
Respect
Respect is an overarching principle when dealing with issues of abuse and violence. This involves
respecting patient’s wishes, respecting our own limits and abilities to undertake abuse and violence work
and, finally, modelling respectful relationships with our colleagues and in the community.
Ask about domestic
violence (DV)
Patient discloses DV
Refer to police
Patient is ready Patient is NOT
and/or specialist
Notify Child to access other ready to access
domestic
Protection services other services
violence crisis
service
Discuss a safety
Discuss a safety
plan. Provide
plan. Refer to
information about
specialist DV
available help
services, police
and monitor
Working with our patients in general practice
Abuse and violence
or legal services
closely
123
124 Abuse and violence
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The health of an adult relationship encompasses a spectrum ranging from positive to negative.
Positive relationship health involves mutual trust, support, investment, commitment and honesty. It involves
the exchange of words and actions in which there is shared power and open communication.
Negative relationship health involves unhealthy and abusive interactions with varying exchanges of
emotional, physical and sexual violence. It involves words and actions that misuse power and authority, hurt
people, and cause pain, fear or harm.
Women may be anywhere along a spectrum of how they feel about their partner or ex-partner. Some may
have left the relationship, with or without recognising that their partner’s behaviour was abusive. Other
women may continue in relationships that are unhealthy or abusive. It is most likely that fear of their partner
will have affected their emotional health, although some will not see that connection.
Ask a woman:
Step 1 What do you like about your relationship or current situation?
Step 2 What are the things you don’t like about your relationship or current situation?
Step 3 [Summarise – GPs understanding of the woman’s pros and cons]
Step 4 Where does this leave you now?
For Steps 1 and 2, you may like to ask your patient to use the box below to write down her responses.
Like Dislike
Relationship
Action (specify)
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For step 5, women may choose a whole range of actions and we have listed some likely options below:
These last three are obviously out of the woman’s control as it involves influencing their partner’s behaviour.
Acknowledging this difficulty is important.
Next, you may ask your patient how motivated they are to carry out the actions they have suggested and
what they feel they need in order to carry them out.
You can ask your patient to place an X on the point on the line that most closely reflects how you feel.
How confident do you feel that you would succeed in carrying out…?
Place an X on the point on the line that most closely reflects how you feel.
Non-directive problem solving assists individuals to use their own skills and resources to function better.331
For women who have decided that the abuse is damaging to their health and wellbeing, but whose
intentions are not translated into action due to perceived external barriers, then problem-solving techniques
may be helpful. Remembering of course that as GPs we should not problem-solve for the patient.
Goal setting occurs in the following stages:
When used by GPs, this technique engages the patient as an active partner in their care. It creates a
framework for individuals to re-focus on practical approaches to perceived problems and learn new
cognitive skills.
Whether the solution chosen by the patient is successful is not as important as what the patient learns
during the process to apply in other situations. A written example of how a structured approach to problem
solving can be applied with an individual is detailed on the next page.
Example of written plan for goal setting
Non-directive problem solving aims to help you:
2.
2. 1.
2.
Step 4
Identify the best option(s) to deal with the problem.
Step 5
List the steps required for this option(s) to be carried out.
Step 6
Carry out the best option and check its effectiveness.
Best option =
1.
2.
3.
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EASI questions
Q.1–Q.5 asked of patient; Q.6 answered by doctor
(Within the last 12 months)
1. Have you relied on people for any of the following: YES NO Did not
bathing, dressing, shopping, banking, or meals? answer
2. Has anyone prevented you from getting food, clothes, YES NO Did not
medication, glasses, hearing aides or medical care, or answer
from being with people you wanted to be with?
3. Have you been upset because someone talked to you in YES NO Did not
a way that made you feel shamed or threatened? answer
4. Has anyone tried to force you to sign papers or to use YES NO Did not
your money against your will? answer
5. Has anyone made you afraid, touched you in ways that YES NO Did not
you did not want, or hurt you physically? answer
6. Doctor: Elder abuse may be associated with findings YES NO Not sure
such as: poor eye contact, withdrawn nature,
malnourishment, hygiene issues, cuts, bruises,
inappropriate clothing, or medication compliance issues.
Did you notice any of these today or in the last 12
months?
© The Elder Abuse Suspicion Index (EASI) was granted copyright by the Canadian Intellectual Property Office (Industry Canada)
February 21, 2006. (Registration # 1036459). Available at www.nicenet.ca/tools-easi-elder-abuse-suspicion-index
130 Abuse and violence
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Appendix 7. Resources
Resources are listed here by location. Click on the state or territory, or scroll down the page, to find
resources in that state or territory.
