RETURN

DOCUMENTATION, SURVEYING, PHOTOGRAMMETRY

Boehler, W. (1), Heinz, G. (2)

(1)
i3mainz, Institute for Spatial Information and Surveying Technology, FH Mainz, University of Applied Sciences,
Holzstrasse 36, D-55116 Mainz, Germany,
[email protected]
(2)
Roemisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum, Ernst-Ludwig-Platz 2, D-55116 Mainz, Germany

CIPA Working Group VI

K EY W ORDS: Cultural Heritage Documentation, Surveying Methods, Remote Sensing, Photogrammetry,

GPS, Scanners

ABSTRACT:

Considering the purpose of cultural heritage documentation, an attempt is made to show the large
diversity of documentation projects by describing the types of objects encountered and the role of
topography. Different intensity levels for documentation and different possibilities of documentation
publication have to be reflected.
Surveying, characterised as the entirety of all methods available to record the geometry of objects and
topography, is considered as one part of a documentation project. Photogrammetry is one surveying
method among others, e.g. simple and tactile methods, tacheometric and GPS surveys, various scanning
methods or remote sensing from satellites.
The Institute for Spatial Information and Surveying Technology (i3mainz) at FH Mainz, University of
Applied Sciences, Germany, is involved in various cultural heritage documentation projects. The
interdisciplinary decision process used at this institute to develop optimal documentation, publication, and
surveying methods for every project is presented.

CULTURAL HERITAGE DOCUMENTATION Objects

Purpose Cultural heritage objects comprise a large variety

of different nature, size, and complexity. Thus, it is
Documentation of cultural heritage objects is not not easy to group them in a systematic way. The
an end in itself but serves as a tool to make following sequence of 'conservation subsystems'
information accessible to those (research experts explained by Rosvall and published by
or any interested persons) who cannot investigate Lagerqvist (1996) seems to be a good approach to
the object itself. Different reasons can be found for such a system since it shows the relation between
the necessity of this information transfer: the subsystems and hence the influence of
• The object is not accessible to interested measures taken in one subsystem on the others:
parties (e.g. rock paintings in caves). • "... Natural environment; a global system,
• The object is too large or too complicated to be which encompasses:
overlooked and it would be too time- • Ordinary landscapes; which are constituted by:
consuming to execute an own investigation. • Cultural landscapes; which include:
• The object (or just a part of it) is visible only for • Built environments; where we find:
a short period of time at its original location (as • Cities and conurbations; which consist of:
in archaeological excavations or when un- • Buildings and other spatial structures; which
earthed during civil engineering projects). are the frames for:
• Persons living far from the object cannot afford • Artefacts;..."
to visit it. Nevertheless, every object, even when assigned to
• The object is in danger of slow deterioration the same subsystem, may differ so much from
(environmental factors) or sudden destruction another one that it needs a completely different
(earthquakes and other natural disasters, war documentation process. This is the challenge of
and vandalism). cultural heritage documentation. But on the other
The last two points must be taken into account in side, it can be the reason for inadequate solutions,
any case, additional ones may exist at the same too.
time.
 RETURN

