EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Archaeological field survey is the method by which archaeologists

(often landscape archaeologists) search for archaeological sites and collect information about the location, distribution and organization of past human cultures across a large area (e.g. typically in excess of one hectare, and often in excess of many km2). Archaeologists conduct surveys to search for particular archaeological sites or kinds of sites, to detect patterns in the distribution of material culture over regions, to make generalizations or test hypotheses about past cultures, and to assess the risks that development projects will have adverse impacts on archaeological heritage. The surveys may be: (a) intrusive or non-intrusive, depending on the needs of the survey team (and the risk of destroying archaeological evidence if intrusive methods are used) and; (b) extensive or intensive, depending on the types of research questions being asked of the landscape in question. Surveys can be a practical way to decide whether or not to carry out an excavation (as a way of recording the basic details of a possible site), but may also be ends in themselves, as they produce important information about past human activities in a regional context. A common role of field survey is in assessment of potential archaeological significance of places where development is proposed. This is usually connected to construction work and road building. The assessment determines whether the area of development impact is likely to contain significant archaeological resources and makes recommendations as to whether the archaeological remains can be avoided or an excavation is necessary before development work can commence. Archaeologists use a variety of tools in survey, including GIS, GPS, remote sensing, geophysical survey and aerial photography.

Research and planning Survey work may be undertaken in response to a specific threat (such as proposed or pending development project) to an area of known or unknown archaeological interest or as part of a program addressing specific research topics. In either case actual fieldwork is most likely to be preceded by a phase of desktop research (reviewing existing data in the form of maps, formal and informal written records, photographs and drawings) or in the modern age internet research using search engines, ancestry and birth or property records online. Consideration should be given to the nature of the landscape (vegetation coverage, existing settlement or industry, soil depth, climate) before a range of techniques is selected to be applied within an appropriate overarching method. Rationale An area may be considered worthy of surveying based on the following:

Artifacts found: Locals have picked up physical artifacts, sometimes held by the local museum but more often collected in private homes or old buildings such as churches and synagogues, and it is unclear where they are coming from.

Literary sources: Old literary sources have provided archaeologists with clues about settlement locations that have not been archaeologically documented. Sometimes the texts may be quite recent; for instance, a book on local history may mention an interesting area.

Oral sources: In many locations, local stories contain some hint of a greater past, and often they have a basis in history. For instance, someone may remember that a grandfather who used to walk the hills as a shepherd used to talk about columns from an old temple, although the descendant never saw the ruins.

Local knowledge: In many cases, locals know where to find something of interest to archaeologists. They may not have reported it because of taking it as part of their world, or because of fearing intrusions on their land or community.

Previous surveys: In some places, a past survey may have been recorded in an academic journal. The use of more recent technologies and finds from other sites may provide reason to re-examine the site.

Previous excavations: Excavations carried out before the middle of the 20th century are notoriously poorly documented. They were often carried out by methods that left behind much of the evidence the modern-day archaeologist is looking for. Early excavators were often interested only in fine pottery, jewelry and statues and referred to as rescue archaeologists.

Lack of knowledge: Many areas of the world have developed limited knowledge about the nature and organization of past human activity at the regional level. (Although one or more sites may be known from an area, often little is known about the wider distribution of contemporary settlements, and how settlement patterns may change over time.) An archaeological field survey is the primary tool for discovering information about previously uninvestigated areas.

Archaeological hypotheses: Some kinds of archaeological theories about changes in agricultural strategies or population density for example are investigated or tested through the use of archaeological surveys of areas that should or should not contain particular kinds of archaeological materials if the theory is true.

Aerial photography Aerial photography is a good tool for planning a survey. Remains of older buildings often show in fields as cropmarks; just below the topsoil, the remains may affect the growth of crops or grass. There should preferably be photographs of the same area at different times of the year, allowing the analyst to find the best time to see cropmarks. Previous work in the region If the indicator that started the process was not a record of previous work, the archaeologists will need to check if any work has been done prior to commencement of

the pending project. As many older surveys and excavations were published in papers that are not widely available, this may be a difficult task. A common way to handle this is through a visit to the area, to check with local museums, historians and older people who might remember something about the former activities in a particular locale. Permissions It is usually a simple matter to gain permission to perform a cultural field survey, especially a non-intrusive one. If the area is privately owned, the local laws may or may not require the landowners' co-operation. Permission for an intrusive form of survey may be more difficult to acquire, due to the fear of destroying evidence or property values and the threat of lawsuit for said damages from the property owner. Intrusive vs. non-intrusive surveys In a non-intrusive survey, nothing is touched, just recorded. An accurate survey of the earthworks and other features can enable them to be interpreted without the need for excavation. An intrusive survey can mean different things. In some cases, all artifacts of archaeological value are collected. This is often the case if it is a rescue survey, but less common in a regular survey. Another form of intrusive research is bore holes. Small holes are drilled into the ground, most often with hand-powered bores. The contents are examined to determine the depths at which one might find cultural layers, and where one might expect to strike virgin soil. This can be valuable in determining the cost of an excavation - if there is a build-up of several meters of soil above the layers the archaeologist is interested in, the price will obviously be much higher than if artifacts are found only centimeters below ground. Extensive vs. intensive survey One way to classify archaeological field surveys is to divide them into two types: intensive survey and extensive survey. The former is characterised by the complete

or near-complete coverage of the survey area at a high-resolution, most often by having teams of survey archaeologists walk in a systematic way (e.g. in parallel transects) over parcels of the landscape in question, documenting archaeological data such as lithics, ceramics and/or building remains. However, variations in artifact visibility related to topography, vegetation, and soil character, not to mention the imperfect detection abilities of human observers, bring into question the very concept of complete coverage. The Extensive survey, on the other hand, is characterised by a low-resolution approach over targets within a study area (sometimes including hundreds of km). Sometimes this involves a random sampling or some other kind of probability sample to gain a repsentative sample of the study area. Extensive surveys may be designed to target the identification of archaeological sites across a large area, whereas intensive surveys are designed to provide a more comprehensive picture of the location of sites and the nature of off-site data (e.g. field systems, isolated finds, etc.). Intensive survey is the more costly, timely, and ultimately informative of the two approaches, although extensive survey can provide important information about previously unknown areas. Purposive vs. sampling survey Archaeological field surveys can also be characterized as

