NETAJI SUBHASH UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

Home assignment on: -

1. Selection criteria of engineering materials.
2. Composite materials.

SUBMITTED BY: - PARSHANT

ROLL NO.: - 2017UME4008
PAPER CODE: - MEC09
TITLE: - SCIENCE OF MATERIAL

Division of Manufacturing and

Mechanical Engineering
CONTENTS
COMPOSITE MATERIAL
1) General introduction

2) What are composites made of?

3) Classification of composite material

4) Geometry and orientation of fibre

5) Role and Selection of Fibers

SELECTION CRETERIA FOR ENGINEERING MATERIALS

1) Mechanical Strength

2) Stability

3) Ductility

4) Availability

5) Fabrication

6) Design

7) Resistance

8) Cost
In Earlier time people do not know about the materials, so when they found difficulties with the
materials they made they are in faces the problems in many fields like the strength of the
materials. ductility, flexibility, hardness, fatigue etc.

So they mix different materials and found out that the properties of the materials have been
changed. so this mixing of materials in different or the same proportions is known as Composite
Materials.

Wattle and daub are one of the oldest materials made by the man and it is 6000 years old.
Wattle and daub is a composite material used for making walls. it is an important construction
material and still, use in present time.

Wattle and daub in Wooden frame

the best part of the composite material is that every individual material which is used to make
the composite material retain their own properties.
our bone is a live example of natural composite material which is strong and rigid and even
flexible to resist normal breaking load and stress.

1) What are composites made of?

Composite Materials are also known as Fiber Reinforcement Polymer composites are made
from a polymer matrix that is reinforced with an engineered, man-made or natural fiber
reinforcing material. The matrix is always protect the fibers from environmental and external
damage and transfers the load between the fibers. The fibers is also provide strength and
stiffness to reinforce the matrix—and help it resist cracks and fractures.

Provides strength and stiffness Protects and transfers

load between fibers
 Create a matter with attribute superior to either component alone

If this is classifying by matrix then there are thermoplastic composites, short fiber
thermoplastics, long fiber thermoplastics or long fiber-reinforced thermoplastics.

There are many thermoset composite, including paper composite panels. Many advanced
thermoset polymer matrix systems usually incorporate aramid fiber and carbon fiber in an
epoxy resin matrix.

Plywood is used widely in constructions

High strained composite are also another type of very great performance composites made
using fibre and shape memory polymers resigns as the matrix.

since a shape memory, a polymer is used as the matrix these composites have the ability to be
easily manipulated into various configurations and when they are heated above their critical
temperature and show high strength and stiffness at a lower temperature

High Strain Composite Structures (HSC Structures) are a class of composite material structures
designed to perform in a high deformation setting. A very high level of strained composite
structures transition from one shape to another upon the application of external forces. A
mono HSC Structured component is so designed as to transition between at least two, but often
more, dramatically different shapes.one of the shape is design to function as a structure which
can support external loads.

A sandwich structured composites a special class of composite that is fabricated by attaching

two thin but stiff skins to a lightweight but thick core. core material having a low strength but
due to its higher thickness it provides the sandwich composite high bending stiffness with the
low density of the material.

Composite sandwich structure used at Nasa for testing

 2) CLASSIFIACTION OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS
Composite material basically classified in two categories: -

(2.1) The first level of classification is usually made with respect to the matrix constituent. The
majored composited class include Organic Matrix Composites (OMCs), Metal Matrix
Composites (MMCs) and Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs). The name termed organic matrix
composite is generally assumed to include two classes of composites, namely Polymer Matrix
Composites (PMCs) and carbon matrix composites commonly referred to as carbon composites.

(2.1.1) Organic Matrix Composites-------a) Polymer Metrix Composites

b) Metal Matrix Composites

c) Ceramic Matrix Materials

a) PMC

Polymer material can have processed easily because of having low weight and desirable
mechanical properties

Two kind of polymers are there: -Thermosets and thermoplastics

-Thermoset having the quality like as a well-bonded three-dimensional molecular structure

after curing. They decompose instead of melting on hardening. They change very less the basic
composition of the resin is enough to alter the conditions suitably for curing and determine its
other characteristics. They also can be retaining in a partial cured condition too over prolonged
periods of time, rendering Thermosets very flexible. So, they are most suit as matrix bases for
advance conditions fiber reinforced composites. Thermosets founded a wide range of
applications in the chopped fiber composites form particularly when a premixed or molding
compound with fibers of specific quality and aspect ratio happens to be the starting material as
in polymer and phenolic polyamide resins.
-Thermoplastics have 1 or 2-dimensional molecular structure and they also tend to at an
elevated temperature and show exaggerated melting point. Another advantage is that the
process of softening at elevated temperatures can reversed to regain its properties during
cooling, facilitating applications of conventional compress techniques to mound the
compounds.

