FEB 511 Agricultural Mechanization EBE

MECHANIZATION – An Over view

INTRODUCTION

The critical state of world food supply and declining food reserves has placed agricultural
production in the fore front of public attention. Food supplies must be increased to meet
the requirements of a growing population and to improve nutritional standards, and all
available resources (land, manpower and technology) must be mobilized for the purpose.

Soil, water, nutrients and solar energy are the basic elements that must be properly
managed i.e. brought together in the correct proportions and at the right time, if
agricultural production is to be optimized. Yields are enhanced by using;
i) Improved varieties of seeds
ii) Adequate amounts of fertilizer and water
iii) Disease and weed control
iv) Effective cultural practices (e.g. weeding and cultivation) and
v) Timely operations

Man (being an intelligent animal) has learned to control and supplement agricultural
production inputs in order to increase yields of food, feed and fibre. He has also
developed tools and implements to reduce the drudgery of his work and increase
productivity.

Today, a wide spectrum of farming methods is to be found in different countries, along

with great variations in land and labour productivity and in power and other inputs. Each
country has its own unique set of conditions (natural resources, social, economic and
political factors). Without question, every country hopes to develop and improve the
living standard of its people and specialists from many disciplines work together to devise
national plans and policies to enhance the process of development.

Prepared by Eng. Prof. A.N. Gitau Page 1

FEB 511 Agricultural Mechanization EBE

Note: Each country has certain latitude in choosing a level of mechanization suited to its
conditions, but increased energy prices make selectivity and efficiency in mechanization
more important than ever before.

Definitions:
Mechanization: Encompasses the use of hand tools and animal drawn implements as
well as motorized equipment to reduce human effort, to perform certain farming
operations that cannot be accomplished by other means or within the time available and
to improve the quality of others. I.e. A means of enhancing human inputs for performing
operations for or in production.
Technology: (Tech-craft, nology - creative). Systematic knowledge and its application
to industrial processes closely related to Engineering and Science i.e. Technical
knowledge and practice.
Appropriate Technology: Technology that is socially acceptable (SA), economically
viable (EV) and technically feasible (TF) i.e. technology applicable to the poor as well as
the rich, developed and developing countries all for human race survival as an entity.

Prepared by Eng. Prof. A.N. Gitau Page 2

FEB 511 Agricultural Mechanization EBE

Note: TF - Considers power supply, field performance, labour supply and

infrastructural support.
SA - Considers socio-economic (literacy) and cultural aspects i.e. lifestyle and
labour division, local faith, use of child labour and gender issues.
EV - considers cost, timeliness, C/B ratio, industrial back-up, credit
availability etc.

THE ROLE OF MECHANIZATION IN AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT

Problems and Justification
Numerous authors have discussed the pros and cons of mechanization. Among the
arguments, commonly used by its detractors are the following;
i) Land and capital are scarce, while labour is abundant and inexpensive.
ii) Holdings are fragmented and inaccessible to mechanization equipment
iii) Agriculture should serve as a ‘sponge’ to soak up excess labour.

Prepared by Eng. Prof. A.N. Gitau Page 3

FEB 511 Agricultural Mechanization EBE

iv) While mechanization increases yields per unit of labour, it may not increase yield
per unit of land.
v) Mechanization encourages large farms to grow larger
vi) Mechanization ignores social problems.
vii) The possibility of bringing new land under cultivation (which might provide a
justification of mechanization) is in fact limited.
viii) Where it is more profitable to mechanize than to employ labour, it is because the
private cost does not reflect the social cost.

Note: These points are sobering and not to be taken lightly.

Mechanization is not an all-or nothing process. One can select appropriate
machines to:-
Overcome bottlenecks
Remove the greatest drudgery and reduce stress
Relieve labour peaks
Do the job faster when the weather or crop characteristics so dictate.
Achieve efficiency of operation

Note: The use of manufactured tools, implements and machines, combined with
irrigation, multiple cropping, high-yield varieties and fertilisers, may actually increase the
total labour requirements on already cultivated land and mechanization facilitates
bringing new land under cultivation.