either purposive or sampling surveys. The former, sometimes also called "archaeological prospection," involves cases where archaeologists are searching for a particular site or a particular kind of archaeological material. For example, they might be searching for a particular shipwreck or an historic fort whose exact location is no longer certain. However, they may also be searching for archaeological materials in particular locations to test hypotheses about past use of those spaces. Sampling surveys, on the other hand, have the goal of obtaining a representative sample of some population of sites or artifacts in order to make generalizations about that

population. This involves some probability sampling of spatial units, such as random or stratified random sampling of geometrical (often square) or irregular spatial units. Field walk (transects) Conventionally, fieldwalking in grids or along lines called transects has formed the backbone of archaeological survey fieldwork, at least where visibility is fairly good. A single researcher or team will walk slowly through the target area looking for artifacts or other archaeological indicators on the surface, often recording aspects of the environment at the time. The method works best on either ploughed ground or surfaces with little vegetation. On ploughed surfaces, as the soil is turned regularly artifacts will move to the top. Erosion and soil loss on uncultivated and lightly vegetated soil (e.g., in semi-arid environments) may cause artifacts to also 'rise' to the surface. Even with optimal surface conditions the efficacy of fieldwalking varies according longterm land use, topography, weather conditions, the skill and experience of the fieldwalkers, and other factors. Intensive arable agriculture on hilltops will first expose and then pulverize artifacts such as pottery and even chipped stone (typically flint, chert or obsidian) flakes. Conversely, the plateau and upper scarp or valley side soils will move down slope, forming a deep seal over low-lying archaeological deposits, rendering them inaccessible to surface survey. Even artifacts on the surface and with relatively high visibility (i.e., little obscuring vegetation), however, are not consistently detected by surveyors. Consequently, it is unrealistic to expect 100% recovery of artifacts or even sites. We can evaluate surveyors effectiveness at detecting artifacts with "Sweep width," which is the theoretical width of a transect in which the number of artifacts detected outside the sweep is identical to the number missed within the sweep.

The poorer the visibility, the poorer the contrast between the artifact "targets" and their surroundings, or the poorer the surveyor's skill or attention, the narrower the sweep width will be. Modern technology such as GPS has made survey recording much easier, as positions of artifacts or artifact clusters ("sites") can be taken well within the limits limits of accuracy and precision necessary for survey work. Recording the position and attributes of archaeological features has been expedited by customizable portable computing interfaces or mobile Geographical Information Systems (GIS). Databases containing existing regional archaeological data as well as other landscape GIS layers such as soils, vegetation, modern features, and development plans can be loaded on a mobile GIS for referencing, for sampling purposes, and for groundtruth updating directly in the field, resulting a more informed archaeological survey process. In some areas, the fieldwalking is quite different. When searching in dense forest, artifacts are hidden by a blanket of humus and fallen leaves, and even buildings may be covered by vegetation, and are therefore virtually invisible even at short distances. The team will then need to look for unnatural changes in the vegetation and landscape to decide if a building or feature is hidden below the vegetation, or survey by subsurface testing (SST). SSTs can consist of a series of shovel-test pits dug down below this humus layer or, where substantial later sediments may cover archaeological materials, series of auger or core holes. Because SSTs are much more costly than fieldwalking, surveys by SST usually have very low intensity. Narrowing it down Because of the high costs involved in some kinds of surveys, it is often helpful to use "predictive modelling" to narrow down the search for archaeological materials. This

is particularly important for purposive surveys, but can also be used to guide sampling surveys by eliminating the need to survey areas where, for geological or other reasons, we can reasonably expect all ancient traces to be destroyed (e.g., by erosion) or far too deeply buried (e.g., by alluvium) to be detectable. Modern predictive models in archaeology employ Geographic Information Systems (GIS). Geophysical survey Geophysical survey is used for subsurface mapping of archaeological sites. In recent years, there have been great advances in this field, and it is becoming an increasingly useful and cost-effective tool in archaeology. Geophysical instruments can detect buried archaeological features when their electrical or magnetic properties contrast measurably with their surroundings. In some cases, individual artifacts, especially metal, may be detected as well. Readings taken in a systematic pattern become a dataset that can be rendered as image maps for interpretation. Survey results can be used to guide excavation and to give archaeologists insight into the patterning of non-excavated parts of the site. Unlike other archaeological methods, geophysical survey is not invasive or destructive. For this reason, it is often used where preservation (rather than excavation) is the goal for project preservation and compliance with applicable laws. The geophysical methods most commonly applied to archaeology

are magnetometers, electrical resistance meters, ground-penetrating radar (GPR) and electromagnetic (EM) conductivity. These methods provide excellent resolution of many types of archaeological features, and are capable of high sample density surveys of very large areas and of operating under a wide range of conditions. While common metal detectors are geophysical sensors, they are not capable of generating high-resolution imagery. Other established and emerging technologies are also finding use in archaeological applications. Although geophysical survey has been used in the past with intermittent success, good results are very likely when it is applied appropriately. It is most useful when it is

used in a well-integrated research design where interpretations can be tested and refined. Interpretation requires a knowledge both of the archaeological record, and of the way it is expressed geophysically. Appropriate instrumentation, field survey design, and data processing are essential for success, and must be adapted to the unique geology and archaeological record of each site. In the field, control of data quality and spatial accuracy are critical to a successful mission completion. Analysis The most important part of the survey is the analysis. The types of questions typically asked of survey data include: 1. What is the evidence for first occupation of an area 2. When was this area occupied 3. How are sites distributed 4. Where are sites located 5. What evidence is there for a settlement hierarchy 6. What sites are contemporary with each other 7. How has the modern landscape interfered with the visibility of archaeological remains 8. What sorts of activities can be recognized (e.g. dwellings, tombs, field systems) 9. How many people lived in this area (at any given time) 10. Why did people choose to live in this area 11. How has the landscape changed over time 12. What changes in settlement patterns have there been? At times, one part of the survey may not have yielded the evidence one wanted to find. For instance, very little may have been found during a field walk, but there are strong indications from geophysical survey and local stories that there is a building underneath a field. In such a case, the only way to decide if an excavation is worth the cost is to carefully analyze the evidence to determine which part to trust.

