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AVKS ACADEMY

CHEMISTRY
Chemistry is the ‗science of matter‘ (that is of all physical substance including gases, liquids as
well as solids) and the changes that occurs between the different kinds matters especially
‗chemical changes‘ called chemical reaction.

Chemical changes occur when types of matter are re-arranged into other types of matter.

Example:-H2O is splitting into gases (H2 and oxygen).

Chemistry is a physical science concerned the composition, structure, behavior and proposition
of matter.

Major branches of chemistry:-

1) Physical chemistry:-concerned physical properties of substances on several scales

(macro, micro, atomic).
2) In organic chemistry:-involves the element and their compounds as described by
periodic table.
3) Organic chemistry:-study of compounds contains carbon. Involves different types of
chemical formulas used in chemistry study of carbon and its compounds the study of the
chemistry of life.
4) Inorganic:-study of compounds not covered by organic chemistry; the study of inorganic
compounds which does not contains C-H.

Analytical chemistry:-the study of chemistry that applies physics to the study of chemistry
commonly this includes the applications of the modynalics and quantum mechanical to
chemistry.

Bio chemistry:-this is the study of chemical process that occurs inside of the living organisms.

Structure of Atom
Most of the universe consists of matter and energy. The energy is the capacity to do work and
matter has mass and occupies the space.

Matter is made up of tiny particles called atoms. An atom is the smallest components of an
element characterized by sharing of the chemical properties of the element.

Elements are the substances consisting of one type of atom.

Example: carbon atom up diamond and also graphite pure (24k) gold is composed of only one
type of atom, gold atom.
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Atom is a Greek word meaning ‗indivisible i.e. an ultimate particle which cannot be further
subdivided.

Atom is made up of three subatomic particles electron, proton, neutrons these three particles
are called fundamental particles of matter.

Electron:-An electron is a negatively charged subatomic particle. It can be either free (not
attached to any atom), or bound to the nucleus of an atom. Electrons in atoms exist in spherical
shells of various radii, representing energy levels. The larger the spherical shell, the higher the
energy contained in the electron.

In electrical conductors, current flow results from the movement of electrons from atom to atom
individually, and from negative to positive electric poles in general. In semiconductor materials,
current also occurs as a movement of electrons.

But in some cases, it is more illustrative to envision the current as a movement of electron
deficiencies from atom to atom. An electron-deficient atom in a semiconductor is called a hole.
Holes "move" from positive to negative electric poles in general.

The charge on a single electron is considered as the unit electrical charge. It is assigned
negative polarity. The charge on an electron is equal, but opposite, to the positive charge on a
proton or hole.

Electrical charge quantity is not usually measured in terms of the charge on a single electron,
because this is an extremely small charge. Instead, the standard unit of electrical charge
quantity is the coulomb, symbolized by C, representing about 6.24 x 1018electrons. The electron
charge, symbolized by e, is about 1.60 x 10-19 C. The mass of an electron at rest,
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symbolized me, is approximately 9.11 x 10-31 kilogram (kg). Electrons moving at an appreciable
fraction of the speed of light, for example in a particle accelerator, have greater mass because
of relativistic effects.

Structure of atom (models explaining structure):-

1) Thomson’s model of a atom:-It is also known as j. j Thomson‘s plum pudding models

in 1903 j. j Thomson‘s proposed structure of an atom similar to that of Christmas
pudding. An atom is a positively charged sphere and the electrons are embedded in it.
The magnitude of positive and negative charge is same inside atom so net charge inside
atom is zero.

2) Ruther ford’s a- particle scattering experiment:-α particles made up of 2 protons and

2 neutrons held together by same strong nuclear force i.e. that binds the nucleus of
atom. α particle is type of ionizing radiation.

 Most of the fast moving α-particles passed straight through the gold foil.
 Some of the α-particles were deflected by the foil by small angles.
 Surprisingly one out of every 12,000 alpha particles appeared to rebound

Drawback:-Rutherford model was not able to explain the stability of atom. If the electron
is negatively charged rotates around the charged body, it will radiate energy due to
energy loss through radiates speed of electron will decrease and eventually fall into the
nucleus but such collapse does not occur and atoms were founded to be quite stable.

