Engine Mechanicals PDF

Aftersales Training -
Basic Information.
Engine mechanicals.
BMW Service
The information contained in the Product Information and the Workbook form an integral part of
the training literature of BMW Aftersales Training.
Refer to the latest relevant BMW Service information for any changes/supplements to the
Technical Data.
Information status: November 2007
Contact: [email protected]
© 2007 BMW AG
München, Germany
Reprints of this publication or its parts require the written approval of
BMW AG, München
VS-12 Aftersales Training
Basic Information.
Engine mechanicals.
Design
Engine management
Lubrication and cooling

Notes on this Basic Information
Symbols used
The following symbols are used in this Product Information to facilitate
better comprehension and to draw attention to important information:
3 contains information to facilitate better understanding of the

described systems and their function.
1 identifies the end of a note.
Information status and national variants

BMW vehicles conform to the highest safety and quality standards.
Changes in terms of environmental protection, customer benefits and
design render necessary continuous development of systems and
components. Such developments can result in differences between this
product information and the vehicles used for demonstration purposes in
the training course.
This documentation relates exclusively to left-hand drive vehicles with
European specifications. On vehicles with right-hand drive, the
arrangement of some controls or components may differ from the
illustrations in this product information. There may also be other
differences due to variations in equipment between individual countries or
markets.
Additional sources of information

Further information on the individual topics can be found in the following:
- Owner's Handbook
- BMW diagnosis system
- Workshop systems documentation
- BMW Service Technology
Contents.
Engine mechanicals.
Introduction 1
System overview 19
Design and interrelationships 19
Engine casing components 23
Crankshaft drive system 26
Valvegear 30
Lubrication 35
Cooling system 39
System components 45
Engine casing components 45
Crankshaft drive system 58
Valvegear 71
Lubrication 83
Cooling system 94
7
Introduction.
Engine mechanicals.
Introduction
It is now more than a hundred years since the With external combustion, the
first motor vehicle was built. The characteristic combustion takes place outside the
feature of a motor vehicle is that it has its own working chamber. A separate working fluid
source of motive power. In other words it is not is heated in the working chamber to
moved by human power or a draught animal. generate the motion.
The vast majority of motor vehicles are
• Type of combustion
powered by internal-combustion engines.
The combustion can be continuous or
Internal-combustion engines are a subgroup
cyclic. Cyclic means a complete
of heat engines.
combustion process is continually
A heat engine burns a fuel and uses the heat repeated.
produced to create pressure, which is utilized
• Type of ignition
to set a mechanical component in motion. The
process is referred to as energy conversion. The gaseous fuel can ignite itself or be
ignited by an external means of ignition.
It is a thermodynamic process which converts
the chemical energy stored in the fuel into • Type of machine
motion.
A distinction is made between reciprocating
Heat engines are divided into different groups. piston engines and turbines. Reciprocating
The list below details the distinguishing piston engines have a variable working
characteristics: chamber. This is made possible by the
movement of a piston. In a reciprocating
• Type of process
piston engine, a piston performs a linear up-
The process is the fundamental and-down motion.
distinguishing characteristic. A distinction is
This document deals only with the type of heat
made between an internal and external
engine used in the vast majority of motor
combustion process.
vehicles. It is the internal-combustion,
With internal combustion, the combustion reciprocating piston engine with cyclic
takes place inside the working chamber. combustion. Spontaneous-ignition
The gaseous fuel (fuel-and-air mixture) is (compression-ignition) and external-ignition
also the working fluid, in other words it (spark-ignition) varieties are equally common.
directly generates the motion.
1
7
Petrol engine
In 1876, Nikolaus August Otto applied for a The piston transmits the force and motion via
patent for a four-stroke, reciprocating piston a connecting rod to the crankshaft. In the
gas engine with spark ignition. The four-stroke process, the linear motion of the piston is
cycle of a spark-ignition engine is called the converted into a rotary motion. The piston
Otto cycle in his honour. The petrol engine is, constantly describes a reciprocal motion. The
together with the similarly designed diesel piston reversing points are also referred to as
engine, one of the most common types of the dead centre points. Thus the size of the
engine used in motor vehicles. combustion chamber is at its smallest when
the piston is at top dead centre (TDC) and at
In a petrol engine, thermal energy is produced
its largest when the piston is at bottom dead
by the cyclic combustion of a fuel-and-air
centre (BDC).
mixture. The combustion takes place in an
enclosed, cylinder-shaped space. Called the On a conventional petrol engine, the fuel and
combustion chamber, that space is variable air is mixed outside the combustion chamber
due to the movement of a piston. The thermal and the mixture then drawn into the
energy creates high pressure inside the combustion chamber. Modern, direct-
combustion chamber which exerts a force on injection petrol engines mix the fuel and air
the bounding faces (chamber walls, chamber inside the combustion chamber.
ceiling and piston) of the chamber. That force
The petrol engine relies on spark ignition. That
sets the piston in motion.
means that the fuel-and-air mixture is made to
combust by an electric sparkplug.
Index Explanation
1 Inlet valve
2 Sparkplug
3 Exhaust valve
4 Exhaust port
5 Piston
6 Connecting rod
7 Crankshaft
8 Sump
9 Crankcase
10 Coolant
11 Combustion chamber
12 Exhaust port
13 Cylinder head
1 - Design of a petrol engine
2
7
Diesel engine
The second commonly used type of engine in In the diesel engine, however, the fuel and air
motor vehicles is the diesel engine. It differs is mixed inside the combustion chamber, in
only by a few features from the fundamental other words, the fuel and air are delivered
principle of the petrol engine explained above. separately to the combustion chamber.
Like the petrol engine, the diesel engine Another difference from the petrol engine is
features cyclic combustion in a combustion the manner of ignition. In a diesel engine, the
chamber with a piston transmitting the force fuel ignites of its own accord due to the
generated. temperature and pressure conditions. No
sparkplug is required.
Four strokes
Both the petrol and the diesel engine are The four strokes are explained below in detail
characterized by their cyclic combustion. using the petrol engine as the example. The
Combustion requires an overall process in conditions inside the combustion chamber
which the combustion chamber is constantly over the course of each stroke are
refilled with fresh fuel and air, and the exhaust represented by what is termed a p-V diagram.
is removed after each combustion cycle. The p stands for pressure and the V for
volume.
That overall process, which constantly repeats
itself, is divided into strokes. Each stroke has
its own separate function. Modern motor
vehicle engines normally have four strokes.
They are:
• Induction stroke
Fresh intake air or a fuel-and-air mixture is
drawn into the combustion chamber.
• Compression stroke
The intake air or fuel-and-air mixture is
compressed by the piston.
• Power stroke
The fuel-and-air mixture burns. The
resulting pressure forces the piston to 2 - p-V diagram for petrol engine
move downwards.
Index Explanation
• Exhaust stroke
1 Top dead centre (TDC)
The exhaust is expelled from the cylinder.
2 Bottom dead centre (BDC)
To facilitate induction and exhaust, there are 3 Cylinder capacity (Vh)
valves provided in the top of combustion
chamber which are opened and closed as 4 Ambient pressure (p0)
required. The valves are identified by their
function. The inlet valves allow fresh intake air Thus this diagram shows how much pressure
or the fuel-and-air mixture to enter the there is inside the combustion chamber at
combustion chamber. The exhaust valves what volume. The volume is determined by
allow the exhaust to be expelled. the position of the piston.
3
7
1st stroke: Induction The downward movement of the piston

increases the volume of the combustion
At the beginning of the first stroke, the piston
chamber. A degree of low pressure is created
is at the top dead centre position moving
which draws fresh fuel-and-air mixture
towards bottom dead centre. The inlet valve
through the open inlet valve into the
opens.
combustion chamber.
4 - p-V diagram for 1st stroke
When the piston reaches the bottom dead

centre position, the combustion chamber is
full of fuel-and-air mixture. The inlet valve
closes.
3 - Induction stroke
4
7
2nd stroke: Compression

The piston moves upwards from bottom dead
centre to top dead centre with the valves
closed.
6 - p-V diagram for 2nd stroke
Due to the speed of compression, the

temperature in the combustion chamber also
rises.
Shortly before the piston reaches top dead
centre, the mixture is ignited by a spark from
the sparkplug. The time at which that occurs is
called the firing point. The fuel-and-air mixture
burns, thereby releasing thermal energy.
Gases expand rapidly when subjected to high
temperatures. As the combustion chamber is
an enclosed space, the gas is unable to
expand quickly. As a result, the pressure in the
combustion chamber rises abruptly.
5 - Compression stroke
As the space in the combustion chamber is

reduced and the fuel-and-air mixture can not
escape, the mixture is highly compressed. The
pressure in the combustion chamber
increases substantially.
7 - p-V diagram for combustion
5
7
3rd stroke: Power The volume increases, the gas can expand
and the pressure in the combustion chamber
Because of the high pressure in the
reduces again.
combustion chamber, a force acts on its
bounding surfaces (cylinder walls, combustion
chamber ceiling and piston crown). That force
moves the piston downwards towards bottom
dead centre.
9 - p-V diagram for 3rd stroke
As a result, work is done. The chemical energy

stored in the fuel is converted into mechanical
work.
The expansion also causes the temperature in
the combustion chamber to fall.
When the piston reaches bottom dead centre,
the exhaust valve opens and the pressure
drops to the ambient pressure as a result.
8 - Power stroke
6
7
4th stroke: Exhaust The volume of the combustion chamber is

reduced. The burned gases are forced out of
The piston moves upwards from bottom dead
the cylinder through the open exhaust valve.
centre to top dead centre.
The pressure in the combustion chamber
increases slightly for a short time, dropping
back to ambient pressure towards the end of
the stroke.
11 - p-V diagram for 4th stroke
At the end of the 4th stroke when the piston

reaches top dead centre, the exhaust valve
closes.
The four-stroke cycle then starts from the
beginning again.
10 - Exhaust stroke
7
7
Differences between petrol and diesel does not move downwards as fast as
engine. combustion progresses. In a diesel engine,
combustion is slow enough for the downward
The four-stroke cycles of the petrol and diesel
movement of the piston to keep pace with its
engine are fundamentally the same. On a
progression. As a result, the pressure in the
diesel engine, however, only air is drawn into
combustion chamber remains more or less
the cylinder rather than a mixture of fuel and
constant during the power stroke.
air. At the end of the compression stroke,
shortly before the piston reaches top dead For that reason, the diesel engine is said to
centre, diesel fuel is injected into the have constant-pressure combustion. The
combustion chamber at high pressure but petrol engine, by contrast, has constant-
there is no ignition spark. The fuel ignites of its volume combustion because the entire
own accord due to the temperature and combustion process takes place in a period of
pressure conditions in the combustion time during which the volume of the
chamber. combustion chamber is virtually unchanged.
Combustion in a diesel engine is a slower The pressure in the combustion chamber is
process than in a petrol engine. In a petrol substantially higher in a diesel engine than in a
engine, the pressure in the combustion petrol engine.
chamber rises abruptly because the piston
Reference variables
The strokes are defined by the position of the Valve timing
piston and its direction of movement. As the
The induction of fresh fuel and air and the
piston is connected to the crankshaft by the
expulsion of the exhaust are together referred
connecting rod, the strokes are also defined
to as the charge replacement cycle. The
by the position of the crankshaft.
charge replacement cycle is controlled by the
The position of the crankshaft is specified in inlet and exhaust valves. The points at which
degrees of rotation [°] relative to two reference the valves open and close are also specified in
points. It is thus also referred to as the terms of crankshaft position. The
crankshaft angle. The reference points are the determination of those points is referred to as
piston top and bottom dead centres. valve timing as it involves synchronizing the
operation of the valves with the other
The crankshaft angle is specified in degrees
components involved in the combustion cycle
before or after TDC or BDC. In other words,
for the purposes of controlling the charge
the number of degrees of crankshaft rotation
replacement cycle.
before or after the piston reaches the dead
centre position in question. The following table details general guide
figures for valve timing on a petrol engine.
In the course of each stroke, the crankshaft
rotates through 180°, so that the piston moves Valve Opens Closes
from one dead centre position to the other.
Consequently, a complete four-stroke cycle Inlet 10-15° before 40-60° after
takes 720° of crankshaft rotation, or two TDC BDC
complete revolutions of the crankshaft. Exhaust 45-60° before 5-20° after TDC
BDC
8
7
Thus the inlet valve opens just before the It illustrates the open and closed phases of the
piston starts moving downwards and does not valves relative to crankshaft rotation.
close until after the piston has started moving
The quality and correct maintenance of the
back upwards again.
valve timing, i.e. correct synchronization with
The exhaust valve does something similar. It the engine, has a major effect on:
opens before the piston has started moving
• maximum power output
upwards and does not close until after the
piston has started moving back downwards • maximum torque
again.
• exhaust quality
An engine's valve timing is represented by the
• fuel consumption
timing diagram below.
• smooth running characteristics
Index Explanation
A Induction
B Compression
C Power
D Exhaust
1 Top dead centre (TDC)
2 Bottom dead centre (BDC)
3 Inlet valve opens
4 Inlet valve closes
5 Firing point
6 Exhaust valve opens
7 Exhaust valve closes
8 Valve overlap
12 - Timing diagram for petrol engine
9
7
Ignition TDC dead centre positions, another point of

reference that occurs only once within the
Over the course of the complete four-stroke
complete cycle is required.
cycle, the crankshaft performs two complete
revolutions. That means that the piston Therefore, the ignition TDC is referred to. That
passes through the top and bottom dead is the top dead centre at which combustion is
centres twice each. But because the same initiated.
thing does not happen at each of the two top
Combustion chamber charge

The combustion chamber charge is the
quantity of fresh intake (air or fuel-and-air
mixture) that enters the cylinder during the
induction stroke. The greater the combustion
chamber charge, the better is the engine's
performance.
One of the most important aspects of engine
design, therefore, is to achieve the greatest
possible degree of charging efficiency. Equally
important is to keep the amount of energy that
has to be used for the charge replacement
cycle as small as possible.
Improving charging efficiency