On the one hand, the geophysics might just show an old and forgotten water-pipe, but it might also show the wall of just the building the archaeologists were looking for. The analysis therefore includes careful examination of all the evidence collected. A method often used to determine its value is to compare it to sites of the same period. As the number of well-documented surveys grow, this becomes a slightly easier task, as it is sometimes easier to compare two survey results than to compare a survey result with an excavated site.

Objectives of the study : 1. To study the importance of archaeological survey. 2. To understand the art, history and culture of Goa and Karnataka 3. To explore the archaeological monuments and artifacts in Goa and Karnataka Statement of the Problem : This will specify the problems that archaeology has as an empirical discipline, and then its theoretical concerns. Clearly, the evidential issues are not completely separate from the theoretical or interpretive ones, so this division is artificial. Nevertheless, this will provide an insight into the distinctive problems of Archaeology. With this in mind, we can then look at how these problems have been investigated. 1. Empirical Dilemmas : Archaeology constructs accounts of the past based on physical data. Typically, when we think of Archaeology's data, we think of the intentional products of human behaviour; texts, tools, the remains of dwellings and the surviving pieces of human material culture that fills our museums. However, the increasing sophistication of archaeological techniques means that the unintentional by-products of human activity can be studied as well. 2. The interpretive dilemma : The data collecting is to build a picture of the past. Now archaeologists face two distinct contexts for their data; spatial contexts, and temporal contexts. When confronted with spatial configurations of data the

archaeologist assumes that physical contiguity represents social continuity, and seeks to interpret those spatial patterns as representative of various features of human social life. Consequently, Archaeology is a socialscience.

Industry Profile Archaeology is the study of the ancient and recent human past through material remains. It is a subfield of anthropology, the study of all human culture. From millionyear-old fossilized remains of our earliest human ancestors in Africa, to 20th century buildings in present-day New York City, archaeology analyzes the physical remains of the past in pursuit of a broad and comprehensive understanding of human culture. How does archaeology help us understand history and culture? Archaeology offers a unique perspective on human history and culture that has contributed greatly to our understanding of both the ancient and the recent past. Archaeology helps us understand not only where and when people lived on the earth, but also why and how they have lived, examining the changes and causes of changes that have occurred in human cultures over time, seeking patterns and explanations of patterns to explain everything from how and when people first came to inhabit the Americas, to the origins of agriculture and complex societies. Unlike history, which relies primarily upon written records and documents to interpret great lives and events, archaeology allows us to delve far back into the time before written languages existed and to glimpse the lives of everyday people through analysis of things they made and left behind. Archaeology is the only field of study that covers all times periods and all geographic regions inhabited by humans. It has helped us to understand big topics like ancient Egyptian religion, the origins of agriculture in the Near East, colonial life in Jamestown Virginia, the lives of enslaved Africans in North America, and early Mediterranean trade routes. In addition archaeology today can inform us about the lives of individuals, families and communities that might otherwise remain invisible.

Types of Archaeology Prehistoric archaeology focuses on past cultures that did not have written language and therefore relies primarily on excavation or data recovery to reveal cultural evidence. Historical archaeology is the study of cultures that existed (and may still) during the period of recorded history--several thousands of years in parts of the Old World, but only several hundred years in the Americas. Within historical archaeology there are related fields of study that include classical archaeology, which generally focuses on ancient Greece and Rome and is often more closely related to the field of art history than to anthropology, and biblical archaeology, which seeks evidence and explanation for events described in the Bible and therefore is focused primarily on the Middle East. Underwater archaeology studies physical remains of human activity that lie beneath the surface of oceans, lakes, rivers, and wetlands. It includes maritime archaeologythe study of shipwrecks in order to understand the construction and operation of watercraftas well as cities and harbors that are now submerged, and dwellings, agricultural, and industrial sites along rives, bays and lakes. Some of the other specialties within archaeology include urban archaeology, industrial archaeology, and bioarchaeology. Cultural Resource Management archaeology, known as CRM refers to archaeology that is conducted to comply with federal and state laws that protect archaeological sites. Archaeological Sites An archaeological site is any place where physical remains of past human activities exist. There are many, many types of archaeological sites. Prehistoric archaeological sites include permanent Native American villages or cities, stone quarries from which raw materials were obtained, rock art petrogylphs and pictographs, cemeteries, temporary campsites, and megalithic stone monuments. A site can be as small as a pile of chipped stone tools left by a prehistoric hunter who paused to sharpen a spear point, or as large and complex as the prehistoric settlements of Chaco Canyon in the

American southwest, or Stonehenge in England. Historical archaeology sites can be found in areas as densely populated as New York City, or far below the surface of a river, or sea. The wide variety of historical archaeological sites studied include shipwrecks, battlefields and other military sites, slave quarters, plantations, cemeteries, mills, and factories. Artifacts, Features, and Ecofacts Even the smallest archaeological site may contain a wealth of important information. Artifacts are objects made or used by people that are analyzed by archaeologists to obtain information about the peoples who made and used them. Nonportable artifacts called features are also important sources of information on archaeological sites. Features include things like soil stains that indicate where storage pits, garbage dumps, structures, or fences once existed. Ecofacts found on archaeological sites are natural remains such as plant and animal remains that can help archaeologists understand diet and subsistence patterns. Context Context in archaeology refers to the relationship that artifacts have to each other and the situation in which they are found. Every artifact found on an archaeological site has a precisely defined location. The exact spot where an artifact is found is recorded before it is removed from that location. In the 1920s when a stone spear point was found lodged between the ribs of a species of bison that went extinct at the end of the last Ice Age, it settled an argument that had gone on for decades, establishing once and for all that that people had inhabited North America since the late Pleistocene. It is the context or association between the bison skeleton and the artifact that proved this. When people remove an artifact without recording its precise location the context is lost forever and the artifact has little or no scientific value. Context is what allows archaeologists to understand the relationship between artifacts on the same site, a well as how different archaeological sites are related to each other.