Objects and Topography Finally, a competent selection of appropriate

methods and a strict management of the documen-
Cultural heritage objects are always man-made tation project must lead to an economic use of the
objects. At all time, human beings took advantage funds available.
of certain geographic and topographic factors
when choosing locations for their settlements, Components
fortifications, places of worship, etc. Thus,
documentation always should include both, a Depending on the type of object itself and on the
description of the object itself and of the topo- intensity of documentation applied, the final
graphy around it. Different cases can be listed information system may consist of several parts of
where topography is part of the documentation: different nature.
• The object has become part of the landscape • The geometric survey (see below) leads to a
itself, like agricultural (terraces, irrigation, ...) or description based on coordinate values. Those
transportation systems (roads, channels, ...). can be visualised when symbol or texture
• The object took advantage of the topographic information is added. Results are plans, maps,
situation and has to be documented together orthophotos, perspectives, and videos. If funds
with it (typical for fortifications and places of are limited, photographs may substitute these
worship). documents.
• The object cannot be unearthed in its entirety • Visual inspection and material testing methods
and many excavations have to be combined, result in a description of the materials used.
possibly over a large period of time (as in • Various age detecting methods allow dating if
modern cities where parts of older city necessary.
structures become visible during local civil • Textual descriptions complement the above.
engineering projects). They are necessary to explain relations
• Artefacts found on the surface or beneath are between different parts of the object and
removed and their original location has to be relations to other objects, and integrate them
documented. into the historical background and develop-
• The distribution of artefacts of a certain type ment.
has to be mapped over a regional or Many existing publications concerning archaeology
continental area. as well as art and architecture history do not allow
Again, the range of possible documentation tasks a clear separation between facts and conclusions
is very large. When a documentation project is (or even speculations). It should be a basic
started, it has to be decided if available principle of any documentation to include the
topographic documents (maps, aerial or satellite original observations and to distinguish strictly
images) are sufficient or if special surveys have to between facts and conclusions.
be carried out.
Publication and Information Systems
Intensity
Until recently, the final result of a documentation
The ideal documentation of an object would allow consisted of documents printed or drawn on paper.
the user to gain the same complete information as Colour printing and large paper formats of maps
the investigator who examined the original on site. and plans made production expensive.
Obviously, such a documentation, including a Distribution, storage, and public access were
description of the materials and geometry of even difficult.
the smallest object part as well as the surrounding With the advent of geographic information systems
topography and environmental conditions is (GIS), a powerful method is available to store
impossible. graphical and descriptive data with all their links.
It is undisputed that cultural heritage documen- Analysis and visualisation methods can lead to
tation is highly desirable. Knowledge about results that were not deductible from the paper
possible methods and new developments is readily products.
available. At the same time, funds for these tasks World-wide access has become easy and
are very limited, even in wealthy countries. inexpensive if the results are distributed via data
Developing countries, many of them with a rich carriers (CD-ROM, DVD) or the internet. Since the
cultural heritage, can hardly afford the necessary availability of cultural heritage documentation to
procedures. everybody should be a main target of all
Consequently, priorities have to be decided on. institutions involved, the use of GIS and the
More important and endangered objects have to modern distribution possibilities should be
be documented with high priority and intensity, recommended strongly (Heinz 1997).
others have to wait or can only be recorded by Reading devices for an increasing number of data
simple methods at the moment. carriers (punched tapes and cards, old disc and
 RETURN

tape formats) are not in operation any more. Other

data cannot be read any longer because support
for old software products has terminated. Also,
magnetic information deteriorates over the years CULTURAL HERITAGE
and cannot be read any more. From own
unpleasant experience, the authors recommend to DOCUMENTATION
produce and store paper copies of all important
data as a backup of electronically recorded data.

Co-operation Archaeology
Architecture
As mentioned above, documentation consists of SURVEYING Materials, Age
contributions of many scientific branches. Persons Geology
in charge of documentation projects should have a Location History
good knowledge of possible techniques. Scientists Photo- Shape Conclusions
from natural and engineering sciences should try grammetry
Size ...
to develop methods that can be used by anybody
willing to undergo some basic training. The efforts
of CIPA Working Group 3 are a typical example for Figure 1: Photogrammetry is one method of surveying.
this approach (CIPA, 1999). Surveying results are one part of cultural heritage docu-
On the other hand, certain techniques are so mentation
complicated that they can be mastered only by
experts. In those cases, documentation cannot be found when considering object size and object
accomplished without co-operation between ex- complexity (cf. Fig. 2).
perts of different disciplines. If willingness is Object size is related to the scale of plans since
present and funds are available (which is often a the maximal size of one sheet is about one square
problem) such a co-operation can be a rewarding metre. The complexity of the survey can be
experience. expressed by the number of points to be recorded.
This ranges from one point describing the
geographic location of a single artefact to some
SURVEYING thousand points, typical for a CAD drawing of a
building or a topographic situation, to about one
General Aspects million points or more for the description of the
whole surface of a sculpture or a digital elevation
Surveying as part of cultural heritage docu- model.
mentation comprises all methods available to Besides size and complexity, other factors may
record the geometry of objects and/or topography. influence the optimal method to be chosen:
Thus, any co-operation between cultural heritage • Accuracy needed
recorders and surveyors is of high importance. • Permission to use the method (e.g. aerial
Photogrammetry will often be a good choice as photogrammetry may not be permitted)
surveying method but it should be considered • Availability of instruments and power supply
together with other methods before a final decision • Accessibility of object
is reached which kind of surveying method(s) • Availability of ideally located vibration-free
should be used in a specific project (Boehler and observation stations
Heinz, 1996, 1997). New methods and instruments • Permission to touch the object
are permanently introduced, and it has become
difficult to remain informed about all alternatives. Different Methods of Surveying
Universities should try to train experts with a good
knowledge of many methods and not only Simple Methods: Many heritage recorders,
specialists for certain branches (such as especially archaeologists and architects, execute
photogrammetry). CIPA, originating from a co- their surveys exclusively by direct measurements
operation between photogrammetrists and heritage relative to a local coordinate system represented
recorders has started to deal with this problem by by strings and plumb bobs. Points are located in
establishing Working Group 6. But not everybody this system by direct distance measurement to the
may be aware that photogrammetry is just one way nearest string and mapped immediately. This
of surveying, and surveying is just one component method is smiled at by many surveyors but it can
of cultural heritage documentation (cf. Fig. 1.). be used very effectively if the site is accessible, not
Although every project has to be considered too large, not to steep, and easy to overlook.
differently, suitable surveying methods can be
 RETURN