One way of improving the effectiveness of
combustion chamber charging, and therefore 13 - Valve overlap
engine power output, is to leave the inlet valve That situation, whereby the inlet and the
open for more than 180° of crankshaft exhaust valves are both open, is referred to as
rotation. It opens before TDC and closes after valve overlap.
BDC.
By not closing until after BDC, the inlet valve is
Opening the inlet valve before TDC means still open when the compression stroke starts.
that it starts to open before the exhaust stroke The fresh intake flowing at a faster rate due to
has finished. The faster rate of outflow of the induction thus continues to flow into the
exhaust at the end of the exhaust stroke combustion chamber due to its inertia. That
produces suction. If the inlet valve is opened effect ceases when the pressure produced by
before the piston has reached top dead the upward movement of the piston stops in
centre, the fresh charge is drawn into the inward flow of fresh charge. The inlet valve
combustion chamber by the low pressure must be closed by that point at the latest.
despite the fact that the piston is moving
upwards. Despite such extension of the induction
period, the cylinder charge achieved is never
more than 80% of the theoretically possible
charge due to the low pressure brought about
by induction.
10
7
The charge can also be improved by lower Advanced exhaust timing

resistance to the flow of the fresh intake and
The exhaust valve is opened before TDC on
lower temperatures in the combustion
the exhaust stroke. This assists exhaust
chamber.
outflow and relieves the stress on the
The problem with improving charging crankshaft drive mechanism. Advanced
efficiency is that it the measures are only ideal opening of the exhaust valve reduces the
for a specific rev band. As the engine speed pressure in the combustion chamber to
changes, the flow dynamics of the fresh intake ambient pressure. At that point, the pressure
entering the cylinder and the exhaust flowing is in any case no longer sufficient to perform
out of the cylinder also change. As a result, the useful work. On the other hand, expulsion of
times at which the valves are opened and the exhaust is substantially easier because the
closed are no longer ideal for the particular engine is not having to work against a higher
situation. On conventional engines, those pressure. In addition, the temperature in the
times are unchangeable and so a compromise combustion chamber reduces further, thus
is made whereby the best setting for a facilitating more effective charging in the next
particular rev band is chosen in the knowledge cycle.
that cylinder charging will not be ideal at other
engine speeds. However, the latest engines
have the facility for varying the valve timing.
11
7
Basic terms
The following basic terms are the same for all
types of reciprocating piston engine.
14 - Basic terms
Index Explanation Index Explanation

1 Top dead centre (TDC) 5 Crank arm length (crank throw)
2 Stroke 6 Bore
3 Bottom dead centre (BDC) 7 Compression chamber
4 Con rod length 8 Cylinder capacity
12
7
Cylinders Compression chamber

The cylinder is the space in which combustion This is the space above the piston when it is at
takes place and in which the piston moves. It is the TDC position. It equates to the volume of
called a cylinder because of its cylindrical the combustion chamber when at its smallest.
shape. It does not refer to the variable space
above the piston but to the working chamber Combustion chamber
bounded by the metal walls formed by the
The combustion chamber is bounded by the
engine.
cylinder head, the piston and the sides of the
cylinder. The volume of the combustion
Bore
chamber changes according to position of the
The bore is the diameter of a cylinder. piston.
When the piston is at the TDC position, the
Stroke
combustion chamber equates to the
The distance travelled by the piston inside the compression chamber.
cylinder between the top and bottom dead
When the piston is at the BDC position, the
centres is called the stroke.
combustion chamber equates to the
The length of the stroke is determined by the compression chamber plus the cylinder
crankshaft. It is equal to twice the crank arm capacity.
length.
Compression ratio (ε)
Dead centres
The compression ratio is the ratio of the
The dead centres are the upper and lower combined volume of the compression
limits of piston travel at which its direction of chamber and cylinder capacity to the volume
travel reverses. of the compression chamber.
They are referred to as the top dead centre
Bore:stroke ratio
(TDC) and the bottom dead centre (BDC). At
TDC, the piston is closest to the valves. The This is the ratio of the bore to the stroke.
volume of the combustion chamber is at its Engines may be classified as short-stroke or
smallest at this point. At BDC, the piston is long-stroke depending on that ratio.
closest to the crankshaft. The volume of the A long-stroke engine has a stroke that is
combustion chamber is at its largest. greater than the bore, while a short-stroke
engine has a stroke that is less than the bore.
Cylinder capacity Engines in which the bore and stroke are equal
are classed as short-stroke. Such engines are
The capacity of a cylinder is the volume swept
also frequently referred to as square.
by the piston in the course of a single stroke.
Or to put it another way, it is the volume of the
Con rod to crankshaft throw ratio (λ)
space between the piston's TDC and BDC
positions. When capacity is quoted in the This refers to the relationship between the
technical data of an engine it generally refers length of the connecting rod (distance
to the engine's total capacity. The total between the centres of the big and small
capacity is the sum of the individual capacities ends) and the crankshaft throw (the length of
of all the cylinders. the crank arm or the distance between the
crankshaft main-bearing axis and the crank pin
axis).
13
7
Defined engine speeds speed and serves as a measure of the load on

the engine.
The engine speed is expressed as the number
of crankshaft revolutions per minute.
Maximum piston rate
There are a number of significant speeds for
an engine. The piston reaches its greatest speed at the
point when the angle between the connecting
• The starting speed is the minimum speed
rod and the crankshaft arm is 90 degrees. The
required to start the engine.
maximum piston rate is approx. 1.6 times
• The idling speed is the speed at which the greater than the average piston rate.
engine runs without external intervention
once it has started. Inertial forces
• The rated speed is the speed at which the Inertial force is a body's resistance to a change
engine produces its maximum power in its motion. To put it another way, it is the
output. result of inertia, which is the resistance that
has to be overcome in order to accelerate or
• The maximum speed is the highest
decelerate a body.
speed at which the engine is allowed to run
An experiment that illustrates the
so as to prevent it suffering mechanical
phenomenon is the action of sliding a glass of
damage.
water across a table. If the movement is
carried out slowly and evenly, the water does
Average piston rate
not slop about. If, however, the glass is moved
Even when the engine is running at a constant or stopped abruptly, the water splashes out of
speed the piston is constantly accelerating the glass. The inertia of the water resists the
and decelerating. At the top and bottom dead change of motion imparted by the glass.
centres it is momentarily at a standstill. In the case of a solid body, the effect of inertia
Between those two positions, the speed of the is that an equivalent force has to be applied in
piston increases to a maximum and then drops order to accelerate or decelerate the body.
to zero again. Inertia is relative to the mass of the body and
Because the speed of the piston is thus the rate of acceleration/deceleration.
constantly changing, the average piston
speed is used as the basis for calculations. Reciprocating action
This is a theoretical constant speed, i.e. the
A reciprocating action is a motion whereby a
average speed of the piston. The average
body moves repeatedly back and forth along a
piston rate is usually quoted at rated engine
particular axis.
14
7
Types of engine design

In the more than 120 years of existence of the relative to one another. The reference
internal combustion engine, innumerable parameters are the axes of symmetry of the
variations of the number and arrangement of individual cylinders, also called the cylinder
cylinders have been proposed. In the axes. There are numerous different possible
automotive industry there now only remain a combinations, most of which are designated
few standard designs. Engines are by self-explanatory identification letters.
categorized according to orientation, cylinder
The major engine configurations used in
configuration and number of cylinders.
automotive applications are listed below.
Cylinder configuration An in-line engine has all the cylinders in a
single line with their axes parallel to one
Cylinder configurations are categorized
another.
according to the arrangement of the cylinders
15 - In-line 6-cylinder engine
The in-line configuration is suited particularly six-cylinder engine is characteristically very

to engines with small numbers of cylinders, smooth-running. Engines with larger numbers
usually between two and six. Its advantage is of cylinders are not normally built as in-line
its relatively simple design, especially with engines as they would be too long to fit inside
regard to valve timing. In addition, an in-line a motor vehicle.
15
7
On a V engine the cylinders are set at an The opposing pairs of connecting rods (one in
angle to one another, usually of between 60 each cylinder bank) are connected to the
and 90°. Thus, with any more than two same crank pin on the shared crankshaft.
cylinders, there are two rows of cylinders
facing one another - so an eight cylinder
engine of this type will have two rows of four
cylinders. Those rows are called cylinder
banks.
17 - Crankshaft and con rods on a V8 engine
V configurations are used for engines with

higher numbers of cylinders, usually between
six and twelve.
16 - V engine
18 - Cut-away view of V8
engine
16
7
A horizontally opposed engine is like a V the pistons appear to be "boxing" with each
engine with an angle of 180° between cylinder other.
banks.
A VR engine is a combination of a V and an
in-line engine. It has one bank of cylinders in
which, however, there are two rows offset
from one another by an angle of 15°. The
crankshaft has a separate crank pin for each
connecting rod.
A W engine has three banks of cylinders and
one crankshaft. Three con rods attach to each
crank pin on the crankshaft. A V engine with
two VR banks is called a VVR or also a W
engine.
The VR and W configurations are primarily
used in order to save space. But in doing so
they sacrifice engine smoothness and other
characteristics.
The majority of engines used in motor vehicles
19 - Horizontally opposed engine
are either in-line or V configurations.
The difference is that opposing pairs of Orientation

connecting rods are not connected to the
The orientation is defined according to the
same crank pin on the shared crankshaft. In a
alignment of the cylinder axes when the
horizontally opposed engine, the opposing
engine is in its fitted position. The orientation
con rods connect to separate crank pins that
of an engine can be upright or horizontal. If an
are 180 degrees apart. As a result, the pairs of
engine is fitted at an inclined angle, it is
pistons move towards and then away from
classed as upright.
each other. This explains why this type of
engine is also called a boxer engine, because
Direction of rotation
When working on an engine, it is frequently
important to know which way the engine
rotates when it is running. Engines can be
either clockwise or anti-clockwise rotating.
The direction of rotation is specified as if
looking at the engine from the end opposite to
the power output end (clutch or flywheel end).
A clockwise engine is one in which the
crankshaft rotates clockwise when viewed
from the end opposite to the power output
end.
20 - Clockwise engine
An anti-clockwise engine turns anti-

clockwise when viewed from the same
position.
17
7
Cylinder numbering order

So that each cylinder can be unambiguously one on the left when viewed from that same
identified, there is a defined numbering order. position.
The numbering order does not indicate the
order in which the cylinders fire. It indicates
only their positions in the engine.
When you are viewing the engine from the
same position as for determining its direction
of rotation, the cylinder closest to you is
number 1. The cylinders are then numbered
consecutively to the power output end.
21 - Numbering order for in-line engines
The same principle applies to engines with

more than one cylinder bank, starting with the 22 - Numbering order for V and horizontally opposed engines
first bank followed by the second cylinder
bank, and so on. The first cylinder bank is the
18
8
System Overview.
Engine mechanicals.
Design and interrelationships

In this document the engine mechanical casing components, crankshaft drive system
system is subdivided into a number of major and valvegear forming the engine mechanical
systems. system proper while the lubrication and
cooling systems are indispensable for the
• Engine casing components
functioning of it.
• Crankshaft drive system
The interrelationships described first of all
• Valvegear below are those that have a fundamental
effect on the engine's characteristics.
• Lubrication
• Firing order
• Cooling system
• Firing interval
Those systems are in a state of constant
interaction with one another, with the engine • Balance of masses
Firing order
The firing order is the order in which the the basis of the engine configuration, number
cylinders of an engine fire. It is not normally the of cylinders and firing interval.
same as the order in which the cylinders are
The firing order is always quoted starting from
numbered.
cylinder number 1.
The firing order is directly responsible for how
The usual firing orders are listed below.
smoothly an engine runs. It is determined on
Engine configuration/
crank-pin offset
no. of cylinders
Firing interval
Firing order
Crankshaft
V-angle
In-line 4-cylinder 180° - 180° CR 1-3-4-2

In-line 6-cylinder 120° - 120° CR 1-5-3-6-2-4
V eight-cylinder 90° 90° 90° CR 1-5-4-8-6-3-7-2
V twelve-cylinder 60° 60° 60° CR 1-7-5-11-3-9-6-12-2-8-4-10
19
8
Firing interval
The firing interval is of significance for engines separation of the crank arms), i.e. the angle
with more than one cylinder. It is the angle of between the crank pins for successively firing
crankshaft rotation between the firing points of cylinders (as determined by the firing order).
two successive cylinders.
The diagram below shows the crankshaft of a
The complete cycle (induction, compression, 6-cylinder in-line engine with a firing interval of
power, exhaust) of a four-stroke engine takes 120°.
two complete revolutions of the crankshaft, i.e.
720° of rotation. On engines with more than
one cylinder, each cylinder has fired once by
the time the crankshaft has rotated through
720°, so that the process can then repeat itself
over the entire engine.
Engines are usually designed so that the firing
intervals between successive cylinders are all
equal. Having the same firing interval between
all ignition points ensures that the engine runs
evenly at all speeds. Such a firing interval is
calculated as follows:
Firing interval = 720° / Number of

cylinders
Examples:
• Four-cylinder: 180° of crankshaft rotation
(CR)
• Six-cylinder: 120° CR
• Eight-cylinder: 90° CR
• Twelve-cylinder: 60° CR
The greater the number of cylinders, the
smaller is the firing interval. The smaller the
firing interval, the more smoothly the engine
runs. At least in theory, because the factor of
balance of masses, which is dependent on
engine configuration and firing order, also
1 - Crankshaft crank-pin offset
comes into play.
In order that a cylinder can be ignited at all, the The numbers indicate the order in which the
piston concerned must be at "ignition TDC", cylinders fire. If you count the numbers in
i.e. the cylinder's inlet and exhaust valves must order from one to six on the above diagram, it
be closed. That is only possible if the takes you twice around the circle, i.e. 720°.
crankshaft and camshaft are correctly And the distance from one number to the next
synchronized with one another. is always the same, i.e. 120°.
The firing interval is determined by the
crankshaft's crank-pin offset (the angular
20
8
In V engines, the V-angle must be the same as

that angle so that the same firing interval can
be achieved between cylinders in opposing
cylinder banks. That is why the BMW eight-
cylinder engines have a 90° V-angle and the
twelve cylinders a 60° V-angle.
There are exceptions, however, and their
uneven firing intervals give them an
unmistakable engine sound.
2 - V-angle of a V8 engine
Balance of masses
When a mass is accelerated or decelerated, The effects of those factors can be illustrated
forces are in action. When an engine is by a six-cylinder engine. BMW affords itself
running, masses are constantly being moved. the luxury of constructing its 6-cylinder as a
The associated forces can be felt in the straight engine, even though it requires more
vehicle, and can sometimes be perceived as space in the car and is more expensive to
unpleasant. Therefore, an engine is designed produce. The reason can be understood when
so that the forces produced by the different we compare the balance of masses in an in-
masses balance each other out as much as line six with that of V6 engines.
possible. This is referred to as the balance of
The following graph shows the locus curve for
masses that produces a smoother running
the moments of inertia of a BMW in-line six-
engine.
cylinder engine, a six-cylinder V engine with a
As previously explained, how smoothly an V-angle of 60° and a V6 with a 90° V-angle.
engine runs depends on its configuration,
number of cylinders, firing order and firing
interval.
21
8
3 - Locus curve of moments

of inertia

1 In vertical plane 4 V6 engine with V-angle of 90°
2 In horizontal plane 5 V6 engine with V-angle of 60°
3 BMW in-line 6-cylinder engine
The difference is clearly evident. On the The in-line six-cylinder engine is really is an
straight six-cylinder engine, the moving extremely well balanced engine. In terms of
masses balance each other out so well that smoothness it is only outdone by a V12
the entire engine literally holds itself in engine, which in fact can be viewed as two
equilibrium. The six-cylinder V engines, on the straight sixes joined together.
other hand, demonstrate distinct motion
tendencies that express themselves in more
uneven running characteristics.
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8
Engine casing components

