1.

INTRODUCTION -

1.1 What is Composite Material –

A composite material also called a composition material or shortened to composite,

which is the common name is a material which is produced from two or more constituent
materials. These constituent materials have notably dissimilar chemical or physical
properties and are merged to create a material with properties unlike the individual
elements. Within the finished structure, the individual elements remain separate and
distinct, distinguishing composites from mixtures and solid solutions.

Fig.no.01.Overview on material classification

As with all engineering materials, composites have particular strengths and weaknesses,
which should be considered at the specifying stage. Composites are by no means the right
material for every job. However, a major driving force behind the development of
composites has been that the combination of the reinforcement and the matrix can be
changed to meet the required final properties of a component. For example, if the final

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component needs to be fire-resistant, a fire-retardant matrix can be used in the
development stage so that it has this property.

Weight reduction

 The primary reason composites are chosen is improved specific strength /

stiffness (strength / stiffness specific per unit weight).
 This helps to reduce fuel use, or increase acceleration or range in transport.
 It allows for easier, faster installation or faster movement of robot arms and
reduces supporting structures or foundations.
 It improves topside stability in vessels and offshore structures and buoyancy for
deep sea applications.

Durability and maintenance

 Composites don’t rust, which is crucial, especially in marine and chemical

environments. The need for maintenance and painting is reduced or eliminated.
 Composite bearings for marine engines and bridges need no lubrication and don’t
corrode.
 Combine the excellent fatigue resistance, and composites can increase product
lifespan by several times in many applications.

Added functionality

 Composites are thermal insulators which is good for fire and blast protection or
cryogenic applications.
 Electrical insulation is useful for railway lineside structures and radar
transparency. A conductive mesh or coating can be integrated if needed, e.g. to
reflect radar or divert lightning.
 Sensors, electronics and cabling can be embedded.

Design freedom

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  Composites design allows for freedom of architectural form.
 Many parts can be consolidated into one, and stiffeners, inserts, etc. can be
integrated in-mould.
 Composites can be tailored to suit the application by choosing the constituent
materials and embedding extra functionality.

1.2 Classification of composite material –

Composite materials are commonly classified at following two distinct levels -

1.2.1 According to Matrix Constituent –

The first level of classification is usually made with respect to the matrix constituent. The
major composite classes include Organic Matrix Composites (OMCs), Metal Matrix
Composites (MMCs) and Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs). The term organic matrix
composite is general assumed to include two classes of composites, namely Polymer
Matrix Composites (PMCs) and carbon matrix composites commonly referred to as
carbon-carbon composites.

Fig.no.02.Classification based on Matrix

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a) Metal Matrix Composite –

Metal matrix composites, at present though generating a wide interest in research

fraternity, are not as widely in use as their plastic counterparts. High strength, fracture
toughness and stiffness are offered by metal matrices than those offered by their polymer
counterparts. They can withstand elevated temperature in corrosive environment than
polymer composites. Most metals and alloys could be used as matrices and they require
reinforcement materials which need to be stable over a range of temperature and non-
reactive too. However the guiding aspect for the choice depends essentially on the matrix
material. Light metals form the matrix for temperature application and the reinforcements
most metals and alloys make good matrices. However, practically, the choices for low
temperature applications are not many. Only light metals are responsive, with their low
density proving an advantage. Titanium, Aluminum and magnesium are the popular
matrix metals currently in vogue, which are particularly useful for aircraft applications. If
metallic matrix materials have to offer high strength, they require high modulus
reinforcements. The strength-to weight ratios of resulting composites can be higher than
most alloys. The melting point, physical and mechanical properties of the composite at
various temperatures determine the service temperature of composites. Most metals,
ceramics and compounds can be used with matrices of low melting point alloys. The
choice of reinforcements becomes more stunted with increase in the melting temperature
of matrix materials.

B) Ceramic Matrix Composite –

Ceramics can be described as solid materials which exhibit very strong ionic bonding in
general and in few cases covalent bonding. High melting points, good corrosion
resistance, stability at elevated temperatures and high compressive strength, render
ceramic-based matrix materials a favorite for applications requiring a structural material
that doesn’t give way at temperatures above 1500ºC. Naturally, ceramic matrices are the
obvious choice for high temperature applications. High modulus of elasticity and low
tensile strain, which most ceramics possess, have combined to cause the failure of
attempts to add reinforcements to obtain strength improvement. This is because at the

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stress levels at which ceramics rupture, there is insufficient elongation of the matrix
which keeps composite from transferring an effective quantum of load to the
reinforcement and the composite may fail unless the percentage of fiber volume is high
enough. A material is reinforcement to utilize the higher tensile strength of the fiber, to
produce an increase in load bearing capacity of the matrix. Addition of high-strength
fiber to a weaker ceramic has not always been successful and often the resultant
composite has proved to be weaker.

The use of reinforcement with high modulus of elasticity may take care of the problem to
some extent and presents pre-stressing of the fiber in the ceramic matrix is being
increasingly resorted to as an option. When ceramics have a higher thermal expansion
coefficient than reinforcement materials, the resultant composite is unlikely to have a
superior level of strength. In that case, the composite will develop strength within
ceramic at the time of cooling resulting in micro cracks extending from fiber to fiber
within the matrix. Micro cracking can result in a composite with tensile strength lower
than that of the matrix.

c) Polymer Matrix Composite –

A Polymer matrix composite (PMC) is a composite material composed of a variety of

short or continuous fibers bound together by an organic polymer matrix. PMCs are
designed to transfer loads between fibers of a matrix. Some of the advantages with PMCs
include their lightweight, high stiffness and their high strength along the direction of their
reinforcements. Other advantages are good abrasion resistance and good corrosion
resistance. PMCs matrices are typically either thermosets or thermoplastics. Thermosets
are by far the predominant type in use today. Thermosets are subdivided into several
resin systems including epoxies, phenolic, polyurethanes, and polyimides of these, epoxy
systems currently dominate the advanced composite industry.