Complexity process can be carried out by just one person.

(points/object)
This should be an advantage in many heritage
1 Million
recording projects.

100 000 The Global Positioning System GPS has

CL. PHOT. R.S.
A. PHOT. become a well-known method for navigation and
10 000 SCAN. surveying. It is not generally known, however, that
1 000 there are different GPS technologies giving any
accuracy between the 100-metre and the
TACTILE TACHEO.
100 millimetre range. Small hand-held receivers can
SIMPLE GPS produce decimetre accuracy when used in
10
differential mode using carrier phase information
1 and have proved very useful in heritage projects
comprising large areas and for control point
Object (area) size surveys for photogrammetric or satellite image
0.1 m 1m 10 m 100 m 1 km 10 km 100 km 1000 km
processing.
Scale (max.)
1:1 1 : 1000 1 : 1Mill.
Close Range Scanners: Considerable develop-
Figure 2: Suitable surveying methods considering object ments can be observed in the field of close range
size and object complexity. scanning devices. Two basic concepts are in
(CL.= close range, A.=aerial, R.S.= remote sensing) operation:
• Laser scanners, where a laser beam is
Tactile Methods: All tactile methods rely on the deflected by a scan mirror. When returned by
registration of the coordinates of the tip of a probe the object surface, range and reflectivity can
brought in contact with the object point to be be recorded (e.g. nav, 1999).
recorded. Several new developments in the last • Light pattern scanners use a projector for the
few years aim at applications in mechanical generation of the light pattern on the object
engineering and also in heritage object recording. (often stripes) and record the resulting images
Different technical solutions have been chosen to with a digital camera (e.g. cyberware, 1999).
locate and record the probe position: Since all instruments have limited resolution and
• In coordinate measuring machines, separate view angles, the most important development is
scales in x, y, and z-direction are used. the recent generation of powerful software for the
• In robot-like machines, the probe is connected automatic combination of partial scans to create
to the last of a series of hinged arms (e.g. complete digital object models, e.g. for large and
Faro, 1999). complicated sculptures (igd, 1999).
• In photogrammetry-based systems, a camera
is connected to the probe locating its position Close Range Photogrammetry. Many fine
from fixed points in the vicinity (aicon, 1999), examples for the use of close range photo-
or several fixed cameras observe LEDs on the grammetry have been presented and published by
probe (Metronor, 1999). CIPA.
• The probes in systems developed for The advent of digital cameras that store a digital
archaeology are fixed to large pantographs or image obtained from a CCD frame or line element
tapes connected to three fixed positions (e.g. has caused discussions wether film or CCD
Trigomat, 1999). cameras are best for close range photogrammetry.
Except for coordinate measuring machines, all A resolution of 2000 x 2000 elements or less is too
systems are portable but need stable mountings poor to produce anything comparable to a film
for the reference parts. A common problem is the image. Experiments with a 4000 x 4000 pixel
danger of scratching the object when needle tips prototype metric camera have shown good results
are used; spheres on the other hand can only for both, image matching and point determination
record a surface parallel to the object and cannot purposes (Heinz, 1998). Further experiences
reach sharp grooves. show, however, that the prototype could not yet be
developed into a reliable instrument. In spite of the
Electronic Tacheometers are indispensable for problems encountered presently, it can be taken
recording single points in medium size areas. They as granted that reliable metric cameras of this
can be used for polar surveys (with or without a resolution will be available soon.
reflecting mirror at the target) or using a section Digital images from CCD cameras or from scanned
solution (if the target is inaccessible but can be films in conjunction with matching techniques have
identified from two different observation stations). made it possible to produce digital object models
New developments include instruments with also from complicated surfaces such as sculptures
automatic target detection where the measuring (Boochs and Heinz, 1996). Such a description
 RETURN

