Chapter 1

The Human Body: An Orientation

Anatomy
 Anatomy
o Study of the structure and shape of the body and its parts
o Observation is used to see sizes and relationships of parts
 Gross anatomy
o Large structures
o Easily observable
 Microscopic anatomy
o Structures are too small to be seen with the naked eye
o Cells and tissues can be viewed only with a microscope
Physiology
 Physiology
o Study of how the body and its parts work or function
 Structure determines what functions can occur
 For example, the air sacs of the lungs have very thin walls, a feature that
enables them to exchange gases and provide oxygen to the body
Levels of Structural Organization
 Six levels of structural organization
1. Atoms
2. Cells
3. Tissues
4. Organs
5. Organ systems
6. Organisms
 Integumentary system
o Forms the external body covering (skin) and includes hair and fingernails
o Waterproofs the body
o Cushions and protects deeper tissue from injury
o Produces vitamin D with the help of sunlight
o Excretes salts in perspiration
o Helps regulate body temperature
o Location of cutaneous nerve receptors
 Skeletal system
o Consists of bones, cartilages, ligaments, and joints
o Provides muscle attachment for movement
o Protects vital organs
o Site of blood cell formation
o Stores minerals
 Muscular system
o Skeletal muscles contract (or shorten)
o Produces movement of bones
 Nervous system
o Fast-acting control system
o Consists of brain, spinal cord, nerves, and sensory receptors

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 oResponds to internal and external stimuli
oSensory receptors detect changes
oMessages are sent to the central nervous system
oCentral nervous system assesses information and activates effectors
(muscles and glands)
 Endocrine system
o Secretes chemical molecules, called hormones, into the blood
o Body functions controlled by hormones include:
o Growth
o Reproduction
o Use of nutrients
o Endocrine glands include:
1. Pituitary gland
2. Thyroid and parathyroids
3. Adrenal glands
4. Thymus
5. Pancreas
6. Pineal gland
7. Ovaries (females) and testes (males)
 Cardiovascular system
o Includes heart and blood vessels
o Heart pumps blood
o Vessels transport blood to tissues
o Blood transports:
o Oxygen and carbon dioxide
o Nutrients
o Hormones
o Blood also contains white blood cells and chemicals that provide protection
from foreign invaders
 Lymphatic system
o Includes lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, and lymphoid organs
o Complements the cardiovascular system by returning leaked fluids back to
bloodstream
o Lymph nodes and other lymphoid organs cleanse the blood
o Houses white blood cells, which are involved in immunity
 Respiratory system
o Includes the nasal passages, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs
o Gases are exchanged with the blood through air sacs in the lungs
o Supplies the body with oxygen
o Removes carbon dioxide
 Digestive system
o Includes the oral cavity (mouth), esophagus, stomach, small and large
intestines, rectum, and accessory organs
o Breaks down food
o Allows for nutrient absorption into blood
o Eliminates indigestible material as feces

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 Urinary system
o Includes the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra
o Eliminates nitrogenous wastes
o Maintains acid-base balance
o Regulates water and electrolyte balance
o Helps regulate normal blood pressure
 Reproductive system
o For males, includes the testes, scrotum, penis, accessory glands, and duct
system
o Testes produce sperm
o Duct system carries sperm to exterior
o For females, includes the ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, and vagina
o Ovaries produce eggs
o Uterus provides site of development for fetus
Maintaining Life: Necessary Life Functions
 Maintaining boundaries
o Boundaries separate the “inside” from the “outside”
 Movement
o Locomotion
o Movement of substances
 Responsiveness (irritability)
o Ability to sense changes and react
 Digestion
o Breakdown and absorption of nutrients
Necessary Life Functions
 Metabolism—chemical reactions within the body
o Breaks down complex molecules into smaller ones
o Builds larger molecules from smaller ones
o Produces energy (ATP)
o Regulated by hormones
 Excretion
o Eliminates excreta (waste) from metabolic reactions
o Wastes may be removed in urine, feces, or sweat
 Reproduction
o Occurs on cellular level or organismal level
o On cellular level—new cells are used for growth and repair
o On organismal level—the reproductive system handles the task
 Growth
o Increases cell size or body size (through increasing the number of cells)
o Hormones play a major role
Survival Needs
 Nutrients
o Chemicals used for energy and cell building
o Include carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, vitamins, and minerals
 Oxygen
o Required for chemical reactions

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 o Made available by the cooperation of the respiratory and cardiovascular
systems
 Water
o 60 to 80 percent of body weight
o Most abundant chemical in the human body
o Provides fluid base for body secretions and excretions
 Normal body temperature
o 37ºC (98.6ºF)
o Below this temperature, chemical reactions slow and stop
o Above this temperature, chemical reactions proceed too rapidly
 Atmospheric pressure
o Must be appropriate for gas exchange
The Language of Anatomy
 Special terminology is used to prevent misunderstanding
 Exact terms are used for:
o Position
o Direction
o Regions
o Structures
 Anatomical position
o Standard body position used to avoid confusion
o Terminology refers to this position regardless of actual body position
o Stand erect, feet parallel, arms hanging at the sides with palms facing forward
and thumbs pointing away from the body
Directional Terms
 Directional terms
o Explain location of one body structure in relation to another
 Superior (cranial or cephalic): toward the head or upper part of a structure or
the body; above
 Inferior (caudal): away from the head or toward the lower part of a structure or
the body; below
 Anterior (ventral): toward or at the front of the body; in front of
 Posterior (dorsal): toward or at the backside of the body; behind
Directional Terms
 Medial: toward or at the midline of the body; on the inner side of
 Lateral: away from the midline of the body; on the outer side of
 Intermediate: between a more medial and a more lateral structure
 Proximal: close to the origin of the body part or point of attachment to a limb
to the body trunk
 Distal: farther from the origin of a body part or the point of attachment of a
limb to the body trunk
 Superficial (external): toward or at the body surface
 Deep (internal): away from the body surface; more internal
Regional Terms
 Anterior (ventral) body landmarks
 Posterior (dorsal) body landmarks