1.2.2 Classification based on Reinforcement-

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The second level of classification refers to the reinforcement form - fiber reinforced
composites, laminar composites and particulate composites. Fiber Reinforced composites
(FRP) can be further divided into those containing discontinuous or continuous fibers.

Fig.no.03 Classification Based on Composite

Reinforcements for the composites can be fibers, fabrics particles or whiskers. Fibers are
essentially characterized by one very long axis with other two axes either often circular or
near circular. Particles have no preferred orientation and so does their shape. Whiskers
have a preferred shape but are small both in diameter and length as compared to fibers.
Reinforcing constituents in composites, as the word indicates, provide the strength that
makes the composite what it is. But they also serve certain additional purposes of heat
resistance or conduction, resistance to corrosion and provide rigidity. Reinforcement can
be made to perform all or one of these functions as per the requirements. A reinforcement
that embellishes the matrix strength must be stronger and stiffer than the matrix and
capable of changing failure mechanism to the advantage of the composite. This means
that the ductility should be minimal or even nil the composite must behave as brittle as
possible.

a) Fiber Composites

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Fibers are the important class of reinforcements, as they satisfy the desired conditions and
transfer strength to the matrix constituent influencing and enhancing their properties as
desired. Glass fibers are the earliest known fibers used to reinforce materials. Ceramic
and metal fibers were subsequently found out and put to extensive use, to render
composites stiffer more resistant to heat. Fibers fall short of ideal performance due to
several factors. The performance of a fiber composite is judged by its length, shape,
orientation, and composition of the fibers and the mechanical properties of the matrix.

The orientation of the fiber in the matrix is an indication of the strength of the composite
and the strength is greatest along the longitudinal directional of fiber. This doesn’t mean
the longitudinal fibers can take the same quantum of load irrespective of the direction in
which it is applied. Optimum performance from longitudinal fibers can be obtained if the
load is applied along its direction. The slightest shift in the angle of loading may
drastically reduce the strength of the composite. Unidirectional loading is found in few
structures and hence it is prudent to give a mix of orientations for fibers in composites
particularly where the load is expected to be the heaviest. Monolayer tapes consisting of
continuous or discontinuous fibers can be oriented unidirectional stacked into plies
containing layers of filaments also oriented in the same direction. More complicated
orientations are possible too and nowadays, computers are used to make projections of
such variations to suit specific needs. In short, in planar composites, strength can be
changed from unidirectional fiber oriented composites that result in composites with
nearly isotropic properties. Properties of angle-plied composites which are not quasi-
isotropic may vary with the number of plies and their orientations. Composite variables in
such composites are assumed to have a constant ratio and the matrices are considered
relatively weaker than the fibers. The strength of the fiber in any one of the three axes
would, therefore be one-third the unidirectional fiber composite, assuming that the
volume percentage is equal in all three axes.

However, orientation of short fibers by different methods is also possible like random
orientations by sprinkling on to given plane or addition of matrix in liquid or solid state
before or after the fiber deposition. Even three-dimensional orientations can achieve in

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this way. There are several methods of random fiber orientations, which in a two-
dimensional one, yield composites with one-third the strength of a unidirectional fiber-
stressed composite, in the direction of fibers. In a 3-dimension, it would result in a
composite with a comparable ratio, about less than one-fifth.

Fig.no.04 a) Short-fiber reinforced composites Fig.no.04 b)Long-fiber

Fig.no.04 c) Filler Composites Fig.no.04 d) Flake Composite

In very strong matrices, moduli and strengths have not been observed. Application of the
strength of the composites with such matrices and several orientations is also possible.
The longitudinal strength can be calculated on the basis of the assumption that fibers have
been reduced to their effective strength on approximation value in composites with strong

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matrices and non-longitudinally orientated fibers. It goes without saying that fiber
composites may be constructed with either continuous or short fibers. Experience has
shown that continuous fibers (or filaments) exhibit better orientation, although it does not
reflect in their performance. Fibers have a high aspect ratio, i.e., their lengths being
several times greater than their effective diameters. This is the reason why filaments are
manufactured using continuous process. This finished filaments.Mass production of
filaments is well known and they match with several matrices in different ways like
winding, twisting, weaving and knitting, which exhibit the characteristics of a fabric.

Since they have low densities and high strengths, the fiber lengths in filaments or other
fibers yield considerable influence on the mechanical properties as well as the response
of composites to processing and procedures. Shorter fibers with proper orientation
composites that use glass, ceramic or multi-purpose fibers can be endowed with
considerably higher strength than those that use continuous fibers. Short fibers are also
known to their theoretical strength. The continuous fiber constituent of a composite is
often joined by the filament winding process in which the matrix impregnated fiber
wrapped around a mandrel shaped like the part over which the composite is to be placed,
and equitable load distribution and favorable orientation of the fiber is possible in the
finished product. However, winding is mostly confined to fabrication of bodies of
revolution and the occasional irregular, flat surface. Short-length fibers incorporated by
the open- or close-mold process are found to be less efficient, although the input costs are
considerably lower than filament winding.

Most fibers in use currently are solids which are easy to produce and handle, having a
circular cross-section, although a few non-conventional shaped and hollow fibers show
signs of capabilities that can improve the mechanical qualities of the composites. Given
the fact that the vast difference in length and effective diameter of the fiber are assets to a
fiber composite, it follows that greater strength in the fiber can be achieved by smaller
diameters due to minimization or total elimination of surface of surface defects. After
flat-thin filaments came into vogue, fibers rectangular cross sections have provided new
options for applications in high strength structures. Owing to their shapes, these fibers

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provide perfect packing, while hollow fibers show better structural efficiency in
composites that are desired for their stiffness and compressive strengths. In hollow fibers,
the transverse compressive strength is lower than that of a solid fiber composite
whenever the hollow portion is more than half the total fiber diameter. However, they are
not easy to handle and fabricate.

b) Laminar Composites

Laminar composites are found in as many combinations as the number of materials. They
can be described as materials comprising of layers of materials bonded together. These
may be of several layers of two or more metal materials occurring alternately or in a
determined order more than once, and in as many numbers as required for a specific
purpose.