Besides, a considerable number of jobs may be created indirectly in the manufacture,

distribution, maintenance and repair of agricultural equipment. Where tractors replace
animals, land used to produce forage may be used for critically needed human food levels

Prepared by Eng. Prof. A.N. Gitau Page 4

FEB 511 Agricultural Mechanization EBE

and types of improved mechanization must be developed and promoted which are
compatible with local economic, social and agronomic conditions.
Note: Although tractor mechanization is essential to some areas and will continue to
expand, animal draft power and hand tools should not be neglected.

Consider the table below;

Number of hectares cultivated by various mechanization schemes in Kenya smallholder
agriculture (Muchiri,1980s).
Gitau (2010)
Method Hectares % Kenya EA SSA
Hand tools 1,039,000 84 50 55 65
Ox-cultivation 150,000 12 30 30 25
Tractor 42,000 4 20 15 10
1,231,000 100% 100% 100% 100%
Comment:-
Obviously it will be many decades before the majority of farmers have access to or benefit
from the use of tractors. It is therefore imperative that planners and technicians give more
emphasis to mechanization systems (i.e. those based on animal draft power and hand
tools) which can rapidly be made available to the majority of farmers in order to increase
their productivity and reduce the drudgery of their work.

Alarm has been expressed at the scale of migration from rural areas to cities.
The motives for this migration are a complex mixture of urban “pull”
The attraction of higher wages, social, cultural and educational facilities and
the glamour of the towns - and rural “push”.
The desire to escape from a situation of stagnation that offers only heavy,
unrewarding jobs with little hope of improvement.

Prepared by Eng. Prof. A.N. Gitau Page 5

FEB 511 Agricultural Mechanization EBE

The lack of meaningful employment opportunities in rural areas (considered

by some to be a mere storage tank of excess labour).
The low remuneration for agricultural work.
The seasonal nature and drudgery of agricultural employment.
Unattractiveness of rural living under existing conditions.
All contribute to this urban drift.

Note: Creating job opportunities in agriculture is only a partial solution. It is even more
important to improve the working and living conditions in the rural areas to
compete with the visible amenities of the cities.

Carefully selected mechanization of the appropriate type can provide hope for
agricultural workers and provide a ‘counter-pull’ to the attraction of the city.

SELECTIVE MECHANIZATION (A hope for the farmers).

Selective mechanization means the type of mechanization that fits a country’s economic,
employment, production and cultural needs.
Or
Any form of mechanization that does not decrease the demand for labour per unit land
(removing labour peaks, intensification of production, multiple cropping etc.).

Note: Production, mechanization and employment are related problems and machines
and labour are essential inputs for production but not necessarily rival inputs as we
are too often led to believe.

Prepared by Eng. Prof. A.N. Gitau Page 6

FEB 511 Agricultural Mechanization EBE

NATIONAL POLICIES TO PROMOTE DEVELOPMENT (Towards a

mechanization policy)

In most countries development plans provide the basic policy guidelines for agricultural
development, but the component of these plans concerning mechanization policy is
generally weak or non-existent.

A serious failing since mechanization influences factors such as the;

Volume and quality of production
Productivity of both land and labour
Cost of production
Level of employment
Migration of agricultural wage earners and farmers
Land ownership patterns
Development of mechanical skill and of a manufact uring and service-related
industry
Foreign exchange

Note: Very important factors for the national economy of any country and each require
careful and deliberate consideration.

All governments should therefore work out a coherent and consistent set of aims and
approaches which in aggregate constitute an agricultural mechanization policy and
should make sure that the role of mechanization is clearly understood by all. An adequate
mechanization policy involves much more than production and employment

Prepared by Eng. Prof. A.N. Gitau Page 7

FEB 511 Agricultural Mechanization EBE

consideration. In addition it will include objectives concerning consumer prices, land

tenure, conservation and energy.

Some of the basic questions concerning mechanization that it will attempt to resolve
are:-
 Is tractor mechanization to be promoted?
 What operations should be mechanized or further mechanized?
 Where (i.e. to what particular crops, areas or production bottlenecks)
should mechanization be applied?
 What is the best way to promote the desired mechanization?

The major components of a mechanization policy may be broadly categorized as

technical (on one hand) and Economic and social on the other hand.

1. TECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Before examining the various technical considerations that should guide a mechanization
policy, it must be emphasized that a successful agricultural programme (with or without
mechanization) must include measures to ensure availability and proper use of modern
inputs such as high-yielding varieties, fertilizers, improved water control measures and
crop protection chemicals as well as of labor, draft animals, tools, implements and
machines.

a) Training and Education

Of the users of mechanical equipment (hand-operated, animal-drawn or motorized).
Training facilities are needed for mechanics, technicians and engineers i.e. those who will
design the equipment, work as extension officers, conduct mechanization research and
supervise mechanization programs.

Prepared by Eng. Prof. A.N. Gitau Page 8

FEB 511 Agricultural Mechanization EBE

b) Manufacturing, distribution, service & repair

Most of the hand tools and animal draft implements should be made in the country where
they are to be used. Most sophisticated motorized equipment should also be manufactured
locally (at least in part) as soon as economies of scale and supporting infrastructure
permit. Development of a local farm equipment industry;
- provides alternative employment
- reduces dependence on imports
- saves foreign exchange and
- facilitates the supply of parts and services.

Note: Establishing a parts and service network is a difficult task in the initial stages of
mechanization but local blacksmiths and ‘backyard’ mechanics can play an important role
in the fabrication, repair and maintenance of hand tools, animal draft equipment and
simple farm implements and can eventually provide the nucleus for a dealer network to
service and maintain motorised farm equipments.
Adequate supplies of spare parts are essential for the smooth and efficient operation of a
mechanization programme. Government policy can have a profound influence on the
availability of spare parts and service.

Policies should be formulated that will strike a balance between imports and domestic
manufacturing, ensuring a complete range of equipment to meet the needs of the country
and taking into consideration the fact that local manufacturers need supplies of raw
materials, credit, technical advice, a rational patent policy and assistance in developing
local professional associations.

c) Importing farm equipment

Prepared by Eng. Prof. A.N. Gitau Page 9

FEB 511 Agricultural Mechanization EBE

Equipment designed and manufactured abroad (Europe and North America) often have to
be modified and strengthened or even completely redesigned to ensure mechanical
reliability and to fit in with local agricultural practices.

But unfortunately manufacturers do not always make necessary changes since the cost
involved is high in relation to the size of the market. The IWP (Indicative World Plan for
Agricultural development) recommended that, when governments are considering the
introduction of new types and models of tractors and implements, they should first import
limited numbers for thorough field testing over a period of time before large quantities
are introduced (for general distribution).

Note: Although local manufacture or assembly of tractors is a goal of many developing

countries, it should be pursued with caution. Problems of quality control may severely
diminish the reliability and performance of products.

d) Fuel Supplies
Effective use of expensive non-renewable resources requires clear-cut measures.
Agriculture should be given top priority in any allocation, system that proves necessary
and storage facilities and the distribution network must be so concentrated that fuel is
readily available for agriculture.

3) Research
Appropriate research on agricultural mechanization systems should be encouraged at
existing national institutions. These may be Universities, institutes for agricultural
research, machinery testing centers etc. depending on the way agricultural research is
organized in the country concerned.
Research can be strengthened by;
- Improved financing
Prepared by Eng. Prof. A.N. Gitau Page 10
FEB 511 Agricultural Mechanization EBE

- Better qualified staff

- Better facilities
- Better communication between agencies and disciplines and
- Integration with the general agricultural research.

f) A mechanization policy committee

A special coordinating committee (or working group) should be appointed and made
responsible for drawing up a detailed mechanization policy and a program to accelerate
the development and efficient application of mechanization for agricultural production.

The program should provide for co-ordination of activities to promote the effective use
of power and machines by all government agencies concerned with agriculture and rural
economic development and to enlist the support of the private sector.
The co-ordinate committee should consider:-
The role of mechanization in the over-all agricultural programme,
Ways of optimizing mechanization systems at least cost
Education, research and extension needs
The availability of credit and other financial questions
The need for quality, safety and uniform standards in local factories
producing agricultural equipments and
The relations with the private sector.

The coordinating committee and the researchers need to be integrated in a central

institution (e.g. termed National Institute of Agricultural Engineering) whose objective
would be.
Draw up the mechanization policy and then

Prepared by Eng. Prof. A.N. Gitau Page 11

FEB 511 Agricultural Mechanization EBE

Plan and conduct research to assist in giving effect to its various components.
Activities of the institute may include;
A broad programme of research to define the role of agricultural mechanization in
the country. Selective machine, being the guiding principle and C/B ratio for
various types of machine technology should be established.
Mechanical research and development
Testing. Need to test both domestically manufactured and imported machines to
ensure that their construction is sound and that they are functional and
sufficiently durable to operate under local conditions.
Operating mechanized demonstration farms in co-operation with agricultural
specialists.
Collaborating with manufacturers to ensure that mechanical designs are brought
into production smoothly and rapidly and to promote quality and safe
standards.
Providing extension services in order to bring new technology to the farmers.