comprises a more objective and complete record sufficient and no further professional help from the
as compared to the traditional photogrammetric surveying side is necessary. In complex cases,
CAD vector plots which rely to a considerable several methods have to be applied. As a result, a
extent on the interpretation of the operator. co-ordination may be necessary at this level.
Very interesting for cultural heritage documentation
is the recent development of low cost (around
3 000 US$) 3D-cameras by Minolta (Metacrea-
tions, 1999) and Kodak with 3D processing soft- DOCUMENTATION
ware including surface triangulation. PROJECT MANAGER
Archaeology, art history, ...
Aerial Photogrammtry is a well established
method of surveying and standardised to a large 
extent. Topographic mapping in intermediate ↓
scales is usually best accomplished by this method Step 1:
(provided that aerial photogrammetry is not prohi- BOARD OF PARTICI- What has to be
bited). Larger scales are possible if devices like PATING DISCIPLINES examined and
balloons or miniature aircraft are used. Surveying, geology, chemistry, ... documented?
CCD line sensors, combined with navigation
devices, may gradually replace the aerial film 
camera systems in the future. ↓
Step 2:
Remote Sensing from satellites is a useful method PUBLICATIONS / What kind of
in documentations comprising larger areas (G)IS publication / infor-
(Boehler, Heinz, Scherer, 1997). The advent of SPECIALIST(S) mation system?
systems with dramatically improved resolution,
although not quite in the time schedule originally  ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
other disciplines
anticipated, will be of great importance to cultural ↓
heritage documentation, especially where aerial Step 3:
photos are not available (Boehler and Heinz, BOARD OF Which surveying
1999). SURVEYING SPECIALISTS methods have to
Imaging and processing techniques of remote Photogrammetry, Scanning, GPS, ... be used?
sensing and photogrammetry are becoming more
and more identical, so that in the future a  ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
distinction between photogrammetry and remote ↓
other methods
sensing may be more or less superfluous.
Step 4:
PHOTOGRAMMETRY How can the
SPECIALIST(S) chosen survey be
REALIZATION OF A DOCUMENTATION
Stereoplotting, orthophoto, video, ... accomplished?
Decision Process
Figure 3: Decision Process
As shown in figure 3, a documentation project
manager should decide first on the disciplines to
be included in the specific project. Ideally, this i3mainz
should be done in a conference where all
disciplines are represented. In co-operation with many partners from cultural
The way of publication should be decided on as heritage agencies, surveying services were
early as possible (at the same time as step 1, or as provided by FH Mainz (Germany), University of
step 2, at the latest). In many projects, this de- Applied Sciences, for cultural heritage projects
cision comes too late, causing extra cost and delay since some dozen years. In 1998, i3mainz,
due to conversion and re-formatting problems. Institute for Spatial Information and Surveying
As far as the surveying part is concerned, a board Technology, was founded (i3mainz, 1999). The
of specialists should decide on the most effective institute offers assistance in cultural heritage
method of surveying. Since surveying has become surveys. Since surveying experts for all methods
very specialised, it is not sufficient to leave this are pooled in this institution, it can solve all
decision to a land surveyor or a photogrammetrist problems from step 2 to step 4 in the scheme
or the project manager. As many of the different shown in figure 3. Through a close co-operation
available surveying techniques (cf. Fig. 2) as with Roemisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum at
possible should be represented. In easy cases, it Mainz, the management and execution of com-
may be decided that simple surveying methods are plete documentation projects can be offered, too.
 RETURN