Archaeology is a magical gateway to the past. It is the discipline that complements History best with its hard evidences and methodological advantages The discipline of archaeology studies human cultures and past. Through recovery and interpretation of architectures, artefacts, bio facts, and landscapes, archaeology seeks to a) determine the chronology of human development, b) unearth the cultural history of various human settlements, c) and substantiate or fill the lacunae of history with material evidence, and d) understand the processes that underlie the changes taken place in human societies across cultures. How is archaeology placed? Archaeology is a part of both history and anthropology. There is much hue and cry over its disciplinary identity given that most historians and anthropologists consider archaeology to be an addendum. However, of late archaeology has proven itself to be indispensable to the writing of any kind of tracts of our distant past. With something as little as broken bits of pottery, or carvings, archaeological analyses can turn the pages of history upside down. Excavation exercises have unearthed civilizations and recuperated cities. Histories have been written and rewritten. No other discipline deals with material evidence. No other discipline has the reach archaeology does. We can explore into the lives of aboriginal slaves or wonder at the inhabitants of the Stone Age because hard material evidences about everyday life and hardships have been made available to us by archaeology. Why is archaeology important? It has been therefore wrongly deduced that archaeology is subservient to the discipline of history. The deal is the other way round. Archaeology has two of the greatest advantages. It has the unique capability of stretching back to the remotest eras of human existence and drawing the hitherto unknown out of the darkness of time. Secondly, archaeology deals in tangible relics and therefore it can claim credibility that

no other human sciences can. What this means is that archaeologys efforts can cast much needed light upon present days issues with identity and possession. By discovering valuable facts in terms of land, bones and artefacts it can help put issues of retention or restitution of land rights of indigenous or minority groups in perspective. Archaeologys value therefore remains untouchable. Even in the field of anthropology, it has emerged from the shadows of a mother discipline. Anthropology being the study of past and present human societies, seeks to uncover patterns of meaning as they exist in the present by broadly interpreting sources, and mostly archaeological finds. Anthropology by itself will be restricted to the recent and immediate past of cultures, but archaeologys ability to look at long term change and come out with broader generalisations about why certain cultures and groups changed or perished over time. The origin of archaeology Moreover the two disciplines emerged out of colonialism. Exercises that necessarily focused on the non-West, or in lay terms, exotic cultures and natives. A team of anthropologists would just go off somewhere and study primitive cultures in their quest to know the Other. Its only recently that this otherisation and exoticisation of other cultures through discourses of academic disciplines have come under the scanner and research (especially the white western academe) and has become more reflective. The role of archaeology The role of archaeology here becomes crucial. Archaeology can contribute immensely by revealing cultural ways and artefacts that can help in identification of historical incorrect views and understandings. Archaeology therefore becomes necessary to forge points of unity and points of diversity in varied cultures and civilizations. It helps in discovering not only the other but also rediscovering our own selves.

Losing an archaeological site or artefact is therefore akin to losing stories that cannot be retold. If the past needs to be preserved archaeology needs to be treated as a valuable discipline bringing to the fore buried pasts and misconstrued stories. World Heritage Sites - Churches of Old Goa In 1972, the General Conference of UNESCO adopted a resolution with overwhelming enthusiasm creating thereby a 'Convention concerning the protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage'. The main objectives were to define the World Heritage in both cultural and natural aspects; to enlist Sites and Monuments from the member countries which are of exceptional interest and universal value, the protection of which is the concern of all mankind; and to promote co-operation among all Nations and people to contribute for the protection of these universal treasures intact for future generations. The List of recorded sites on the World Heritage now stands at 812 which include both cultural and natural wonders, and endowment that is shared by all mankind and the protection of which is the concern of the entire mankind. These include 628 cultural, 160 natural and 24 mixed properties in 137 state parties. India is an active member State on the World Heritage from 1977 and has been working in close co-operation with other International agencies like ICOMOS (International Council on Monuments and Sites), IUCN (International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources) and ICCROM (International Centre for the study of Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property).

Churches and Convents of Goa (1986), Goa

The Churches and Convents at Velha (Old) Goa owe their existence to the Portuguese rule in this part of the western coast of India. The most comprehensive group of churches and cathedrals built during 16th to 17th century AD at Old Goa comprise of the following: Se' Cathedral, Church and Convent of St. Francis of Assisi, Chapel of St. Catherine, Basilica of Bom Jesus; Church of Lady of Rosary; Church of St. Augustine.

The Church of St. Cajetan is modelled on the original design of St. Peter's Church in Rome. The Church of Bom Jesus with its facade decorated with Ionic, Doric and Corinthian pilasters, shows the application of the Classical order. The Se' Cathedral which was begun as a small chapel built of mud and straw under the order of Alfonso Albuquerque after his conquest of Goa is yet another example of Renaissance with its Tuscan exterior, the Corinthian columns at its portals, the raised platform with steps leading to the entrance and the barrel-vault above the nave. The principal chapel is large and ornamented with engraved pillars and pilasters. The images of Senhora dEsperanca (Our Lady of Hope), Christ crucified and St. Catherine standing in the centre with statues of St. Peter and St. Paul on either side.