There are only a small number of main engine That job consists essentially of the following
casing components. tasks:
• Cylinder head cover • Containing the forces generated by
operation of the engine
• Cylinder head
• Sealing functions for the combustion
• Crankcase
chamber, engine oil and coolant
• Sump
• Holding the crankshaft drive system,
In addition, gaskets and bolts are also required valvegear and other components
in order that the engine casing components
The following illustration shows the main
can perform their job.
components of an in-line engine.
4 - Engine casing components of an in-line engine

1 Cylinder head cover 3 Crankcase
2 Cylinder head 4 Sump
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8
But engine designs can be more complex. parts on some engines, as can be seen in the
Thus V engines have two cylinder heads. In following illustration.
addition, the crankcase is made up of two
5 - Engine casing components of a V engine

1 Cylinder head cover, cylinder bank 1 5 Sump
2 Cylinder head, cylinder bank 1 6 Cylinder head, cylinder bank 2
3 Crankcase 7 Cylinder head cover, cylinder bank 2
4 Bedplate
24
8
Index Explanation
1 Cylinder head cover
2 Cylinder head
3 Cylinder head gasket
4 Crankcase
5 Sump gasket
6 Sump
6 - Engine casing components of a four cylinder engine including gaskets
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8
Crankshaft drive system

The crankshaft drive system is a function In the process, the crankshaft converts the
group that converts the pressure in the linear motion of the pistons into a rotary
combustion chamber into kinetic energy. motion.
The crankshaft drive system essentially The illustrations below shows the
consists of: components of the crankshaft drive systems
of an in-line and a V engine.
• Piston
• Connecting rod
• Crankshaft
7 - Crankshaft drive system of an in-line engine

1 Crankshaft 3 Connecting rod
2 Piston
In addition, there are associated systems drive pulleys (incorporating rotational vibration
running off the crankshaft drive system which damper) and timing chains. The functions of
are not part of its main function but those components are explained in the
complementary to it. Those associated relevant sections of this document.
systems generally consist of the flywheel, belt-
26
8
8 - Crankshaft drive system of a V engine

1 Piston 4 Crankshaft
2 Flywheel 5 Rotational vibration damper
3 Connecting rod 6 Timing chain
27
8
The various parts of the crankshaft drive

system describe different types of movement:
• The pistons move up and down in the
cylinder (reciprocating action)
• The connecting rod
– also performs a reciprocating action at its
small end where it attaches to the
gudgeon pin
– but at its big end describes the same
circular motion as the crank pin to which
it is attached
– while the connecting rod shaft follows a
swinging motion in the crankshaft
rotation plane
• The crankshaft turns around its own axis
(rotating action)
Index Explanation
1 Reciprocating action
2 Swinging action
3 Rotating action
9 - Movement of crankshaft drive system components
Characteristics of the crankshaft drive system

The crankshaft drive system represents the Nevertheless, the following technical
optimum in terms of power yield, efficiency limitations and design challenges have to be
and technical practicability for the task of dealt with:
converting gas pressure into motion when
• Limiting engine speed due to the forces
compared with other types of engine such as
generated by the moving masses
a gas turbine.
• Intermittent power delivery due to the fact
that work is done by only one of the four
strokes
• Generation of rotational vibration that
places stresses on the crankshaft and drive
train
• Interaction of the various frictional surfaces
Those particular characteristics of the
crankshaft drive system are explained below.
28
8
Inertial forces cylinder. However, that does not protect

individual components such as the con rods
In addition to the force which generates
from stress.
pressure in the combustion chamber during
the power stroke, there are other forces
Uneven rotation
produced by the actual motion of the
crankshaft drive system. Those inertial forces As previously explained, combustion in a
not only make for uneven engine running, they petrol and diesel engine is cyclic. Over the
also place stresses on the engine. course of 720° of crankshaft rotation, each
cylinder produces useful work for only a
The greatest design deficiency of a
quarter of that cycle (i.e. 180°).
reciprocating piston engine is that the piston
comes to a standstill at the dead centre During that cycle, the crankshaft is
positions. Every time the piston completes a accelerated by the forces produced by
stroke, it has to be accelerated and combustion (gas pressure) during the power
decelerated again. Therefore, the faster an stroke but decelerated by friction over the
engine is revving, the faster the piston has to course of the other three strokes.
move and the more heavily it has to be
The gas pressure force acting on the
accelerated and decelerated for every stroke.
crankshaft is superimposed by the inertial
As previously explained, a force is produced forces. As a result, a distinctly uneven
when a mass is accelerated. The greater the progression is produced.
acceleration, the greater the force. For that
That uneven progression results in an uneven
reason alone, therefore, the speed at which a
speed of rotation or rotational vibration on the
reciprocating piston engine can run is not
part of the crankshaft. In this instance too,
limitless, as beyond a certain point the inertial
using multiple cylinders brings about an
forces would become too great.
improvement.
To make the engine run more smoothly,
engines are made with more than one
29
8
Valvegear
The engine is supplied with air in a regular determined by the position of the cam on the
cycle, while the exhaust gases that it produces camshaft and the cam profile.
are expelled. On a four-stroke engine, the
The following graph shows the progression of
drawing in of fresh intake air and expulsion of
valve lift for the inlet and exhaust valve of a
exhaust is referred to as the charge or gas
cylinder over the course of two revolutions of
replacement cycle.
the crankshaft. The valve timing was explained
In the course of the gas replacement cycle, the earlier on. The timing of the valves relates to
inlet and exhaust ports are periodically opened the angular positions of the crankshaft
and closed by the inlet and exhaust valves. (starting from top dead centre (TDC)) at which
The inlet and exhaust valves take the form of the inlet and exhaust valves open and close.
poppet valves. The valves are opened and The graph below shows the progression of
closed by the camshaft. The pattern and valve movement. The point of maximum valve
sequence of the valve movements are lift and the height of the valve lift at that point
are usually specified as well.
10 - Valve lift diagram
The mechanism that controls the operation of valvegear of modern engines is the ability to
the valves is referred to as the valvegear. vary valve timing and lift.
On a conventional engine, the crankshaft and To meet that requirement, systems have been
camshaft are linked by purely mechanical introduced which do precisely that. This
means in the form of a timing chain or belt. In document describes only conventional
that case the valve timing is fixed and valvegear, however.
invariable. Another requirement placed on the
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8
Design
The valvegear is made up of the following • In some cases, hydraulic valve clearance
components: adjustment (HVA)
• Camshafts The illustration below shows the design of a 4
vpc cylinder head with bucket tappets and
• Cam followers (rocker arms, tappets)
hydraulic valve clearance adjustment.
• Valves (complete valve assemblies))
11 - Cylinder head of M50

engine

1 Inlet camshaft 5 Valve spring
2 Valve guide 6 Bucket tappet with HVA
3 Inlet valve 7 Exhaust camshaft
4 Exhaust valve
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8
Design types • Method of actuation of the valves

There are a variety of valvegear designs. They • Method of valve clearance adjustment
are distinguished according to the following
The designation of the type of valvegear
features:
depends on the first two attributes. The
• Number and position of the valves possible variations are listed below.
• Number and position of the camshafts
Abbreviation Designation Explanation

sv Side valves Valves positioned upright at the side of the
cylinders and operated by a camshaft
underneath them.
Upright means that the valve head is at the
top.
ohv Overhead valves Valves positioned above the cylinders with
a block-mounted camshaft.
A block-mounted camshaft is one mounted
in the cylinder block rather than the cylinder
head.
ohc Overhead camshaft Overhead valves with a camshaft mounted
on the cylinder head.
An overhead camshaft is one positioned
above the cylinders.
dohc Double overhead camshaft Overhead valves with two overhead
camshafts for each cylinder bank.
There is a separate camshaft for the inlet
and exhaust valves.
Today all BMW engines have four valves per The following two illustrations show the
cylinder with double overhead camshafts components of two different valvegear
(dohc) on each cylinder bank. systems.
There are different methods of transmitting The first illustrates the valvegear of an engine
the action of the camshaft cams to the valves, which uses roller lever tappets and hydraulic
i.e. tappets or rocker arms. valve clearance adjusters.
In order that the correct amount of play The second shows the valvegear components
between the camshaft cam and the cam of a high-revving sports engine with HVA box
follower is maintained, there has to be a means tappets.
of adjusting the valve clearance.
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8
12 - Valvegear components of four-cylinder engine with roller lever tappets

1 Inlet valve 6 Exhaust valve
2 Lower valve spring retainer with valve 7 Valve spring
stem seal
3 Upper valve spring retainer 8 Roller lever tappet
4 Hydraulic valve-clearance adjuster 9 Exhaust camshaft
5 Inlet camshaft
33
8
13 - Valvegear components of high-revving engine with box tappets

1 Box tappet with HVA 6 Valve stem seal
2 Exhaust valve 7 Upper valve spring retainer
3 Inlet valve 8 Valve spring
4 Valve collet 9 Lower valve spring retainer
5 Inlet camshaft 10 Exhaust camshaft
34
8
Lubrication
The engine lubrication (oil supply) system has doing so, it must maintain the correct oil
to provide the engine components with pressure.
sufficient engine oil for lubrication. When
Tasks
Engine oil fulfils the following tasks: Dry friction occurs when two parts with
completely dry surfaces are in contact. Any
• Lubrication
surface basically has a certain degree of
• Component cooling roughness even if it has been very finely
finished. The microscopic peaks and troughs
• Superfine sealing
on the surfaces catch against each other and
• Cleaning break off. Movement generally results in a high
degree of wear.
• Corrosion protection
In practice, the lubricated areas of an engine
• Power transmission
are never completely dry once it has been run.
When an engine is not running, however, the
Lubrication
surfaces are not completely separated. Mixed
In simple terms, lubrication means separating friction is said to occur in such situations. The
surfaces that rub against each other. This is microscopic peaks on the metal surfaces
achieved by oil fed from the oil pump to the abrade each other especially when an engine
lubrication points. The task of the oil is to is first started from cold. Wear-free movement
decrease the friction between surfaces is only possible when the moving parts are
moving against each other thus reducing or separated from each other by an oil film.
completely avoiding wear and energy loss. Therefore, cold starting causes a relatively
high level of engine wear.
In terms of friction, a distinction is made
between: 3 In one year, two cold starts a day cause
wear that corresponds to driving a distance of
• Dry friction
20,000 km. 1
• Mixed friction
• Fluid friction
14 - Types of friction

1 Dry friction 3 Fluid friction
2 Mixed friction
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8
Component cooling abrasion particles are not deposited in the oil

system together with the soot compounds
The heat produced as the result of friction is
that occur during the combustion process.
absorbed by the engine oil and given off via
The oil must therefore have the ability of
the sump to the surrounding air. Likewise, a
keeping these abrasion particles in
part of the heat generated during the
suspension in order to carry them off to the oil
combustion process is removed by the engine
filter.
oil.
Modern high-performance engines also have Corrosion protection
an oil cooler to prevent the oil overheating.
Corrosion (caused by oxygen and moisture),
e.g. rusting of ferrous metals, occurs as the
Microsealing
result of continuous temperature fluctuations
The engine oil forms an oil film between the in connection with humidity in the air. In
piston rings and the cylinder walls this sealing addition, substances with a corrosive effect,
off the combustion chamber from the such as sulphurous acids, are also produced
crankcase. during the combustion process. The engine oil
protects against the destructive effect of
Cleaning these substances by forming a protective
coating. Protection against corrosion is further
A certain degree of abrasion occurs when the
assisted by the neutralizing ability of the
cold engine is started as the surfaces of the
engine oil. The oil neutralizes the acid
bearings, pistons, piston rings and cylinders as
components.
well as the surfaces of the tappets and rocker
arms that move against each other are not yet
Power transmission
completely separated from each other by the
engine oil. Instead of fluid friction, mixed The engine oil also performs a power
friction occurs during this initial period. The oil transmission function. Thus, for instance, a
must immediately flush the resulting abrasion hydraulic valve clearance adjuster (HVA) is
dust out of the lubricating gap to prevent these filled with engine oil. Power is then transmitted
minute metal particles having an abrasive via the engine oil from the camshaft to the
effect. It is important to ensure that these valve.
36
8
Lubrication systems
The lubrication (or oil) system serves the by the pressure pump. The oil running back to
purpose of supplying oil to all parts of the the sump from the lubrication points is
engine that require lubrication and cooling. returned to the oil reservoir by the suction
The following two types of lubrication system pump. The delivery capacity of the suction
are used on modern motor vehicle engines: pump is dimensioned so as to be greater than
that of the pressure pump to ensure the oil
• Pressure-feed oil circulation
cannot accumulate in the sump.
• Dry sump lubrication
Dry sump lubrication offers the following
advantages:
Pressurized oil circulation
• No air is drawn into the system when
Most motor vehicle engines have a pressure-
cornering at high speeds or when leaning
feed oil circulation system. The oil is drawn out
over at steep angles on rough terrain.
of the reservoir in the sump via a suction pipe
Delivery of oil to the lubrication points is not
and pumped around the circulation system by
interrupted.
a pump (oil pump). The oil first passes through
the oil filter and then on to the lubrication • The overall height of the engine is reduced
points via oil channels in the cylinder block. as the sump can be designed to be much
Branch channels lead to the main bearings of shallower.
the crankshaft. From the lubrication points, the
• The oil reservoir can be placed anywhere,
oil runs off and drains back to the sump.
including in a position where it also cools
the oil.
Dry sump lubrication
This method of lubrication is a special version Mixed system
of the pressure-feed oil circulation system.
A mixed system is also possible, i.e. a
The system has at least two oil pumps, a small
pressure-feed circulation system which has
sump and an oil reservoir containing the oil.
certain components of a dry sump system.
The oil level is normally measured in the oil
reservoir with the engine running. This document deals only with the standard
system, the pressure-feed oil circulation
When the engine is running, the lubrication
system.
points are supplied with oil from the reservoir
37
8
Oil circulation system

The oil circulation system constitutes the below shows the oil circulation system of an
complete system comprising all lubrication in-line six-cylinder engine.
points and oil consumers. The illustration
15 - Oil circulation system

1 Camshaft bearing 8 Unfiltered oil channel
2 Hydraulic valve clearance 9 Oil pump
adjustment
3 Oil dipstick 10 Sump
4 Oil filter 11 Intake pipe with oil screen
5 Chain tensioner 12 Oil spray nozzle channel
6 Main oil channel 13 Crankshaft bearing
7 Turbocharger oil supply 14 Oil spray nozzle
38
8
Cooling system
The heat produced by combustion is not removed. That is the purpose of the cooling
entirely converted into mechanical energy. system.
Part of it remains in the engine as thermal
The various proportions of thermal energy are
energy. In addition, more heat is produced by
different on a diesel and a petrol engine. A
friction and compression. Some of the heat is
diesel engine is able to convert more of the
removed by the exhaust. The rest is absorbed
energy stored in the fuel into useful work. But
by the engine components and the engine oil.
even so, it is only around 42 %. The rest is lost
Because of the limited heat resistance of the
in the form of heat.
materials and the oil, the heat has to be
16 - Energy usage, diesel engine 17 - Energy usage, petrol engine
Index Explanation Petrol engine Diesel engine