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Body Planes and Sections
 Sections are cuts along imaginary lines known as planes
 Three types of planes or sections exist as right angles to one another
 A sagittal section divides the body (or organ) into left and right parts
 A median, or midsagittal, section divides the body (or organ) into equal left
and right parts
 A frontal, or coronal, section divides the body (or organ) into anterior and
posterior parts
 A transverse, or cross, section divides the body (or organ) into superior and
inferior parts
Body Cavitie
 Two internal body cavities
o Dorsal
o Ventral
 Body cavities provide varying degrees of protection to organs within them
 Dorsal body cavity has two subdivisions
1. Cranial cavity
o Houses the brain
o Protected by the skull
2. Spinal cavity
o Houses the spinal cord
o Protected by the vertebrae
Body Cavities
 Ventral body cavity has two subdivisions separated by the diaphragm
1. Thoracic cavity
2. Abdominopelvic cavity
 Thoracic cavity
o Cavity superior to the diaphragm
o Houses heart, lungs, and other organs
o Mediastinum, the central region, houses heart, trachea, and other organs
o Protected by the rib cage
 Abdominopelvic cavity
o Cavity inferior to the diaphragm
o Superior abdominal cavity contains the stomach, liver, and other organs
o Protected only by trunk muscles
o Inferior pelvic cavity contains reproductive organs, bladder, and rectum
o Protected somewhat by bony pelvis
o No physical structure separates abdominal from pelvic cavities
 Abdominopelvic cavity subdivisions
o Four quadrants
o Nine regions
 Other body cavities include:
o Oral and digestive cavities
o Nasal cavity
o Orbital cavities
o Middle ear cavities

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Homeostasis
 Homeostasis—maintenance of relatively stable internal conditions
o A dynamic state of equilibrium, or balance
o Necessary for normal body functioning and to sustain life
 Main controlling systems
o Nervous system
o Endocrine system
 Homeostatic imbalance
o A disturbance in homeostasis results in disease
Maintaining Homeostasis
 All homeostatic control mechanisms have at least three components:
receptor, control center, and effector
o Receptor
o Responds to changes in the environment (stimuli)
o Sends information to control center along an afferent pathway
Maintaining Homeostasis
 Control center
o Determines set point
o Analyzes information
o Determines appropriate response
 Effector
o Provides a means for response to the stimulus
o Information flows from control center to effector along efferent pathway
Feedback Mechanisms
 Negative feedback
o Includes most homeostatic control mechanisms
o Shuts off the original stimulus or reduces its intensity
o Works like a household thermostat
 Positive feedback
o Rare in the human body
o Increases the original stimulus to push the variable farther
o Reaction occurs at a faster rate
o In the body, positive feedback occurs in blood clotting and during the birth of a
baby
Chapter 3
Cells and Tissues
Part I: Cells
 Cells are the structural units of all living things
 The human body has 50 to 100 trillion cells
Overview of the Cellular Basis of Life
 The Cell Theory
1. A cell is the basic structural and functional unit of living organisms
2. The activity of an organism depends on the collective activities of its cells
3. According to the principle of complementarity, the biochemical activities of
cells are dictated by their structure (anatomy) which determines their function

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 (physiology)
4. Continuity of life has a cellular basis
 Most cells are composed of four elements:
1. Carbon
2. Hydrogen
3. Oxygen
4. Nitrogen
 Cells are about 60% water
Anatomy of a Generalized Cell
 In general, a cell has three main regions or parts:
1. Nucleus
2. Cytoplasm
3. Plasma membrane
The Nucleus
 Control center of the cell
 Contains genetic material known as deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA
o DNA is needed for building proteins
o DNA is necessary for cell reproduction
 Three regions:
1. Nuclear envelope (membrane)
2. Nucleolus
3. Chromatin
 Nuclear envelope (membrane)
o Consists of a double membrane that bounds the nucleus
o Contains nuclear pores that allow for exchange of material with the rest of the
cell
o Encloses the jellylike fluid called the nucleoplasm
 Nucleolus
o Nucleus contains one or more dark-staining nucleoli
o Sites of ribosome assembly
o Ribosomes migrate into the cytoplasm through nuclear pores to serve as the
site of protein synthesis
 Chromatin
o Composed of DNA wound around histones (proteins)
o Scattered throughout the nucleus and present when the cell is not dividing
o Condenses to form dense, rodlike bodies called chromosomes when the cell
divides
 Transparent barrier for cell contents
 Contains cell contents
 Separates cell contents from surrounding environment
 Fluid mosaic model is constructed of:
o Two layers of phospholipids arranged “tail to tail”
o Cholesterol and proteins scattered among the phospholipids
o Sugar groups may be attached to the phospholipids, forming glycolipids
 Phospholipid arrangement in the plasma membrane
o Hydrophilic (“water loving”) polar “heads” are oriented on the inner and outer

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 surfaces of the membrane
o Hydrophobic (“water fearing”) nonpolar “tails” form the center (interior) of the
membrane
 This interior makes the plasma membrane relatively impermeable to
most water-soluble molecules
The Plasma Membrane
 Role of proteins
o Responsible for specialized membrane functions:
 Enzymes
 Receptors for hormones or other chemical messengers
 Transport as channels or carriers
The Plasma Membrane
 Role of sugars
o Glycoproteins are branched sugars attached to proteins that abut the
extracellular space
o Glycocalyx is the fuzzy, sticky, sugar-rich area on the cell’s surface
 Cell membrane junctions
 Cells are bound together in three ways:
1. Glycoproteins in the glycocalyx act as an adhesive or cellular glue
2. Wavy contours of the membranes of adjacent cells fit together in a
tongue-and-groove fashion
3. Special cell membrane junctions are formed, which vary structurally
depending on their roles
 Main types of cell junctions
o Tight junctions
 Impermeable junctions
 Bind cells together into leakproof sheets
 Plasma membranes fuse like a zipper to prevent substances from
passing through extracellular space between cells
 Main types of cell junctions (continued)
o Desmosomes
 Anchoring junctions, like rivets, that prevent cells from being pulled
apart as a result of mechanical stress
 Created by buttonlike thickenings of adjacent plasma membranes