Clad and sandwich laminates have many areas as it ought to be, although they are known
to follow the rule of mixtures from the modulus and strength point of view. Other
intrinsic values pertaining to metal-matrix, metal-reinforced composites are also fairly
well known.

Powder metallurgical processes like roll bonding, hot pressing, diffusion bonding,
brazing and so on can be employed for the fabrication of different alloys of sheet, foil,
powder or sprayed materials. It is not possible to achieve high strength materials unlike
the fiber version. But sheets and foils can be made isotropic in two dimensions more
easily than fibers. Foils and sheets are also made to exhibit high percentages of which
they are put. For instance, a strong sheet may use over 92% in laminar structure, while it
is difficult to make fibers of such compositions. Fiber laminates cannot over 75% strong
fibers.The main functional types of metal-metal laminates that do not possess high
strength or stiffness are single layered ones that endow the composites with special
properties, apart from being cost-effective. They are usually made by pre-coating or
cladding methods.

Pre-coated metals are formed by forming by forming a layer on a substrate, in the form
of a thin continuous film. This is achieved by hot dipping and occasionally by chemical

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plating and electroplating. Clad metals are found to be suitable for more intensive
environments where denser faces are required. There are many combinations of sheet and
foil which function as adhesives at low temperatures. Such materials, plastics or metals,
may be clubbed together with a third constituent. Pre-painted or pre-finished metal whose
primary advantage is elimination of final finishing by the user is the best known metal-
organic laminate. Several combinations of metal-plastic, vinyl-metal laminates, organic
films and metals, account for upto 95% of metal-plastic laminates known. They are made
by adhesive bonding processes.

c) Particulate Reinforced Composites (PRC)

Microstructures of metal and ceramics composites, which show particles of one phase
strewn in the other, are known as particle reinforced composites. Square, triangular and
round shapes of reinforcement are known, but the dimensions of all their sides are
observed to be more or less equal. The size and volume concentration of the dispersoid
distinguishes it from dispersion hardened materials. The dispersed size in particulate
composites is of the order of a few microns and volume concentration is greater than
28%. The difference between particulate composite and dispersion strengthened ones is,
thus, oblivious. The mechanism used to strengthen each of them is also different. The
dispersed in the dispersion-strengthen materials reinforces the matrix alloy by arresting
motion of dislocations and needs large forces to fracture the restriction created by
dispersion.

In particulate composites, the particles strengthen the system by the hydrostatic coercion
of fillers in matrices and by their hardness relative to the matrix. Three-dimensional
reinforcement in composites offers is isotropic properties, because of the three
systematical orthogonal planes. Since it is not homogeneous, the material properties
acquire sensitivity to the constituent properties, as well as the interfacial properties and
geometric shapes of the array. The composite’s strength usually depends on the diameter
of the particles, the inter-particle spacing, and the volume fraction of the reinforcement.
The matrix properties influence the behaviour of particulate composite too.

1.3 Present Scenario of Composite Material in Industry-

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One of the major trend supporting the growth of composite materials market is demand
for ‘light weighting’ by all major industries. For example, Japanese automotive giant
Toyota is a leader in adopting bio-composites plastics which is accustomed to employ bio
based polyesters, bio based PET, and PLA-blends in its manufacturing procedure. Toyota
has fixed an objective of substituting 20 percent by weightiness of all petroleum plastics
for automotive by bioplastics. The Toyota SAI and Toyota Prius models already feature a
number of bioplastic applications such as headliners, sun visors, or floor mats. Up to 60
percent of the interior fabrics are made of bio based polyesters.
Owen Corning, Solvay, SGL Group and Toray Industries are some of the heavyweights
profiled in this business intelligence report. In 2016, Japan’s Toray Industries partnered
with Toyota Tsusho to develop a recycled carbon-fibre manufacturing technology.
Lightweight properties of carbon-fibre is reflected as an important participant to
resolving environmental concerns. Its lightweight properties condense CO2 emissions
over the comprehensive lifespan of products in which it is used, so demand for the
material is mounting across an extensive range of applications, comprising aircraft and
automobile parts.
In 2019, Composites Manufacturing magazine covered innovations throughout the
industry, from experimental wind turbines and structural composites on electric vehicles
to 3D tooling and automated manufacturing operations.Overall The Indian Composites
Industry has experienced a comparatively healthy growth over the last five years and
caters to a wide assortment of raw materials, components, and sectors. The current (in
2018) Indian Composites Market is estimated at 3.4 lakh metric tons, this is up 6.3% over
the previous year, and witnessed the highest growth since 2015. The market is driven by
growth in Mass Transportation, Electrical and Electronics, Infrastructure, Building and
Construction. The per capita composites consumption reached 0.3 kg in 2018 from 0.25
kg in 2012. The Indian composites industry has a fragmented structure, consisting of
around 3000 stakeholders in the value chain including small, mid-sized and large players
across the country.
In September 2017, Industrial Major, – Reliance Industries Ltd. (RIL) made a foray into
the growing Indian Composites market. The Indian Composites industry is projected to

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grow rapidly to reach 4.9 lakh metric tons by 2022 at a substantial CAGR of 8.2%. This
scale of growth should result from rebounding Renewable Energy, growth in Mass
Transportation, penetration of composites in the strategic sectors and modestly rising
index of industrial production.During the last five years (2013-18), the Indian composites
industry grew at a CAGR of about 5.9%.