b) MMC

MMC at present generating a wide interest in research part. fracture toughness, High strength,
and stiffness are offered by metal matrices than those offered by their polymer counterparts.
They can also withstand very high temperature in corrosive environment than polymer
composites.

Most of the metals and alloy could be used as matrices and they require reinforcement
materials which need to be stable over a range of temperature and non-reactive too. But the
guided aspect for the choice depend very importantly essentially on the matrix material.

Most metals and alloys make good matrices. Al, Titanium and (mg) are the popular matrix metals
currently in vogue, which are particularly useful for aircraft applications. If metaled matrix
material have to offer very high strength, they require high modulus reinforcements. The
strength to weight ratio of resulted composites can be higher than most alloys.
c) CMM

Ceramics can be described as solid materials having very strong ionic bonding in general and in
few cases covalent bonding.

High melt points, excellent corrosion resistance, stability at elevated temperatures and high
compressive strength, render ceramic base matrix material a good for application required a
structural material that doesn’t give way at temperatures above 1500ºC. Nceramic matrices are
the obvious choiced for highest temperature applications.

When ceramics have a very high thermal expansion coeff. than reinforcement material, the
resultant composite is very unlikely to be have a greater level of strength or power. In this cases,
the composite will automatically have developed strength or quality with in the whole ceramic
at the time when the material cooling and resulting in micro crack extend from fiber to fiber with
in the matrix structure. Micro cracking can also have resulted in a composite with tensile strength
very lower than that of the matrix structure.

(2.2) The second position of classification refer to the reinforcement form fiber reinforced
composite, laminar composites and particulate composite. Fiber Reinforced composites can be
also further divide into those that contain discontinuous and continuous fiber.
2.2.1) Classification Based on Reinforcements: - a) Fiber Reinforced Composites

b) Laminar Composites

c) Particulate Reinforced Composites

a) FRC

Fibers are the important class of reinforcements, as they satisfy the desired conditions and
transfer strength to the matrix constituent influencing and enhancing their properties as desired.
Fibers fall short of ideal performance due to several factors. The performance of a fiber
composite is judged by its length, shape, orientation, and composition of the fibers and the
mechanical properties of the matrix. Glass fibers are the earliest known fibers used to reinforce
materials. Ceramic and metal fibers were subsequently found out and put to extensive use, to
render composites stiffer more resistant to heat.

The orientation of the fiber in the matrix is an indication of the strength of the composite and
the strength is greatest along the longitudinal directional of fiber. This doesn’t mean the
longitudinal fibers can take the same quantum of load irrespective of the direction in which it is
applied. Optimum performance from longitudinal fibers can be obtained if the load is applied
along its direction. The slightest shift in the angle of loading may drastically reduce the strength
of the composite. Unidirectional loading is found in few structures and hence it is prudent to
give a mix of orientations for fibers in composites particularly where the load is expected to be
the heaviest.
 FRC Stress Curve

Short-length fibres incorporated by the open- or close-mould process are found to be less
efficient, although the input costs are considerably lower than filament winding. Most fibres in
use currently are solids which are easy to produce and handle, having a circular cross-section,
although a few non-conventional shaped and hollow fibres show signs of capabilities that can
improve the mechanical qualities of the composites. Given the fact that the vast difference in
length and effective diameter of the fibre are assets to a fibre composite, it follows that greater
strength in the fibre can be achieved by smaller diameters due to minimization or total
elimination of surface of surface defects. After flat-thin filaments came into vogue, fibres
rectangular cross sections have provided new options for applications in high strength structures.
Owing to their shapes, these fibres provide perfect packing, while hollow fibres show better
structural efficiency in composites that are desired for their stiffness and compressive strengths.
In hollow fibres, the transverse compressive strength is lower than that of a solid fibre composite
whenever the hollow portion is more than half the total fibre diameter. However, they are not
easy to handle and fabricate.

b) Laminar Composites

Laminar composites are found in as many combinations as the materials. They can be described
as the many layers bounded together. These may be several layer of two or more metal
materials occurring alternately in a determined order more than once and their can be many
layer as required for specific purpose.