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The Plasma Membrane
 Main types of cell junctions (continued)
o Gap junctions (communicating junctions)
 Allow communication between cells
 Hollow cylinders of proteins (connexons) span the width of the abutting
membranes
 Molecules can travel directly from one cell to the next through these
channels
The Cytoplasm
 The cellular material outside the nucleus and inside the plasma membrane
 Site of most cellular activities
 Includes cytosol, inclusions, and organelles
 Three major component of the cytoplasm
1. Cytosol: Fluid that suspends other elements and contains nutrients and
electrolytes
2. Inclusions: Chemical substances, such as stored nutrients or cell products,
that float in the cytosol
3. Organelles: Metabolic machinery of the cell that perform functions for the cell
 Many are membrane-bound, allowing for compartmentalization of their
functions
 Mitochondria
o “Powerhouses” of the cell
o Mitochondrial wall consists of a double membrane with cristae on the inner
membrane
o Carry out reactions in which oxygen is used to break down food into ATP
molecules
 Ribosomes
o Made of protein and ribosomal RNA
o Sites of protein synthesis in the cell
o Found at two locations:
 Free in the cytoplasm
 As part of the rough endoplasmic reticulum
 Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
o Fluid-filled tunnels (or canals) that carry substances within the cell
o Continuous with the nuclear membrane
o Two types:
 Rough ER
 Smooth ER
 Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) (continued)
o Rough endoplasmic reticulum
 Studded with ribosomes
 Synthesizes proteins
 Transport vesicles move proteins within cell
 Abundant in cells that make and export proteins
 Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) (continued)
o Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

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  Lacks ribosomes
 Functions in lipid metabolism
 Detoxification of drugs and pesticides
 Golgi apparatus
o Appears as a stack of flattened membranes associated with tiny vesicles
o Modifies and packages proteins arriving from the rough ER via transport
vesicles
o Produces different types of packages
 Secretory vesicles (pathway 1)
 In-house proteins and lipids (pathway 2)
 Lysosomes (pathway 3)
 Lysosomes
o Membranous “bags” that contain digestive enzymes
o Enzymes can digest worn-out or nonusable cell structures
o House phagocytes that dispose of bacteria and cell debris
 Peroxisomes
o Membranous sacs of oxidase enzymes
 Detoxify harmful substances such as alcohol and formaldehyde
 Break down free radicals (highly reactive chemicals)
 Free radicals are converted to hydrogen peroxide and then to water
o Replicate by pinching in half or budding from the ER
 Cytoskeleton
o Network of protein structures that extend throughout the cytoplasm
o Provides the cell with an internal framework that determines cell shape,
supports organelles, and provides the machinery for intracellular transport
o Three different types of elements form the cytoskeleton:
1. Microfilaments (largest)
2. Intermediate filaments
3. Microtubules (smallest)
 Centrioles
o Rod-shaped bodies made of nine triplets of microtubules
o Generate microtubules
o Direct the formation of mitotic spindle during cell division
Cell Extensions
 Surface extensions found in some cells
o Cilia move materials across the cell surface
 Located in the respiratory system to move mucus
o Flagella propel the cell
 The only flagellated cell in the human body is sperm
o Microvilli are tiny, fingerlike extensions of the plasma membrane
 Increase surface area for absorption
Cell Diversity
 The human body houses over 200 different cell types
 Cells vary in size, shape, and function
o Cells vary in length from 1/12,000 of an inch to over 1 yard (nerve cells)
o Cell shape reflects its specialized function

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 Cells that connect body parts
o Fibroblast
 Secretes cable-like fibers
o Erythrocyte (red blood cell)
 Carries oxygen in the bloodstream
 Cells that cover and line body organs
o Epithelial cell
 Packs together in sheets
 Intermediate fibers resist tearing during rubbing or pulling
 Cells that move organs and body parts
o Skeletal muscle and smooth muscle cells
 Contractile filaments allow cells to shorten forcefully
 Cell that stores nutrients
o Fat cells
 Lipid droplets stored in cytoplasm
 Cell that fights disease
o White blood cells, such as the macrophage (a phagocytic cell)
 Digests infectious microorganisms
 Cell that gathers information and controls body functions
o Nerve cell (neuron)
 Receives and transmits messages to other body structures
 Cells of reproduction
o Oocyte (female)
 Largest cell in the body
 Divides to become an embryo upon fertilization
o Sperm (male)
 Built for swimming to the egg for fertilization
 Flagellum acts as a motile whip

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Cell Physiology
 Cells have the ability to:
o Metabolize
o Digest food
o Dispose of wastes
o Reproduce
o Grow
o Move
o Respond to a stimulus
Membrane Transport
 Solution—homogeneous mixture of two or more components
o Solvent—dissolving medium present in the larger quantity; the body’s main
solvent is water
o Solutes—components in smaller quantities within a solution
 Intracellular fluid
o Nucleoplasm and cytosol
o Solution containing gases, nutrients, and salts dissolved in water
 Extracellular fluid (interstitial fluid)
o Fluid on the exterior of the cell
o Contains thousands of ingredients, such as nutrients, hormones,
neurotransmitters, salts, waste products
 The plasma membrane is a selectively permeable barrier
o Some materials can pass through, while others are excluded
o For example:
 Nutrients can enter the cell
 Undesirable substances are kept out
 Two basic methods of transport
o Passive processes: substances are transported across the membrane without
any input from the cell
o Active processes: the cell provides the metabolic energy (ATP) to drive the
transport process
 Passive processes: diffusion and filtration
o Diffusion
 Molecule movement is from high concentration to low concentration,
down a concentration gradient
 Particles tend to distribute themselves evenly within a solution
 Kinetic energy (energy of motion) causes the molecules to move about
randomly
 Size of the molecule and temperature affect the speed of diffusion
 Molecules will move by diffusion if any of the following applies:
o The molecules are small enough to pass through the membrane’s pores
(channels formed by membrane proteins)
o The molecules are lipid-soluble
o The molecules are assisted by a membrane carrier
 Types of diffusion
o Simple diffusion