Fig.no.05 Demand of Polymer Composite

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2. Literature Review –

1. Z.RYMUZA Warsaw University of Technology, Polymers are very promising

materials to be used for rubbing components in machines and devices. However, the
selection of materials is critical. Understanding of frictional and wear mechanisms
controlled in particular by intensive and decisive transfer of material during operation of
polymeric tribosystems is a very important task for tribologists. Low cost, corrosion
resistance, damping of vibrations, ability to adapt to work in presence of contamination
and many other advantages of use of polymers in sliding (as well rolling) systems opens
very interesting research area for tribology. Polymeric tribosystems can operate without
lubrication. Very wide possibilities to modify polymeric materials by fillers, lubricants
and many other additives give very good perspectives to find polymeric composites that
show excellent tribological properties both as matched with non-polymer or with another
polymeric component. The lubrication enhanced these possibilities when the lubricant is
optimized.

2. Gourav Gupta1, Ankur Kumar2, Rahul Tyagi3, Sachin Kumar4, There is a wide scope
of composite material in automotive, aerospace, wind energy, electrical, sports, domestic
purpose, civil construction, medical chemical industries etc. Composite materials have a
great potentiality of application in structures subjected primarily to compressive loads.
Composite materials have attractive aspects like the relatively high compressive strength,
good adaptability in fabricating thick composite shells, low weight, low density and
corrosion resistance. Composite materials have good mechanical, electrical, chemical
properties, due to which we can use composite material in many various industries.
Various parts of automobile and aerospace are manufactured by composite material due
to good properties. Composite materials are used for domestic purpose like furniture,
window, door, mating, civil construction etc. In the marine, chemical industries, sports.
We can use composite material for better performance of the parts. With the help of
review, we conclude that composite materials have wide advantages & application in
various industries; we can make better life style with the help of composite material.

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3.N.K.Myshkin, M.I.Petrokovets, A.V. Kovalev , Friction is a very common
phenomenon in daily life and industry, which is governed by the processes occurring in
the thin surfaces layers of bodies in moving contact. The simple and fruitful idea used in
studies of friction is that there are two main non-interacting components of friction,
namely, adhesion and deformation. This idea is basic in the two-term model of friction,
although the independence of these components is a matter of convention. Such approach
is correct for any materials including polymers. Behavior of polymers has distinguishing
features, some of which were described by Briscoe. The present review is connected with
his works. The main concept should be mentioned. It consists of three basic elements
involved in friction: interfacial bonds, their type and strength; shearing and rupture of
rubbing materials inside and around the contact region; real contact area.

4. Carosena Meola, Simone Boccardi and Giovanni M. Carlomagno University of Naples

Federico II, Naples, Italy

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3.Polymer Matrix Composite –

3.1 The Structure of Polymers -

Each repeating unit is the “-mer” or basic unit with “poly-mer” meaning many repeating
units. Repeating units are often made of carbon and hydrogen and sometimes oxygen,
nitrogen, sulfur, chlorine, fluorine, phosphorous, and silicon. To make the chain, many
links or “-mers” are chemically hooked or polymerize together. 

Many common classes of polymers are composed of hydrocarbons, compounds of carbon

and hydrogen. These polymers are specifically made of carbon atoms bonded together,
one to the next, into long chains that are called the backbone of the polymer. Because of
the nature of carbon, one or more other atoms can be attached to each carbon atom in the
backbone. There are polymers that contain only carbon and hydrogen atoms.
Polyethylene, polypropylene, polybutylene, polystyrene and polymethylpentene are
examples of these. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) has chlorine attached to the all-carbon
backbone. Teflon has fluorine attached to the all-carbon backbone.
Other common manufactured polymers have backbones that include elements other than
carbon. Nylons contain nitrogen atoms in the repeat unit backbone. Polyesters and
polycarbonates contain oxygen in the backbone. There are also some polymers that,
instead of having a carbon backbone, have a silicon or phosphorous backbone. These are
considered inorganic polymers. One of the more famous silicon-based polymers is Silly
Putty.

Think of how spaghetti noodles look on a plate. These are similar to how linear polymers
can be arranged if they lack specific order, or are amorphous. Controlling the
polymerization process and quenching molten polymers can result in amorphous
organization. An amorphous arrangement of molecules has no long-range order or form
in which the polymer chains arrange themselves. Amorphous polymers are generally
transparent. This is an important characteristic for many applications such as food wrap,
plastic windows, headlight lenses and contact lenses.

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Obviously not all polymers are transparent. The polymer chains in objects that are
translucent and opaque may be in a crystalline arrangement. By definition, a crystalline
arrangement has atoms, ions, or in this case, molecules arranged in distinct patterns. You
generally think of crystalline structures in table salt and gemstones, but they can occur in
plastics. Just as quenching can produce amorphous arrangements, processing can control
the degree of crystallinity for those polymers that are able to crystallize. Some polymers
are designed to never be able to crystallize. Others are designed to be able to be
crystallized. The higher the degree of crystallinity, generally, the less light can pass
through the polymer. Therefore, the degree of translucence or opaqueness of the polymer
can be directly affected by its crystallinity. Crystallinity creates benefits in strength,
stiffness, chemical resistance, and stability. Scientists and engineers are always producing
more useful materials by manipulating the molecular structure that affects the final
polymer produced. Manufacturers and processors introduce various fillers,
reinforcements and additives into the base polymers, expanding product possibilities.
Polymers make ideal materials as they can be processed easily, possess lightweight, and
desirable mechanical properties. It follows, therefore, that high temperature resins are
extensively used in aeronautical applications.