Powder metallurgical processes like roll bonding, hot pressing, diffusion bonding, brazing and
so on can be employed for the fabrication of different alloys of sheet, foil, powder or sprayed
materials. It is not possible to achieve high strength materials unlike the fibre version. But
sheets and foils can be made isotropic in two dimensions more easily than fibres. Foils and
sheets are also made to exhibit high percentages of which they are put. For instance, a strong
sheet may use over 92% in laminar structure, while it is difficult to make fibres of such
compositions. fibre laminates cannot over 75% strong fibres.
c) Particulate Reinforced Composites

Micro structure of metal and ceramic composites material, which shows particles of only one
phase going into other, are known as particle reinforced composite. Triangular, Square and
rounded like shapes of reinforcement are known, but the dimension of all of their sides are
observed to be more or very less equal. The volume and size concentration of the dispersion
distinguish it from dispersion hard material. The dispersed size in particulate composite is of the
order of a very few micron and volume concentration is greater than 30%. The difference btw
particulate composite and dispersion strength ones is, thus oblivious. The processes used to
strengthen each of them is also diff. The dispersed in the dispersion strengthen material
reinforces the matrix alloy by arrest motion of dislocation and require large force to fracture
the restriction created by dispersion. In particulate composite, the particle strengthens the
system by the hydrostatic coercion pressure of fillers in matrices and by their hardness related
to the matrix. 3-dimensional reinforcement in composites offers isotropic properties, because
of the three systematic perpendicular planes. Since it isnot homogeneous, the material
properties acquired sensitivity to the constituent property, as well as property and the geo.
Metric shape of the array.
(3) Common Categories of Composite Materials based on fibre length:
Based on the form of reinforcement, common composite materials can be classified as follows:

3.1) Fibres as the reinforcement (Fibrous Composites):

a) Random fibre reinforcement composites

Short fibre reinforcement composite

b) Continuous fibre (long fibre)

3.2) particles as the reinforcement (particulate composite)

3.3) Fillers as the reinforcement (Filler composites):

3.4) Flat flakes as the reinforcement (Flake composites):

(4) Geometry and orientation of fibre: -

 Aligned
The properties of aligned fiber-reinforced composite materials are highly anisotropic.
The lengthwise tensile strength will be high whereas the transverse tensile strength can
be much less than even the matrix tensile strength. It also depend on the properties of
the fibers and the matrix, the interference bond between them, and the presence of
voids.
 There are 2 different geometries for aligned fibers:

1. Continuous & Aligned

The fibers are very large than a critical length which is the minimum length
necessary such that the entire load is transmitted from the matrix to the fibers. If
some how they are shorter than this critical length, only some of the load is
transmitted. Fiber length very larger than 15 times the critical length are
considered optimal. They are align and continuously type of fibers give the most
effective strengthening for fiber composites.

2. Discontinuous & Aligned

The fibers are shorter than the critical length. So the result is discontinuous
fibers are very less effective in strengthening the material,by the on other side
their composite modulus and tensile strengths can approach 50-90% of their
continuous and aligned counterparts. And they also very cheaper, faster and
easier to fabricate into complicated shapes.

 Random
This is also called discrete, (or chopped) fibers. The strength is not so higher than
aligned fibers, however, the advantaged is that the material will be istropic and cheaper.

 Woven
The fibers are very woven into a fabricated way which is layered with the matrix
material and to make a laminated structure.
So the orientation and the geometry of the fiber is very important factor regarded composite
material because the shape and geometry of the should be perfect of the section of the
material also.

(5) Role and Selection of Fibers: -

During the selection process we must focused on the properties of the materials which includes
compatibilities with matrix materials, thermal stability, density, melting, temperature etc.

The efficiency of discontinuously reinforced composites is dependent on tensile strength and

density of reinforcing phases. The compatibility, density, chemical and thermal stability of the
reinforcement with matrix material is important for material fabrication as well as end
application. The thermal discord strain between the matrix and reinforcement is an important
parameter for composites used in thermal cycling application.

It is a function of difference between the coefficients of thermal expansion of the matrix and
reinforcement. The manufacturing process selected and the reinforcement affects the crystal
structure.