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  An unassisted process
 Solutes are lipid-soluble or small enough to pass through membrane
pores
 Types of diffusion (continued)
o Osmosis—simple diffusion of water across a selectively permeable
membrane
 Highly polar water molecules easily cross the plasma membrane
through aquaporins
 Water moves down its concentration gradient
 Osmosis—A Closer Look
o Isotonic solutions have the same solute and water concentrations as cells and
cause no visible changes in the cell
o Hypertonic solutions contain more solutes than the cells do; the cells will
begin to shrink
o Hypotonic solutions contain fewer solutes (more water) than the cells do; cells
will plump
 Types of diffusion (continued)
o Facilitated diffusion
 Transports lipid-insoluble and large substances
 Glucose is transported via facilitated diffusion
 Protein membrane channels or protein molecules that act as carriers
are used
 Passive processes
o Filtration
 Water and solutes are forced through a membrane by fluid, or
hydrostatic, pressure
 A pressure gradient must exist that pushes solute-containing fluid
(filtrate) from a high-pressure area to a lower-pressure area
 Filtration is critical for the kidneys to work properly
 Active processes
o ATP is used to move substances across a membrane
o Active processes are used when:
 Substances are too large to travel through membrane channels
 The membrane may lack special protein carriers for the transport of
certain substances
 Substances may not be lipid-soluble
 Substances may have to move against a concentration gradient
 Active processes (continued)
o Active transport and vesicular transport
o Active transport
 Amino acids, some sugars, and ions are transported by protein carriers
known as solute pumps
 ATP energizes solute pumps
 In most cases, substances are moved against concentration (or
electrical) gradients
 Active transport example: sodium-potassium pump

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 o Necessary for nerve impulses
o Sodium is transported out of the cell
o Potassium is transported into the cell
 Active processes (continued)
o Vesicular transport: substances are moved across the membrane “in bulk”
without actually crossing the plasma membrane
o Types of vesicular transport
 Exocytosis
 Endocytosis
 Phagocytosis
 Pinocytosis
 Exocytosis
o Mechanism cells use to actively secrete hormones, mucus, and other
products
o Material is carried in a membranous sac called a vesicle that migrates to and
combines with the plasma membrane
o Contents of vesicle are emptied to the outside
o Refer to pathway 1 in Figure 3.6
 Exocytosis (continued)
o Exocytosis docking process
 Docking proteins on the vesicles recognize plasma membrane proteins
and bind with them
 Membranes corkscrew and fuse together
Membrane Transport
 Endocytosis
o Extracellular substances are enclosed (engulfed) in a membranous vesicle
o Vesicle detaches from the plasma membrane and moves into the cell
o Once in the cell, the vesicle typically fuses with a lysosome
o Contents are digested by lysosomal enzymes
o In some cases, the vesicle is released by exocytosis on the opposite side of
the cell
1. Phagocytosis—“cell eating”
 Cell engulfs large particles such as bacteria or dead body cells
 Pseudopods are cytoplasmic extensions that separate substances
(such as bacteria or dead body cells) from external environment
 Phagocytosis is a protective mechanism, not a means of getting
nutrients

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Membrane Transport
 Types of endocytosis (continued)
2. Pinocytosis—“cell drinking”
 Cell “gulps” droplets of extracellular fluid containing dissolved proteins
or fats
 Plasma membrane forms a pit, and edges fuse around droplet of fluid
 Routine activity for most cells, such as those involved in absorption
(small intestine)
 Types of endocytosis (continued)
3. Receptor-mediated endocytosis
 Method for taking up specific target molecules
 Receptor proteins on the membrane surface bind only certain
substances
 Highly selective process of taking in substances such as enzymes,
some hormones, cholesterol, and iron
Cell Division
 Cell life cycle is a series of changes the cell experiences from the time it is formed
until it divides
 Cell life cycle has two major periods
1. Interphase (metabolic phase)
 Cell grows and carries on metabolic processes
 Longer phase of the cell cycle
2. Cell division
 Cell reproduces itself
 Preparations: DNA Replication
o Genetic material is duplicated and readies a cell for division into two cells
o Occurs toward the end of interphase
 Process of DNA replication
o DNA uncoils into two nucleotide chains, and each side serves as a template
o Nucleotides are complementary
 Adenine (A) always bonds with thymine (T)
 Guanine (G) always bonds with cytosine (C)
o For example, TACTGC bonds with new nucleotides in the order ATGACG
 Events of cell division
o Mitosis—division of the nucleus
 Results in the formation of two daughter nuclei
o Cytokinesis—division of the cytoplasm
 Begins when mitosis is near completion
 Results in the formation of two daughter cells
 Events of mitosis: prophase
o Chromatin coils into chromosomes; identical strands called chromatids are
held together by a centromere
o Centrioles direct the assembly of a mitotic spindle
o Nuclear envelope and nucleoli have broken down
 Events of mitosis: metaphase
o Chromosomes are aligned in the center of the cell on the metaphase plate

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 (center of the spindle midway between the centrioles)
o Straight line of chromosomes is now seen
 Events of mitosis: anaphase
o Centromere splits
o Chromatids move slowly apart and toward the opposite ends of the cell
o Anaphase is over when the chromosomes stop moving
 Events of mitosis: telophase
o Reverse of prophase
o Chromosomes uncoil to become chromatin
o Spindles break down and disappear
o Nuclear envelope re-forms around chromatin
o Nucleoli appear in each of the daughter nuclei

 Cytokinesis
o Division of the cytoplasm
o Begins during late anaphase and completes during telophase
o A cleavage furrow (contractile ring of microfilaments) forms to pinch the cells
into two parts
o Two daughter cells exist
 In most cases, mitosis and cytokinesis occur together
 In some cases, the cytoplasm is not divided
o Binucleate or multinucleate cells result
o Common in the liver and skeletal muscle
Protein Synthesis
 DNA serves as a blueprint for making proteins
 Gene: DNA segment that carries a blueprint for building one protein or polypeptide
chain
 Proteins have many functions
o Fibrous (structural) proteins are the building materials for cells
o Globular (functional) proteins can act as enzymes (biological catalysts)
 DNA information is coded into a sequence of bases
 A sequence of three bases (triplet) codes for an amino acid
 For example, a DNA sequence of AAA specifies the amino acid phenylalanine
 The role of DNA
o Most ribosomes, the manufacturing sites of proteins, are located in the
cytoplasm
o DNA never leaves the nucleus in interphase cells
o DNA requires a decoder and a messenger to carry instructions to build
proteins to ribosomes
o Both the decoder and messenger functions are carried out by RNA
(ribonucleic acid)
 How does RNA differ from DNA?
o RNA is single-stranded
o RNA contains ribose sugar instead of deoxyribose
o RNA contains uracil (U) base instead of thymine (T)
 Three varieties of RNA