• National
• Australian Capital Territory
• New South Wales
• Northern Territory
• Queensland
• South Australia
• Tasmania
• Victoria
• Western Australia
National
General
Lifeline 13 11 14
www.lifeline.org.au
Sexual assault and family violence services
1800RESPECT - National Sexual Assault, Domestic and 1800 737 732
Family Violence Counselling Line www.1800respect.org.au
The Australian Domestic and Family Violence Clearinghouse www.austdvclearinghouse.unsw.edu.au
Forensic and Medical Sexual Assault Clinicians Australia www.famsacaustralia.org.au
The Foundation to Prevent Violence Against Women and www.preventviolence.org.au
their Children
Men’s services
Relationships Australia 1300 364 277
www.relationships.com.au
Mensline Australia www.menslineaus.org.au
Children related services and reporting
Kids Helpline 1800 55 1800
www.kidshelpline.com.au
Australian Institute of Family Studies – provides contact www.aifs.gov.au
telephone numbers for each state and territory to report
incidences of child abuse
Australian Childhood Foundation 1800 176 453
www.childhood.org.au
The Child Abuse Prevention Service 1800 688 009
www.childabuseprevention.com.au
Adult survivors of child abuse
ASCA 1300 657 380
www.asca.org.au
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National
Living well – offers services to assist men who have 1300 114 397
experienced childhood sexual abuse or sexual assault abuse www.livingwell.org.au
or sexual assault
Vulnerable populations
National disability abuse and neglect hotline 1800 880 052
www.disabilityhotline.net.au
Office of Aged Care Quality and Compliance www.health.gov.au/internet/main/publishing.
nsf/Content/ageing-quality-about-professional.
htm
Rights of Older People – website of advocacy services for www.agedrights.asn.au/rights/home.html
older people
Elder Abuse Prevention Unit 1300 651 192 (helpline)
(07) 3867 2525
www.eapu.com.au
Intellectual Disability Rights Service 1800 666 611 (free call)
Migrant and refugee communities
FASSTT: Forum of Australian Survivors of Torture and (03) 9389 8932
Trauma (provides refugee centres around the country) www.fasstt.org.au
Translating and Interpreting Service (TIS) 131 450
www.immi.gov.au/living-in-australia/help-with-
english/help_with_translating/index.htm
1300 131 450 (Doctors’ priority line)
www.tisnational.gov.au/Help-using-TIS-
National-services/Contact-TIS-National
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander violence
Indigenous health services – lists services across all states www.healthinfonet.ecu.edu.au/key-resources/
organisations
Legal support services
Forensic and Medical Sexual Assault Clinicians Australia www.famsacaustralia.org.au
132 Abuse and violence
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ACT
Sexual assault and family violence services
Service Assisting Male Survivors of Sexual Assault (02) 6287 3935
(SAMSSA) www.samssa.org.au
Canberra Rape Crisis Centre (02) 6247 2525
www.crcc.org.au
Domestic Violence Crisis Service (02) 6280 0900
www.dvcs.org.au
Men’s services
Men’s Centre (02) 6230 6999
www.menscentre.org.au
Domestic Violence Crisis Service (02) 6280 0900
www.dvcs.org.au
Children related services and reporting abuse
Reporting child abuse – mandated reporters 1300 556 728
Reporting child abuse – public 1300 556 729
Office for Children, Youth and Family Support 132 281
www.communityservices.act.gov.au/ocyfs
Child, Youth and Family Gateway 1800 647 831
www.thegateway.org.au
Adult survivors of child abuse
Service Assisting Male Survivors of Sexual Assault (02) 6287 3935
(SAMSSA) www.samssa.org.au
Canberra Rape Crisis Centre (02) 6247 2525
www.crcc.org.au
Vulnerable populations
ACT Disability, Aged and Carer Advocacy Service (02) 6242 5060
www.adacas.org.au
Migrant and refugee communities
Multicultural Women’s Advocacy www.multiculturalwomensadvocacy.org
Companion House (assisting survivors of torture and trauma) (02) 6251 4550
www.companionhouse.org.au
Legal support services
Legal Aid ACT 1300 654 314
www.legalaidact.org.au
Magistrates’ Court (02) 6207 1709: Civil
(02) 6207 1728: Criminal
www.courts.act.gov.au/magistrates
Doctors’ support
Doctor’s Health Advisory Service: ‘Colleague of First 0407 265 414