Also the properties of the reinforcement depend upon the types of structural composites.

The role of the reinforcement is to strengthen and stiffen the composite through prevention of
matrix deformation by mechanical restraint. This restraint is generally a function of the ratio of
interparticles spacing to particle diameter. In continuous fibre reinforced Composites, the
reinforcement is the principal load-bearing constituent. The metallic matrix serves to hold the
reinforcing fibers together and transfer as well as distribute the load. Discontinuous fiber
reinforced Composites display characteristics between those of continuous fiber and
particulate reinforced composites. Typically, the addition of reinforcement increases the
strength, stiffness and temperature capability while reducing the thermal expansion coefficient
of the resulting MMC. When combined with a metallic matrix of higher density, the
reinforcement also serves to reduce the density of the composite, thus enhancing properties
such as specific strength.

Some examples: -
Cements
A cement is a composite material composed of ceramic (hard, brittle) and metal (soft, ductile)
materials.
A cermet is ideally designed to have the optimal properties of both a ceramic, such as high
temperature resistance and hardness, and those of a metal, such as the ability to undergo
plastic deformation.

Vulcanised rubber
Vulcanised rubber is processed by a process known as vulcanisation process involves mixing of
natural rubber with additives such as sulfer and other additives.
 SELECTION CRETERIA FOR ENGINEERING MATERIALS

The quality, execution, life et cetera of a building material, all are influenced by the engineering
material being used for gathering that thing. Subsequently it ends up essential to pick a sensible
Engineering materials for a productive planning thing. For decision of proper materials for any
engineering application/thing, following segments should be considered: -

9) Mechanical Strength
10) Stability
11) Ductility
12) Availability
13) Fabrication
14) Design
15) Resistance
16) Cost

1) Mechanical Strength: -
Mechanical strength is the essential criteria for the determination of appropriate materials for
any Engineering application/item. Mechanical strength is the capacity of materials to withstand
with load or powers. Materials chose for any designing application, ought to have a suitable
mechanical strength to be skilled to withstand with burdens or powers created in the structure
of building item amid task.

The Study of the strength of materials frequently alludes to different strategies for figuring the
anxieties and strains in basic individuals, for example, pillars, segments, and shafts. The
techniques utilized to anticipate the reaction of a structure under stacking and its vulnerability
to different disappointment modes considers the properties of the materials, for example, its
yield quality, extreme quality, Young's modulus, and Poisson's proportion; furthermore, the
mechanical component's naturally visible properties (geometric properties, for example, its
length, width, thickness, limit limitations and sudden changes in geometry, for example,
openings are considered.

Different type of Strength

----Yield strength is the most reduced pressure that delivers a permanent deformation in a
material. In a few materials, similar to aluminum composites, the purpose of yielding is hard to
recognize, along these lines it is normally characterized as the pressure required to cause 0.2%
plastic strain. This is known as a 0.2% proof pressure.
----Compressive strength is the farthest point condition of compressive pressure that prompts
disappointment in a material in the way of pliable disappointment (vast hypothetical yield) or
fragile disappointment (break as the consequence of split spread or sliding along a powerless
plane.

---- Tensile strength is a cutoff condition of tensile stress that prompts tractable tensile stress in
the way of bendable tensile stress (yield as the primary phase of that tensile stress, some
solidifying in the second stage and breakage after a conceivable "neck" development) or weak
disappointment (sudden breaking in at least two pieces at a low pressure state). Rigidity can be
cited as either evident pressure or building pressure, yet designing pressure is the most usually
utilized.

--- Fatigue strength is a proportion of the quality of a material or a segment under cyclic
loading, and is normally more hard to evaluate than the static quality measures. Weakness
quality is cited as pressure abundancy or stress extend.

---Impact strength is the limit of the material to withstand a suddenly applied load and is
expressed in terms of energy.

2) Stability: -
Engineering materials with some physical and technical ability requires understanding and
predictive capability of materials behaviour under varying external parameters, such as
temperature and pressure.

This immediately brings one face to face with the basic difficulty of making a connection
between materials behaviour at a microscopic level, where understanding is to be sought, and
macroscopic behaviour which needs to be predicted.