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 o Transfer RNA (tRNA): Transfers appropriate amino acids to the ribosome for
building the protein
o Ribosomal RNA (rRNA): Helps form the ribosomes where proteins are built
o Messenger RNA (mRNA): Carries the instructions for building a protein from
the nucleus to the ribosome
 Protein synthesis involves two major phases:
o Transcription
o Translation
 We will detail these two phases next
 Transcription
o Transfer of information from DNA’s base sequence to the complementary
base sequence of mRNA
o DNA is the template for transcription; mRNA is the product
o Each DNA triplet corresponds to an mRNA codon
o If DNA sequence is AAT-CGT-TCG, then the mRNA corresponding codons
are UUA-GCA-AGC
 Translation
o Base sequence of nucleic acid is translated to an amino acid sequence;
amino acids are the building blocks of proteins
o Occurs in the cytoplasm and involves three major varieties of RNA
 Translation (continued)
o Steps correspond to Figure 3.16 (step 1 covers transcription)
 Step 2: mRNA leaves nucleus and attaches to ribosome, and
translation begins
 Step 3: incoming tRNA recognizes a complementary mRNA codon
calling for its amino acid by temporarily binding its anticodon to the
codon
 Translation (continued)
o Steps correspond to Figure 3.16
 Step 4: as the ribosome moves along the mRNA, a new amino acid is
added to the growing protein chain
 Step 5: released tRNA reenters the cytoplasmic pool, ready to be
recharged with a new amino acid

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Part II: Body Tissues
 Tissues
o Groups of cells with similar structure and function
o Four primary types:
1. Epithelial tissue (epithelium)
2. Connective tissue
3. Muscle tissue
4. Nervous tissue
Epithelial Tissue
 Locations:
o Body coverings
o Body linings
o Glandular tissue
o Protection
o Absorption
o Filtration
o Secretion
 Hallmarks of epithelial tissues:
o Cover and line body surfaces
o Often form sheets with one free surface, the apical surface, and an anchored
surface, the basement membrane
o Avascular (no blood supply)
o Regenerate easily if well nourished
 Classification of epithelia
o Number of cell layers
 Simple—one layer
 Stratified—more than one layer
o Shape of cells
 Squamous—flattened, like fish scales
 Cuboidal—cube-shaped, like dice
 Columnar—shaped like columns
Epithelial Tissue
 Simple epithelia
o Functions in absorption, secretion, and filtration
o Very thin (so not suited for protection)
 Simple squamous epithelium
o Single layer of flat cells
o Locations—usually forms membranes
 Lines air sacs of the lungs
 Forms walls of capillaries
 Forms serous membranes (serosae) that line and cover organs in
ventral cavity
o Functions in diffusion, filtration, or secretion in membranes
 Simple cuboidal epithelium
o Single layer of cubelike cells
o Locations

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  Common in glands and their ducts
 Forms walls of kidney tubules
 Covers the surface of ovaries
o Functions in secretion and absorption; ciliated types propel mucus or
reproductive cells
 Simple columnar epithelium
o Single layer of tall cells
 Goblet cells secrete mucus
o Locations
 Lining of the digestive tract from stomach to anus
 Mucous membranes (mucosae) line body cavities opening to the
exterior
o Functions in secretion and absorption; ciliated types propel mucus or
reproductive cells
 Pseudostratified columnar epithelium
o All cells rest on a basement membrane
o Single layer, but some cells are shorter than others giving a false (pseudo)
impression of stratification
o Location: respiratory tract, where it is ciliated and known as pseudostratified
ciliated columnar epithelium
o Functions in absorption or secretion
 Stratified epithelia
o Consist of two or more cell layers
o Function primarily in protection
 Stratified squamous epithelium
o Most common stratified epithelium
o Named for cells present at the free (apical) surface, which are squamous
o Functions as a protective covering where friction is common
o Locations—lining of the:
 Skin (outer portion)
 Mouth
 Esophagus
 Stratified cuboidal epithelium—two layers of cuboidal cells; functions in protection
 Stratified columnar epithelium—surface cells are columnar, and cells underneath
vary in size and shape; functions in protection
 Stratified cuboidal and columnar
o Rare in human body
o Found mainly in ducts of large glands
 Transitional epithelium
o Composed of modified stratified squamous epithelium
o Shape of cells depends upon the amount of stretching
o Functions in stretching and the ability to return to normal shape
o Location: lining of urinary system organs
 Glandular epithelia
o One or more cells responsible for secreting a particular product
o Secretions contain protein molecules in an aqueous (water-based) fluid

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 o Secretion is an active process

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Epithelial Tissue
 Two major gland types develop from epithelial sheets
o Endocrine glands
 Ductless; secretions (hormones) diffuse into blood vessels
 Examples include thyroid, adrenals, and pituitary
o Exocrine glands
 Secretions empty through ducts to the epithelial surface
 Include sweat and oil glands, liver, and pancreas (both internal and
external)
Connective Tissue
 Found everywhere in the body to connect body parts
 Includes the most abundant and widely distributed tissues
 Functions
o Protection
o Support
o Binding
Connective Tissue
 Characteristics of connective tissue
o Variations in blood supply
 Some tissue types are well vascularized
 Some have a poor blood supply or are avascular
o Extracellular matrix
 Nonliving material that surrounds living cells
 Two main elements of the extracellular matrix
1. Ground substance—mostly water, along with adhesion proteins and
polysaccharide molecules
2. Fibers
 Collagen (white) fibers
 Elastic (yellow) fibers
 Reticular fibers (a type of collagen)
 Types of connective tissue from most rigid to softest, or most fluid:
o Bone
o Cartilage
o Dense connective tissue
o Loose connective tissue
o Blood
 Bone (osseous tissue)
o Composed of:
 Osteocytes (bone cells) sitting in lacunae (cavities)
 Hard matrix of calcium salts
 Large numbers of collagen fibers
o Functions to protect and support the body
 Cartilage
o Less hard and more flexible than bone
o Found in only a few places in the body
o Chondrocyte (cartilage cell) is the major cell type