Note:-Rutherford after his experiment gets credit of discovery of nucleus. (Protein and
neutrons collectively called nucleons

3) Bohr’s model of atom 1913:- In order to explain the stability of an atom, Nails Bohr
gave a new arrangement of electrons in the atom in 1913. According to Nails Bohr, the
electrons could revolve around the nucleus in only 'certain orbits' (energy levels), each
orbit having a different radius.
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When an electron is revolving in a particular orbit or particular energy level around the
nucleus, the electron does not radiate energy (lose energy) even though it has
accelerated motion around the nucleus

 An atom is made up of three particles, electrons, protons and neutrons. Electrons have a
negative charge and protons have a positive charge whereas neutrons have no charge.
They are neutral. Due to the presence of equal number of negative electrons and
positive protons, the atom as a whole is electrically neutral.

 The protons and electrons are located in a small nucleus at the center of the atom. Due
to the presence of protons, the nucleus is positively charged.

 The electrons revolve rapidly around the nucleus in fixed circular paths called energy
levels or shells. The 'energy levels' or 'shells' or 'orbits' are represented in two ways:
either by the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 or by letters K, L, M, N, O and P. The energy
levels are counted from center outwards.

 Each energy level is associated with a fixed amount of energy. The shell nearest to the
nucleus has minimum energy and the shell farthest from the nucleus has maximum
energy.
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 There is no change in the energy of electrons as long as they keep revolving with the
same energy level. But, when an electron jumps from a lower energy level to a higher
one, some energy is absorbed while some energy is emitted.

 When an electron jumps from a higher energy level to a lower one, the amount of energy
absorbed or emitted is given by the difference of energies associated with the two levels.
Thus, if an electron jumps from orbit 1 (energy E1) to orbit 2 (energy E2), the change in
energy is given by E2 - E1.

 The energy change is accompanied by absorption of radiation energy of E = E2E1 =

h where, h is a constant called 'Planck's constant' and is the frequency of radiation
absorbed or emitted. The value of h is 6.626 x 10-34 J-s. The absorption and emission of
light due to electron jumps are measured by use of spectrometers.

Atomic number (Z):-The number of protein present in the nucleus of an atom-‗atom

number/protein number. Atom no=no. of protons=no. of electron.

For ions:-Atomic no= no. of protons ≠ no. of electrons

Ions:-An electrically charged atom or group of atoms formed by the loss or gain of one or more
electrons is called as ion. Ion is defined as an atom/molecule which has gained or lost one or
more of its valence electrons.

Ions can be grouped into two broad categories: captions and anions.

Captions:-Cations are ions that carry a net positive charge because the number of protons in
the species is greater than the number of electrons. The formula for a cation is indicated by a
superscript following the formula that indicates the number of the charge and a "+" sign. A
number, if present, precedes the plus sign. If only a "+" is present, it means the charge is +1.
For example, Ca2+ indicates a cation with a +2 charge.
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Anions:-Anions are ions that carry a net negative charge. In anions, there are more electrons
than protons. The number of neutrons is not a factor in whether an atom, functional group, or
molecule is an anion. Like cations, the charge on an anion is indicated using a superscript after
a chemical formula. For example, Cl- is the symbol for the chlorine anion, which carries a single
negative charge (-1).If a number is used in the superscript, it precedes the minus sign. For
example, the sulfate anion is written as SO42-.

Mass number:-The sum of the number of protons and neutrons present in the nucleus of an
atom is called as mass number. It is denoted (A).

Isotopes:-An isotope is a form of a chemical element whose atomic nucleus contains a specific
number of neutron s, in addition to the number of proton s that uniquely defines the element.
The nuclei of most atom s contain neutrons as well as protons. (An exception is the common
form of hydrogen, whose nucleus consists of a lone proton.) Every chemical element has more
than one isotope. For any element, one of the isotopes is more abundant in nature than any of
the others, although often multiple isotopes of a single element are mixed.

Isobar:-Isobars are atoms (nuclides) of different chemical elements that have the same number
of nucleons. Correspondingly, isobars differ in atomic number (or number of protons) but have
the same mass number. An example of a series of isobars would be 40S, 40Cl, 40Ar, 40K,
and 40Ca. The nuclei of these nuclides all contain 40 nucleons; however, they contain varying
numbers of protons and neutrons.

Electron distribution/configuration:- In atomic physics and quantum chemistry, the electron

configuration is the distribution of electrons of an atom or molecule (or other physical structure)
in atomic or molecular orbital‘s. For example, the electron configuration of the neon atom is
1s2 2s2 2p6.Electronic configurations describe each electron as moving independently in an
orbital, in an average field created by all other orbitals. Mathematically, configurations are
described by Slater determinants or configuration state functions.