Bridge the corresponding gap in length scales that separates the ends of this spectrum has been
a goal intensely pursued by theoretical physicists, experimentalists, and metallurgists alike.
Tradition vies, the search for methods to bridge the length scale gap and to gain the needed
predictive capability of materials properties has been conducted largely on a trial and basic,
guided by the skill of the metallurgist, large volumes of experimental data, and often ad hoc
semi phenomenological models.

This problem has persisted almost to this day, and it is only recently that significant changes
have begun to take place. These difference have been brought about by a number of
developments, some of long standing, others of more recent vintage.
 Basic static response of a specimen under tension

----Elasticity is a property of a material to return to its previous shape after stress is released. In
some materials, the relation between applied stress is directly proportional to the resulting
strain (up to a certain limit), and a graph representing those two quantities is a straight line.
The tangent(x) or slope of this line is known as Young's modulus, or the "modulus of elasticity."
The modulus of elasticity can be used to determine the stress–strain relationship in the linear-
elastic portion of the stress–strain curve. The linear elastic area is either below the yield point,
or if a yield point is not easily identified on the stress–strain plot it is defined to be between 0
and 0.2% strain, and is defined as the region of strain in which no yielding (permanent
deformation) occur

----plastic deformation is the opp. of elastic deformatial and is repersent as unrecoverable

strain. Plastic deformation can be gain after the release of the applied stress. Many materials in
the linear-elastic category are usually capable of plastic deformation. Brittle materials, like
ceramics, do not experience any plastic deformation and will fracture under relatively low
strain, while ductile materials such as metallic, lead, or polymers will plastically deform much
more before a fracture initiation.

3) Ductility: -
Ductility is the measure of a material's ability to undergo significant plastic deformation before
rupture, which may be expressed as percent elongation or percent area reduction from a
tensile test.

Ductility is mainly important in metal working, as materials that break or shatter under stress
cannot be manipulated using metal-forming processes such
as hammering, rolling, drawing or extruding. Malleable materials can be made cold
using stamping or pressing, whereas brittle materials may be thermoformed
Ductile-brittle transition temperature: -

The ductile and brittle transition temperature (DBTT), nil ductility temperature (NDT), or nil
ductility transition temperature of a metal is the temperature at which the fracture energy
passes below a predetermined value. Ductile and brittle transition temperature is important
since, once a material is cooled below the DBTT, it has a much greater tendency to shatter on
impact instead of bending or deforming. Let take an example of zamak 3 exhibits good ductility
at room temperature but shatters when impacted at sub-zero temperatures. (DBTT) is a
important to be consider in selecting materials that are subjected to mechanical stresses. A
similar phenomenon, the glass transition temperature, occurs with glasses and polymers,
although the mechanism is different in these amorphous materials.
In some of the materials, the transition is sharper than others and typically requires a
temperature-sensitive deformation mechanism. For example, in materials with a body-cantered
cubic (bcc) lattice the DBTT is readily apparent, as the motion of screw dislocations is very
temperature sensitive because the rearrangement of the movement of core prior to slip
requires thermal activation. This can be problem for steels with a high ferrite content. This
famously resulted in serious hull cracking in Liberty ships in colder waters during World War II,
causing many sinking’s. D BTT can also be influenced by external factors such as neutron
radiation, which leads to an increase in internal lattice defects and a corresponding decrease in
ductility and increase in DBTT.
The most precise method of measuring the DBTT of a material is by fracture testing. Basically
four point bend testing at a range of temperatures is performed on pre-cracked bars of
polished material.
For experiment processed at higher temperatures, dislocation activity increases. At some
temperature, dislocations shield the crack tip to such an extent that the applied deformation
rate is not sufficient for the stress intensity at the crack-tip to reach the critical value for
fracture. The temp. at whole thing this occurs is the ductile–brittle transition temperature. If
experiment is performed at a higher strain rate, more dislocation shielding is required to
prevent brittle fracture, and the transition temperature is raised.
4) Availability: -
Materials architects and acquiring specialists wind up baffled in attempting to get materials
that have a set number of makers or a restricted creation volume. Such dissatisfaction can be
especially high when a little measure of material is expected to complete work or supplant a
fizzled piece. An advanced and extensive report regarding the matter is the second version of
the exemplary CORROSION BASICS course book. A few passages of that report are utilized here.

---Industry Dynamics: Metals organizations are experiencing what must be portrayed as twisting
change. The aggressive scene is drastically changing on account of the accompanying drivers

-Industry combination

-Globalization

-Over limit

-Value disintegration

---Best Practices: The industry pioneers are transforming difficulties into upper hand and
looking for zones where innovation can convey required enhancements.