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 o Types
 Hyaline cartilage
 Fibrocartilage
 Elastic cartilage
 Hyaline cartilage
o Most widespread type of cartilage
o Abundant collagen fibers hidden by a glassy, rubbery matrix
o Locations
 Trachea
 Attaches ribs to the breastbone
 Covers ends of long bones
 Entire fetal skeleton prior to birth
 Epiphyseal (growth) plates in long bones
 Elastic cartilage (not pictured)
o Provides elasticity
o Location: supports the external ear
 Fibrocartilage
o Highly compressible
o Location: forms cushionlike discs between vertebrae of the spinal column
 Dense connective tissue (dense fibrous tissue)
o Main matrix element is collagen fiber
o Fibroblasts are cells that make fibers
o Locations
 Tendons—attach skeletal muscle to bone
 Ligaments—attach bone to bone at joints and are more elastic than
tendons
 Dermis—lower layers of the skin
 Loose connective tissue
o Softer, have more cells and fewer fibers than other connective tissues (except
blood)
o Types
 Areolar
 Adipose
 Reticular
 Areolar connective tissue
o Most widely distributed connective tissue
o Soft, pliable tissue like “cobwebs”
o Functions as a universal packing tissue and “glue” to hold organs in place
o Layer of areolar tissue called lamina propria underlies all membranes
o All fiber types form a loose network
o Can soak up excess fluid (causes edema)
 Adipose connective tissue
o An areolar tissue in which adipose (fat) cells dominate
o Functions
 Insulates the body
 Protects some organs

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  Serves as a site of fuel storage
o Locations
 Subcutaneous tissue beneath the skin
 Protects organs, such as the kidneys
 Fat “depots” include hips, breasts, and belly

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Connective Tissue
 Reticular connective tissue
o Delicate network of interwoven fibers with reticular cells (like fibroblasts)
o Forms stroma (internal framework) of organs
o Locations
 Lymph nodes
 Spleen
 Bone marrow
Connective Tissue
 Blood (vascular tissue)
o Blood cells surrounded by fluid matrix known as blood plasma
o Soluble fibers are visible only during clotting
o Functions as the transport vehicle for the cardiovascular system, carrying:
 Nutrients
 Wastes
 Respiratory gases
Muscle Tissue
 Function is to contract, or shorten, to produce movement
 Three types of muscle tissue
1. Skeletal
2. Cardiac
3. Smooth
 Skeletal muscle tissue
o Packaged by connective tissue sheets into skeletal muscles, which are
attached to the skeleton and pull on bones or skin
o Voluntarily (consciously) controlled
o Produces gross body movements or facial expressions
o Characteristics of skeletal muscle cells
 Striations (stripes)
 Multinucleate (more than one nucleus)
 Long, cylindrical shape
Cardiac muscle tissue
o Involuntarily controlled
o Found only in the heart
o Pumps blood through blood vessels
o Characteristics of cardiac muscle cells
 Striations
 One nucleus per cell
 Short, branching cells
 Intercalated discs contain gap junctions to connect cells together
 Smooth (visceral) muscle tissue
o Involuntarily controlled
o Found in walls of hollow organs such as stomach, uterus, and blood vessels
o Peristalsis, a wavelike activity, is a typical activity
o Characteristics of smooth muscle cells
 No visible striations

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  One nucleus per cell
 Spindle-shaped cells
Nervous Tissue
 Function is to receive and conduct electrochemical impulses to and from body parts
o Irritability
o Conductivity
 Composed of neurons and nerve support cells
o Support cells called neuroglia insulate, protect, and support neurons
Summary of Tissues
 Figure 3.22 summarizes the tissue types and functions in the body
Tissue Repair (Wound Healing)
 Tissue repair (wound healing) occurs in two ways:
1. Regeneration
 Replacement of destroyed tissue by the same kind of cells
2. Fibrosis
 Repair by dense (fibrous) connective tissue (scar tissue)

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 Whether regeneration or fibrosis occurs depends on:
1. Type of tissue damaged
2. Severity of the injury
 Clean cuts (incisions) heal more successfully than ragged tears of the tissue
 Events of tissue repair
o Inflammation sets the stage
 Capillaries become very permeable
 Clotting proteins migrate into the area from the bloodstream
 A clot walls off the injured area
o Granulation tissue forms
 Growth of new capillaries
 Phagocytes dispose of blood clot and fibroblasts
 Events of tissue repair (continued)
o Regeneration and fibrosis effect permanent repair
 Scab detaches
 Whether scar is visible or invisible depends on severity of wound
 Tissues that regenerate easily
o Epithelial tissue (skin and mucous membranes)
o Fibrous connective tissues and bone
 Tissues that regenerate poorly
o Skeletal muscle
 Tissues that are replaced largely with scar tissue
o Cardiac muscle
o Nervous tissue within the brain and spinal cord
Developmental Aspects of Cells and Tissues
 Growth through cell division continues through puberty
 Cell populations exposed to friction (such as epithelium) replace lost cells throughout
life
 Connective tissue remains mitotic and forms repair (scar) tissue
 With some exceptions, muscle tissue becomes amitotic by the end of puberty
 Nervous tissue becomes amitotic shortly after birth
 Injury can severely handicap amitotic tissues
 The cause of aging is unknown, but chemical and physical insults, as well as genetic
programming, have been proposed as possible causes
 Neoplasms, both benign and cancerous, represent abnormal cell masses in which
normal controls on cell division are not working
 Hyperplasia (increase in size) of a tissue or organ may occur when tissue is strongly
stimulated or irritated
 Atrophy (decrease in size) of a tissue or organ occurs when the organ is no longer
stimulated normally