Sub shell:-Shell can be sub divided into ‗sub shell‘ the max number of shell is equivalent to
shell number. Ex:-n=1 (first shell), only one sub shell is possible n=2, two sub shell.
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They are 4 different types of sub shell. Denoted by letters-s, p, d, f

Each shell has a max number of electrons which it can hold:-

S=2 d=10

p=6 f=14

Each sub shell is further divided into orbitals. An orbital‘s is defined as a region of space in
which an electron can be found.

Each orbital has its own distinct shape.

S-orbital found in an S-sub shell is spherical

P-orbital found in a P-sub shell is two lobes

D-orbital found in a P-sub shell is four lobes

Valence:-Valence is typically, the number of electrons needed to fill the outermost shell of
an atom. Because exceptions exist, the more general definition of valence is the number
of electrons with which a given atom generally bonds or number of bonds an atom forms.
(Think iron, which may have a valence of 2 or a valence of 3.)

The IUPAC formal definition of valence is the maximum number of univalent atoms that may
combine with an atom.

Usually, the definition is based on the maximum number of either hydrogen atom or chlorine
atoms. Note the IUPAC only defines a single valence value (the maximum), while atoms are
known to be capable of displaying more than one valence. For example, copper commonly
carries a valence of 1 or 2.

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Examples: A neutral carbon atom has 6 electrons, with an electron shell configuration of
1s22s22p2. Carbon has a valence of 4, since 4 electrons can be accepted to fill the 2p orbital.

Valence electron:-A valence electron is an outer shell electron that is associated with an atom,
and that can participate in the formation of a chemical bond if the outer shell is not closed; in a
single covalent bond, both atoms in the bond contribute one valence electron in order to form a
shared pair.

Na - Sodium 1s22s22p63s1
Sodium has 1 valence electron from the 3s orbital

P - Phosphorus 1s22s22p63s23p3
Phosphorus has 5 valence electrons 2 from the 3s and 3 from the 3p

Fe - Iron 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d6
Iron has 2 valence electrons from the 4s

Br - Bromine 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p5
Bromine has 7 valence electrons 2 from the 4s and 5 from the 4p
you can count the electrons in the outermost shell

Name of element Symbol Atomic no. No. of Valence ion

electrons
Hydrogen H 1 1 1+

Helium He 2 2 0

Lithium Li 3 3 1+

Beryllium Be 4 4 2+

Boron B 5 5 3+
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Carbon C 6 6 4-

Nitrogen N 7 7 3-

Oxygen O 8 8 2-

Fluorine F 9 9 2-

Neon Ne 10 10 O-

Sodium Na 11 11 +1

Magnesium Mg 12 12 2+

Aluminum Al 13 13 3+

Silicon Si 14 14 4

Phosphorous P 15 15 3,5

Sulphur S 16 16 2

Chlorine Cl 17 17 1

Argon Ar 18 18 0

Potassium K 19 19 +1

Calcium Ca 20 20 +2

Polyatomic ion:-A polyatomic ion, also known as a molecular ion, is a charged chemical species
(ion) composed of two or more atoms covalently bonded or of a metal complex that can be
considered to be acting as a single unit.

Ammonium NH4 +

Acetate CH3COOC2H3O2 -

Bromide BrO3 -
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carbonate CO3 2-

chlorate ClO3 -

chlorite ClO2 -

chromate CrO4 2-

cyanide CN dichromate Cr2O7 2-

hydrogen carbonate HCO3 -

bicarbonate
hydrogen sulfate bisulfate HSO4 -

hydrogen phosphate bi
phosphate HPO4 2-

hydroxide OH

hypochlorite ClO

iodate IO3 -

nitrate NO3 -

nitrite NO2 -

oxalate C2O4 2-

per chlorate ClO4 -

period ate IO4 -

permanganate MnO4 -

peroxide O2 2-

phosphate PO4 3-

phosphate PO3 3-

silicate SiO4 4-

sulfate SO4 2-

sulfite SO3 2-
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thiocyanate
SCNthiosulfate S2O3

Positive ions (cations) Negative ions (anions)