Fig.no 06. Polymer Pyramid

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3.2 Types of Polymer Composite –
3.2.1 Thermoplastics Material–
A thermoplastic, or thermosoftening plastic, is a plastic polymer material that becomes
pliable or moldable at a certain elevated temperature and solidifies upon cooling.
Most thermoplastics have a high molecular weight. The polymer chains associate
by intermolecular forces, which weaken rapidly with increased temperature, yielding a
viscous liquid. In this state, thermoplastics may be reshaped and are typically used to
produce parts by various polymer processing techniques such as injection
molding, compression molding, calendering, and extrusion. Thermoplastics differ
from thermosetting polymers (or "thermosets"), which form irreversible chemical
bonds during the curing process. Thermosets do not melt when heated, but typically
decompose and do not reform upon cooling.
Above its glass transition temperature and below its melting point, the physical properties
of a thermoplastic change drastically without an associated phase change. Some
thermoplastics do not fully crystallize below the glass transition temperature, retaining
some or all of their amorphous characteristics. Amorphous and semi-amorphous plastics
are used when high optical clarity is necessary, as light is scattered strongly by
crystallites larger than its wavelength. Amorphous and semi-amorphous plastics are less
resistant to chemical attack and environmental stress cracking because they lack a
crystalline structure.
Brittleness can be decreased with the addition of plasticizers, which increases the
mobility of amorphous chain segments to effectively lower the glass transition
temperature. Modification of the polymer through copolymerization or through the
addition of non-reactive side chains to monomers before polymerization can also lower it.
Before these techniques were employed, plastic automobile parts would often crack when
exposed to cold temperatures. These are linear or slightly branched long chain molecules
capable of repeatedly softening on heating and hardening on cooling.
Resins reinforced with thermoplastics now comprised an emerging group of composites.
The theme of most experiments in this area to improve the base properties of the resins
and extract the greatest functional advantages from them in new avenues, including

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attempts to replace metals in die-casting processes. In crystalline thermoplastics, the
reinforcement affects the morphology to a considerable extent, prompting the
reinforcement to empower nucleation. Whenever crystalline or amorphous, these resins
possess the facility to alter their creep over an extensive range of temperature. But this
range includes the point at which the usage of resins is constrained, and the reinforcement
in such systems can increase the failure load as well as creep resistance.
A small quantum of shrinkage and the tendency of the shape to retain its original form are
also to be accounted for. But reinforcements can change this condition too. The
advantage of thermoplastics systems over thermosets are that there are no chemical
reactions involved, which often result in the release of gases or heat. Manufacturing is
limited by the time required for heating, shaping and cooling the structures.
Thermoplastics resins are sold as molding compounds. Fiber reinforcement is apt for
these resins. Since the fibers are randomly dispersed, the reinforcement will be almost
isotropic. However, when subjected to molding processes, they can be aligned
directionally. There are a few options to increase heat resistance in thermoplastics.
Addition of fillers raises the heat resistance. But all thermoplastic composites tend loose
their strength at elevated temperatures. However, their redeeming qualities like rigidity,
toughness and ability to repudiate creep, place thermoplastics in the important composite
materials bracket. They are used in automotive control panels, electronic products
encasement etc. Newer developments augur the broadening of the scope of applications
of thermoplastics. Huge sheets of reinforced thermoplastics are now available and they
only require sampling and heating to be molded into the required shapes. This has
facilitated easy fabrication of bulky components, doing away with the more cumbersome
molding compounds.

3.2.2 Thermosets Material –

Thermoset polymers are polymers that are cured into a solid form and cannot be returned
to their original uncured form. Composites made with thermoset matrices are strong and
have very good fatigue strength. They are extremely brittle and have low impact-
toughness making. They are commonly used for high-heat applications because the

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thermoset matrix doesn’t melt like thermoplastics. Thermoset composites are generally
cheaper and easier to produce because the liquid resin is very easy to work with.
Thermoset composites are very difficult to recycle because the thermoset cannot be
remolded or reshaped; only the reinforcing fiber used can be reclaimed.

Fig.no.07.Structure of Thermoplastic and Thermosetting

Thermosets are the most popular of the fiber composite matrices without which, research
and development in structural engineering field could get truncated. Aerospace
components, automobile parts, defense systems etc., use a great deal of this type of fiber
composites. Direct condensation polymerization followed by rearrangement reactions to
form heterocyclic entities is the method generally used to produce thermoset resins.
Water, a product of the reaction, in both methods, hinders production of void-free
composites. These voids have a negative effect on properties of the composites in terms
of strength and dielectric properties.

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3.3 Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages -

1. Polymers are more resistant to chemicals than their metal counterparts.

2. Polymer parts do not require post-treatment finishing efforts, unlike metal.
3. Polymer and composite materials are up to ten times lighter than typical metals.
4. Polymer materials handle far better than metals in chemically harsh environments.
This increases the lifespan of the aircraft and avoids costly repairs brought about
by corroding metal components
5. Polymers are naturally radar absorbent as well as thermally and electrically
insulating.
6. In medical Facilities polymer and composite materials are easier to clean and
sterilize than metal.
7. Polymer materials allow the oil and gas industry to explore deeper depths than
ever before by offering tool weight reduction without a loss of strength as well as
materials which offer superior sealing.

Disadvantages -

1. Cannot withstand very high temperature as all plastics melt down very soon as
compared to metals.
2. The strength to size ratio of polymer is less while for metals is more.
3. Cannot be machined easily and limited speed for machining for it.
4. Heat capacity of polymer is very less so cannot be used in heat applications.
5. Heavy structure cannot be made by polymer as the structural rigidity is very less.
6. The disposal becomes an issue as some polymer cannot be recycled but all metals
can be recycled.

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 3.4 Application-
3.4.1 Transportation vehicles:  Polymer matrix composites find many uses in automotive,
aerospace, and marine applications. Some examples of these uses are provided below. 
See Polymers and Composites in the Transportation Industry for a more detailed discussion.