The paintings in the churches were done on wooden borders and fixed between panels having floral designs as in the chapels housing the tomb of St. Xavier, the arches above the altars in the transept of the Se' Cathedral and in the nave on either side of the main altar in the Church of St. Francis of Assisi. Excepting a few which are in stone, the statues are mostly in wood delicately carved and painted to adorn the altars. They depict mostly the saints, Mother Mary and Jesus on the cross. Bom Jesus is said to be one of the grandest Churches to be raised in Asia vast and magnificent with ornaments suited to its greatness. Made of black granite, it part Doric and part Corinthian faade is elaborately carved. The ceiling is highly decorated. Sarcophagi of illustrious Portuguese who were connected with the religious life of Goa are very interesting. Its high and broad altar is dedicate to the figure of infant (Bom) Jesus.

List of places of Archaeological importance - Goa

Basilica of Bom Jesus Se Cathedral

Old Goa

Old Goa

Old Goa

Old Goa

Chapel of St. Cajetan

Old Goa

Old Goa

Church and Convent of St. Francis Assisi

Old Goa

Old Goa

Chapel of St. Catherine

Old Goa

Old Goa

Church of Lady of Rosary Portal remains of St.Pauls College

Old Goa

Old Goa

Old Goa

Old Goa

Arch of Viceroy Arch of Adil Shahs Palace

Old Goa

Old Goa

Old Goa

Old Goa

10

Church of St. Augustine

Old Goa

Old Goa

11

Auguda Fortress (Upper)

Candolim

Goa

12

Safa Masjid

Ponda

Goa

13

Rock cut caves

Arvalem

Goa

14

Mahadev Temple

Tamdisurla

Goa

15

Mahadev Temple

Kurdi

Goa

16

Excavated site

Chandore

Goa

17

Fortification Wall of Auguda Fortress(Lower)

Candolim

Goa

18

Chapel of St. Francis Xavier and connected buildings

Old Goa

Old Goa

19

House of Bull

Old Goa

Old Goa

20

Largo of St. Francis Xavier

Old Goa

Old Goa

21

Largo of St. Cajetan together with other monuments

Old Goa

Old Goa

Places of Archaeological Importance in Karnataka : World Heritage Sites Hampi

Traditionally known as Pampakshetra of Kishkindha, Hampi is situated on the southern bank of the river Tungabhadra. Once it was the seat of the mighty Vijayanagara empire. The monuments of Vijayanagara city, also known as Vidyanagara in honour of the sage Vidyaranya were built between AD 1336-1570, from the times of Harihara-I to Sadasiva Raya. A large number of royal buildings were raised by Krishnadeva Raya (AD 1509-30), the greatest ruler of the dynasty. The period witnessed resurgence of Hindu religion, art, architecture in an unprecedented scale. The contemporary chroniclers who came from far off countriessuch as Arabia, Italy, Portugal and Russia visited the empire, have left graphic and glowing accounts of the city. It covers an area of nearly 26 sq km and is stated to be enclosed by seven lines of fortifications.

Extensive remains of the palaces can be seen within innermost enclosure of the ancient Vijayanagara. The various religious and secular structures which include Hindu and Jaina temples, audience hall of the king, the magnificent throne platform to witness the festivals and other events, the king's balance (tulabhara) are awe-inspiring.

Temples of this city are noted for their large dimensions, florid ornamentation, bold and delicate carvings, stately pillars, magnificent pavilions and a great wealth of iconographic and traditional depictions which include subjects from the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. The largest extant temple is that of Pampapati (now in worship) was extensively renovated. Its magnificent entrance tower was caused by Krishnadeva Raya.

The Vitthala temple is an excellent example of Vijayanagara style. The monolithic statues of Lakshmi, Narasimha and Ganesa are noted for their massiveness and grace.

The

Krishna

temple,

Pattabhirama

temple,

Hazara

Ramachandra

and

Chandrasekhara temple as also the Jaina temples, are other examples. Majority of these temples were provided with widespread bazaars flanked on either side by storeyed mandapas. Among secular edifices mention may be made of the Zenana enclosure wherein a massive stone basement of the Queen's palace and an ornate pavilion called 'Lotus-Mahal are only remnants of a luxurious antahpura. The corner towers of arresting elevation, the Dhananayaka's enclosure (treasury), the Mahanavami Dibba carrying beautifully sculptured panels, a variety of ponds and tanks, mandapas, the elephant's stables and the row of pillared mandapas are some of the important architectural remains of this city.

Recent excavations at the site have brought to light a large number of palatial complexes and basements of several platforms. Interesting finds include a large number of stone images, both in round and relief, beautiful terracotta objects and stucco figures that once embellished the palaces. In addition many gold and copper coins, household

utensils, a square stepped-tank (sarovara) at the south-west of Mahanavami Dibba, and a large number of ceramics including the important variety of porcelain and inscribed Buddhist sculptures of 2nd -3rd century AD have also been unearthed.

Excavations - Important - Karnataka Brahmagiri, Dt. Chitradurga, Karnataka : Brahmagiri is located close to Siddapur where two Minor Rock-edicts of Ashoka were discovered in 1891. These inscriptions, besides indicating the southern most extent by the Mauryan empire, also mentions the locality known as Isila, the headquarters of the Mahamatras of Suvarnagiri. A habitation site was discovered here in 1940 M.H. Krishna (IAR Mysore Arch. Dept. for 1940, p. 63). He excavated 16 trenches in different parts of the site and recognized five cultural strata: Microlithic, Neolithic, Iron Age, Mauryan, and ChalukyaHoysala. The Microlithic culture was designated by him as 'Roppa culture', the trench wherein it was identified being located within the limits of the village Roppa.R.E.M. Wheeler discovering Rouletted Ware in Krishna's collections .