Chapter 4
Skin and Body Membranes
Body Membranes
 Functions of body membranes

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 o Cover body surfaces
o Line body cavities
o Form protective sheets around organs
 Classified according to tissue types
Body Membranes
 Epithelial membranes
o Cutaneous membranes
o Mucous membranes
o Serous membranes
 Connective tissue membranes
o Synovial membranes
Epithelial Membranes
 Epithelial membranes are simple organs
 Also called covering and lining membranes
 These membranes contain:
o Epithelial tissue layer
o Connective tissue layer
 Cutaneous membrane = skin
o Dry membrane
o Outermost protective boundary
o Construction
 Epidermis is composed of keratinized stratified squamous epithelium
 Dermis is mostly dense (fibrous) connective tissue
 Mucous membranes (mucosae)
o Moist membranes
o Line all body cavities that open to the exterior body surface
o Adapted for absorption or secretion
o Construction
 Epithelium type depends on site
 Loose connective tissue (lamina propria)
 Serous membranes (serosae)
o Line open body cavities that are closed to the exterior of the body
o Occur in pairs, separated by serous fluid, with a visceral and parietal layer
o Construction
 Simple squamous epithelium
 Areolar connective tissue
 Specific serous membranes
o Peritoneum
 Abdominal cavity
o Pleura
 Around the lungs
o Pericardium
 Around the heart
Connective Tissue Membranes
 Synovial membranes
o Loose areolar connective tissue only (no epithelial tissue)

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 o Line fibrous capsules surrounding joints
 Line bursae
 Line tendon sheaths
o Secrete a lubricating fluid to cushion organs moving against each other during
muscle activity
Integumentary System
 Integumentary system consists of the:
o Skin (cutaneous membrane)
o Skin appendages
 Sweat glands
 Oil glands
 Hair
 Nails
Functions of the Integumentary System
 Insulates and cushion deeper body organs
 Protects the entire body from:
o Mechanical damage (bumps and cuts)
o Chemical damage (acids and bases)
o Thermal damage (heat or cold)
o Ultraviolet (UV) radiation (sunlight)
o Microbes (bacteria)
o Desiccation (drying out)
 Aids in loss or retention of body heat as controlled by the nervous system
 Aids in excretion of urea and uric acid
 Synthesizes vitamin D
Structure of the Skin
 Two kinds of tissue compose the skin
o Epidermis
o Dermis
 Hypodermis (subcutaneous layer)
o Anchors the skin to underlying organs
o Not technically part of the integumentary system
o Composed mostly of adipose tissue
o Serves as a shock absorber and insulates deeper tissues
 Epidermis—outer layer
o Capable of being hard and tough
o Stratified squamous epithelium
o Keratinocytes (the most common cell) produce a fibrous protein called keratin
o Avascular
o Composed of five layers (strata)
Structure of the Skin
 Summary of layers of the epidermis from deepest to most superficial
o Stratum basale
o Stratum spinosum
o Stratum granulosum
o Stratum lucidum (thick, hairless skin only)

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 o Stratum corneum
 Stratum basale (stratum germinativum)
o Deepest layer of epidermis
o Lies next to dermis
o Wavy borderline with the dermis anchors the two together
o Cells undergoing mitosis
o Daughter cells are pushed upward to become the more superficial layers
 Stratum spinosum
o Cells become increasingly flatter and more keratinized
 Stratum granulosum
 Stratum lucidum
o Formed from dead cells of the deeper strata
o Occurs only in thick, hairless skin of the palms of hands and soles of feet
 Stratum corneum
o Outermost layer of epidermis
o Shingle-like dead cells are filled with keratin (protective protein prevents water
loss from skin)
 Melanin
o Melanin is a pigment produced by melanocytes
o Melanocytes are mostly in the stratum basale of the epidermis
o Color is yellow to brown to black
o Melanin accumulates in membrane-bound granules called melanosomes
o Amount of melanin produced depends upon genetics and exposure to
sunlight
Structure of the Skin
 Epidermal dendritic cells
o Alert and activate immune cells to a threat (bacterial or viral invasion)
 Merkel cells
o Associated with sensory nerve endings
o Serve as touch receptors called Merkel discs
 Dermis
o Connective tissue
o Underlies the epidermis

 Two layers of the dermis

o Papillary layer (upper dermal region) contain projections called dermal
papillae
 Indent the epidermis above
 Many projections contain capillary loops, and others house pain and
touch receptors
 On palm and sole surfaces, papillae increase friction and gripping
ability
 Fingerprints are identifying films of sweat
 Two layers of the dermis (continued)
o Reticular layer (deepest skin layer)
 Blood vessels

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  Sweat and oil glands
 Deep pressure receptors (lamellar corpuscles)
 Other dermal features
o Cutaneous sensory receptors
o Phagocytes
o Collagen and elastic fibers
o Blood vessels
Skin Color
 Three pigments contribute to skin color
1. Melanin
 Yellow, reddish brown, or black pigments
2. Carotene
 Orange-yellow pigment from some vegetables
3. Hemoglobin
 Red coloring from blood cells in dermal capillaries
 Oxygen content determines the extent of red coloring
Skin Color
 Redness (erythema)—due to embarrassment, inflammation, hypertension, fever, or
allergy
 Pallor (blanching)—due to emotional stress (such as fear), anemia, low blood
pressure, impaired blood flow to an area
 Jaundice (yellow cast)—indicates a liver disorder
 Bruises (black and blue marks)—hematomas
Appendages of the Skin
 Cutaneous glands are all exocrine glands
o Sebaceous glands
o Sweat glands
 Hair
 Hair follicles
 Nails

 Sebaceous (oil) glands

o Located all over the skin except for palms and soles
o Produce sebum (oil)
 Makes skin soft and moist
 Prevents hair from becoming brittle
 Kills bacteria
o Most have ducts that empty into hair follicles; others open directly onto skin
surface
o Glands are activated at puberty
 Sweat (sudoriferous) glands
o Produce sweat
o Widely distributed in skin
 Two types of sudoriferous glands
1. Eccrine glands
2. Apocrine glands