1 Fuel energy 100% 100%
2 Energy transferred to exhaust 40% 37%
3 Energy transferred to the coolant 25% 21%
4 Energy transferred to the crankshaft 35% 42%
39
8
Normal operating temperature

It is not the purpose of the cooling system to the heat-resistance of the engine components
always remove as much heat as possible. and the oil.
When an engine is started from cold, optimum
Motor vehicle engines generally run at an
fuel-and-air mixing can not take place until the
operating temperature of between 80 and
engine components have reached a certain
90 °C.
temperature. When that temperature is
reached, the internal friction in the engine is To bring the engine up to that temperature
also lower. That temperature is referred to as quickly and maintain it independently of
normal operating temperature. The engine external effects, the cooling system is
should be brought up to that temperature as regulated.
quickly as possible.
Another aspect is an additional control system
As previously mentioned, the upper which sets the optimum temperature for every
temperature limit is primarily dependent on operating situation.
Types of cooling system

There are essentially two types of cooling
system used on motor vehicle engines.
Air cooling
The heat from the engine is dissipated directly
into the surrounding air. The cooling fins
increase the surface area from which heat can
be transferred to the air. Thus the cooling
effect is increased.
If the engine is not enclosed, air cooling can be
achieved solely by the air flow passing over the
engine as a result of the vehicle's movement.
However, an auxiliary fan can also be fitted if
the engine is enclosed or to increase cooling
efficiency at low vehicle speeds.
The key feature of air cooling is its simplicity of
design.
Liquid cooling
On a liquid-cooled engine, the crankcase and
cylinder head have hollow walls and channels
running through them. A liquid (the coolant)
circulates through those channels and
cavities, absorbing heat from the walls of the
engine components. 18 - Coolant cavities in the engine
Index Explanation
1 Coolant cavities in cylinder head
2 Sump
3 Crankcase
4 Coolant cavities in crankcase
5 Cylinder head
40
8
The coolant can not, however, absorb heated, it rises upwards relative to cooler
unlimited amounts of heat. Therefore, it flows coolant, while coolant at a lower temperature
through channels, pipes and hoses to a sinks downwards. If the coolant channels are
radiator. Air flows over the radiator, allowing correctly arranged, a self-circulating flow is
the coolant to pass the heat absorbed from thus produced. This is termed natural
the engine to the surrounding air. circulation cooling.
The cooled coolant then flows back to the This type of cooling system is not suitable for
engine to remove more heat. modern engines, however. They require the
use of forced circulation cooling systems. In
The coolant can circulate of its own accord
such systems, the coolant is made to circulate
purely because of the temperature differences
by a pump.
between the coolant in different parts of the
system. Because the coolant expands when
Cooling system
The cooling system of a modern engine is a
sealed system. The coolant is circulated
through the engine and an air-cooled radiator
by a coolant pump. The flow of cooling air over
the radiator is produced by forward motion
and/or an auxiliary fan.
A modern engine operates under a very wide
range of climatic conditions and widely
fluctuating engine loads.
In order to maintain a constant coolant
temperature - and therefore engine
temperature - within tight tolerances, the
coolant temperature is regulated.
Index Explanation
1 Radiator
2 Thermostat open
3 Coolant pump
19 - Coolant flow with thermostat open
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8
A thermostat controls whether the circulating The heat in the coolant is not removed. This
coolant passes through the radiator or allows the temperature of the engine to rise.
bypasses it. When the thermostat is open, the
The thermostat can also adopt a half-open
coolant flows through the radiator and heat is
position so that part of the coolant flow passes
removed from the engine. This is called the
through the radiator and the remainder returns
long circulation system. If the thermostat is
directly to the pump. In that way a constant
closed, the coolant does not pass through the
coolant temperature in the engine can be
radiator but directly back to the coolant pump.
maintained.
This is the short circulation system.
The cooling system of a modern engine is
rather more complex, as the following diagram
shows.
Index Explanation
1 Radiator
2 Thermostat closed
3 Coolant pump
20 - Coolant flow with thermostat closed
42
8
21 - Coolant circulation system of N47 engine

1 Radiator 8 Auxiliary coolant pump
Air/coolant heat exchanger
2 Gearbox radiator 9 Coolant-temperature sensor at exit
Air/coolant heat exchanger point from engine
3 Thermostat in transmission oil 10 EGR cooler
cooler
4 Thermostat 11 Expansion bottle
5 Coolant pump 12 Transmission oil cooler
Transmission oil/coolant heat
exchanger
6 Heater matrix 13 Vent pipe
7 Engine oil cooler 14 Electric fan
Engine oil/coolant heat exchanger
43
8
Thus, for example, the heater for the interior is the cooling system is also used to remove
incorporated in the cooling system as it utilizes heat from other systems such as the gearbox.
heat removed from the engine. Additional The individual components are described later
components are necessary to ensure perfect on in this document.
operation of the cooling system. Furthermore,
44
9
System components.
Engine mechanicals.
Engine casing components
Crankcase
The crankcase, also called the cylinder block,
is the central component of any engine.
1 - Crankcases of in-line and V engines
The crankcase incorporates the cylinders. It is

hollow here to provide a space around the
cylinders for the coolant. The lower part of the
crankcase encloses the crankshaft, thus
explaining its name. The crankcase has a
number of bores and channels running
through it for various purposes such as oil
circulation.
Index Explanation
1 Cylinders
2 Lower crankcase
3 Main bearing pedestals
2 - Design of a crankcase
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9
The functions of the crankcase are: from that, the design of a crankcase is
classified according to the design of specific
• Forming the combustion chamber
parts of it.
• Accommodating crankshaft drive system
Those parts are:
• Containing the forces generated by
• Deck
combustion
• Cylinders
• Accommodating channels for circulation of
coolant and lubricant and for crankcase • Main bearing pedestals
venting
The deck is the upper face of the crankcase. It
• Acting as fixing point for attached acts as the sealing face with the cylinder head.
components If the coolant spaces around the cylinders are
closed off at the top so that the only openings
• Sealing the crankshaft chamber from the
in the deck are for bolts and channels to pass
outside
through, the crankcase is said to have a closed
deck.
Design
If the coolant spaces surrounding the cylinders
The basic design of the crankcase on modern
are open at the top, then it is said to be of an
motor vehicle engines is very similar. The
open deck design. This means that the
most noticeable distinguishing feature is
coolant cavities extend right up into the
dictated by the engine configuration, i.e.
cylinder head.
whether it is an in-line or a V engine. Apart
3 - Types of deck

A Closed deck B Open deck
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9
The cylinder forms the sides of the If the crankcase material is not capable of
combustion chamber. It is subjected to the meeting the demands placed on the cylinders,
pressure and temperature of combustion. then metal sleeves made of a suitable material
It is also responsible for guiding the piston. are fitted inside it. Known as cylinder liners,
Therefore, the cylinder is not always made of they then form a cylinder wall capable of
the same material as the rest of the crankcase. meeting the requirements.
4 - Wet and dry cylinder liners

A Cylinder with dry cylinder liner 2 Cylinder liner
B Cylinder with wet cylinder liner 3 Coolant cavity
1 Crankcase
Two types of cylinder liner are distinguished. • If the cylinder liners are not in direct contact
The illustration shows how they differ. with the surrounding coolant, they are
referred to as "dry liners".
• If the cylinder liners are in direct contact
with the surrounding coolant, they are
referred to as "wet liners".
47
9
The main bearing pedestals are formed by the Index Explanation

inner lower section of the crankcase. The
actual bearing pedestals are the supports into 1 Crankcase (upper section)
which the crankshaft fits. 2 Bearing pedestal
3 Through-hole
4 Hole for crankshaft
5 Main bearing cap
There are different designs in terms of the

position of the sump flange, as shown by the
following illustration.
5 - Main bearing pedestal
48
9
6 - Types of crankcase

A Crankcase with sump flange level 2 Hole for crankshaft
with centre of crankshaft
B Crankcase with extended sides 3 Main bearing cap
C Crankcase with upper and lower 4 Lower section of crankcase
sections (bedplate)
1 Crankcase (upper section) 5 Sump
Design "C" is a special case. It has a split Only in that way is it possible to achieve the
crankcase consisting of an upper and a lower bearing accuracy that is absolutely imperative
section. The lower section incorporates because of the high crankshaft speeds
integral main bearing caps for the crankshaft involved. That precise positioning must be re-
bearings. established every time the main bearing caps
are fixed back in position. To make that
Main bearing caps possible, aids are used to ensure that the
position is identical every time the main
The main bearing caps form the matching
bearing cap is bolted to the bearing pedestal.
lower halves of the main bearing pedestals
Those aids include locating dowels or bushes
and are bolted to them. When the crankcase is
or a specially shaped contact face. But they
manufactured, the main bearing caps are
can only work if the main bearing caps are
bolted to it before the holes for the crankshaft
always replaced on the same bearing
bearings are drilled.
pedestals and facing the same way round.
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9
3 Bearing caps must always be replaced on compromise between lightness and strength.
the same bearing pedestal. They must not be Modern crankcases are most commonly cast
turned the wrong way round. If those rules are in grey iron or an aluminium alloy.
not followed, engine damage will result. Even
Aluminium alloy is becoming more and more
simply tightening up the bolts can destroy the
important. Crankcases made of aluminium are
bearings without actually running the engine.
lighter and nowadays offer outstanding
The bearing caps are numbered. No. 1 bearing strength. Magnesium alloys offer even greater
cap, like cylinder no. 1, is at the end opposite weight advantages but are very rare because
to the power output end. of the highly complex manufacturing methods
required to produce them.
When removing the bearing caps, always lay
them out in the same order and facing the 3 Different materials also have to be
same way round as on the engine. Then it is handled differently. The rules for bolting
easier to make sure they are refitted correctly. components together will differ, for example.
1 Always follow the specific repair instructions
for the engine concerned. 1
Materials
Nowadays, crankcases are made of different
materials. The aim is always to achieve a good
Cylinder head
The cylinder head is a highly complex Design
component which performs a number of
The shaping of the cylinder head is
functions. The cylinder head accommodates
determined to a very large degree by the
virtually the entire timing gear of the engine.
components that it accommodates.
The functions of the cylinder head are:
• Number and position of the valves
• Forming the upper limit of the combustion
• Number and position of the camshafts
chamber
• Position of sparkplugs/glowplugs and fuel
• Accommodation of valvegear
injectors
• Accommodation of channels for facilitating
• Shape of the inlet and exhaust ports
the charge replacement cycle
Cylinder heads are also classified according to
• Containing the forces generated by
the following criteria:
combustion
• Number of components
• Accommodating channels for circulation of
coolant and lubricant and for crankcase • Number of valves
venting
• Cooling method
• Acting as fixing point for attached
A cylinder head does not necessarily consist
components
of only one component. But the number of
components relates only to major
components such as bolted-on bearing
beams for the camshafts.
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One of the most frequently used are also production engines with three and five
distinguishing criteria for cylinder heads in valves per cylinder. However, four vpc engines
technical circles is the number of valves. represent the best compromise between
The earliest engines had just two valves for competing demands with the technology
each cylinder, one inlet and one exhaust valve. currently available.
For some years now, the trend has been
Another distinguishing criterion for cylinder
towards multivalve designs as they enable
heads is the method of cooling. A distinction is
more efficient gas replacement and higher
made between:
cylinder charge levels. The reason for this is
the greater overall cross-sectional area of the • Crossflow cooling
valves, as illustrated by the following graphic.
• Longitudinal flow cooling
With crossflow cooling, the coolant flows from
the hot exhaust side of the cylinder head to the
cooler inlet side. This has the advantage of
even heat distribution throughout the cylinder
head.
7 - Comparison between two and four-valve cylinder
Index Explanation
A Two-valve cylinder
B Four-valve cylinder
1 Position of sparkplug
2 Valves
3 Combustion chamber ceiling
This a comparison between a combustion
chamber ceiling with two valves and one with
four valves. Although the diameter of the
valves is greater in the case of the two-valve 8 - Crossflow and longitudinal flow cooling
cylinder, the overall valve area, and therefore
the cross-sectional flow area, is greater with Index Explanation
four valves.
A Crossflow cooling
With a larger number of valves per cylinder, the
design of the cylinder head becomes B Longitudinal flow cooling
considerably more complex, however. There
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9
By contrast, with longitudinal flow cooling, the cylinder. Together with the piston geometry, it
coolant flows lengthways along the cylinder determines the shape of the combustion
head, in other words from one end to the chamber. The combustion chamber is the
other. As the coolant flows past each cylinder space bounded by the cylinder head, the
in succession, it becomes progressively piston and the sides of the cylinder.
hotter, resulting in very uneven heat
The following diagram shows a simplified
distribution. This also causes pressure losses
representation of three different types of
in the coolant circulation system.
combustion chamber ceiling for a four vpc
A combination of the two is also possible. engine. It shows cross-sections through the
valve axes. The sparkplugs have been
superimposed so as to demonstrate their
position, although they are not actually in the
Combustion chamber ceiling
same plane.
As the ceiling of the combustion chamber, the
cylinder head forms the upper boundary of the
9 - Combustion chamber designs for a 4-vpc cylinder head

A Combustion chamber formed C Combustion chamber with inclined
entirely by piston-crown recess valves
B Combustion chamber formed by
recesses in cylinder head and piston
crown
In diagram A, the combustion chamber is surrounded by the fuel-and-air mixture. In
formed entirely by the recess in the piston addition, the combustion chamber surface
crown, whereas in diagram B it occupies area is small in relation to its volume, which
recesses in both the cylinder head and the keeps the thermodynamic losses small. The
piston crown. valves can be inclined up to and angle of 25°.
The design shown in diagram C is beneficial
because the sparkplug is very effectively
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Cylinder head cover

The cylinder head cover is often also called the from the cylinder head. This is achieved by
valve cover, rocker cover or rocker box (even using elastomer gaskets and isolating washers
though, strictly speaking, there may not be any on the fixing screws.
rockers!). It forms the upper extremity of the
Cylinder head covers may be made of
engine casing components.
aluminium, plastic or magnesium.
The cylinder head cover performs the
Aluminium offers very good strength
following tasks:
characteristics and thus ensures a good seal.
• Sealing the top of the cylinder head from
The use of plastic as a material for the
the outside
manufacture of cylinder head covers helps to
• Sound insulation save weight in comparison with aluminium. In
addition, it is a material that has outstanding
• Accommodating a crankcase venting
sound insulation properties and can be formed
system
into very complex geometrical shapes.
• Acting as fixing point for attached
An even lighter option are cylinder head
components
covers made of magnesium. However,
In order that good sound insulation is manufacturing cylinder head covers from
obtained, the cylinder head cover is isolated aluminium is more costly.
10 - Cylinder head cover made

of plastic
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Cylinder head gasket