 Automotive vehicles: Examples of polymer matrix composite use include tires

and various belts and hoses as well as polymer matrix composite components in
automotive bodies.  Some very expensive sports cars, such as Bugatti, use carbon fiber
reinforced polymer matrix composite as the main material of construction of the body of
the car.  It is interesting to note also that the first polymer matrix nanocomposite ever
used in a commercial product was a timing belt cover launched in 1993 for the Toyota
Camry.  This breakthrough was followed over the decades with other applications, such
as bumpers, body panels, engine parts, fuel tanks, and mirror housings.  The technology
has, by now, expanded to reduce the rolling resistance of tires, as well as provide ultra-
hard protective coatings for paintwork, windscreen glass, and headlamps.
 Aerospace vehicles: Polymer matrix composites are also used in aircraft tires and
interiors. Of even greater value, however, is the ability of polymer matrix composites to
help satisfy the relentless drive in the aerospace industry to enhance performance while
reducing weight.  Most importantly, fiber-reinforced polymer matrix composites can be
optimized to combine high strength, stiffness, and toughness, and low density, and thus to
obtain exceptional strength-to-density and stiffness-to-density ratios along with superior
physical properties, so that they are often the structural materials of choice for use in
aircraft components.
 Marine vehicles: Polymer matrix composites find many uses in marine vehicles. 
Fiberglass boats are among the most familiar examples since fiberglass is a composite
where a matrix polymer is reinforced by glass fibers which may be arranged randomly, or
as a chopped strand mat, or as a woven fabric.  The growing use of lighter, stiffer, and
stronger carbon fibers instead of glass fibers is an emerging trend in boatbuilding. 

3.4.2 Medical devices- Polymers and composites are essential components of many

medical devices and applications.

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 Polymer matrix composites are used as components in a wide range of medical
devices; such as MRI scanners, C scanners, X-ray couches, mammography plates, tables,
surgical target tools, wheelchairs, and prosthetics.
 Polymer matrix nanocomposites containing carbon nanotubes or TiO2 nanotubes
reduce the healing time of broken bones by acting as a “scaffold” which guides the
growth of replacement bone.
 The potential uses of nanocomposites in diagnostics and therapy are being
explored. For example, the combination of magnetic nanoparticles and fluorescent
nanoparticles in nanocomposite particles that are both magnetic and fluorescent appears
to make a tumor easier to see during MRI tests performed prior to surgery and may also
help the surgeon to see the tumor better during surgery.

3.4.3 Personal protective equipment:  Polymer matrix composites are used in protective
equipment for use in harsh environments (as in extreme heat or cold), when exposed to
fire (as firefighters often are), when facing deadly weapons (as soldiers and law
enforcement personnel often face), and in many other hazardous situations.  Protection
against temperature extremes, moisture, rain, chemical exposure, fire, clothing puncture,
projectiles, abrasion, biohazards, radiation, explosions, high voltage, static electricity, and
more can be achieved through the use of composites.

3.4.4 Footwear -The performance and comfort of footwear, as well as the durability of
shoe interiors and exteriors, can be improved with the help of polymer matrix
composites.  In addition, biologically resistant or reactive composites may be used to
counteract the typical drawbacks of conventional shoe textiles, such as odor, bacteria, and
fungi. Synthetic (artificial) leather prepared from polyurethane formulations and often
used as an alternative to natural (most often cow) leather in performance footwear is also
often a composite made of two layers, including a backing layer that is most often made
of woven or nonwoven polyester fibers.  The optimum use of polymer matrix composites
is essential for manufacturing footwear that can be used for prolonged periods in harsh
environments.  

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 3.4.5 Electronics and optics:  Polymer matrix composites are used in many electrical
and electronics applications.  The following are some examples. 

 As was discussed above, under the heading of “Energy storage devices”,

nanocomposites are used in lithium ion batteries, flexible batteries, and thin film
capacitors.
 As was discussed above, under the heading of “Impellers, blades, housings, and
covers”, polymer matrix nanocomposites are used as covers for portable electronic
equipment such as mobile phones and pagers. They provide outstanding mechanical
properties and excellent protection of electronic equipment while being of low weight. 
They can also be formulated to impart the cover with much better antistatic performance
than that of the matrix polymer.
 The electrical conductivity of a polymer possessing low density and excellent
mechanical properties can be increased by orders of magnitude by the incorporation of
small amounts of certain Nano fillers. Such polymer matrix nanocomposites then become
candidates for use as components in electronics applications where the matrix polymer by
itself would be useless.
 The incorporation of optimum quantities of certain Nano fillers, such as
nanoclays, enhances the transparency and reduces the haze of many polymer films. These
Nano fillers also improve the strength, toughness, hardness, and abrasion resistance of the
film to levels that are unattainable by films of the matrix polymer by itself.  The
applications of such polymer matrix nanocomposites include coatings that provide both
protection and enhanced aesthetic appeal.

3.4.6 Oil and gas exploration, production, transport, and storage:  Polymer matrix
composites are used in many oil and gas industry applications.  The following are some
examples. 

 Fiber-reinforced polymer matrix composites are used as materials of construction

in structures, such as offshore oil platforms and components on such platforms, used for
oil and gas exploration and production. Much lighter weight and greater corrosion

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 resistance are among the major advantages of polymer matrix composites over metals for
such applications.
 The use of fiber-reinforced thermoset polymer matrix composites for repairing oil
and gas transport and storage media ranging from high-pressure equipment and piping to
oil storage tanks has been growing rapidly over the last two decades. Such composite
repair systems are being used as alternatives to replacing damaged steel pipeline
components or repairing them by installing heavy metal sleeves.
 The use of thermoset nanocomposite beads as nearly neutrally buoyant proppants,
gravel pack materials, and solid lubricants during oil and gas drilling and completion
operations is growing rapidly.