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 Eccrine glands
o Open via duct to sweat pores on the skin’s surface
o Produce acidic sweat
 Water, salts, vitamin C, traces of metabolic waste
o Function in body temperature regulation
 Apocrine glands
o Ducts empty into hair follicles in the armpit and genitals
o Begin to function at puberty
o Release sweat that also contains fatty acids and proteins (milky or yellowish
color)
o Play a minimal role in body temperature regulation
Appendages of the Skin
 Hair
o Produced by hair follicle
o Root is enclosed in the follicle
o Shaft projects from the surface of the scalp or skin
o Consists of hard keratinized epithelial cells
o Melanocytes provide pigment for hair color
o Hair grows in the matrix of the hair bulb in stratum basale
 Hair anatomy
o Central medulla
o Cortex surrounds medulla
o Cuticle on outside of cortex
 Most heavily keratinized region of the hair
 Associated hair structures
o Hair follicle
 Composed of an epithelial root sheath and fibrous sheath
 Dermal region provides a blood supply to the hair bulb (deepest part of
the follicle)
 Arrector pili muscle connects to the hair follicle to pull hairs upright
when we are cold or frightened
Appendages of the Skin
 Nails
o Heavily keratinized, scalelike modifications of the epidermis
o Stratum basale extends beneath the nail bed, which is responsible for growth
o Lack of pigment makes nails colorless
 Parts of a nail
o Free edge
o Body is the visible attached portion
o Nail folds are skin folds that overlap the edges of the nail; the cuticle is the
proximal edge
o Root of nail is embedded in skin
o Growth of the nail occurs from nail matrix
Homeostatic Imbalances of Skin
 Infections and allergies
o Athlete’s foot

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  Caused by fungal infection (Tinea pedis)
 Itchy, red peeling skin between the toes
o Boils (furuncles) and carbuncles
 Caused by inflammation of hair follicles
 Carbuncles are clusters of boils caused by bacteria
o Cold sores (fever blisters)
 Caused by human herpesvirus 1
 Blisters itch and sting
 Infections and allergies (continued)
o Contact dermatitis
 Caused by exposure to chemicals that provoke allergic responses
 Itching, redness, and swelling of the skin
o Impetigo
 Caused by bacterial infection
 Pink, fluid-filled raised lesions around mouth/nose
o Psoriasis
 Triggered by trauma, infection, hormonal changes, or stress
 Red, epidermal lesions covered with dry, silvery scales that itch, burn,
crack, or sometimes bleed
Homeostatic Imbalances of Skin
 Burns
o Tissue damage and cell death caused by heat, electricity, UV radiation, or
chemicals
o Associated dangers
 Protein denaturation and cell death
 Dehydration and electrolyte imbalance
 Circulatory shock
o Result in loss of body fluids and infection from the invasion of bacteria
Homeostatic Imbalances of Skin
 Extent of a burn is estimated using the rule of nines
o Body is divided into 11 areas for quick estimation
o Each area represents about 9 percent of total body surface area
 The area surrounding the genitals (the perineum) represents 1 percent
of body surface area
Homeostatic Imbalances of Skin
 First-degree burn (superficial burn)
o Only epidermis is damaged
o Skin is red and swollen
 Second-degree burn (partial-thickness burn)
o Epidermis and superficial part of dermis are damaged
o Skin is red, painful, and blistered
o Regrowth of the epithelium can occur
Homeostatic Imbalances of Skin
 Third-degree burn (full-thickness burn)
o Destroys epidermis and dermis; burned area is painless
o Requires skin grafts, as regeneration is not possible

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 o Burned area is blanched (gray-white) or black
 Fourth-degree burn (full-thickness burn)
o Extends into deeper tissues (bone, muscle, tendons)
o Appears dry and leathery
o Requires surgery and grafting
o May require amputation
Homeostatic Imbalances of Skin
 Criteria for deeming burns critical (if any one is met):
o Over 30 percent of body has second-degree burns
o Over 10 percent of the body has third- or fourth-degree burns
o Third- or fourth-degree burns of the face, hands, or feet, or genitals
o Burns affect the airways
o Circumferential (around the body or limb) burns have occurred
Homeostatic Imbalances of Skin
 Skin cancer
o Most common form of cancer in humans
o Most important risk factor is overexposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation in
sunlight and tanning beds
 Cancer can be classified two ways
1. Benign means the neoplasm (tumor) has not spread
2. Malignant means the neoplasm has invaded other body areas
 Most common types of skin cancer
o Basal cell carcinoma
o Squamous cell carcinoma
o Malignant melanoma
 Basal cell carcinoma
o Least malignant and most common type of skin cancer
o Arises from cells in stratum basale that are altered so that they can no longer
make keratin
o Lesions appear as shiny, dome-shaped nodules that develop a central ulcer
 Squamous cell carcinoma
o Believed to be induced by UV exposure
o Arises from cells of stratum spinosum
o Lesions appear as scaly, reddened papules that gradually form shallow ulcers
o Early removal allows a good chance of cure
o Metastasizes to lymph nodes if not removed
 Malignant melanoma
o Most deadly of skin cancers, but accounts for only 5 percent of skin cancers
o Arises from melanocytes
o Metastasizes rapidly to lymph and blood vessels
o Detection uses ABCDE rule for recognizing melanoma
 Malignant melanoma (continued)
o A = Asymmetry
 Two sides of pigmented mole do not match
o B = Border irregularity
 Borders of mole are not smooth

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 o C = Color
 Different colors in pigmented area
o D = Diameter
 Spot is larger than 6 mm in diameter
o E = Evolution
 One or more of the ABCD characteristics is evolving
Developmental Aspects of Skin and Body Membranes
 Lanugo, a downy hair, covers the body by the fifth or sixth month of fetal
development but disappears by birth
 Vernix caseosa, an oily covering, is apparent at birth
 Milia, small white spots, are common at birth and disappear by the third week
 Acne may appear during adolescence
 In youth, skin is thick, resilient, and well hydrated
 With aging, skin loses elasticity and thins
 Skin cancer is a major threat to skin exposed to excessive sunlight
 Balding and/or graying occurs with aging; both are genetically determined; other
factors that may contribute include drugs and emotional stress

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