Contact’ – 24 hour phone service
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Northern Territory
Sexual assault and family violence services
Crisis Line 1800 019 116
Sexual Assault Referral Centre Darwin – (08) 8922 6472
Katherine – (08) 8973 8524
Tennant Creek – (08) 8962 4100
Alice Springs – (08) 8955 4500
www.health.nt.gov.au/Sexual_Assault_
Services/index.aspx
Queensland
Sexual assault and family violence services
Brisbane Rape and Incest Survivors Support Service 1800 010 120
(07) 3391 0004
www.brissc.org.au
Statewide Sexual Assault Helpline 1800 010 120
www.health.qld.gov.au/sexualassault/
Zig Zag Young Women’s Resource (07) 3843 1823
www.zigzag.org.au
DV Connect 1800 811 811
Men’s services
dvconnect mensline 1800 600 636
www.dvconnect.org.au
Men’s Domestic Violence Helpline (08) 9223 1199
1800 000 599
www.dcp.wa.gov.au/crisisandemergency/
pages/domesticviolencehelplines
Children related services and reporting abuse
Department of Communities, Child Safety and Disability Services –
Child safety after hours service 1800 177 135 / (07) 3235 9999
Child safety services enquiries unit 1800 811 810
www.communities.qld.gov.au/childsafety
Adult survivors of child abuse
Brisbane Rape and Incest Survivors Support Service 1800 010 120
(07) 3391 0004
www.brissc.org.au
Living Well – offers services to assist men who have 1300 114 397
experienced childhood sexual abuse or sexual assault (07) 3028 4648
www.livingwell.org.au
Vulnerable populations
Elder Abuse Prevention Unit 1300 651 192
www.eapu.com.au
Office of Adult Guardian 1300 653 187
www.justice.qld.gov.au/justice-services/
guardianship/adult-guardian
Queensland Government: Department of Communities, www.communities.qld.gov.au/
Child Safety and Disability Services – What to do if you communityservices/violence-prevention/elder-
suspect someone is being abused abuse/for-health-practitioners/what-to-do-if-
you-suspect-someone-is-being-abused
Migrant and refugee communities
Migrant Women’s Advice Service (Nambour) 1800 451 183
www.qlddomesticviolencelink.org.au/the-
migrant-womens-advice-service/
Immigrant Women’s Support Service www.iwss.org.au
QPASTT (Queensland Program of Assistance to Survivors of (07) 3391 6677
Torture and Trauma) www.qpastt.org.au/
Legal support services
Legal Aid QLD 1300 651 188
www.legalaid.qld.gov.au
136 Abuse and violence
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Queensland
Magistrates’ Court: Domestic and Family Violence 1800 811 811
www.courts.qld.gov.au/courts/magistrates-
court/domestic-and-family-violence
Magistrates’ Court (listings of magistrates’ courts in QLD) www.courts.qld.gov.au/contact-us/
courthouses
DV Connect 1800 811 811 – Dvconnect womensline
1800 600 636 – Dvconnect mensline
www.communities.qld.gov.au/
communityservices/women/contact-us/
emergency-assistance
Department of Communities, Child Safety and Disability 13 74 68
Services www.communities.qld.gov.au/
communityservices/violence-prevention
www.justice.qld.gov.au/courts/contacting/
add_mag.htm
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Legal Service (QLD) Ltd 1800 012 255
www.atsils.com.au
Doctors’ support
Doctors’ Health Advisory Service – 24 hour phone service (07) 3833 4352 – helpline
(07) 3872 2222 – office
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South Australia
Sexual assault and family violence services
Crisis Care 131 611
Women’s Information Service of South Australia 1800 188 158
(08) 8303 0590
www.wis.sa.gov.au
Yarrow Place Rape and Sexual Assault Service 1800 817 421
(08) 8226 8777
www.yarrowplace.sa.gov.au
Domestic Violence Gateway Helpline 1800 800 098
Children related services and reporting abuse
Department for Communities and Social Inclusion – child 131 478
abuse support line www.dcsi.sa.gov.au
Adult survivors of child abuse
Relationship Australia (SA) 1800 188118 or 1800 161 109
www.respondsa.org.au
Vulnerable populations
Office of the Public Advocate 08) 8342 8200
1800 066 969 (Country SA toll free)
www.opa.sa.gov.au
Migrant and refugee communities
Migrant Women’s Support Service, Adelaide www.migrantwomensservices.com.au
STTARS (Survivors of Torture and Trauma Assistance and (08) 8206 8900