4. Case Study-

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4.1 Polymer Composite for tribological application-

Recently the application of polymers has rapidly increased generally in technology and
also as materials for rubbing components in various machines and devices. This is
particularly connected with low cost of materials and manufacturing in large amount of
components. When the polymeric materials are rubbing in tribological contacts it is very
useful and often the lubrication is not necessary. The friction coefficient can be similar to
the lubricated metallic or ceramic contacts. This kind of contact is often called as oil less.
The tribology of polymers is different from tribology of metals and ceramic materials.
The difference of application of polymers in frictional contacts in comparison to metals
and ceramic materials relates mainly to the chemical and physical structures as well as to
the surface and bulk properties. The polymers show very low surface free energy and also
have the viscoelastic properties. It effects in drastic tribological differences when we
consider adhesive and mechanical components of friction force. Also polymers can be
easily modified both on surface and in bulk. Therefore there are often and easily used as a
background material to produce many composites with easily varied physicochemical
properties. This makes polymers very promising materials with ability to control their
frictional and wear behaviors sliding contacts. Such “elasticity” of physical and chemical
structures enables to produce interesting components for various tribosystems composed
of polymers, metals, ceramic materials as well as polymer-on-polymer sliding (and even)
rolling tribological contacts.

4.1.1 Wear of Polymer composite -

The Committee of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers has defined wear as ‘the
progressive loss of substance from the surface of a body brought about by mechanical
action’ (Pascal, 1970). Wear occurs as a natural phenomenon involving many diverse
phenomena, and interacts in a wildly unpredictable manner. During the past decade, the
use of polymers in tribological applications, bearings, gears, biomaterials, etc., has been
increasing. Studying the wear of polymers is therefore important from both the scientific
and technological point of view. Since polymers are being used more and more in sliding
applications, understanding the wear mechanisms of polymers in contact with

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counterface surfaces becomes important from a practical standpoint. The tribosystem
comprises polymer and counterface that interact in the operative environment under
given conditions of applied load, speed, temperature, etc., resulting in the polymer wear
process. A general classification of wear types in polymers is still an open matter. Earlier
research has established that the wear of polymers can be subdivided into three main
groups: adhesion, abrasion and surface fatigue. Each wear mechanism is governed by its
own laws and, on many occasions, it may act in such a way as to affect the others. It is
important to emphasize that it is not always easy to differentiate between these types of
wear, as they are interrelated and rarely occur separately. However, other wear forms
such as corrosive, erosive or fretting wear are also included by other researchers.

a) Abrasive wear

Abrasive wear is caused by hard asperities on the counter face, which dig into the rubbing
surface of the polymer and remove material, resulting in micro-machining, wear grooves,
tearing, ploughing, scratching and surface cracking as shown in Fig.no 7. The wear
debris produced usually takes the shape of fine chips or flecks, similar to those produced
during machining. The abrasive wear is dependent on the shape and apex angle of the
abrasive points moving along the polymer surface. Many approaches have been
introduced to correlate abrasion to the mechanical properties of polymers. The abrasive
wear of polymers is inversely proportional to the product of the nominal tensile breaking
stress σ u and the elongation- to-break ε u (Figure 1.3). The abrasion of polymers may
also correlate with its cohesive energy, flexure modulus, yield strain or energy- to
rupture. A wide range of studies on the effect of the counterpart surface on wear of
polymers demonstrated that the abrasive wear process involves plastic deformation and
shear, and it was found that for abrasion the dominant material property is the energy- to-
fracture of the polymer. Based on the above, a number of equations have been proposed
in order to express the abrasive wear of polymers. Mainly there are three stages involved
in the production of wear debris:

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 Fig.no.08 Rubbing surface of polyamide sliding
Against dry steel counterface

Figure

1. Deformation of the surfaces to an area of contact is determined by the indentation

hardness, H;

2.Relative motion opposed by the frictional force ( f ), f = μ L , where L is the normal

load and μ represents the coefficient of sliding friction; and

3. Disruption of material at the contact points involving an amount of work equal to the
integral of the stress-s train relationship (Ratner et al., 1964).

b) Adhesive wear

Adhesive wear is the most common form of dry wear, which arises from the shear of
adhesive bonding. This form of wear is likely to be the most significant in the wear of a
polymer when it slides repeatedly over the same wear track on a smooth metal
counterface. During repeated sliding, high local pressure is experienced between the
polymer surface and the counterface, causing plastic deformation leading to the formation
of an adhesive junction. Further motion results in continuous formation and rupture of
these junctions (Figure 1.6). A thin film of the soft polymer is transferred onto the hard
mating surface. As the transfer film builds up, the surface topography of the counterpart

28
changes and equilibrium may be reached, in which the amount of material removed from
the bulk polymer by adhesive wear is equal to the rate of subsequent detachment of wear
particles from the transfer film. Another consequence of polymer transfer is a change in
roughness of both surfaces in contact. The roughness of the polymer rubbing surface
undergoes large variation during the primary stage, running- in, of wear until the steady
state wear is reached, while metal surface roughness is modified due to transfer of the
polymer. In many cases, adhesive wear is independent of surface roughness, often
occurring on very smooth surfaces as well as rougher ones. Experiments were carried out
to study the wear of polyamide sliding against steel and stainless steel counterfaces under
dry conditions. During running- in, the thickness of the transfer film adhering to the steel
counterface increases with sliding time until a maximum value is reached. The final
limiting thickness of the transfer film is probably a characteristic feature of each rubbing
pair and operating variables as shown in below fig no 9.