Note: International Co-operation and exchange of information is essential.

Regional research centres would engage in research in the following areas:

i) Designing, developing and adapting improved hand tools and animal draft
implements.
ii) Selecting and testing potentially suitable power units and large-scale machinery.
iii) Conducting tillage research relevant to mechanized agriculture.
v) Selecting and/or designing drying and processing equipments.
vii) Promoting soil and land use surveys relevant to mechanized agriculture.

Prepared by Eng. Prof. A.N. Gitau Page 12

FEB 511 Agricultural Mechanization EBE

It has been suggested that the government mechanization policy might logically
include;
 Short term measures - i.e. those directly affecting mechanization, e.g. subsidized
THS and inclusion of mechanization in the government agricultural projects.
 Medium-term measures - i.e. those indirect and less immediate in their effect e.g.
establishing of a domestic machinery industry or minimum wage legislation.
 Long term measures - continuation of the others (i.e. over several decades in
accordance with some vision of the type of society to be established).

g) Appropriate levels of mechanization

Human and animal power will predominate in many countries for years to come. The
principle of selectivity, properly conceived and implemented, will encourage an advanced
level of mechanization.

Note: Mechanical power should be introduced when it is complementary to normal labour

and when it is necessary for certain operation during seasons of labour shortages.

h) Technology assessment (Process of analyzing the direct and indirect effects of

technology)
Involves forecasting on the effects of mechanization on all the people, but particularly on
farm workers, smallholders and urban consumers and hence make the necessary
adjustments (if any) that will enhance the effects and immunize undesirable side effects.

2. ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL CONSIDERATIONS

The development and diffusion of technology occupy a place of critical importance in the
development strategy of any country. For the less developed countries the policy
Prepared by Eng. Prof. A.N. Gitau Page 13
FEB 511 Agricultural Mechanization EBE

decisions involved are particularly difficult since, unlike economically advanced

societies, these countries are constantly having to adjust to imported technology.

Note: Subsidies and licensing procedures bias the private profitability of technology
in socially undesirable direction.

Considerations;
a) C/B Ratio:
As already mentioned the benefits of mechanization include:-
Expansion of the cultivated area
Land clearance
Speed of operation
Overcoming seasonal labour shortages and bottlenecks.
But the direct effects of mechanization on yields per unit of land are much smaller,
although there are reports of yield increase due to high quality tillage and timely
operations (Gitau,1995).
Negative indirect social costs includes: resetting displaced workers and tenants,
including cost of housing and other services.
Note: Determining the overall cost/benefit ratio is a complex process when social and
indirect costs are included and more attention should be given to this
important question.

Hence let us consider mechanization in the broad sense not necessarily tractorization.
b) Credit
Since most farmers in developing countries have accumulated very little capital, any
move to higher levels of mechanization policy should provide for the supply of credit to
small manufacturers and distributors as well.

Prepared by Eng. Prof. A.N. Gitau Page 14

FEB 511 Agricultural Mechanization EBE

c) Subsidies, Tariffs & Taxes;

There is little to gain from a situation whereby farm machinery imports are encouraged
by tariff exemptions but spare parts are subject to heavy import duties. This leads to
mechanization being attractive to private owners to the detriment of the society as a
whole.
d) Storage, transportation & Marketing
The goal of increased production presumes the existence of a market. Provision must be
made for adequate transport (of one kind or the other) to reach every farm that is expected
to produce surplus and for storage facilities to cope with the higher yields expected to
result from mechanization. To marketing, a price structure must be ensured that will
provide farmers with a reasonable margin of profit as an incentive to raise their production
above the subsistence level.
e) Employment
The evidence regarding the effect of mechanization on employment is inconclusive.
Agricultural Engineers have began to give more attention to partial/or selective
mechanization under varying sets of conditions (region, country, crop, soil, climate etc)
and are looking beyond the single objective of increased production to include such
considerations as employment effects, net return to farmers, income distribution and
social costs.

