Summary of Stages of Racial Identity Development

The attached charts summarize several frameworks that have been developed to describe stages of
racial and ethnic identity development. We found them mostly in the psychology and therapy literature.
Some were developed as a way to expand on Erik Erickson’s model of human development (which goes
from infancy to old age), taking into account factors such as race, gender and sexuality. Some of the
frameworks are used to help therapists understand their patients more fully. The models also have
broader applications for understanding how individuals function in community, family and
organizational settings.

Most of the framework carry the same few cautions. Not every person will necessarily go through every
stage in a framework. Many of the authors specifically acknowledge that the stages might also be
cyclical, that people might revisit different stages at different points in their lives.

The frameworks summarized here describe people who are situated in many different ways, but they do
not describe all of the possibilities. We have listed a few different frameworks that focus on the
experiences of people of color, biracial people and white people in the U.S. We think they can be useful
tools for self reflection and for building empathy and understanding of people who are situated
differently from ourselves.

People of Color
 People of Color Racial Identity Model (William Cross, originally developed as the Nigrescense
Model of African American Identity). This framework (referenced by Barbara Burke Tatum in
the companion reading) focuses on the process by which African Americans come to understand
their identity.
 Filipino American Identity Development, (Kevin Nadal). This framework focuses on Filipino
Americans, highlighting the experience of cultural assimilation/acculturation of a distinct ethnic
group.
 Ethnic Minority Identity Development (John W. Berry). This framework focuses on the
experiences of ethnic minorities, particularly immigrants to the U.S.

Bi-racial People
 Biracial Identity Development (W. S. Carlos Poston). Stages of identity development of biracial
people.
 Continuum of Biracial Identity Model (Kerry Ann Rockquemore and Tracey Laszloffy). Continuum
rather than staged model.
 Resolutions of Biracial Identity Tensions (Maria P. P. Root). Description of possible positive
resolutions of biracial identity tensions.

White People
 White Racial Identity Model (Janet E. Helms, reference in Tatum article). This framework
identifies a continuum that leads to developing an anti-racist identity.

Integrated Model (John and Joy Hoffman)

 This framework begins and ends with stages that are thought to be the same for all people. In
between, different stages are articulated for People of Color and White People.

Summary by Interaction Institute for Social Change

 Summary of Stages of Racial Identity Development

PEOPLE OF COLOR BIRACIAL PEOPLE WHITE PEOPLE

Black American Racial Identity (William Cross) Biracial (Poston) White Racial Identity Model (Helms)
1. PRE-ENCOUNTER: absorbed many beliefs and 1. PERSONAL IDENTITY: sense of self unrelated 1. CONTACT: In the first stage of contact, the
values of the dominant white culture, including to ethnic grouping; occurs during childhood individual adheres to the “colorblind”
the notion that “white is right” and “black is 2. CHOICE OF GROUP: as a result of multiple motto. They see racial difference but do not
wrong”; de-emphasis on one’s racial group factors, individuals feel pressured to choose find it salient and in fact may feel that
membership; largely unaware of race or racial one racial or ethnic group identity over racism is in fact propagated by the
implications another discussion and acknowledgement of race as
2. ENCOUNTER: forced by event or series of events 3. CATEGORIZATION: choices influenced by an issue. In this stage, there is no conscious
to acknowledge the impact of racism in one’s life status of the group, parental influence, demonstration of racism here. This
and the reality that one cannot truly be white; cultural knowledge, appearance seemingly non-racist position can cover
forced to focus on identity as a member of a 4. ENMESHMENT/ DENIAL: guilt and confusion unconscious racist beliefs. If the individual is
group targeted by racism about choosing an identity that isn’t fully confronted with real-world experiences or
3. IMMERSION/EMERSION: simultaneous desire to expressive of all their cultural influences; knowledge that uncovers the privileges of
surround oneself with visible symbols of one’s denial of differences between the racial White skin, they may move into the
racial identity and an active avoidance of groupings; possible exploration of the disintegration stage.
symbols of whiteness; actively seek out identities that were not chosen in stages 2 2. DISINTEGRATION: In this stage, because the
opportunities to explore aspects of one’s own and 3 person has new experiences which confront
history and culture with support of peers from 5. APPRECIATION: of multiple identities his prior conception of the world and
one’s own racial background 6. INTEGRATION: sense of wholeness, because this conception is now challenged
4. INTERNALIZATION: secure in one’s own sense of integrating multiple identities by this new information or experience, the
racial identity; pro-black attitudes become more Continuum of Biracial Identity Model (Kerry Ann person is often plagued by feelings of guilt
expansive, open, and less defensive; willing to Rockquemore and Tracey Laszloffy) and shame. These emotions of guilt and
establish meaningful relationships with whites shame can be modified when the person
Does not seek to categorize individuals into a
who acknowledge and are respective of one’s decides to channel these emotions in a
single identity; acknowledges continuum:
self-definition positive way but when those emotions
5. INTERNALIZATION-COMMITMENT: found ways  Some people may choose to identify
continue to dominate, the person may
to translate one’s personal sense of blackness singularly with one of their identities;
move into the reintegration stage.
into a plan of action or a general sense of  Some may blend with a primary emphasis on
one identity and a secondary emphasis on the 3. REINTEGRATION: This stage is marked by a
commitment to concerns of blacks as a group,
other “blame-the-victim” attitude that’s more
which is sustained over time; comfort with one’s
 Some may blend two (or more) identities with intense than anything experienced in the
own race and those around them
equal emphasis contact stage. They may feel that although
Whites do have privileges, it is probably
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 Summary of Stages of Racial Identity Development

