AN INTRODUCTION TO A POSTMODERN APPROACH

TO EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH: DISCOURSE ANALYSIS

LAETITIA ZEEMAN
MARIE POGGENPOEL

CPH MYBURGH

VAN DER LINDE

Faculty of Education and Nursing,

Rand Afrikaans University, Republic of South Africa

This article serves as an introduction to discourse analysis. Due

to logistical reasons, because this is a relatively new and multifaceted approach in research, this article involves only
introductory remarks about discourse analysis as approach to
qualitative, reflexive educational research. Different postmodern
"approaches" to qualitative nursing research derived from other
disciplines are being rooted in nursing as epistemology. Discourse analysis is introduced as a Poststructuralist and Social
Constructionist "approach" to educational research developing
within the postmodern line of thought. The ideas on discourse
analysis as a research approach' of Parker (1992: 6-20) and
Terre Blanche & Durrheim (1999: 154-167) are discussed. Discourse analysis could serve as a valuable "approach" in
educational research as it challenges current dominant ways of
understanding or viewing the objects of study. This process
opens up space for alternative reflections that could lead to
change.

being rooted in education as an epistemology. Discourse analysis will be

introduced as a Poststructuralist and Social
Constructionist "approach" to educational research developing from a postmodem
line of thought.
The value of this research lies under
alia in the following:Postmodernism creates distance for the generation of
alternatives in inter alia the culture, language, ways of thinking, stories and
interpretations. The existence of altemative
stories on one event, the existence of more
than one interpretation of the world and
the thought that the self has more than one

Postmodernism is not a school of

thought. It is not a unified intellectual
movement with a definite goal or perspective. "Postmodernism can be the set
of ideas which try to define or explain the
state of affairs in society or a word used in
many different contexts to cover many different aspects (Ward, 1997:4)" Postmodem
theory sets about dismantling most of our
normal ways of thinking about how meaning interpretation and reality works. This
dismantling process is also visible in education and educational research. Different
postmodern "approaches" to educational
research derived from other disciplines are

96

An Introduction to.../97
view or part bring about big shifts and freedom.
Narrative therapy originated from the
poststructuralistic way of thinking and the
social constructivism. It works through the
deconstruction of previous therapeutic
models, therapeutic practices and dominant discourses that exist inside the culture
group. Discourse analysis does not describe
and explain the world. It does not make
any claim on the truth, it is a reflexive
process that is directed at change and
progress.
Problem Statement
Discourse analysis has not widely been
described in literature as a qualitative
"approach" in educational research. In
South Africa this research "approach" is
reasonably unfamiliar in educational
research. "Discourse analysis has its roots
in linguistics, literary studies, and anthropology" (Ward, 1997:129). It is being
practiced at present in virtually al of the
humanities and the social sciences. Discourse analysis is an interdisciplinary
research "approach" and can be of great
worth if it is derived as Social Constructionist and Poststructuralist epistemology
into educational research.
Paradigm
"Discourse analysis is a qualitative
research design" (Terre Blanche & Durrheim, 2000:48). It should first be situated
in its broader paradigmatic context namely: Poststructuralism and Social
constructionism. "Poststructuralism and
Social constructionism developed within
the postmodern line of thought" (Kvale,
1992:8). Certain central Structuralist ideas
need to be highlighted before Poststructuralism can be introduced.

Structuralism
"Structuralism is thought of as an
approach or method rather than a clearly
defined discipline" (Ward, 1997:80). The
object of study in structuralist thought is
the system and structure of language and
how meaning is generated. To summarise:
Structuralism asks where meaning come
from: "Does it come from the text itself?
Does it come from the context in which
the text is consumed: Is the reader free to
create his or her own meaning? To what
degree can the author of a text control how
it is interpreted? Does the production of
meaning arise from the interaction of these
factors. If so, how do they interact?"
(Ward, 1997:88)
Structuralist thought in research studies the deeper or underlying systems in
language practices and how meaning is
produced. "Structuralism and Poststructuralism form much of the philosophical
background of postmodem theory" (Ward,
1997:80). Within the Postmodem line of
thought Poststructuralism developed from
the above mentioned central Structuralist
ideas.
Poststructuralism
Poststructuralist ideas received widespread attention with the work of "Michel
Foucault, Jacques Derrida and Barthes"
(Gavey, 1998:460). This line of thought
is also informed by "post-Sassurean linguistics, Marxism (particularly Althusser's
theory of ideology), feminism, the "new
French feminists" (Kristeva, Cixous, Irigaray)" (Gavey, 1998:460, Ward,
1997:80-100).
In search of a definition for or a description of Poststructuralism many problems
are encountered. It is a virtually impossi-