CIPA *Boehler, W., Heinz, G.: Integration of High

Resolution Satellite Images into Archaeological
It is not easy to provide a common forum for Documentation. Presented at the International
conservationists and surveyors at large. CIPA is Workshop of Working Groups V/5 and V/2 of the
one of the few organisations trying to do so. International Society for Photogrammetry and
Through the effort of some very dedicated persons Remote Sensing, Tessaloniki, Greece, 7-9 July,
and with the aid of modern communication 1999. To be published in the International Archives
technology, considerable progress has been of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing.
achieved in the last few years. Various Working,
Task, and Expert Groups provide assistance for *Boehler, W., Heinz, G., Scherer, Y., 1997. Using
special questions (concerning steps 2 and 4 in Satellite Images for Archaeological Documen-
figure 3). For an outside investigator it may be tation. International Archives of Photogrammetry
irritating, however, that WG 1's (Recording, and Remote Sensing, Volume XXXII, Part 5C1B,
Documentation and Information Management CIPA International Symposium 1997, pp. 226-233.
Principles) "goal is to provide a forum for
photogrammetrists and conservationists" only *Boochs, F., Heinz, G., 1996. Generation and Use
(CIPA, 1999), whereas WG 6 (Surveying Methods of Digital Surface Models for Volume Objects.
International Archives of Photogrammetry and
for Heritage Recorders) deals with "all non-
photogrammetric methods" (CIPA, 1999) Remote Sensing, Volume XXXI, Part B3,
separately. Commission III, pp 70 -76.
Tactile and scanning systems may or may not rely CIPA, 1999. http://cipa.uibk.ac.at/wgroups.html
on photogrammetric solutions and often solve
similar tasks as imaging close range photo- cyberware, 1999. http://www.cyberware.com
grammetry . Thus, they should be considered
(Dold, 1999) and evaluated (Heinz, 1998) together. Dold, J., 1999. Stand der Technik in der Industrie-
photogrammetrie. PFG, Jahrgang 1999, Heft 2, S.
113-126.
CONCLUSIONS
Faro, 1999. http://www.faro.com.
Cultural heritage recording and documentation
comprises a wide field of objects, disciplines and *Heinz, G., 1997. Aufbau eines Geo-Informations-
technologies. Because of those large diversities, systems zur Dokumentation archäologischer
every project is different. This makes the task Befunde. Tagungsband, 2. Geosystems
difficult. Co-operation between different scientific Fachtagung, Germering.
and professional disciplines is necessary. On the
other hand, these requirements make it very *Heinz, G., 1998. Comparison of Different Methods
challenging and rewarding to work in this field. for Sculpture Recording. International Archives of
Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, Volume
XXXII, Part 5, Commission V, pp 557-563.
BIBLIOGRAPHY i3mainz, 1999. http://www.i3mainz.fh-mainz.de
*All publications marked with an asterisk (*) can be
igd, 1999. http://www.igd.fhg.de/www/igd-a7/
found in http://www.i3mainz.fh-mainz.de Projects/model/modelnew.html
aicon, 1999.
Lagerqvist, B., 1996. The Conservation Information
http://www.aicon.de/eng/product/procam3.htm System. Göteborg Studies in Conservation, 4.
*Boehler, W., Heinz, G., 1996. Methods of Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis.
Surveying in Archaeology Demonstrated at the Metacreations, 1999. http://www.metacreations.
Tang Emperors' Mausoleums. International com/press/mcre_minolta.shtml
Archives of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing,
Volume XXXI, Part B5, Commission V, pp 48 -54. Metronor, 1999. http://www.metronor.com
*Boehler, W., Heinz, G., 1997. Recording and nav, 1999. http://www.nav.uni-stuttgart.de
Visualizing Topography and Object Geometry for
Archaeological Documentation. Archäologisches Trigomat, 1999.
Korrespondenzblatt, 27, 1997, Heft 2, Verlag des http://region.tu-clausthal.de/nldgs/BALCKSYS.htm
Römisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseums Mainz,
pp 355 - 373.