Name formula Name formula

Hydrogen H(+) Chloride Cl-

Lithium Li(+) Bromide Br-

Sodium Na(+)
Fluoride F-

Barium Ba(2+) Iodide I-

Silver Ag(+) Hydroxide OH-

Fe(2+)
Iron (II) Nitrate NO3-

Ammonium NH4(+) Oxide O-2

Magnesium Mg(2+) Sulfide S-2

Iron (III) Fe(3+) Sulfate SO4-2

Lead (II) Pb(2+)

Zinc Zn(2+)

Copper (II) Cu(2+)

Aluminum Al(3+)
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Atoms and Molecules

Matter is made up of small particles called atoms. Atom is the smallest building block of matter.
There are 118 Element present on earth till now. Many of the symbols are the first one or two
letters of the name of the element. First letter of the symbols is always in capital.
PROPERTIES OF ATOM:-Atom is very small in size. They are of order 10-10m. Atom radius is
nanometers.
Dalton’s atomic theory:-According to Dalton atomic theory all matter whether an element, a
compound or a mixture is composed of small particles called atoms

Postulates: -
1) All matter is made of atoms. Atoms are indivisible and indestructible.
2) All atoms of a given element are identical in mass and properties.
3) Compounds are formed by a combination of two or more different kinds of atoms.
4) A chemical reaction in re arrangement of atoms.

Atomic mass/atomic weight:-Atoms are the basic units of matter. They are the smallest
components of a chemical element, which is a substance that cannot be broken down into
simpler material. Atoms have specific properties that will determine their chemical and physical
nature. One of these properties is their atomic mass. This video will discuss atomic mass and its
role in chemistry.
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Atomic mass is roughly equal to the sum of the individual particle masses of an atom. Atoms
have three basic components: protons (positively charged particles), neutrons (non-charged
particles), and electrons (negatively charged particles).

Protons and neutrons are the larger particles, and are found in the nucleus, which is the core of
the atom. Atomic mass is typically calculated by adding the number of protons and neutrons
together, ignoring the electrons because of their small size. Daltons are the standard units used
for measuring atomic mass

Relative atomic mass:-The calculated relative atomic mass is not the mass of exact atom. It is
a ratio of actual mass respect to the 1/12th of the mass of carbon-12 atom. Relative atomic
mass has unit of "1" according to the equation since "kg" at the top cancels with the bottom one.
The introduction of using relative mass, to a great extend, makes scientists calculate mass of
large molecules much more convenient.

In order to calculate, A first of all, is to calculate the 1/12 of carbon-12: 1.993x10-26/12=1.661x10-

27
Kg; then, compare this value with any other atom which needs to be calculated and the
obtained ratio is relative atomic mass for that atom. For example, for the oxygen atom, its rest
mass is 2.657x10-26, divide it by 1.661x10-27 (2.657x10-26/1.661x10-27) and the answer will
approximately be 16--that is the relative atomic mass for oxygen. The contribution of this value
is to make calculation much easier.
Ram=mass of 1 atom of the element / Mass of one carbon 12

Molecules:-A molecule is a group of two or more atoms that are chemically bonded together
(attractive forces). A molecule can be defined as the smallest particle of an element or
compound that is capable of an independent existence and show all properties of substances.
Atom of same element or of different element can join together to form molecule.

Atomicity:-It is defined as the number of atoms in a molecule.

Based on number of atoms: -
1) Mono atomic:-Molecule contains only one atom are said to be mono atomic.
Example:-He, Ne, Ar etc.
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2) Diatomic:-Molecule contains two atoms are said to be diatomic.

Example:-O2, H2, Br2 etc.
3) Tri atomic:-Molecule containing three atoms are said to be tri atomic.
Example:-O3, CO2, NO2 etc.
4) Tetra atomic:-Molecule containing four atoms.
Example:-P4, SO3 etc.

Based on types of atoms and molecule:

1) Homo-atomic molecule:-Molecule having only one type of atomic (formed by only 1 type of
atom).
Example:-H2N2, P4 etc.
2) Hetero-atomic molecule:-Molecule formed by different types of atoms known as hetero
atomic molecules.
Example:-CO2, NO2, CH4, HCL etc.

Ions:-Ions are the atoms or group of atoms which law a net change on them.
Example:-Nc+, cl- etc.
Classification of ions: -
Based on charge: -
Cation:-Ions contain positive charge.
Example:-NA+, K+, MG2+, CA2+ etc.
Anion:-Ions contain negative charge.
Example:-Br-, F-, O2-, Cl-2 etc

Based on number of ions:

Mono atomic ion:-Ions contains only one atom.
Example:-Na+, K+, Br-, F- etc.
Poly atomic ion:-Ions contains more than one atom.