98/Education Vol. 123 No. 1

ble process to define Poststructuralism. At

the center of post-structuralism is a resistance to any form of definition or
identification "...presumably because such
practices represent an attempt to pin down
an essence which does not exist" (Gavey,
1998:119).
According to Foucault (1988:18)".. . the
premises of post-structuralism disallow
any denominative, unified, or 'proper definition of itself. Broadly it involves a
critique of metaphysics: of the concepts of
causality. of identity, of the subject, of
power, knowledge and of truth".
Poststructuralist premises become clearer when its ideas on language and meaning
in relation to Structuralist ideas are discussed. There is a difference between
Structuralist and Poststructuralist's views
on language and meaning. Ward
(1997:92,10(0) explains that Structuralism
sees language as a closed system and tries
to fix individual texts to rigid linguistic
frameworks whereby underlying meaning
is exposed. Structuralism as mentioned,
seeks the 'facts' about texts and the deeper, underlying, hidden fundamental
structures that supports the texts. For Poststructuralists there are no facts (Ward,
1996:86-104). There are only interpretations.
As Gergen (1991b:10) argues. Poststructuralists try to open texts up and cut
meaning loose. Poststructuralists do not
necessarily believe that everything is meaningless, just that meaning is never factual
or final. Poststructuralism rejects the
notion of ultimate, underlying grounds
beneath meaning.
To Poststructuralist researchers language and language systems are important.

One such a system operating through language described in Poststructuralist thought

is discourse (Monk, Winslade, Crocket,
Epston 1996:30; Hare-Mustin, 1994:19;
Hollway, 1983:231). Discourse can have
many different meanings according to
where it is used and by whom. "A discourse
is an abstract public sphere of words and
images" (Ward, 1997:129).
A discourse is not just an abstract concept; it exists in concrete social situations
and has very real effects" (Terre Blanche
& Durrheim, 2000:48-52). In the discussion that follows discourse analysis will
be introduced as a Poststructuralist and
Social Constructionist "approach" to educational research.
Social constructionism
Social constructionism studies how people interact with one another to construct
modify and maintain what their society
holds to be true, real and meaningful.
Social constructionism maintains that
meanings are produced by a process of
reflexivity (Denzin & Lincoln
1994:127,128; Freedman & Combs,
1996:22-28; Terre Blanche & Durrheim
2000:48).
Constructionism is concerned with
broader patterns of social meaning encoded in language. According to Terre
Blanche and Durrheim (2000:48) these
premises leads to the following implications in research:
Social Constructionist methods want to
show how understanding and experiences
are derived from lager discourses. Social
Constructionist approaches treat people as
though their thoughts feelings and experiences were the products of systems of
meaning that exist at a social rather than

An Introduction to.../99
an individual level. Constructionism holds
that human life-world is fundamentally
constituted in language and that language
should therefore be the object of study.
Constructionists do not treat language as
if it was neutral and transparent or as a
route to underlying realities, rather language helps to construct reality.
Constructionism is concerned with
broader patterns of social meaning encoded in language (Monk, et al. 1996:30;
Hare-Mustin, 1994:19; Holloway,
1983:231). A discourse is a system with
broader patterns of social meaning encoded in language that forms the object of
study in Social Constructionist and Poststructuralist research. A short preface to
discourse analysis, as a qualitative research
design will ensue:
Discourse Analysis
Discourse analysis is not a descriptive
and explanatory practice that aims at truth
claims. It rather is a form of reflexive
research. "Discourse analysts understand
the task of research to be a reflexive and
productive not a descriptive practice"
(Parker, 1992:6).
The aim of discourse analysis
"Rather than describing and explaining
the world and making truth claims, discourse analysis aims to account for how
particular conceptions of the world become
fixed and pass as truth" (Durrheim,
1997:181). "Seeing historically how effects
of truth are produced in discourses which
in themselves are neither true nor false"
(Foucault, 1984b: 88).
Durrheim (1997:181) explains that discourse analysis is a reflexive process that
aims to provide an account of how 'objects'
in the world are constructed against a back-

ground of socially shared understandings.

These socially shared understandings often
have become institutionalized and gained
factual status. It is a form of social critique.
"A social Constructionist epistemology moves away from the mechanistic and
individualistic understanding of the object
of study. It moves away from a conceptual critique to a social critique" (Durrheim,
1997:181). During discourse analysis we
"want to understand the function of a particular discourse, the way they position
their subjects in relations of contempt and
respect, of domination and subordination
or of opposition and resistance, we pass
quickly and ineluctably from conceptual
critique to social critique" (Parker,
1992:37).
Discourse analysis as described by
Parker (1992:6) and Durrheim (1997:181)
has a second goal: It is not only a reflexive process; it is also a productive process
or a process that brings change. During discourse analysis reflexivity is employed to
produce new meanings by showing how
taken-for-granted everyday and scientific
objects are embedded in certain 'regimes
of truth'. During the reflexive process in
research new meanings and ways of understanding the objects of research are
generated.
Some discourse analysts describe this
second aim as the aim of overturning commonly accepted understandings of 'objects'
by drawing on other marginalized discourses to demonstrate the constructed
nature of common understandings.
In the words of Durrheim (1997:181):
"What is the point of overturning convention and deconstructing truth? In short it
has political aims of disrupting the oppres-