It has been suggested that seasonal labour bottlenecks can be alleviated in;
i) Developing cropping patterns providing for the cultivation of crops taking
different lengths of time to mature and permitting better utilisation of labour.
ii) Supplementing family labour supply with hired labour.

Note: Before mechanization policy can be established, the relationship between

mechanization and employment in the country concerned will have to be evaluated
by means of more accurate data and additional research.
Prepared by Eng. Prof. A.N. Gitau Page 15
FEB 511 Agricultural Mechanization EBE

* Question asked (posed);

Is the objective to provide everyone with a job, even at near starvation level?
Or Is there a level of unemployment that is socially tolerable in order to achieve
optimum production?

Note: Rational utilization of the labour force is of course not an end in itself but a means
to more efficient production and higher incomes.

f) Education
Successful implementation of a mechanization program requires a vast array of skilled
workers (livestock specialists, blacksmiths, dryers, mechanics, foremen, welders,
machine tool operators etc) as well as university graduates in agriculture, veterinary
medicine, engineering and other disciplines.

All these forms of education, training and research will require physical facilities,
teaching aids, instruments, implements and equipment. A sound mechanization policy
will utilize the basic educational programs and facilities of the country and will build
on them the special training programs needed for mechanization.

Prepared by Eng. Prof. A.N. Gitau Page 16

FEB 511 Agricultural Mechanization EBE

THE ROLE OF HAND TOOLS, ANIMAL DRAWN AND ENGINE POWERED

EQUIPMENT IN KENYA AGRICULTURE:
The relative importance of the various forms of mechanization especially in land
preparation is currently not precisely known in Kenya (See a table given earlier). In
small land holder level, the dominant equipment for land preparation is the hoe, using
human labor.

Tractor mechanization has had very little impact on small holder farmers in the semi-arid
areas. This is mainly attributed to logistic problems of;
i) Ploughing small and dispersed farm units
ii) Steep slopes
iii) Maintenance problems
iv) Lack of spare parts and
v) The sharp increases in the prices of tractors and fuels.
Thus tractor mechanization is becoming increasingly expensive for smallholder farmers,
resulting in late ploughing and planting which translates into a substantial reduction in
crop yield or even crop failure. Other problems that plaque tractor mechanization
includes:
i) lack of competent management and strict supervision
ii) inadequate workshop and repair facilities
iii) lack of skilled and responsible operators and
iv) unavailability of cash and credit when needed.
Ox-drawn equipment reduce land preparation time to less than 40% of that required with
hand tools and markedly expand the area planted, increasing yields to land and labor.
However, development and use of improved ox-drawn equipment require efforts in
research, manufacture, marketing and extension. In areas where animals are used for
cultivation the efficiency of work is much better than in areas where hand tools are
dominant. Previous studies have reported that a man using a hand hoe is only capable of
Prepared by Eng. Prof. A.N. Gitau Page 17
FEB 511 Agricultural Mechanization EBE

managing efficiently about one fifth of a hectare, while when using a pair of oxen the
efficiency can be increased 15 times (3 ha). Hand tool mechanization is further
constrained by labour shortage during peak periods (primary tillage and weeding), high
energy requirements, associated drudgery and unavailability of appropriate tools. Thus
the use of animal power (renewable energy) will still increase further.

THE ROLE OF SCIENCE IN TECHNOLOGY (MECHANIZATION)

Science should help create policy (i.e. objective thinking).
Should bring in ability to planning and implementation capacity.
Should bring in diversified support network in institution (avoid duplication by
knowing what the other institutions are researching on thus leading to labour
division and responsibility).
Well coordinated activities from National levels (Ministry) to village level e.g. long
term projects.

Why The Mechanization Endeavour Has Not Been A Smooth One For Kenya
1. Lack of an appropriate mechanization policy.
2. Colonial alienation of small scale farms
3. Lack of research and consultation of experts.
4. Lack of experts
5. Misplaced priorities demeaning agriculture, the farmers and agricultural
mechanization.
6. Machinery is costly (lack of credit, selection, training backup, high taxes etc.)
7. Lack of appropriate machinery etc. etc.

Prepared by Eng. Prof. A.N. Gitau Page 18