Filipino American (Nadal) Resolutions of Biracial Identity Tensions (Maria because they deserve them and in are in
1. ETHNIC AWARENESS: neutral or positive feelings P.P. Root) some way superior to minority groups. If
about all ethnic groups, including one’s own; 1. Acceptance of the identity society assigns: the person is able to combat these feelings,
little exposure to prejudice identifying with the group into which others they maybe able to move on to the pseudo-
2. ASSIMILATION TO DOMINANT CULTURE: views assume the biracial individual most belongs, independence stage
only whites as positive, negative toward other usually with family support 4. PSEUDO-INDEPENDENCE: This is the first
ethnicities 2. Identification with both racial groups: stage of positive racial identification.
3. SOCIAL POLITICAL AWAKENING: negative views Identify with both (or all) heritage groups, Although an individual in this stage does not
toward whites, positive toward other ethnicities depending on social and personal support feel that Whites deserve privilege, they look
4. PAN-ETHNIC ASIAN AMERICAN to people of color, not themselves, to
3. Identification with a single racial group:
CONSCIOUSNESS: partiality toward Asian confront and uncover racism. They approve
Choosing one group, independent of social
Americans of these efforts and comfort the person as
pressure, to identify himself or herself in a
5. ETHNOCENTRIC REALIZATION: views oneself these efforts validate this person’s desire to
particular way
and other communities of color as empowering be non-racist. Although this is positive
6. INCORPORATION 4. Identification as a new racial group: Move White racial identity, the person does not
fluidly among racial groups but identifies have a sense of how they can be both
most strongly with other biracial people, White and non-racist together.
Ethnic Minority (Berry) regardless of specific heritage backgrounds
5. IMMERSION/EMERSION: In this stage, the
1. ASSIMILATION: valuing the majority culture over
person makes a genuine attempt to connect
one’s own culture
to his/her own White identity and to be
2. SEPARATION: preserving one’s culture while
anti-racist. This stage is usually
withdrawing from the majority culture
accompanied by deep concern with
3. MARGINALIZATION: losing cultural contact and
understanding and connecting to other
identification with one’s culture as well as the
Whites who are or have been dealing with
majority culture
issues of racism.
4. INTEGRATION: valuing and integrating one’s
culture as well as the majority culture 6. AUTONOMY: The last stage is reached
when an individual has a clear
understanding of and positive connection to
their White racial identity while also
actively pursuing social justice. Helms’
stages are as much about finding a positive
racial identification with being White and
becoming an active anti-racist.

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 Summary of Stages of Racial Identity Development

Integrated Model (John and Joy Hoffman)

CONFORMITY (Whites and People of Color): In the first stage of conformity, people of color and Whites feel that
they are just “regular Americans.” Unconsciously, members of both groups strive to emulate Whiteness in actions,
speech, dress, beliefs and attitudes because Whiteness is perceived as positive.