The cylinder head gasket is positioned Soft material gaskets
between the crankcase and the cylinder head.
With this type of gasket, a base sheet is
It is subjected to enormous thermal and
covered on both sides by layers of soft
mechanical stresses. Its ability to function
material. There is often a plastic coating
correctly is of enormous importance to engine
applied to the soft material layers. This
operation.
improves the gasket's ability to deal with the
The cylinder head gasket must be capable of stresses that cylinder head gaskets are
sealing off four areas carrying different fluids subjected to. Because of the stresses that
from one another. They are: occur, the holes for the combustion chambers
are edged with metal beads. To strengthen
• Combustion chamber
the holes for through-passage of oil and
• The atmosphere coolant, elastomer coatings are often used.
• Engine oil channels
Metal gaskets
• Coolant channels
Metal gaskets are used on engines subjected
Cylinder head gaskets are generally divided to higher levels of stress. Such gaskets are
into those made of soft materials and those generally made of multiple layers sheet steel.
made of hard materials.
11 - Cylinder head gasket
Index Designation Index Designation

1 Spring steel layer 3 Spring steel layer
2 Intermediate layer
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9
The main characteristic of a metal gasket is cylinders. The significant dimension is the
that its sealing effect is determined essentially maximum measured piston projection above
by integral beads and plugs in the spring steel any of the cylinders. There are three cylinder
layers. Around holes for through-passage of head gasket thicknesses to choose from. The
fluids, the sealing effect is also improved by difference between them is the thickness of
elastomer coatings. the intermediate layer.
The thickness of the cylinder head gasket 3 Refer to the TIS for detailed information
required in each individual case is determined about how to determine the piston projection.
on the basis of the piston projection above the 1
Sump
The sump forms the lower extremity of the • Acting as fixing point for attached
engine casing components. It holds the components
engine's reservoir of oil.
There are frequently swash baffles at the
The sump performs the following tasks: bottom of the sump to prevent the oil running
away from the pump's suction pipe when the
• Reservoir for holding engine oil
vehicle is cornering, accelerating or braking.
• Return flow reservoir for engine oil
The use of an oil deflector serves to remove
• Bottom cover for crankcase the oil from the crankshaft more quickly. Oil
splash plates also prevent oil spray foaming up
too much.
12 - Sump with oil deflector

1 Sump 2 Oil deflector
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The surface of the sump also acts as a cooling Sumps can also be made up of two parts, i.e.
surface for the oil it holds. an upper and a lower section.
Sumps are made either of die-cast aluminium
or double-walled steel sheet.
13 - Sump for M67 engine

1 Upper section of oil pan 2 Sump lower section
A steel gasket is used for the sump. The cork surfaces must be cleaned immediately prior to
gaskets that were used in the past had a assembly. In addition, it is important to ensure
tendency to compress which could cause the that all oil has been allowed to fully drain out of
bolts to loosen. the engine so that it does not drip onto the
3 In order to ensure that the steel gasket
flange surfaces or the steel gasket during
assembly. 1
functions correctly, no oil must be allowed
onto the rubber coating. Under certain At the lowest point of the sump there is
circumstances, that might cause the gasket to generally a drain plug for draining out the old
slip off the sealing face. Therefore, the flange oil when carrying out an oil change.
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Crankcase venting
When the engine is running, blow-by gases also dependent on engine speed) in the
escape from the cylinders into the crankshaft crankshaft cavity compared with the ambient
cavity. Because of the higher pressure in the air pressure. That pressure is obviously also
combustion chamber, especially during the present in all spaces that connect to the
compression and power strokes, the gases crankshaft cavity (e.g. oil return channel, chain
are forced through between the pistons and cavity, etc.) and if not released would force oil
the cylinder walls. The higher the pressure in out through the sealed joints.
the combustion chamber, the more blow-by
To prevent that happening, crankcase venting
gases are forced into the crankshaft cavity.
was introduced. In the beginning, the mixture
Those blow-by gases contain unburned fuel of blow-by gases and oil vapour was simply
and all the constituents of the exhaust. In the released into the atmosphere. But for some
crankshaft cavity, they mix with the engine oil considerable time now, closed crankcase
that is present in the form of oil vapour. venting systems have been used for
environmental protection reasons.
The extent of blow-by is therefore dependent
on engine load. The higher the engine load, A crankcase vent feeds largely oil-free blow-
the higher pressure in the combustion by gases into the air intake system and
chamber. The blow-by gases create positive ensures that no pressure builds up inside the
pressure (which, due to the piston motion, is crankcase.
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Crankshaft drive system
Crankshaft
The crankshaft converts the linear motion of The force is applied to the crankshaft by the
the pistons into a rotary motion. connecting rods and converted into torque.
The crankshaft is mounted on and supported
by the main bearings.
The crankshaft also frequently performs the
following tasks:
• Driving ancillary components by drive belts
• Driving the valvegear
• Driving the oil pump
• Driving balancer shafts (in some cases).
The load on the crankshaft is particularly high
in engines that develop high torque at low
engine speeds.
Design
The crankshaft is a one-piece component
which, however, can be subdivided into a
number of different parts.
The crankshaft has a number of main bearing
journals centred on its rotational axis
(crankshaft axis) which are the points at which
the crankshaft is supported by its main
bearings.
The journals for the con rod big-end bearings
are called the crank pins and are offset by a
certain distance (the throw) from the
14 - Movement of crankshaft drive system components crankshaft axis.
They are joined to the crankshaft by the crank
Index Explanation
arms, sometimes also called crank webs.
1 Linear motion
2 Swinging action
3 Rotary motion
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15 - Crankshaft of a V10 engine

1 Attachment for rotational vibration 5 Output end
damper
2 Gear for driving oil pump 6 Counterweight
3 Main bearing journal 7 Oil hole
4 Big-end bearing journal 8 Sprockets for timing chains
The distance of the big-end journals from the The size of the crank-pin offset depends on
crankshaft axis determines the stroke of the the number of cylinders, engine configuration
engine. The angle between the big-end (in-line or V) and firing order. The aim is to
bearing journals is called the crank-pin offset. obtain as smooth and even running of the
It determines the firing interval between the engine as possible.
individual cylinders. After two complete
revolutions of the crankshaft, or 720° of
rotation, each cylinder has fired once.
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As a general rule it is true to say that the crank majority of the load improves distribution of
pin offset is equal to 720° divided by the the oil.
number of cylinders, e.g. 72° on a ten-cylinder
engine.
The crank pins and crank arms mean that the
weight distribution is unbalanced. This is
counteracted by counterweights on the
crankshaft.
There are oil holes in the crankshaft. They
supply the big-end bearings with oil. They lead
from the main bearing journals to the big-end
bearing journals and are connected to the
engine's oil circulation system through the
main bearing pedestals.
Bearings
As already explained, the crankshaft runs in
bearings at its main bearing journals. As a rule,
there is a main bearing on both sides of a big- 16 - Bearing shells of a four-cylinder engine
end bearing. Thus a crankshaft in an in-line
six-cylinder engine has seven main bearings, Index Explanation
and in a V8 engine five. The main bearings fix
and support the crankshaft in the crankcase. 1 Thrust bearing shell in main bearing
The side subjected to load is in the bearing pedestal
cap. The force that occurs as the result of the 2 Bearing shell in main bearing
combustion pressure is taken up at this point. pedestal
The crankshaft is not, however, in contact with 3 Bearing shell in main bearing cap
the crankcase at its main bearing points. 4 Thrust bearing shell in main bearing
Bearing shells are used that completely cap
surround the main bearing journals. Those
bearing shells have a low-friction surface 3 Careful handling of bearing shells is
made of a special bearing material. The low- extremely important because an ultra-thin
friction surface of each bearing is on the bearing metal layer is not capable of adjusting
inside, i.e. the bearing shells do not rotate to flexural distortion. 1
together with the shaft but rather they are fixed
One of the bearings also performs an
in the crankcase.
additional task. The thrust bearing has the
Resistance to wear is ensured if the surface of job of preventing lengthways movement of the
the bearing shell and the journal are separated shaft. A crankshaft has only one single thrust
by a film of oil. That means that an adequate bearing as distortion and tension could occur if
supply of oil must be guaranteed. Ideally, it several were fitted.
should feed in from the side that is not taking
The thrust bearing provides contact surfaces
the main force of the load, i.e. from the main
for the crankshaft and is supported against the
bearing pedestal. The bearings are supplied
main bearing block in the crankcase.
with oil for lubrication through an oil hole. An
annular groove in the side not carrying the
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Connecting rod
Within the crankshaft drive system, the Design
connecting rods ("con rods") form the link
The con rod has a big and a small end. The
between the pistons and the crankshaft.
small end provides the connection to the
Through them, the linear motion of the pistons
piston by way of the gudgeon pin. Because of
is converted into a rotary motion on the part of
the lateral deflection of the con rod in the
the crankshaft. They also transmit the forces
course of a crankshaft revolution, it has to be
generated by combustion pressure from the
attached to the piston by a pivoting joint. This
pistons to the crankshaft.
is achieved with the aid of a plain bearing. To
The connecting rod is a component that is that end, a bearing bush is press-fitted in the
subjected to extremely high acceleration small end of the con rod. An oil hole in that end
rates. Consequently, the weight of the con rod (piston end) of the con rod supplies the
directly and substantially affects the bearing with oil from the oil spray.
performance capabilities and smoothness of
At the crankshaft end is the split big end. The
the engine. Therefore, with a view to
big end of the con rod has to be split so that it
producing engines that are as quiet and
can be fitted around the bearing journal on the
responsive as possible, great importance is
crankshaft. The big-end bearing is in the form
attached to optimizing con rod weight.
of a plain bearing. The plain bearing consists of
The con rod is subjected to stresses arising two bearing shells. The bearing is supplied
from gas pressures in the combustion with oil for lubrication through an oil hole in the
chamber and the inertia of moved masses crankshaft.
(including its own).
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18 - Con rod with diagonally-split big end
Index Explanation
1 Oil hole
2 Plain bearing
3 Con rod shaft
4 Bearing shell
5 Bearing shell
17 - Con rod with straight-split big end
6 Big-end bearing cap
7 Con rod bolt
The big ends of con rods in V engines are
frequently diagonally split.
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Piston
The piston is the first link in the chain of the coated with various materials. The contact
power transmitting components in a petrol surface material must be matched to the
engine. The task of the piston is to take up the material of the cylinder liner in order to
pressure forces that occur during the guarantee reliable engine running.
combustion process and to transfer them via
Pistons are subjected to very high stresses.
the gudgeon pin and connecting rod to the
Firstly, of a mechanical nature due primarily to
crankshaft. By doing so, it converts the
the forces of combustion. And secondly, the
thermal energy of combustion into motion.
high thermal stresses produced by the high
Together with the piston rings, the piston temperatures in the combustion chamber.
must reliably seal off the combustion chamber
to prevent the escape of gas and penetration Design
of lubricating oil under all load conditions. The
The essential areas of the piston are the piston
lubricating oil at the contact surfaces assists
crown, the ring section including the fire land,
the sealing effect.
the gudgeon pin bosses and the skirt (see
Pistons can be composed of different illustration below).
materials and their contact surfaces can be
19 - Piston, N52 engine

1 Piston crown 4 Piston skirt
2 Compression ring 5 Oil control ring
3 Gudgeon pin 6 Compression ring
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The piston rings, the gudgeon pin and the pin Important piston dimensions are the diameter,
retaining rings are also counted as part of the the overall length and the compression height.
piston assembly. The compression height is the distance from
the gudgeon pin axis to the top edge of the
The piston crown forms the lower limit of the
piston crown.
combustion chamber. In petrol engines, the
piston crown may be flat, raised or recessed. The piston crown of a modern diesel engine is
specially shaped for the purposes of direct fuel
The ring section generally has three ring
injection. It achieves better mixing of fuel and
grooves to hold the piston rings whose
air.
function is to seal against gas and oil leakage.
Between the ring grooves are the lands. The Another difference on the part of a diesel
land above the first piston ring is referred to as piston is the annular cooling channel. Engine
the fire land. The ring set usually consists of oil runs through it. It allows heat to removed
two compression rings and one oil control ring. from the piston crown. That is necessary
because pistons in diesel engines are
The gudgeon-pin boss holds the gudgeon pin
subjected to higher thermal stresses.
in the piston.
The piston skirt, the lower part of the piston,
performs the job of guiding the piston inside
the cylinder.
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20 - Piston

1 Piston crown 6 Piston skirt
2 Cooling channel 7 Gudgeon pin
3 Ring-groove insert 8 Bronze bearing for gudgeon pin
4 Groove for 1st compression ring 9 Groove for oil control ring
5 Groove for 2nd compression ring
Piston rings In order for the piston rings to effectively fulfil

their tasks it is necessary that they rest on the
Piston rings are metal seals that have the
cylinder wall and on the edge of the piston ring
following tasks:
groove. Contact with the cylinder wall is
• To seal the combustion chamber from the ensured by the radial spring force of the piston
crankcase ring. The oil wiper rings are often assisted by
an additional spring.
• To conduct heat from the piston to the
cylinder wall Reliable operation of the piston rings primarily
depends on the surface quality of the pistons,
• To control the amount of oil on the cylinder
piston rings and cylinder wall as well as on their
liner
material combination.
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Piston rings are classified into different types the engine to generate the required power.
according to their function. And without the piston rings it would not be
possible during the compression stroke to
• Compression rings
produce the compression that is required for
• Oil control rings ignition.
Compression rings ensure that as little as Oil control rings control the oil film on the
possible of the combustion gases escape - inside of the cylinder wall. They wipe away
between the cylinder wall and the piston - from surplus lubricant from the cylinder wall and
the combustion chamber into the crankcase. make sure it is not burned. They are thus also
Only by doing so can they ensure that responsible for the rate at which the engine
sufficient pressure is produced in the consumes oil.
combustion chamber during combustion for
Balancer shafts
When the engine is running the crankshaft
drive system generates inertial forces. Those
inertial forces are subdivided into forces
produced by rotational motion and those
arising from reciprocating motion.
Forces produced by rotational motion in the
crankshaft drive system are counterbalanced
by counterweights. Forces originating from
reciprocating motion, on the other hand, can
only be balanced out to a limited degree. On a
straight 6-cylinder engine, those forces
balance themselves out. On an in-line 4-
cylinder engine, by contrast, inertial forces in 21 - Principle of 2nd order balancer shafts.
line with the cylinder axes occur, thereby
producing oscillations that prevent the desired Index Explanation
smooth running of the engine. That inherent 1 Drive sprocket
disadvantage of 4-cylinder in-line engines can
be minimized by using balancer shafts. 2 Balancer shaft drive sprocket
Balancer shafts improve the smoothness and 3 Balancer shaft drive sprocket
noise output of an engine. This is achieved by The vibrations that need to be
two contra-rotating shafts that carry counterbalanced have a frequency twice that
counterbalance weights. of the crankshaft speed. Therefore, the
balancer shafts are driven at twice the speed
Method of operation of the crankshaft. One of the balancer shafts
Balancer shafts are positioned on both sides rotates in the same direction as the crankshaft
of the crankshaft. They carry counterbalance and the other in the opposite direction.
weights whose inertial forces are opposed to
the unbalanced inertial forces of the engine.
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Rotational vibration damping