---Overseeing more mind boggling supply chains: More unpredictable supply chains are rising as
a result of the business combination. Chances to profit include: bring down costs, quicker
reaction to clients, adaptable item sourcing and more proficient appropriation techniques.

---Uniting unique frameworks: Metals organizations have manufactured refined data

frameworks to help their tasks. The evident qualities of the current framework can be utilized
while getting control over expenses and multifaceted nature. New plans of action that settle on
choices about clients and providers basic and as compelling are currently conceivable.

--- Expediting order processing: Understanding client needs while overseeing metallurgical
and process abilities decreases generally speaking preparing time, a key component toward
picking up piece of the overall industry.
---Creative business forms: Redefining production network systems to expand effectiveness and
embracing new business procedures, for example, work to-stock/complete to-arrange permits
metals organizations to accomplish to a great degree focused lead times.

---Consolidating MRO spending: As an advantage escalated industry, keeping costly offices

running is basic. Tending to the test of augmenting gear uptime while lessening parts stock
reveal real advantages.

---Extended value chain: again and again, productivity stops at the edges of the organization.
Streamlining cross-venture forms is the following extraordinary outskirts for decreasing costs,
speeding tasks and conveyances to make an incentive for clients and investors.

5) Fabrication: -
Metal fabrication is the making of metal parts by cut them, bending them, and by assembling
processes.

It is an some value added process that includes the production of machines, parts, and
structures from different crude materials. A manufacture shop will offer on an occupation,
normally dependent on the designing illustrations, and whenever granted the agreement will
construct the item. Substantial fab shops utilize a large number of significant worth included
procedures in a single plant or office including welding, cutting, framing and machining. These
substantial fab shops offer extra an incentive to their clients by restricting the requirement for
obtaining faculty to find various merchants for various administrations. Metal creation
employments as a rule begin with shop illustrations including exact estimations, at that point
move to the manufacture stage lastly to the establishment of the last undertaking.
Manufacture shops are utilized by contractual workers, OEMs and VARs. Average activities
incorporate free parts, auxiliary edges for structures and substantial gear, and stairs and hand
railings for structures.

Fabrication contains or covers with different metalworking specialties:

---Fabrication shops and machine shops have covering abilities, however manufacture shops for
the most part focus on metal readiness and get together as depicted previously. By correlation,
machine shops likewise cut metal, yet they are more worried about the machining of parts on
machine devices. Firms that include both fab work and machining are likewise normal.

---Blacksmithing has constantly included manufacture, despite the fact that it was not generally
called by that name.

---The items created by welders, which are frequently alluded to as weldments, are a case of
manufacture.

---Boilermakers initially had practical experience in boilers, prompting their exchange's name,
however the term as utilized today has a more extensive importance.

---Thus, millwrights initially had some expertise in setting up grain factories and saw plants,
however today they might be called upon for a wide scope of creation work.

---Ironworkers, otherwise called steel erectors, additionally take part in creation. Regularly the
manufactures for auxiliary work start as pre-assembled sections in a fab shop, at that point are
moved to the site by truck, rail, or freight ship, lastly are introduced by erectors.
6) Design: -
Techniques and methodologies contrast depending upon what you are growing however
whether that includes forms in the medicinal sector area or item advancement at an
organization we can state with a sureness that structure will assist you with finding new
arrangements.
7) Resistance: -
Resistance– corrosion is a perplexing wonder which includes the connection between the
mechanical procedures of strong molecule disintegration and the electrochemical procedures
of consumption. An entire scope of issues is looked by an architect when endeavoring to
acquire significant data on erosion consumption execution of a material. Among the
requirements are the scattered test conditions and test rigs accessible in the writing making
examinations and evaluating erosion consumption wear rates of various materials extremely
troublesome. The point of this work is to assess the repeatability of erosion consumption tests
and to examine the job of various parameters impacting erosion erosion.

8) Cost: -
Everything in this world depend upon the cost of the whatever material we going to use so
basically have to give more importance on the cost and we should always take it in mind.
Actually the cost of the material depends upon the design first because what we going make we
made is should be perfect because if it is not then the whole money we going to invest is
wasted. Also we should have to choose a good quality of the material because we cannot
compromise here. So basically cost is a major factor is material selection.