Fig.no.09 Schematic illustration of adhesive junction

c) Surface fatigue wear

Surface fatigue wear has long been recognized as an important process that takes place
when the polymer undergoes repeated stressing during rolling and sliding motion. This

29
process occurs during friction accompanying nearly all wear modes. A friction contact
undergoes the cyclic stress at rolling and reciprocal sliding. In addition, each asperity of
the friction surface experiences repeated loading and unloading from the asperities of the
counterface. The repeated cycles lead to subsurface crack initiation on the polymer
surface, which on further deformation leads to crack propagation parallel to the surface,
and debris can then be spalled off the surface by continued motion. The new surface of
the material also experiences the same cyclic stressing, which leads to a progressive
process and flaking off of fragments becomes rapid. The precise type of stress cycle
involved in a fatigue process depends on the mechanical properties of the polymer
concerned. Moreover, the adhesion forces across the interface markedly affect the stress
distribution, and adhesion may play a part in fatigue. Surface and subsurface defects are
the main cause in the initiation of the fatigue cracks due to stress concentration. The
defects are in the form of surface marks, dents, scratches, cracks, pits, impurities, voids
and cavities in the subsurface region. Due to repeated stress, surface and subsurface
cracks will open and gradually propagate, join each other, and meet at the surface until
wear debris is detached after a certain number of stress cycles as shown in fig10. As in
other aspects of fatigue, the environment plays a dominant role in determining the
required stress for surface crack nucleation and the crack propagation rate. Even small
amounts of water in a lubricant can have very serious consequences. In fact, a lubricant
can accelerate crack propagation by the purely physical effect of becoming trapped and
developing high fluid pressure in the wedges formed by the opening and closing cracks.
A pioneer study was performed in order to introduce an empirical relationship, known as
Wohler’s equation, to characterize the fatigue properties of rubber.

Fig no 10 Schematic Illustration of typical surface fatigue wear due to cyclic stress

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4.2 Friction of Polymers -
Friction is a very common phenomenon in mechanical systems that may be increased or
decreased depending on the sliding pairs and operating parameters. The force of friction
is governed by the process occurring in the thin surface layers of mating bodies. The
discrepancy between metallic and polymeric friction is due to the differences in the
elastic-plastic behavior of metals and the visco-elastic behavior of polymers. For all
materials, including polymers, there are two main components that should be considered
in studying friction as shown in fig no11. The first is adhesion, which is defined as
shearing of adhesive junctions formed at the interface at the regions of the real contact
area of the junction Ar1. It is important to know that the sum of the areas of all the
junctions constitutes the real area of contact, which is much smaller than the total
interfacial area, A . Generally, during sliding, the creation and termination of interfacial
junctions are influenced by the nature of contact areas, surface chemistry and stress in the
surface layers at the given load conditions. According to the law of friction, the shear
force Fa that resists mutual sliding is given by

Fa = τs · Ar1

where τs is the shear stress required to produce sliding between the rubbing surfaces,
which coincides with the strength of adhesion at the interface between the asperities and
the bulk shear strength of the polymer. These strength properties are of the same order of
magnitude for nearly all of the thermoplastic polymers and appear to vary with
temperature, especially near the glass transition temperature. The second is deformation,
which is the dominant component of friction during abrasive wear. It is attributed to the
deformation caused by asperities on the hard counterface penetrating into the softer
polymer surface, and ploughing out a groove by plastic flow in the polymer. The main
factor that involves the deformation of polymers is the dissipation of mechanical energy
that depends on the mechanical properties of the polymer, sliding conditions,
environmental conditions and others. The energy of deformation represented by the
ploughing process is attributed to the second component of friction, Fd, and given by

Fd = σy · Ar2

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where σy is the polymer yield pressure and Ar2 is the area of the grooved track.
In the case of a polymer sliding over a metallic counterface, the material is transferred
from the polymer to the metal and after sufficient running the friction approaches that of
polymer sliding on polymer. In this case, the adhesion component for polymer far
exceeds the deformation component due to transfer film generated on the metallic
counterface . However, it is no easy task to investigate separately the effects of both
components, and many studies have shown that it is often sufficient to consider that the
friction is just the simple sum of the predictions of both adhesion, Fa, and asperity
deformation, Fd, terms; hence the total friction force F is given by

F = Fa + Fd

In Eq. 1.9, the first term is usually the more important for metals, but with polymers
sliding over rough surfaces or in the presence of a lubricant, the deformation
component can become significant. The relative importance of the contribution of
each of the two parameters to the total frictional force depends on the type of motion
involved (rolling or sliding), the surface topography and the mechanical properties of
the polymeric materials.

To relate the coefficient of friction, during sliding of polymers over a metallic

counterface, to the mechanical properties of the polymer is not an easy task. An
assumption that both surfaces involved are relatively smooth and that all the
deformation terms are negligible should be considered. According to Eq. 1.9, the
friction force is given by the simple model:

F = τs · A r

where Ar is the real area of contact. If the stress at the asperities in contact is sufficient to
cause plastic deformation, then Ar = L/P,

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 Fig.no.11 Schematic illustration of adhesion and deformation friction

5. Conclusion-

33
Reference –

1. Z. RYMUZA Warsaw University of Technology, Tribology of Polymers, Institute of

Micromechanics and Photonics, 02-525 Warszawa, Poland

2. Gourav Gupta 1, Ankur Kumar2, Rahul Tyagi3, Sachin Kumar ,International Journal
of Innovative Research in Science, Engineering and Technology Application and Future
of Composite Materials.

3. Carosena Meola, Simone Boccardi and Giovanni M. Carlomagno University of Naples

Federico II, Naples, Italy Composite material overview and its testing for aerospace
components.

4. N.K. Myshkin*, M.I. Petrokovets, A.V. Kovalev Tribology of polymers: Adhesion,

friction, wear, and mass-transfer,Tribology Department, Metal–Polymer Research
Institute of Belarus National Academy of Sciences, Kirov St. 32A, Gomel, Belarus

5. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermoset_polymer_matrix

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