At the habitation site, he established a sequence of three cultures: Period I, Neolithic or Neolithic-Chalcolithic; Period II, the Megalithic culture; and Period III, early historical culture. Seshadri, 1956, re-explored the site and collected flake tools of jasper, chert, etc., such as scrapers, and assigned them to Pre-I A phase of Wheeler. Later in 1965 two copper objects from the sieved debris and black-painted red ware sherds of the late Jorwe fabric from the surface were discovered; in 1978 similar painted sherds from the overlapping layers of Period I B and the Megalithic were found. In Period I, the Neolithic Culture is characterised by the abundance of polished stone axes made of dolerite. The other lithic tools include parallel-sided blades and microliths such as crescents, beaked gravers, backed blades, blades with crested ridge, but strangely enough without fluted cores, made on jasper, agate, carnelian, flint, common opal and rock crystal are considerably large in number. Period I B indicates an extremely limited use of the metal. The main types of pottery vessels, mostly handmade, generally of coarse grey fabric and in its varying shades, burnished or unburnished, Besides the painted decoration on pottery some have simple incised designs including the herring-bone pattern. Two kinds of burial practices have been encountered: infant urn burial and adult inhumation burial. The prominent feature of Pd.II is the use of iron of offensive and agricultural use, along with polished stone axes and microlithics as survival.The pottery, entirely different from that of the preceding culture, is of mainly three fabrics: highly polished Black-andred Ware; all-black ware; and bright as well as coarse dull-red ware. The peculiar feature of the culture is the disposal of the dead in a specially constructed stone cist or excavated pit, each enclosed by a circle of boulders on the surface or rarely two concentric circles measuring from 4.8 to 6.3 m in diameter. In one of the Megaliths, 33 gold and two carnelian beads, four copper bangles and a conch shell have been found. The excavator suggests that the pit circles might have been specialised tombs for a particular and restricted social grade or that were macerating pits in which human.

Period III, the early Historic Period, is characterized by a far more sophisticated pottery made on the fast wheel, with white-painted geometrical designs under russet colour [Russet-coated Painted Ware]. The most distinct types are the shallow dish with an internally beaked edge and straight-sided bowl and the frequent use of glass for ornaments being noteworthy. The fragment of a terracotta round medallion with a row of elephants at the edge testifies to the popular art of the period. Considering the datable evidence of pottery with rouletted design, occurrence of Roman denarii of Augustus (c. 2nd B.C.-A.D. ) and of Tiberius (minted c. A.D. 27-37) .Wheeler dated the three cultures respectively from the early 1st millennium to the beginning of the 2nd century B.C.; 2nd century B.C to the middle of the 1st century A.D.; and the middle of the. 1st century to the 3rd century A.D. He also regarded the Asokan edicts of Brahmagiri as having been addressed to the people of the last phase of Period I.

Company Profile : Archaeological Survey of India The Archaeological Survey of India is an Indian government agency in the Department of Culture that is responsible for archaeological studies and the preservation of cultural monuments. According to its website, the ASI's function is to "explore, excavate, conserve, preserve and protect the monuments and sites of National & International Importance." History The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) is the successor of the Asiatic Society of British archaeologist Sir William Jones, founded January 15, 1784. In 1788 it begun to publish a journal The Asiatic Researches and in 1814 built its first museum in Bengal. Overview The ASI in its current form was founded in 1861 under British colonial administration by Sir Alexander Cunningham with the help of the then Viceroy Canning. At the time, its domain also included Afghanistan. When Mortimer Wheeler became Director-General in 1944, the head-office of the Survey was located at the Railway Board building in Simla. After independence, it came under the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites And Remains Act of 1958. ASI administers 3636 monuments it has declared to be of national importance under the provisions of the Antiquity and Art Treasure Act 1972. The important sites excavated recently include Harsha-ka-Tila

at Thanesar in Haryana exposing a cultural sequence from the Kushan period to medieval periods. The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), under the Ministry of Culture, is the premier organization for the archaeological researches and protection of the cultural

heritage of the nation. Maintenance of ancient monuments and archaeological sites and remains of national importance is the prime concern of the ASI. Besides it regulate all archaeological activities in the country as per the provisions of the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act, 1958. It also regulates Antiquities and Art Treasure Act, 1972. For the maintenance of ancient monuments and archaeological sites and remains of national importance the entire country is divided into 24 Circles. The organization has a large work force of trained archaeologists, conservators, epigraphist, architects and scientists for conducting archaeological research projects through its Circles, Museums, Excavation Branches, Prehistory Branch, Epigraphy Branches, Science Branch, Horticulture Branch, Building Survey Project, Temple Survey Projects and Underwater Archaeology Wing. Activities ASI is a large organization with an organized work force at the base and the Director General at the apex. Its major activities inter-alia are as under

Conducting archaeological explorations and excavations; Maintenance, conservation and preservation of protected monuments and archaeological sites and remains of national importance;

Chemical preservation of monuments and antiquarian remains; Architectural survey of monuments; Epigraphical and numismatic studies; Setting up and re-organization of Site Museums; Training in Archaeology; Bringing out archaeological publications;

Archaeological expeditions outside India ; Horticulture operation in and around ancient monuments and sites. Implementation and regulation of - The Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act, 1958;

The Antiquities and Art Treasures Act, 1972, etc.

Organisation

The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) is the premier organization for the archaeological research, scientific analysis, excavation of archaeological sites,

conservation and preservation of protected monuments and areas of national importance, maintenance of site museums and overall regulation of legislations related to antiquities and art treasures. It is an attached office under the Department of Culture. Being an attached office, the ASI has its own head designated as Director General. An Additional Director General, two Joint Director General and 17 Directors assist the Director General in performing his duties.