The energy that is transmitted to the The illustration below shows a cut-away view
crankshaft in an engine does not follow an of a rotational vibration damper.
even pattern in reality. To begin with, there are
the cyclic combustion processes which act
almost percussively on the crankshaft. In
addition, the way in which the force acts
against the crankshaft is constantly changing
because of the changing angle of the con rod.
Thus the crankshaft is constantly abruptly
accelerated and then decelerated. This
produces rotational vibration on the part of the
crankshaft. That vibration can be damaging to
the crankshaft and the components
connected to it. Especially at certain speeds,
the rotational vibration can resonate and cause
engine damage.
To counteract that effect, there are rotational
vibration damping systems.
Rotational vibration damper

The rotational vibration damper is fitted to the
front end of the crankshaft, i.e. the end
opposite to the power output end. It consists
of a fixed plate (small mass) and an inertia ring
(large mass). The two are interconnected by a
rubber insert and can thus twist relative to one
another by a few degrees. The fixed plate is
bolted to the crankshaft through its end face. 22 - Rotational vibration damper
The rotational vibration damper evens out

rotational vibration of the crankshaft. Under Index Explanation
sudden acceleration, the inertia ring lags a few 1 Belt pulley
degrees of rotation behind the crankshaft, 2 Vulcanization layer
while under deceleration, it does the opposite.
3 Plain bearing
The rotational vibration damper is important
not only in terms of how smoothly the engine 4 Inertia ring
runs but also with regard to even and low-wear 5 Rubber damper
drive transmission to the timing gear and the 6 Rubber damper
belt drive systems. Frequently, it is integrated
directly in the belt drive pulley. 7 Hub
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Flywheel into motion. As a result, a body whose motion

is damped in that way can not so easily be
The flywheel is normally attached to the rear
induced to vibrate.
end of the crankshaft, in other words between
the engine and gearbox. It can store energy
Dual-mass flywheel
during the power stroke and release it again
later on. That energy held by the flywheel is The periodic nature of the engine's
used to overcome the "non-working" strokes combustion cycle produces rotational
and the dead centre points. vibration in the drive train on vehicles with
manual transmission. That produces gearbox
Thus the flywheel increases the inertia of the
noises on vehicles with manual transmission
engine. The higher the inertia of a body, the
which can even be transmitted to the
more difficult it is to set it in motion, and once
bodywork.
in motion, the more difficult it is to stop. That
means in particular that small motion stimuli To prevent that occurring, a dual-mass
that occur abruptly are only slowly converted flywheel is used.
23 - Function of dual-mass flywheel
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As distinct from a conventional flywheel, the flywheel mass is isolated from that of the
mass of a dual-mass flywheel is split into two gearbox.
parts. One part is rigidly attached to the engine
The function is similar to that of a rotational
and adds to its inertia. That is the primary side.
vibration damper. While the flywheel plate that
The second part is attached to the gearbox
is connected to the engine follows the uneven
and increases its inertia. The two flywheel
rotational pattern of the engine, the flywheel
masses are connected to one another by a
mass connected to the gearbox rotates at a
spring damper system. Thus the engine
constant rate while engine speed remains the
same.
Timing gear
Modern engines are what are known as any variation of the valve timing. To solve that
overhead valvegear engines. That means the problem, systems such as the VANOS
valvegear and, therefore, the timing system for variable camshaft timing system have been
the engine are located in the cylinder head. developed.
The job of the camshafts is to ensure that the
valves open and close at precisely the right Design
times. The camshafts are generally driven by
There are various different designs of chain
timing belts or chains that are part of a belt or
driven timing gear. The essential distinctions
chain drive system. In addition there are
generally relate to the design and routing of
systems that use directly intermeshing spur
the chain(s), however. Regardless of the
gears.
particular design, the timing gear always
Timing belts are used less and less frequently consists of a chain sprocket on the crankshaft,
on the current range of engines. Although they chain guides, chain tensioners and tensioner
offer very quiet running characteristics guides, an oil supply, at least one chain
combined with economical costs, they have to sprocket on a camshaft, and finally at least one
be replaced at regular intervals. timing chain.
Timing chains are now increasingly used In general, the aim is to keep the unguided
instead. The classic chain drive system length of the chain as short as possible. The
provides a rigid transmission link between part of the chain that is not under load is called
crankshaft and camshaft. Rigid in this case the slack side. The chain is always tensioned
means that the transmission ratio (in this case on the slack side. This is done by means of a
2:1, or two revolutions of the crankshaft to one tensioner guide that is operated by chain
revolution of the camshaft) is unchangeable. tensioner.
That transmission ratio is brought about by
The oil supply is provided either by oil spray
having a chain sprocket on the camshaft that
nozzles that spray engine oil onto the chain, or
has twice as many teeth as the one on the
oil holes in the guide rails.
crankshaft. The position of the camshaft(s)
relative to the crankshaft is thus fixed. On many engines, the oil pump is also driven
by a chain running off the crankshaft.
That rigid link is not a perfect solution under all
conditions, however, as it does not allow for
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24 - Timing gear of a V engine

1 Upper chain guide, cylinder bank 1 10 Timing chain, cylinder bank 2
2 Inlet camshaft sprocket, cylinder bank 11 Chain guide, cylinder bank 2
1
3 Timing chain, cylinder bank 1 12 Oil pump drive chain
4 Chain guide, cylinder bank 1 13 Oil pump sprocket
5 Chain tensioner, cylinder bank 2 14 Crankshaft sprocket
6 Chain guide, cylinder bank 2 15 Oil spray nozzle
7 Inlet camshaft sprocket, cylinder bank 16 Tensioner guide, cylinder bank 1
2
8 Upper chain guide, cylinder bank 2 17 Chain tensioner, cylinder bank 1
9 Exhaust camshaft sprocket, cylinder 18 Exhaust camshaft sprocket, cylinder
bank 2 bank 1
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Valvegear
Camshafts
The camshafts control the gas replacement The valve is opened against the force of the
cycle and, therefore, combustion. Their main valve spring. The valve is closed and held in
function is to open and close the inlet and the closed position against the valve seat by
exhaust valves. They are driven by the the force of the valve spring.
crankshaft. The ratio between speed of
Transmission of the valve-opening force from
rotation of the camshaft to that of the
the camshaft to the cam follower results in
crankshaft is 1:2. In other words, the camshaft
torsional and flexural stress on the camshaft.
rotates at only half the speed of the crankshaft.
This is brought about by the transmission ratio
Design
of the timing-chain sprockets. The position of
the camshaft relative to the crankshaft is also The main components of the camshaft is the
precisely defined. cylindrical shaft. Depending on design, it may
be hollow or solid. Arranged along and around
To make the valvegear as rigid as possible, in
it are the cams. The actuation forces are
other words to keep the linkage between the
braced by the camshaft bearings. On most
camshaft and the valves as short as possible,
engines, the camshaft runs directly in the
modern engines have overhead camshafts.
bearings. The surface is ground at those
Engines with two valves per cylinder usually
points. An oil hole in the bearing pedestal on
have a single camshaft operating the inlet and
the cylinder head provides the required
the exhaust valves. The present four-valve-
lubrication. There is also a thrust bearing to
per-cylinder engines have two camshafts -
limit axial float.
one for the inlet valves and one for the exhaust
valves (on each cylinder bank on V engines, i.e. The drive is provided by a sprocket running off
four in total). the crankshaft. On some engines, there are
additional sprockets or gears for transmitting
The valves are opened by the action of the
the drive from one camshaft to another. Those
cam being transmitted via one or more
sprockets/gears may be integral with the
actuators to the valve (the actuator in direct
camshaft or flange-mounted onto it.
contact with the cam is called a cam follower).
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9
25 - Camshaft

1 Bearing point with thrust faces for 4 Hexagonal flats for spanner
axial alignment
2 Reference for camshaft sensor 5 Cam
3 Double flats for locating special tool 6 Bearing point
The camshaft may also have a ring of "teeth" positioning tool and hexagonal spanner flats
to act as reluctor ring for the camshaft sensor. for bracing the camshaft during assembly are
A double-flatted neck for locating the special required for servicing purposes.
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9
Cam profile The cam profile is described by those four

fundamental components. The cam follower,
The cam profile, in other words the shape of
which follows the action of the cam and
the cam cross-section, determines the valve
transmits it to the valve, traces the contour of
lift pattern. The latter is usually a compromise
that profile.
in terms of obtaining the best possible cylinder
charge at all engine speeds. While the cam follower is in contact with the
base circle, the valve is closed. If the valve
The illustration below shows the cross-section
clearance is adjusted manually rather than
of a cam and identifies its various elements.
automatically there is a certain amount of
clearance or play between the base circle and
the cam follower.
As the cam shoulder comes into contact with
the cam follower, the valve opens and then
closes again as the closing shoulder runs over
the follower. The steeper the shoulders, the
faster the valve opens and closes. The
shoulder can also be curved. Cams with
straight shoulders are called tangent-lobe
cams.
The cam tip is the point at which the valve is
fully open. The broader the cam tip, the longer
the valve stays open. However, degrees of
curvature can then be produced at which the
cam follower loses contact with the cam due
to the rate of acceleration. The distance from
the base circle to the cam tip is the cam lift.
26 - Cam cross-section The manner in which the cam action is
transmitted to the valve depends on the cam
Index Explanation follower. A bucket tappet, for example,
1 Cam lift transmits the motion directly, i.e. with a ratio of
1:1. With a roller lever tappet, the transmission
2 Cam tip ratio depends on the leverage.
3 Cam shoulder
4 Base circle
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9
Cam followers
Transmitting the action of the cam to the valve Rockers
is the job of a rocker or tappet. Because such
Rockers or rocker arms transmit the action of
components follow the movement of the cam,
the cam indirectly. The rocker is pivoted in the
they are also called cam followers. The cam
centre on a shaft. The camshaft is positioned
follower traces the contour of the cam profile
underneath one end of the rocker. An inlet or
and transmits that movement directly or
exhaust valve is positioned below the other
indirectly (with a transmission ratio).
end of the rocker and is operated by it.
Particular importance is placed on rigid Rockers are now rarely used on modern
transmission and light weight. engines.
Rigid transmission ensures that the valve lift
Lever tappets
pattern follows the desired progression. Only
in that way can optimum cylinder charging be Lever tappets also transmit the action of the
accurately controlled. cam indirectly. However, they do not pivot on
a shaft. Instead, they rest at one end directly
Light weight is necessary to keep the inertial
on the cylinder head or an HVA adjuster. The
forces low.
other end rests on the valve stem. The
camshaft cam presses on the centre of the
lever tappet from above.
27 - Valvegear with lever

tappets

1 Inlet camshaft 5 Exhaust valve
2 Hydraulic valve-clearance adjuster 6 Valve spring
3 Valve guide 7 Lever tappets
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9
The lever tappets used nowadays are almost

exclusively roller lever tappets.
28 - Roller lever tappets

A Roller lever tappet, top view 2 Hemispherical recess for resting on
HVA adjuster
B Roller lever tappet, bottom view 3 Actuating face that presses on the
valve
1 Needle-bearing roller for following
cam
With roller lever tappets the action of the cam Bucket and box tappets
is not followed by a sliding face but a roller
Bucket and box tappets transmit the cam
running on needle roller bearings. In
action directly to the inlet/exhaust valves
comparison with non-roller lever tappets or
because they do not change the direction or
bucket tappets, this results in lower frictional
speed of the movement. Such direct
losses especially in the lower rev band that is
transmission offers excellent rigidity in
of significance for lowering fuel consumption.
conjunction with relatively low moved masses
and compact dimensions. These types of
tappet are guided in the cylinder head and
transmit a linear motion.
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9
29 - Valvegear with bucket

tappets

1 Inlet camshaft 5 Valve spring
2 Valve guide 6 Bucket tappet with HVA
4 Exhaust valve
In valvegear systems with bucket/box tappets To ensure even wear of the cam contact face,
and hydraulic valve clearance adjustment, the the bucket tappet should rotate. This is
HVA adjusters are part of the tappets. achieved by positioning the cam at a slight
offset relative to the tappet (along the
Bucket tappets are the type most commonly
camshaft axis).
used. As the name suggests, bucket tappets
are shaped like a bucket placed upside down
over the end of the valve stem.
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Hydraulic valve clearance adjusters (HVA)