100/Education Vol. 123 No. 1

sive and exploitative effects associated

with institutionalized discourses and forms
of life. Discourse analysis doesn't describe
or explain the world; it is a critical enterprise. a reflexive process, a form of
ideology critique".
Discourse analysis ".. does not aspire to
truth, but to change" (Durrheim, 1997:181).
Foucault (1984b: 88) said: "Knowledge is
not made for understanding; it is made for
cutting". To do a discourse analysis is to
exercise the cutting tool of knowledge
toward the aims of human emancipation.
DISCUSSION
The "how" of discourse analysis
Discourses are not discreet entities, but
are intertwined with each other and constantly changing. Therefore it is virtually
impossible to pin down a discourse. Constructionist researchers study discourses
as if they are living entities. "Discourses
live in texts" (Terre Blanche & Durrheim.
1999: 154-167). Books, articles, advertisements, movies, transcribed interviews
serve as examples of texts. Discourses as
objects are studied by examining them in
texts.
There is no field guide to discourse
analysis. "Even though researchers, students and teachers of discursive approaches
have to set out a method. there is really no
method as such, there is no one thing called
discourse analysis. Discourse analysis is
not a set of methodological techniques that
only carefully trained experts understand
and are able to use..." (Parker, Levett, Kot-

tler & Burman, 1997:198).

The ideas on discourse analysis as a
research 'approach' of Parker (1992: 6-20)
and Terre Blanche & Durrheim (1999: 154167) are introduced. These ideas do not
constitute a method, and they should not
be followed sequentially (Parker, 1992: 620; Terre Blanche & Durrheim, 1999:
154-167). They serve as mere pointers in
directing analyses.
Terre Blanche & Durrheim's (1999:
154-167) three-facet 'approach' to discourse analysis:
1. Discourses
Discourses manifest in texts. Texts become
intelligible by drawing on discourses.
Discourses can be identified using cultural competence and critical distance.
look for binary opposi'Tricks':
tions, identify recurrent terms, phrases
and metaphors, identify subjects that
include the author and listener.
2. Effects
Not 'what does the text say?', but 'what
does the text do?'
Both explicit and implicit intentions of
a text
Why? (these oppositions, these recurrent terms, these subjects)
What? (other elements could have been
used)
How? (are the effects achieved)
3. Contexts
Show patterns of variation and consistency of discourses across texts
The micro-context of conversation and
debate

An Introduction to.../101
Other texts and discourses
The institutional, ideological and historical context
The analyst (and the dangers of idealism and relativism)
The abovementioned 'method' of Terre
Blanche & Durrheim can be combined
with the following 'approach' of Parker.
Parker's (1992: 6-20) 'approach' to discourse analysis:
1. Discourse lives in texts: Consider everything to be text and explore the
connotations, allusions and implications that the text evokes.
2. A discourse is about objects: Discourses are practices that systematically form
the objects of which they speak. A discourse is about objects, and discourse
analysis is about discourses as objects.
Ask the question: "what objects are
referred to?", and describe them. Talk
about the talk as if it were an object, a
discourse.
3. A discourse contains subjects: Specify
what types of persons are talked about
and speculate what rights they have to
speak.
4. A discourse is a system of meanings:
'Map' a picture of the world this
discourse represents. Work out how a
text using this discourse would deal
with objections.
5. A discourse refers to other discourses:
Set different discourses against each
other and see what objects they form.
Identify points where they overlap.
6. A discourse reflects on its own way of
speaking: Refer to other texts to elaborate the discourse. Reflect on the term
used to describe the discourse.
7. Discourses are historically located:

Look at how and where the discourses

emerged and describe how they have
changed.
8. Discourses support institutions: Identify institutions that are reinforced when
this discourse is used, and identify the
institutions that are subverted when this
discourse appears.
9. Discourses reproduce power relations:
Identify which categories of persons
gain and lose from implying the discourse. Identify who would want to
promote or dissolve the discourse.
10. Discourses have ideological effects:
Show how a discourse connects with
other discourses, which sanction
oppression and how dominant groups
prevent those who use subjugated discourses from 'making history'.
As mentioned these ideas do not form
a specific methodology for discourse analysis. They do not constitute a technique or
a method and should not be followed successively. They serve as mere pointers in
directing analyses.
CONCLUSION

Discourse analysis was briefly introduced as a Postmodern 'approach' to

educational research. The paradigmatic
foundation for discourse analysis as mentioned is rooted within Poststructuralism
and Social Constructionism that developed
within the postmodern line of thought.
Discourse analysis could serve as a
valuable "approach" in educational
research as it challenges current dominant
ways of understanding or viewing the
objects of study. This process opens up
space for alternative reflections that could
lead to change.

102/Education Vol. 123 No. 1

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TITLE: An Introduction to a Postmodern Approach to

Educational Research: Discourse Analysis
SOURCE: Education (Chula Vista, Calif.) 123 no1 Fall 2002
WN: 0228803481011
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