People of Color White People

DISSONANCE: Dissonance for people of color occurs when ACCEPTANCE: In this stage, Whites can still dismiss or
they want to get along and be Americans but discover that diminish comments or actions that indicate that
their race or gender may preclude them from the benefits racism is alive. They express the view that that
that Whites or males get. They start to feel confused about everyone has struggles and people should just accept
the beliefs they held about America and themselves as the way things are and try to be American. They
they begin to see that racism and sexism may be impacting expect of color to “get over it” and go forward as
them. Americans which really means be more like White
people.

IMMERSION: These questions and disillusionment can lead RESISTANCE: Whites move from their acceptance
to the immersion stage where women and persons of color stage to the resistance stage where they profess that
feel angry about racism and sexism. They feel that most racism is a thing of the past. Whites often express
White people and males are racists and sexists and thus their belief that there is a new racism and that is the
part of the problem. What might people of color do with racism that they perceive is against Whites. This is
this anger? popularly referred to as “reverse racism.”

EMERSION: The fourth stage for people of color is RETREAT: If their assumptions about people of color
emersion where their anger about racism directed towards and their own lack of privilege are proven false, they
Whites leads them to feel that they can only belong with may enter the retreat stage. They may feel guilty and
others in their own racial group which understands them. ashamed by how hard life has been and still is for
They avoid, as much as possible, contacts with Whites and people of color. They are also frustrated by, annoyed,
seek out people of their own race or gender. and impatient with other Whites who don’t get it.

INTERNALIZATION: Internalization occurs when they EMERGENCE: After feeling guilty and ashamed, Whites
realize that there are negative qualities among their own may move into the emergence stage where they start
people and that all White people are not the enemy. They to understand their privilege and how it has and
see racism and sexism as the enemy and as something that continue to benefit them. They also now begin to take
they can fight against. They also manifest the desire to control over the type of White person they want to be
have more control over who they want to be. They are like.
more than just a person of color or a woman

INTEGRATIVE AWARENESS (both): In the last stage of integrative awareness, Hoffman asserts that Whites and
people of color both come to the conclusion that there is much more to them than their race or gender. Both groups
are able to positively identify with their own racial group while also acknowledging that other aspects of their
identity (their gender, their talents and abilities, their unique experiences) contribute to their personhood.

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 Summary of Stages of Racial Identity Development

Sources for the descriptions in the grids above:

http://www.innovationscns.com/biracial-identity-development-and-recommendations-in-therapy/
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_E._Cross,_Jr.
http://www.thecolorsoftherainbow.com/Cultural%20Identity%20Phinney.ppt
https://www.msu.edu/~renn/RennNewDirectionsMR2008.pdf
accessed 7-15-11

Additional readings:
John W. Berry
Berry, J. W. (2005). Acculturation: Living successfully in two cultures. International Journal of
Intercultural Relations, 29, 697712.
Sam, D.L. & Berry, J.W. (Eds)(2006). Cambridge handbook of acculturation psychology.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

William E. Cross, Jr.

Cross, W. (1991). Shades of Black: Diversity in African-American identity. Philadelphia: Temple
University Press.
Cross, W.E., Jr. (1971). The Negro-to-Black conversion experience: Toward a psychology of Black
liberation. Black World, 20, 13-27.

Helms, J.E. A Race Is a Nice Thing to Have: A Guide to Being A White Person or Understanding the White
Persons in your life. Microtraining Associates.

Kevin Nadal
Nadal, K. L. (2011). Filipino American psychology: A Handbook of theory, research, and clinical
practice. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Nadal, K. L. (2010) (Ed.). Filipino American psychology: A Collection of personal narratives.
Bloomington, IN: Author House Publishing.
Nadal, K. L. (2009). Filipino American psychology: A Handbook of theory, research, and clinical
practice. Bloomington, IN: Author House Publishing.

W.S. Carlos Poston

http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_S
earchValue_0=EJ424084&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=EJ424084

Kerry Ann Rockquemore and Tracey Laszloffy. Raising Biracial Children. Lanham, MD, Altamira Press,
2005.

Maria P. P. Root and Kelley, M. (Eds.) (2003). The Multiracial Child Resource Book. Seattle, WA: Mavin
Foundation