The valves must be able to close properly it drives, its fuel consumption and exhaust
under all engine operating conditions so as emission levels.
• to prevent loss of power by loss of • Too large a valve clearance shortens the
compression and combustion pressure, as timing intervals, i.e. the valves open later
well as to and close sooner.
• dissipate the heat generated through the • Too small a valve clearance lengthens the
cylinder head and the coolant. timing intervals, i.e. the valves open sooner
and close later.
Valves that do not close properly do not
provide a perfect seal. This firstly interrupts
Hydraulic valve-clearance adjuster
the flow of heat from the valve heads to the
cylinder head. Secondly, the hot combustion Hydraulic valve clearance adjustment (HVA)
gases escape through the narrow gap at a has the following functions:
high flow velocity, thereby heating the heads
• To maintain the valve clearance at zero
of the exhaust valves to extreme
under all operating conditions
temperatures. In petrol engines, this can
cause pre-ignition that leads to piston • To make manual valve clearance
damage. The exhaust valves can also be adjustment superfluous even after the
burned away so that they become entirely engine has completed a substantial period
ineffective and cause sudden major power of service.
loss.
This is achieved by means of an HVA adjuster.
It can take one of two forms, depending on the
Manual valve clearance adjustment
valvegear. It can be an integral component of
With manual valve clearance adjustment it is the bucket tappet or it can be a separate
only possible to ensure that the valves close component on which the lever tappet rests.
properly by providing a degree of play
The function of the HVA adjuster is identical in
between the valve stem and the valve actuator
principle regardless which type is used.
when the valve is closed. Since the clearance
gap set will decrease as the engine heats up, it The hydraulic valve clearance adjuster is
must be set sufficiently large. designed so that it fills with oil and slowly
expands until the valve clearance is zero.
If the valve clearance is too great it will result in
When the cam pushes against the valve, the
unpleasant noises, and jerky and wear-
HVA adjuster can not be compressed as
inducing loads.
quickly. The cam action is transmitted entirely
The valve clearance affects the engine's to the valve.
timing and, therefore, its performance, the way
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9
Valves
BMW engines exclusively use poppet valves
as the sealing devices on the inlet and exhaust
ports. The inlet and exhaust valves are high-
precision engine components that are subject
to extreme stresses.
They have the following functions:
• To close off the inlet and exhaust ports
• To control the gas replacement cycle
• To seal the combustion chamber
The valve performs its sealing function in
conjunction with the valve seat insert.
Inlet and exhaust valves undergo different
stresses from one another. Common to both
are the stresses caused by movement.
The exhaust valves, however, are also
subjected to extremely high thermal stresses
by the exhaust gases, whereas the inlet valves
are cooled by the fresh fuel-air mixture being
drawn in. The valves also conduct heat away
through the valve seat.
Because of the different stress patterns they
undergo, different materials are used for the
inlet and exhaust valves.
Together with the valve guides and valve
springs, the valves form an assembly that is
described below as a unit. The following
30 - Valve in fitted position
diagram illustrates the assembly in its fitted
arrangement.
Index Explanation
1 Collet
2 Valve stem seal
3 Lower valve spring retainer
4 Inlet/exhaust port
5 Valve seat insert
6 Cylinder head
7 Valve guide
8 Valve spring
9 Upper valve spring retainer
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9
Design diagram). The valve face forms a functional

unit together with the valve seat insert. For
Valves are essentially divided into three main
that reason the valve seat insert is also
groups: single-metal valves, bimetal valves
described in conjunction with the valve face.
and hollow valves.
Single-metal valves are made of one material
and formed into the desired shape by forging.
With bimetal valves, the valve shaft and valve
head are manufactured separately and
subsequently joined by friction welding. This
has the advantage that the most suitable
material can be chosen in each case for the
stem and head. Bimetal valves are used for
exhaust valves because that advantage is of
particular benefit on the exhaust valves. The
valve head can then be made of a material that
is suited to extreme temperatures, while the
stem can be made of a very hard-wearing
material.
There is a separate section devoted to hollow
valves (see below).
Regardless of whether the valves are made of
a single material or more than one, and
whether they are hollow or solid, they have
basically the same design.
Index Explanation
1 Groove pattern
2 Valve stem diameter
3 Fillet
4 Valve head
5 Seat height
6 Head diameter
7 Seat diameter
8 Seat angle
31 - Design of a valve
A valve can be divided into the three sections:
valve head, valve face and valve stem (see
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9
The valve head is the entire lower section of is the angled face of the valve that makes
the valve and incorporates the valve face and contact with the valve seat insert in the
the fillet. The force that occurs as the result of cylinder head. The width of the valve face is
the combustion pressure is taken up at this not the same on all valves. Narrow valve faces
point. The valve head thickness is thus improve the effectiveness of the seal but are
accordingly dimensioned. not as good at conducting heat.
The valve seat forms the seal that closes off Proper positioning of the valve face relative to
the port from the combustion chamber. It is the valve seat is extremely important. The
also the point at which heat is conducted from following illustration shows the possible
the valve to the cylinder head. The valve face positions.
32 - Positioning of valve face

A Valve contact too far out 1 Valve seat insert
B Valve contact too far in 2 Valve face
C Contact position correct
If the valve seat contacts the outer edge of the Because of its functional interaction with the
valve face, the mechanical stress on the valve valve, however, it is described in this section.
is too great. If the point of contact is too far in,
The aluminium cylinder heads on modern
the heat conduction from the outer edge is
engines always have valve seat inserts. The
insufficient. In addition, the valve aperture is
cylinder head material does not have the
reduced.
required properties for valve seats. The valve
The valve seat angle is the angle between the seat insert forms a material pair together with
valve seat and a (theoretical) plane the valve which must continue to effectively
perpendicular to the valve axis. The efficiency perform its required function even after
of the seal and valve wear are partly several million load cycles.
dependent on the valve seat angle. In the case
The valve stem is the part of the valve that
of the inlet valves, the valve seat angle also
runs in the valve guide and extends from the
affects the inflow of the mixture and therefore
groove pattern for the valve collet to the
on the effectiveness of fuel and air mixing.
junction with the fillet.
The valve seat insert is, like the valve guide,
a component fitted in the cylinder head.
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9
Hollow valves sodium) that melts at 97.5 °C. This is shaken

about inside the valve cavity to varying
Hollow valves are used on the exhaust side to
degrees depending on engine speed. A
reduce temperatures in the fillet and valve
proportion of the heat occurring at the fillet
head areas. A section of the valve in that area
and valve head is conducted through the
is hollow.
material to the valve guide and passed into the
cooling system. The temperature reduction
thus achievable is considerable.
3 When disposing of sodium-filled exhaust
valves, the safety precautions must be
observed.
Incorrect handling of sodium-filled exhaust
valves can cause an explosion hazard. This
type of valve must not be melted down or
reprocessed after disposal without the sodium
having first been removed.
Extreme care is called for when removing the
sodium because it forms an explosive
combination with water.
The hydrogen gas that is produced is a fire
hazard. 1
Valve guide
The valve guide ensures that the valve is
centred on the valve seat and that heat can be
conducted away from the valve head through
the stem to the cylinder head. An optimum
amount of play between the guide bore and
the valve stem is required. It the play is too
small, the valve will tend to stick. If there is too
much play, heat conduction is impaired. The
aim is to achieve the smallest possible degree
of valve play under those considerations.
For correct functioning of the valve, it is
essential that the centre misalignment
33 - Hollow valve
between valve guide and seat insert is within
the specified tolerance. Too great a centre
Index Explanation misalignment causes the valve head to bend
1 Valve stem on the stem. This can result in premature
2 Cavity failure. Other consequences may be valve
leakage, poor heat conduction and high oil
3 Valve head consumption.
To assist heat transfer, roughly 60 % of the
cavity volume is filled with a material (metallic
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9
Valve collets is made between compression and non-

compression joints.
The job of the valve collet is to attach the valve
spring retainer to the valve stem. A distinction
34 - Compression and non-

compression valve collets

A Non-compression joint 2 Non-compression valve collet
B Compression joint 3 Compression valve collet
1 Valve spring retainer 4 Valve stem
With a non-compression joint (A), the halves of Valve springs

the valve collet (2) brace against each other
The function of the valve spring is to close the
when fitted. They thus allow a degree of play
valve in a controlled manner, i.e. to make the
between the collet and the valve stem, which
valve follow the cam action so that it closes at
enables the valve to rotate. That rotation
precisely the right time even at maximum
benefits the bedding in of the valve and
engine speed. In addition, its force must be
cleaning of the valve seat.
sufficient to prevent vibration of the valve
With a compression joint (B), a gap remains immediately after closing (called valve
between the halves of the collet when fitted. bounce). When the valve opens, the spring
This means that the valve is gripped between must prevent it from losing contact with the
the halves of the collet and cannot rotate. cam (follower).
This compression type of valve collet (3) is
preferred on engines with very high revving
speeds.
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9
Lubrication
Engine oil
Engine oils are essentially classified on the The degree to which viscosity is dependent on
basis of two criteria: temperature also varies from one oil grade to
another.
• Viscosity
The graph illustrates that one oil can have a
• Quality
higher viscosity than another at 0 °C but a
lower viscosity at 60 °C, for instance.
Viscosity
Choosing an engine oil with the right viscosity
Viscosity is a measure of the oil's resistance to
is governed primarily by the following factors:
flow, i.e. the opposite of fluidity. The table
below shows how they relate to one another. • Cold starting
Viscosity Oil fluidity • Hot running

Low High Engine oils must be sufficiently fluid to offer as
little resistance as possible when starting the
High Low engine from cold. This is indispensable for
The higher the viscosity, the greater is the being able to start the engine quickly. In
resistance of the oil to relative movement addition, it ensures that the oil pump is
between adjoining fluid layers. That resistance capable of delivering the oil reliably and quickly
is also referred to as internal friction. enough to the engine's lubrication points.
The viscosity varies according to the grade of When the engine oil is hot, it must not become
oil. It also generally diminishes as temperature too thin because that would endanger the
increases. load-bearing capacity of the lubricant film.
Index Explanation
1 Temperature
2 Viscosity
3 Oil 1
4 Oil 2
35 -
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SAE viscosity grades Oil quantity

The Society of Automotive Engineers has Every engine has a precisely specified oil
defined viscosity grades to simplify selection capacity indicating how much oil it should
of engine and transmission oils for different contain. It is essential that that quantity is
temperature ranges. maintained. Only in that way is it possible to
ensure that the lubrication system performs its
Firstly, there are single-grade oils. They are
required functions.
designed for only one temperature range, e.g.
winter-grade oils (SAE 10W, SAE 20W) or If there is too little oil in the engine, the
summer-grade oils (SAE 30, SAE 50). Then required oil pressure can not be maintained.
there are multigrade oils, which are suitable for The lubrication points will not be supplied with
all-year-round use, e.g. SAE 15W-50. oil and engine damage will result.
Modern engines exclusively use multigrade Too much oil can damage the engine as well.
oils. Such oils are also distinguished by other Firstly, the crankshaft starts to splash in the oil
features such as their quality or the extra if the level is too high. And secondly, high
additives they contain. pressure can be created inside the crankcase
3 Only selected oils are approved for each
causing damage to the gaskets.
particular engine. Details of which oil should 3 It is absolutely imperative that the engine
be used can be found in the TIS. 1 contains the specified amount of oil. If there is
too little oil in the engine, supply of oil to the
lubrication points can not be guaranteed. 1
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9
Oil pump
The oil pump has the job of circulating the oil
around the oil circulation system. It must
In this type of oil pump, two spur gears, of
provide sufficient oil pressure combined with a
which one is driven, mesh with each other.
high delivery rate.
The tips of the teeth that are not engaged
The oil pump draws the oil out of the sump rotate inside the pump housing and convey oil
through a suction pipe and pumps it into the from the intake into the pressure chamber.
pressure side of the system.
The oil pump is driven by a chain or sprocket
Various types of oil pump are used on motor running off the crankshaft. The delivery rate of
vehicle engines. The basic function is the oil pump is dependent on engine speed.
explained in this document using the example So that sufficient oil pressure can be
of the simplest type, the gear pump. generated even at low engine speeds, the
pump must be adequately dimensioned. The
disadvantage of this is that too much oil is
delivered at high speeds. Although that is not
harmful, because the excess pressure is
diverted, the pump nevertheless uses up more
engine power than necessary. Therefore,
modern engines now have oil pumps whose
delivery rate can be varied.
Index Explanation
1 Oil pump housing
2 Pressurized oil
3 Pressure chamber
4 Gearwheel
5 Drive shaft
6 Intake chamber
7 Oil intake
36 - Gear-type oil pump 8 Gearwheel
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9
Pressure relief valve

The pressure relief valve is located on the side, often directly inside the oil pump
pressure side. It protects against excessively housing.
high oil pressure, e.g. at high engine speeds or
when starting the engine when the oil is cold. Functional principle
It protects the oil pump and oil pump drive
A spring-loaded piston in the oil circulation
mechanism as well as the oil filter and oil
system closes off a passage through which oil
cooler. It thus makes it possible to keep the oil
can pass from the pressure side of the system
pressure in the oil circulation system below a
back to the intake side. Thus the piston is
maximum level under all operating conditions.
acted upon by the force of the spring from one
The pressure relief valve is positioned as close
side and the oil pressure from the opposite
as possible to the oil pump on the downstream
direction.
37 - Function of pressure relief valve
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9

A Pressure relief valve closed 5 Oil channel to engine lubrication
points
B Pressure relief valve open 6 Engine oil pressure
1 Pressure relief valve 7 Spring
2 Oil filter 8 Pressure side
3 Oil pump 9 Return to sump
4 Sump 10 Piston
As the engine oil pressure rises, the piston is downstream of the oil filter, as this is the actual
forced back, thereby opening the passage. effective oil pressure. If the pressure were
The oil flows out of the pressure side and the tapped upstream of the oil filter, a slightly
oil pressure drops. The force of the spring is clogged filter would cause the pressure relief
such that at the desired maximum pressure, valve to respond sooner and the pressure
the forces applied to the piston by the spring downstream of the filter would not be
and the oil pressure are equal. sufficient for supplying the engine with oil.
The pressure acting on the piston is usually
tapped from the oil circulation system
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9
Oil filter
The purpose of the oil filter is to clean the oil solid particles such as metal abrasion dust,
and to prevent dirt particles from entering the soot or dust particles. However, oil filters can
oil circulation system and therefore reaching not remove liquid contaminants or those that
the bearing points. It thus prevents premature dissolve in the oil.
deterioration of the oil due to contamination by
38 - Oil filter with bypass valve

1 Filter bypass valve 6 O-ring
2 Oil filter cover 7 Non-return valve
3 Oil filter housing 8 Oil flow
4 O-ring 9 Oil filter
5 Oil drain opening for filter change 10 Oil flow via filter bypass valve
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9
Current motor vehicle engines have what is Filter bypass valve

called a full-flow oil filter. As the same
A filter bypass valve is arranged parallel to the
suggests, the oil filter is in the main oil flow
filter in order to maintain the supply of oil to the
between the oil pump and the engine
lubrication points even when the full-flow oil
lubrication points. That means the entire
filter is soiled. This valve opens if the oil
volume of oil conveyed by the oil pump passes
pressure increases due to the filter being
through the filter before it is fed to the
blocked, thus ensuring that oil (although
lubrication points. The lubrication points
unfiltered) still reaches the lubrication points.
therefore only ever receive filtered oil.
Non-return valve
Non-return valves are used to prevent the oil Without non-return valves, the oil filter and oil
filter or oil channels running dry. They are so channels would run dry when the engine is not
called because they prevent the fluid (oil in this running. And that would mean that, particularly
case) flowing back. They only allow the oil to if the engine had not been used for a long
flow in one direction and close off the flow in period, the lubrication points would not be
the other direction. supplied with oil until a certain amount of time
after the engine was started.
3 Particular care must be taken when
performing repairs to ensure that no impurities
enter the non-return valve or the oil channels/
galleries, otherwise leaks may occur. The oil
channels would run dry and, particularly if the
engine had not been run for a long time, it
would run noisily or badly immediately after
starting as a result. 1
39 - Non-return valve
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9
Oil spray nozzles