For the administrative convenience the entire country is divided into 24 Circles. Each Circle is headed by a Superintending Archaeologist (S.A.), who is further assisted by Deputy Superintending Archaeologist (Dy.S.A.), Deputy Superintending Archaeological Engineer (Dy.S.A.E.), Assistant Superintending Archaeologist (A.S.A.), Assistant Superintending Archaeological Engineer (A.S.A.E.), Assistant Archaeologists (A.A.) and Conservation Assistants (C.A.). For conducting specialised archaeological researches there are also 6 Excavation Branches, 1 Prehistory Branch, 1 Building Survey Project, 2 Temple Survey Projects, 2 Epigraphy Branches, 1 Science Branch and Underwater Archaeology Wing in the Archaeological Survey of India. Cirlces : The Circles carry out archaeological fieldwork, research activities and implement the various provisions of the AMASR Act, 1958 and Antiquities and Art Treasures Act 1972. This may include the following:

Carrying out village-to-village survey of antiquarian remains; exploration of archaeological sites, documentation of loose sculptures;

Excavation of archaeological sites;

Conservation and day-to-day maintenance of protected monuments; Providing basic amenities at the monuments for tourists; Issuing of NOC for any sort of construction, additions and alterations to existing structures or new constructions coming under 100 m to 300 m (regulated area) from the protected monuments;

Issuing permission for filming, photography and cultural programmes at the protected monuments;

Organising public awareness programmes on various occasions like Word Heritage Day (April 18), World Heritage Week (November 17-25), Museum Day (May 18) and other important occasions;

Registration of antiquities and issuing non-antiquity certificates; Interaction with various universities and research institutions. Wing.

Excavations Branches Various Various Branches and Circles of the ASI carry out archaeological excavations in different parts of the country.

Carrying out problem-oriented survey including exploration and excavation of ancient sites and mounds;

Research on the ensuing exploration and excavation work; Preparation of reports based on the field work; Interaction with various universities and research institutions.

Excavations Branch Nagpur Excavation Branch I Archaeological Survey of India Old High Court Building, Nagpur 440001 Smt. Nandini Bhattacharyaya Superintending Archaeologist Phone: 0712-2562650(T-f), 2560407 Excavations Branch New Delhi Excavation Branch II Archaeological Survey of India Purana Quila New Delhi 110003 V. N. Prabhakar Superintending Archaeologist Phone: 011 - 24356924, 24367679 Excavations Branch Patna Excavation Branch III Archaeological Survey of India 7th Floor, Block No. 704 Lok Nayak Bhawan Frazer Road, Dak Bungalow Square, Patna 800001 Smt. Arvin Manjul Superintending Archaeologist Phone: 0612 - 2203275

Excavations Branch Bhubaneswar Excavation Branch IV Archaeological Survey of India Vivekananda Marg 751002 Bhubaneswar Bhuvan Vikram Superintending Archaeologist Phone: 0674 - 2431337, 2431181 (T-F) Excavations Branch Vadodara Excavation Branch V Archaeological Survey of India 3rd Floor, 'VUDA' Bhavan, L & T Circle, Kareli Baug Vadodara- 390 018 (Gujarat) Jitendra Nath Superintending Archaeologist Phone: 0265 - 2464461, 3460831 (T-F) e-mail - [email protected] Excavations Branch Mysore Excavation Branch VI Archaeological Survey of India 517,T.K. Layout Mysore-570009 Ramesh S Mulimani Superintending Archaeologist Phone: 0821 - 2302309 (T-F)

Excavations Branches Various Various Branches and Circles of the ASI carry out archaeological excavations in different parts of the country.
1.

Carrying out problem-oriented survey including exploration and excavation of ancient sites and mounds;

2. 3. 4.

Research on the ensuing exploration and excavation work; Preparation of reports based on the field work; Interaction with various universities and research institutions.

Prehistory Branch

Carrying out problem-oriented survey including exploration and excavation of ancient sites and mounds;

Research on the ensuing exploration and excavation work; Preparation of reports based on the field work; Interaction with various universities and research institutions.

Architectural Survey Projects Architectural Survey Projects include the Temple Survey Projects (North and South) and Building Survey Project. The main functions are:

Survey and documentation of temples of various periods and in different parts of the country, research based on the field survey, preparation of reports on the survey;

Survey and documentation of all secular architecture and colonial buildings, research on the survey and preparation of reports;

Interaction with various universities and research institutions.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY : MEANING OF RESEARCH Research in common parlance refers to a search for knowledge. Once can also define research as a scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic. In fact, research is an art of scientific investigation. The Advanced Learners Dictionary of Current English lays down the meaning of research as a careful investigation or inquiry specially through search for new facts in any branch of knowledge. Redman and Mory define research as a systematized effort to gain new knowledge. Some people consider research as a movement, a movement from the known to the unknown. It is actually a voyage of discovery. We all possess the vital instinct of inquisitiveness for, when the unknown confronts us, we wonder and our inquisitiveness makes us probe and attain full and fuller understanding of the unknown. This inquisitiveness is the mother of all knowledge and the method, which man employs for obtaining the knowledge of whatever the unknown, can be termed as research. Research is an academic activity and as such the term should be used in a technical sense. OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of scientific procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not been discovered as yet. Though each research study has its own specific purpose, we may think of research objectives as falling into a number of following broad groupings:

1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies with this object in view are termed as exploratory or formulative research studies); 2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group (studies with this object in view are known as descriptive research studies); 3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with something else (studies with this object in view are known as diagnostic research studies); 4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are known as hypothesis-testing research studies). MOTIVATION IN RESEARCH What makes people to undertake research? This is a question of fundamental importance. The possible motives for doing research may be either one or more of the following: 1. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits; 2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e., concern over practical problems initiates research; 3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work; 4. Desire to be of service to society; 5. Desire to get respectability. However, this is not an exhaustive list of factors motivating people to undertake research studies. Many more factors such as directives of government, employment conditions, curiosity about new things, desire to understand causal relationships, social thinking and awakening, and the like may as well motivate (or at times compel) people to perform research operations.