Rehabilitation Service) www.sttars.org.au
Legal support services
Legal Services Commission SA 1300 366 424
www.lsc.sa.gov.au
Magistrates’ Court (08) 8204 2444
www.courts.sa.gov.au/OurCourts/
MagistratesCourt
Tasmania
Sexual assault and family violence services
Sexual assault support service (03) 6231 1817
www.sass.org.au
Laurel House – North and North-West Tasmania Sexual (03) 6334 2740 (North)
Assault Support Services (03) 6431 9711 (North-West)
www.laurelhouse.org.au
Family Violence Counselling and Support 1800 608 122
Men’s services
Centacare (03) 6278 1660
www.centacaretas.org.au
Children related services and reporting abuse
Department of Health and Human Services – Child 1300 737 639
Protection Services www.dhhs.tas.gov.au/children
Commissioner for Children (03) 6233 4520
www.childcomm.tas.gov.au
Adult survivors of child abuse
Sexual Assault Support Service (03) 6231 1817
www.sass.org.au
Laurel House – North and North-West Tasmania Sexual (03) 6334 2740 (North)
Assault Support Services (03) 6431 9711 (North-West)
www.laurelhouse.org.au
Vulnerable populations
Office of the Public Guardian (03) 6233 7608
www.publicguardian.tas.gov.au
Migrant and refugee communities
Multicultural Women’s Council of Tasmania www.nirwa.org.au/pages/the-multicultural-
womens-council-of-tasmania.html
Phoenix Centre (Support for Survivors of Torture and (03) 6221 0999
Trauma) www.mrchobart.org.au/content/phoenix-
centre
Legal support services
Legal Aid Commission of Tasmania 1300 366 611
www.legalaid.tas.gov.au
Magistrates’ Court www.magistratescourt.tas.gov.au
Tasmanian Aboriginal Centre www.tacinc.com.au
Doctors’ support
AMA Tasmania Peer Support Service Confidential and 1300 853 338
anonymous peer support for doctors by doctors – 365 days
of the year from 8am to 11pm
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Victoria
Sexual assault and family violence services
Centre against sexual assault (CASA) – Sexual Assault Crisis 1800 806 292
Line www.casa.org.au
Women’s Information and Referral Exchange ( WIRE) 1300 134 130
www.wire.org.au
Domestic Violence Resource Centre Victoria (03) 9486 9866
www.dvrcv.org.au
Women’s Domestic Violence Crisis Service 1800 015 188
www.wdvcs.org.au
Men’s services
Men’s Referral Service 1300 766 491
www.mrs.org.au
Children related services and reporting abuse
Department of Human Services – Child Protection Crisis 13 12 78
Service; Children, Families and Young People www.dhs.vic.gov.au/for-individuals/children,-
families-and-young-people
Royal Children’s Hospital – Gatehouse (03) 9345 6391
Adult survivors of child abuse
Centre against sexual assault (CASA) – Sexual Assault Crisis 1800 806 292
Line www.casa.org.au
Vulnerable populations
Office of the Public Advocate 1300 309 337
www.publicadvocate.vic.gov.au
Seniors Rights Victoria 1300 368 821
www.seniorsrights.org.au
Western Australia
Sexual assault and family violence services
Crisis Care Helpline (08) 9325 1111
Sexual Assault Resource Centre 1800 199 888
(08) 9340 1828
www.kemh.health.wa.gov.au/services/sarc
Women’s Domestic Violence Helpline 1800 007 339
Men’s services
Men’s Domestic Violence Helpline 08) 9223 1199
1800 000 599
Menstime www.menstime.com.au
Children related services and reporting abuse
Department for Child Protection and Family Support (08) 9222 2555
www.dcp.wa.gov.au
Adult survivors of child abuse
Incest Survivors’ Association (08) 9443 1910
www.isa.asn.au
Vulnerable populations
Office of the Public Advocate 1300 858 455
www.publicadvocate.wa.gov.au
Migrant and refugee communities
Multicultural Women’s Advocacy Service 08) 9328 1200
(08) 9336 8282 – Fremantle
(08) 9490 4988 – Gosnells
(08) 9344 8988 – Mirrabooka
(08) 9227 8122 – Northbridge
www.whfs.org.au/services/fdvs/mwas
ASeTTS (Association for Services to Torture and Trauma (08) 9227 2700
Survivors) www.asetts.org.au
Legal support services
Legal Aid WA 1300 650 579
www.legalaid.wa.gov.au
Magistrates’ Court www.magistratescourt.wa.gov.au
Aboriginal Legal Service of Western Australia 1800 019 900
www.als.org.au
Doctors’ support
Doctors’ Health Advisory Service (08) 9321 3098
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