Valence:-The capability of an atom to gain or lose its valence electron in order to complete its
valence shell (last shell) is known as valence.
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Octet rule:-Atoms of every element wants to have eight electrons in its valence shell. Account
to this rule, the atoms and chemical combine in such a way as to produce eight electrons in the
outer shell of whatever compound it is they form. An outer shell with eight electrons is full, which
means the compound in said to stable.
Factors for determination: When an atom or molecule has one to four electrons in its outer
shell it has a positive valence that is it donates its free electrons. When the number of electron
is four, five, six or seven, you determine the valence by substances the electron number from
that is it gains the electrons.

Note:-In general metals are said to be ‗electro positive‘ elements because they have tendency
to donate electrons. Example: Na+2, Ca+2.
Non metals are said to be electronegative element because they have tendency to accept
electrons.

Variable valence:-Certain elements combine with other atoms, donating, accepting or sharing
electrons in different proportions depending on the nature of the reaction. For example, iron
combines with oxygen to form ferrous oxide as well as ferric oxide. In the formation of ferrous
oxide, iron exhibits a valence of +2, whereas in ferric oxide, it has a valence of +3. This is
termed variable valence.

Writing chemical formulas:-Chemical formula of a compound is a symbolic representation of

its composition.
Rule 1: Cross multiply the valence of elements to form a compound.

A+2 B-3 A3 B2

HC1 H C1 HC1

1 1

H2S H S H2S
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Rule 2: If compound wrists of metal and non metal than metal in written first.
Example:-CaO, Nacl, Zns, Cacl2.
Rule 3: If compound is formed with polyatomic ions then polyatomic ions are written in brackets.
Example: Aluminum sulphate (al2 (so4)3) the polyatomic sulphate ion son2- is enclosed in a
bracket before writing the subscript 3.
Note:-compound made up of metal and non metal are called salts.

Molecular mass and mole concept

Mole:-In a chemical reaction equation, it is more convenient to use quantity of substance in
number of its molecules or atoms rather than their masses, so we use a new unit called MOLE.
If we weigh an element equal to its atomic mass in grams, then it contains 6.022×1023 atoms of
the element The gram atomic mass of the element as well as 6.022×1023 atoms of the element,
both represent 1 mole of element.1 mole of any species (atoms, molecules, ions) is equal to its
atomic mass or molecular mass in grams.

No. of particles (atoms, molecules, ions) in 1 mole=6.022×1023 atoms

In gram atomic mass of element the number of atom presents in 6.02 x 1023 which in known as
‗mole‘.

1 pair of egg-2 egg

1 dozen of egg-12

1 mole of egg-6.02 x 10 23 eggs

This number is called as AVOGADRO‘S CONSTANT

1 mole of atom=6.022×1023atoms

1 mole of molecules=6.022×1023molecules
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Avogadro’s number (NA or L):-It represents the number of atoms present in 12 g of carbon-
12/the number of particle (atom/molecules) is a unit known as mole.

1 mole=6.02 x 10 23 unit (Avogadro‘s number)

Gram atomic mass (GAM):- Gram atomic mass is the mass, in grams, of one mole of atoms in
a monatomic chemical element. It is numerically equal to the relative atomic mass (or atomic
weight) in grams. The atomic mass of an element expressed in grams is called gram atomic
mass. For example oxygen is 16 grams.

Gram molecular mass:-Gram molecular mass a mass in grams numerically equal to

the molecular weight of a substance or the sum of all the atomic masses in its molecular formula
For example, the gram-molecular weight of carbon dioxide (CO2) is 12 (atomic mass of carbon)
+ (2 × 16) (atomic mass of oxygen), or 44 g.

Chemical bonding:-Laws of chemical combination of reactants (atoms or molecular) is fixed

proportion by weight or by volume. This are achieved b following certain laws

1) Law of conversation of mass:-The law of conservation of mass states that mass in an

isolated system is neither created nor destroyed by chemical reactions or physical
transformations. According to the law of conservation of mass, the mass of the products in a
chemical reaction must equal the mass of the reactants.
Example:-2H2+O2 2H2O
2) law of constant proportion:- In chemistry, the law of definite proportion, sometimes called
Proust's law or the law of definite composition, or law of constant composition states that a
given chemical compound always contains its component elements in fixed ratio (by mass) and
does not depend on its source and method of preparation