The basic types of research are as follows: 1. Descriptive vs. Analytical: Descriptive research includes surveys and factfinding enquiries of different kinds. The major purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of affairs as it exists at present. In social science and business research we quite often use the term Ex post facto research for descriptive research studies. The main characteristic of this method is that the researcher has no control over the variables; he can only report what has happened or what is happening. Most ex post facto research projects are used for descriptive studies in which the researcher seeks to measure such items as, for example, frequency of shopping, preferences of people, or similar data. 2. Applied vs. Fundamental : Research can either be applied (or action) research or fundamental (to basic or pure) research. Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society or an industrial/business organisation, whereas fundamental research is mainly concerned with generalisations and with the formulation of a theory. Gathering knowledge for knowledges sake is termed pure or basic research. Research concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics are examples of fundamental research. 3. Quantitative vs. Qualitative : Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity. Qualitative research, on the other hand, is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind. For instance, when we are interested in investigating the reasons for human behaviour (i.e., why people think or do certain things), we quite often talk of Motivation Research, an important type of qualitative research. This type of research aims at discovering the underlying motives and desires, using in depth interviews for the purpose. Other techniques of such research are word association tests, sentence completion tests, story completion tests and similar other projective techniques.

SWOT ANALYSIS : Strengths 1. Indias geological location is a culmination of forests, deserts, and mountains and beaches. 2. Variety of culture i.e. a mix of diverse civilizations and their traditions. A wealth of archeological sites. 3. Indian tourism is known for its heritage and monuments. 4. India has a corporation to administer support issues related to archaeology. 5. Country of prosperous heritage and traditions having an enormous and varied history. 6. Places of prehistoric civilization and settlements dating back to numerous centuries present in India. 7. Unity in Diversity i.e.. Multicultural people staying collectively in the same country. One of the best growing economies of the world. 8. Growing literacy rate among the local people and improving infrastructure leading to increase in more and more archaeological study growth. 9. India has been maintaining good and pleasant association with different countries which helps the people of those countries to get the visas easily to visit India. Weaknesses 1. Lack of sufficient infrastructure. An intolerant attitude among certain sections of the people. 2. No appropriate marketing of Indias archeological vibrance in a foreign country. Foreigners still think of India as a land of snake charmers. 3. Loss of local culture as well as the loss of traditional environmental awareness is one of the negative impacts. 4. Costly travel, elevated fuel prices resulting in the increase of fares of flight and trains which are the major means of transport for the archaeological students. 5. Lapses in security and safety incidents of flaunt and harassment of students in some places.

6. Gap between requirement and supply of manpower. Insufficient standard hotels in the country leading to the crisis of accommodation for the visiting students and researchers. 7. Lack of proper infrastructure. 8. Poor health, lack of hygiene and proper sanitation among common people especially in the rural parts of the country. 9. Incidents of local people harassing and torturing the visiting students and researchers in diverse parts of the country. 10. Irregular progress Opportunities 1. More hands-on role from the Government of India in terms of framing policies. 2. Allowing entry of added multinational companies into the country giving us a worldwide perception. 3. As well as development of domestic tourism is one of the factors of the growth of the tourism industry. 4. A pioneer initiative by Ministry of Archaeological Studies, Government of India that will help tap into the full prospective of archaeological study in India. 5. A countrywide promotion that aims at sensitizing key stakeholders towards students, through a process of training and orientation. 6. Major advance for the Indian archaeological study since many foreign researchers visited for seeing the sights and to observe the history and culture of India Threats 1. Financial conditions and political disorder in other countries affects such studies and researches. 2. Research students and their activities are often ignored, Cheated and rudely dealt with. 3. Terrorism incidents like 26/11, 11/7 have an impact on the psyche of the visiting researchers. These incidents considerably reduces the interest of the students and researchers.

4. The rising Naxalite activities and constant Maoist attacks in the country is not helping the cause . 5. Crime rates growing in the country ranging from insignificant thefts to serious murder cases. 6. Diseases in recent years such as Dengue, Chikungunya and Swine Flu are causing the students of archaeological study to stay away from visiting various parts of the country. 7. Food problems plague the archaeological researchers. 8. Lack of basic infrastructure and accommodations for researchers in rural areas of the country. 9. Women particularly western women get harassed by the local men making it unsafe for women and aged researchers.

FINDINGS, SUGGESTIONS AND CONCLUSION Archaeological and historical pursuits in India started with the efforts of Sir William Jones, who put together a group of antiquarians to form the Asiatic Society on 15th January 1784 in Calcutta. He was supported by many persons who carried out survey of monuments in various parts of India. The identification of Chandragupta Maurya with Sandrokottos of Greek historians by Jones helped in fixing a chronological horizon of Indian history. This was followed by the identification of Pataliputra (Palibothra of classical writings) at the confluence of the Ganga and Sone. The decipherment of Gupta and Kutila script by Charles Wilkinson was a landmark in this regard. Thereafter, many individuals made contribution in surveying different monuments in India. In 1861, Alexander Cunningham was appointed as the first Archaeological Surveyor. He surveyed areas stretching from Gaya in the east to the Indus in the northwest, and from Kalsi in the north to the Narmada in the south, between 1861 and 1865. For this, he largely followed the footsteps of the Chinese pilgrim Hieun Tsang. However, with the abolition of the Archaeological Survey in 1866, this work came to a grinding halt. In the meanwhile, an Act was passed in 1863 empowering the Government to prevent injury to, and preserve the buildings remarkable for their antiquity and historical or architectural value. In 1878, Treasure Trove Act was enacted which enabled the Government to confiscate treasures and antiques found during chance digging. After 26 years, the Ancient Monuments Preservation Act, 1904 (for short, `the 1904 Act') was enacted for the preservation of ancient monuments and objects of archaeological, historical or artistic interest.