Oil spray nozzles are used to feed oil for sprayed precisely into the cooling channel
lubrication or cooling purposes to defined where it collects. The movement of the piston
positions of moving parts that cannot be ensures that the oil circulates. The oil is made
reached via oil channels. to oscillate in the channel, thereby improving
the cooling effect. Additional bores allow the
Oil spray nozzle for piston crown cooling oil to flow back out.
The oil spray nozzle supplies the underside of
the piston with oil for cooling purposes. It is
40 - Oil spray nozzle for piston

crown cooling

1 Piston 3 Oil spray nozzle
2 Cooling channel
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9
3 The oil spray nozzle sprays cooling oil on

the piston crown. Exact positioning is
necessary in order to achieve optimum
cooling. It is particularly important to observe
the repair instructions in this context as
incorrect positioning could cause engine
damage. 1
The piston cooling valve is positioned
upstream of the oil spray nozzles for piston
cooling. There is either one serving all oil spray
nozzles in the oil channel or else each oil spray
nozzle has its own piston cooling valve. The 41 - Oil spray nozzle with piston cooling valve
piston cooling valve ensures that the oil spray
nozzle does not start working until a defined Index Explanation
pressure is reached. 1 Banjo bolt
There are various reasons for this: 2 Spring
• If the oil pressure were too low, the oil spray 3 Ball
would not reach the piston crown
4 Screw plug
• If the oil pressure is low, it prevents more 5 Ring
pressure being lost through the oil spray
nozzles and oil not reaching engine 6 Tube
lubrication points as a result
Oil spray nozzle for lubricating timing
• When the engine is not running, it prevents chain
the oil channels running dry through the oil
spray nozzles and there being no oil at the The chain drive is lubricated by oil spray
lubrication points when the engine is nozzles or by oil holes in the guide elements.
started
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9
Oil cooler
There is a risk on high-performance engines down causing bearing and piston damage.
and engines subject to high thermal loads that These problems can be avoided by the use of
the lubricating oil becomes too hot during an oil cooler. The oil cooler is not required
vehicle operation. In such circumstances, the when the engine is cold and therefore does
oil becomes too thin. Its lubricating ability not cut in before an oil temperature of approx.
diminishes and oil consumption rises resulting 90 °C is reached. The cooling effect is
in deposits in the combustion chamber and achieved through air or coolant.
combustion problems. The oil film can break
42 - Transmission fluid-to-coolant heat exchanger

1 Coolant inlet 4 Coolant outlet
2 Transmission fluid outlet 5 Thermostat
3 Transmission fluid inlet
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9
Oil pressure switch

The purpose of the oil pressure switch is to drops below a certain level, the force of the
monitor the lubrication system. When the spring closes the contact and the oil pressure
ignition is turned on with the engine stationary, indicator lamp comes on again.
the oil pressure indicator lamp is connected to
ground via the oil pressure switch causing the
3 If the oil pressure light comes on when the
engine is running, it is essential to switch the
lamp to come on. After the engine is started,
engine off. Otherwise, engine damage could
the oil pressure opens the earth contact
result. 1
against the force of the spring and the
indicator lamp goes out. If the oil pressure
43 - Oil pressure switch

1 Upper section of housing, plastic 6 Seal
2 Contact 7 Diaphragm
3 Spring 8 Metal housing
4 Pressure pad 9 Current flow when contact is closed
5 Intermediate plate 10 Air gap when contact is open
3 Red indicator light comes on:

• Stop immediately and turn off the engine.
• Check oil level, top up oil if necessary.
• If the engine oil level is OK, a system diagnosis is required. 1
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9
Cooling system
Coolant pump
The coolant pump is usually in the form of a wheel. The rotation of the pump impeller
radial pump. It circulates the coolant around draws the coolant in at the front and forces it
the coolant system by means of an impeller outwards into the pressure chamber.
44 - Coolant pump on N47 engine

1 Inflow from expansion bottle (and 5 Thermostat
transmission oil cooler on vehicles
with automatic transmission)
2 Coolant pump 6 Radiator return
3 Supply to crankcase 7 Inflow from thermostat
4 Return flow from cylinder head 8 Return from heating system
94
9
The coolant pump is usually driven by the belt Under normal conditions the coolant that
drive system. In that case, the delivery rate is escapes past the pump shaft collects in it and
directly dependent on engine speed. evaporates through a hole in the leakage
chamber.
Coolant leakage
In addition, on current engines, the hole in the
The impeller, which is inside the coolant leakage chamber directs any escaping coolant
chamber, runs on a shaft. The coolant onto the belt pulley, as a result of which small
chamber is sealed from the outside by a seal traces of coolant may be evident.
on the shaft. For the seal to function properly,
a small amount of coolant must escape
3 In the past, perfectly functioning coolant
pumps were often replaced because the
between the seal and the shaft. That improves
shaft-seal leakage necessary for proper
its frictional properties. This phenomenon is
operation of the coolant pump left evaporation
referred to as functional leakage of the shaft
residues on the outside of the pump housing.
seal.
1
Current coolant pumps have a "leakage
retention system" for the functional leakage.
Thermostat
By infinitely varying the coolant flow between
the large and the small circulation systems, the
coolant thermostat ensures that the engine
reaches its operating temperature as quickly
as possible and that the optimum temperature
is maintained while the engine is running.
To achieve that, a two-way thermostat is used
nowadays. As the temperature increases, it
gradually directs the coolant flow from the
small to the large circulation system.
This is achieved by means of a wax element in
the thermostat which absorbs the 45 - Thermostat closed
temperature of the coolant surrounding it. The
wax acts as an expanding material that
expands significantly when heated and in so
doing opens the thermostat.
Index Explanation
A From engine
B To radiator
C To engine
1 Expanding material
46 - Thermostat open
95
9
47 - Thermostat on N47
engine

1 Crankcase 4 Wax element
2 Hot coolant from cylinder head 5 Radiator return
3 Thermostat housing 6 Supply to coolant pump
The thermostat directs the flow of coolant The method of control can be divided into
either through the radiator or past it by way of three operating phases.
a bypass.
96
9
Operating phases of thermostat

Thermostat closed
The coolant temperature is below the
thermostat opening temperature.
The coolant circulation system is short-
circuited. The coolant circulates only inside
the engine and not through the radiator.
Thermostat starts to open at: approx. 88 °C
Thermostat open
The coolant temperature is above the
thermostat's fully open temperature.
The entire coolant flow circulates through the
radiator. This utilizes the maximum cooling
capacity.
Thermostat fully open at: 100 °C
Thermostat modulation range

The coolant temperature is between the
thermostat's initial opening temperature and
fully open temperature.
The coolant flow is split according to the
coolant temperature. Part is directed through
the radiator and the rest circulates through the
engine only.
97
9
That variability enables maximum cooling to emissions to be reduced without diminishing

be achieved at high temperatures, while engine performance or life. Data-map control
largely preventing cooling at very low means that stored engine characteristic data
temperatures. relating to such things as temperature, speed,
load, etc. is referred to in order to calculate the
In addition, it allows the engine to be brought
optimum control settings.
up to operating temperature as quickly as
possible after starting from cold. In the case of a data-map thermostat, those
calculations are used to control a heater
Data-map thermostat element that alters the temperature of the wax
element. In that way, the setting of the
More extensive control of temperature
thermostat can be varied.
regulation allows fuel consumption and
98
9
Expansion bottle
The expansion bottle ensures that there is Cap
always sufficient coolant in the cooling
The function of the expansion bottle cap is to
system.
enable pressure build-up and to isolate the
It also provides for reliable gas separation pressure in the cooling system from the
(bleeding). In combination with the pressure in effects of the ambient pressure. That prevents
the cooling system, that prevents vapour the boiling point of the coolant dropping when
bubbles forming. Vapour bubbles can damage the atmospheric pressure is low (e.g. at high
the enclosing surfaces. Such damage would altitudes).
occur primarily on the intake side of the pump.
3 Never open the expansion bottle cap
The air volume in the expansion bottle must be when the engine is hot.
such that rapid pressure build-up is possible
That is not only because of the risk of scalding.
when the coolant heats up and expands but
It can cause gas bubbles to form in the highest
excessive pressure is not created. The coolant
parts of the cooling system (e.g. cylinder head)
has to be under pressure so as to raise its
due to pressure loss. That will then mean that
boiling point.
adequate cooling will no longer be possible in
those areas. Overheating is the consequence.
1
48 - Expansion bottle cap
As can be seen from the illustration, the atmospheric. Some caps on current models
opening pressure (140) is marked on the top have opening pressures of as much as 2.0 bar
and bottom of the cap. In the example shown, (200).
the opening pressure is 1.4 bar above
99
9
Radiator
The radiator transfers the heat from the through the radiator from one side to the other
coolant to the surrounding air. For that along a large number of flat tubes. A large
purpose, the coolant flows horizontally surface area ensures efficient heat removal.
49 - Radiator

1 Coolant inlet 3 Radiator
2 Coolant outlet
The radiator is dimensioned so as to be able to The thermal energy has to pass from the
reliably dissipate the heat produced by the coolant to the radiator body; this is referred to
engine into the surrounding air under all as heat transfer. The metal conducts the heat
possible operating and ambient conditions. from the inside of the radiator to the outside.
That means that the size of the radiator is On the outside, the thermal energy is passed
matched to the vehicle and its equipment. into the surrounding air. This too is a process
3 If the radiator fins become clogged with
of heat transfer. The heat transfer from the
coolant to the metal is much greater than from
dirt, it may not be possible for sufficient heat to
the metal to the surrounding air. For that
be passed to the surrounding air. To restore
reason, the surface area for heat transfer to the
optimum performance, the radiator can be
surrounding air is increased by means of fins
cleaned with a water jet directed in the
because heat transfer is greater from a larger
opposite direction to the normal air flow over
surface area.
the radiator. Special care must be taken to
ensure the fins are not bent/damaged. 1
100
9
50 -

1 Coolant 2 Air
101
9
Coolant
The coolant is usually a mixture of low-mineral 3 If the coolant in a vehicle is a brown colour,
water, anti-freeze and additives that inhibit the cooling system must always be flushed
corrosion. The coolant is adapted to the type several times to remove all residues of
of vehicle. contamination and then refilled with the
specified coolant. 1
For example, many engines use a coolant
containing silicates. It is recognizable by its
blue/green colour.
This type of coolant forms a protective layer of
silicate compounds on the component
surfaces, thereby protecting them.
That protective layer is created only when the
coolant is new. If components are replaced
(e.g. coolant pump, thermostat, cylinder head
gasket. etc.) the coolant should always be
replaced as well so as to ensure a protective
coating is built up on the new components.
Other engines use a coolant based on amino
51 - Coolant
acids. This type is recognizable by its pink
colouring. With the amino-acid based coolant,
the acid attacks the surfaces of components, Index Explanation
forming an oxide layer which acts as a 1 Coolant containing silicates
protective coating. 2 Coolant containing amino acids
If the silicate coolant is mixed with the amino-
acid coolant, the mixture loses its corrosion-
inhibiting properties and turns a brown colour.
102
9
Fan
The fan has the task of supplying the radiator pressure inside the coupling, the fan speed
and the engine compartment with sufficient air can be varied from an idling speed to a
for cooling. This is especially necessary when maximum speed virtually equivalent to the
the natural air flow from forward motion of the input-side drive speed.
vehicle is inadequate because the car is not
In most cases, the fluid-coupling fan cuts in
moving fast enough or is stationary.
upwards of a temperature of approx. 82 °C.
Early fans were driven by a rigid drive The fluid-coupling fan cuts out again when the
mechanism dependent on engine speed. air flow temperature drops back to approx.
Nowadays, however, fans with fluid couplings 60 °C.
and electric fans are used. The offer the ability
to vary the speed of the fan or switch it off
3 At low air-flow temperatures, the fluid-
coupling fan makes a clearly audible noise
altogether.
immediately after the engine is started which,
however, quickly disappear again.
Fluid-coupling fan
The reason is that the silicon oil collects at the
With a fluid-coupling fan, the speed is
lowest point when the engine is not running
controlled by a temperature-dependent fluid
and the fan is thus made to rotate as well. The
friction coupling.
rotation distributes the silicon oil around the
The fluid friction coupling engages or whole of the coupling, so that it then
disengages according to the temperature of disengages. 1
the air that has passed over the radiator.
3 When in storage or transit for long
The fan's fluid-coupling has engine-driven periods, the fan coupling must not be tilted at
input side which imparts drive by hydraulic an angle of more than 45°. Otherwise its
friction with a transmission ratio determined by function may be impaired due to fluid loss,
engine speed to an output side connected to especially in the case of couplings which have
the fan. By means of the controllable oil already been used. 1
103
9
Electric fan An electric fan is driven by an electric motor.

With the arrival of the electric fan, compact
The fluid-coupling fan has now largely been
radiator modules were developed and are now
replaced by the electric fan, which initially was
found on all modern vehicles.
only used as an auxiliary fan on vehicles with air
conditioning (which at that time was not fitted The fan cowl and the fan itself are made of
as standard). plastic.
The electric fan is controlled by the engine
management. In the beginning only two-
speed fans were fitted. But two speeds
became three and now current engines have
fans whose speed can be infinitely varied.
Having the electric fan controlled by the
engine management means that engine heat
management can be optimized.
The fan speed is also influenced by the
vehicle's heating and air conditioning system.
Different electric fans with different power
ratings are used according to the vehicle
model, performance, country of sale (hot or
cold climate) and equipment.
3 When handling the electric fan, never take
hold of the fan-blade ring as it can break easily.
52 - Electric fan 1
104
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Aftersales Training -

Information status: November 2007

Lubrication and cooling

3 contains information to facilitate better understanding of the

1 identifies the end of a note.

Information status and national variants

Additional sources of information

1 - Design of a petrol engine

1st stroke: Induction The downward movement of the piston

4 - p-V diagram for 1st stroke

When the piston reaches the bottom dead

2nd stroke: Compression

6 - p-V diagram for 2nd stroke

Due to the speed of compression, the

As the space in the combustion chamber is

7 - p-V diagram for combustion

9 - p-V diagram for 3rd stroke

As a result, work is done. The chemical energy

4th stroke: Exhaust The volume of the combustion chamber is

11 - p-V diagram for 4th stroke

At the end of the 4th stroke when the piston

12 - Timing diagram for petrol engine

Ignition TDC dead centre positions, another point of

Combustion chamber charge

Improving charging efficiency

The charge can also be improved by lower Advanced exhaust timing

Index Explanation Index Explanation

Cylinders Compression chamber

Defined engine speeds speed and serves as a measure of the load on

Types of engine design

15 - In-line 6-cylinder engine

The in-line configuration is suited particularly six-cylinder engine is characteristically very

17 - Crankshaft and con rods on a V8 engine

V configurations are used for engines with

The difference is that opposing pairs of Orientation

An anti-clockwise engine turns anti-

Cylinder numbering order

21 - Numbering order for in-line engines

The same principle applies to engines with

Design and interrelationships

In-line 4-cylinder 180° - 180° CR 1-3-4-2

Firing interval = 720° / Number of

In V engines, the V-angle must be the same as

3 - Locus curve of moments

Index Explanation Index Explanation

Engine casing components

4 - Engine casing components of an in-line engine

Index Explanation Index Explanation

5 - Engine casing components of a V engine

Index Explanation Index Explanation

6 - Engine casing components of a four cylinder engine including gaskets

Crankshaft drive system

7 - Crankshaft drive system of an in-line engine

Index Explanation Index Explanation

8 - Crankshaft drive system of a V engine

Index Explanation Index Explanation

The various parts of the crankshaft drive

9 - Movement of crankshaft drive system components

Characteristics of the crankshaft drive system