Chemical bonding:- Chemical bonding, any of the interactions that account for the association
of atoms into molecules, ions, crystals, and other stable species that make up the familiar
substances of the everyday world. When atoms approach one another, their nuclei
and electrons interact and tend to distribute them in space in such a way that the total energy is
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lower than it would be in any alternative arrangement. If the total energy of a group of atoms is
lower than the sum of the energies of the component atoms, they then bond together and the
energy lowering is the bonding energy. The ideas that helped to establish the nature of
chemical bonding came to fruition during the early 20th century, after the electron had been
discovered and quantum mechanics had provided a language for the description of the behavior
of electrons in atoms. However, even though chemists need quantum mechanics to attain a
detailed quantitative understanding of bond formation, much of their pragmatic understanding of
bonds is expressed in simple intuitive models. These models treat bonds as primarily of two
kinds—namely, ionic and covalent. The type of bond that is most likely to occur between two
atoms can be predicted on the basis of the location of the elements in the periodic table, and to
some extent the properties of the substances so formed can be related to the type of bonding.
There are three types of bonding in matter that hold the molecules together
1) Covalent bond:-Covalent bond, in chemistry, the inter atomic linkage that results from the
sharing of an electron pair between two atoms. The binding arises from the electrostatic
attraction of their nuclei for the same electrons. A covalent bond forms when the bonded atoms
have a lower total energy than that of widely separated atoms.
2) Ionic bond:-In ionic bonding, electrons are transferred from one atom to another resulting in
the formation of positive and negative ions. The electrostatic attractions between the positive
and negative ions hold the compound together. The predicted overall energy of the ionic
bonding process, which includes the ionization energy of the metal and electron affinity of the
nonmetal, is usually positive, indicating that the reaction is endothermic and unfavorable.
However, this reaction is highly favorable because of their electrostatic attraction. At the most
ideal inter-atomic distance, attraction between these particles releases enough energy to
facilitate the reaction. Most ionic compounds tend to dissociate in polar solvents because they
are often polar. This phenomenon is due to the opposite charges on each ion.

At a simple level, a lot of importance is attached to the electronic structures of noble gases like
neon or argon which have eight electrons in their outer energy levels (or two in the case of
helium). These noble gas structures are thought of as being in some way a "desirable" thing for
an atom to have. One may well have been left with the strong impression that when other atoms
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React, they try to organize things such that their outer levels are either completely full or
completely empty.
3) Metallic bond polar covalent bond:-The chemical bond can be defined as the interaction
between two elements which helps them close to each other. Elements involve in the formation
of chemical bonds with the help of their valence electrons. There are mainly two types of
chemical bonds; Ionic and covalent. Ionic bonds are formed between two oppositely charged
ions by the complete transfer of electrons. When an atom loses its electrons to form cation, it
acquires a positive charge.
Similarly, an anion is formed by accepting electron and has a negative charge. The electrostatic
force of attraction between cation and anion is known as electrovalent interaction or Ionic bond.
For example the bond between sodium ion and chloride ion leads to the formation of sodium
chloride that is an ionic compound.
4) Hydrogen bonds:-A hydrogen bond is a weak type of force that forms a special type of
dipole-dipole attraction which occurs when a hydrogen atom bonded to a strongly
electronegative atom exists in the vicinity of another electronegative atom with a lone pair of
electrons. These bonds are generally stronger than ordinary dipole-dipole and dispersion forces,
but weaker than true covalent and ionic bonds.

Matter in our surroundings

Matter:-Anything which occupies space and has mass is called matter, so everything in
the universe is "matter". Some examples of matter are, water, air, metals, plants,
animals etc. The matter can be classified into different categories depending upon its
physical or chemical nature

(a) Matter is categorized as a gas, a liquid and a solid on the basis of physical state.
For e.g., Air, water and the earth Changes of state are also matters of everyday
experience for example, ice melts and water freezes, water changes into steam on
heating and steam condenses to liquid water on cooling.
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(b) On the basis of chemical nature matter is classified as an element compound or

mixture. Elements and compounds are pure substances whereas a mixture contains
two or more pure substances.

Types of material:
1) Homogenous:-The material which has same composition and same properties.
Example: glasses, metals, paper, broad and coatings.
2) Heterogeneous:-Material which has different composition and different properties in
material and different parts. Example:-marble, presence of gray and red grains of other
materials.

States of matter:-Matter is classified into 3 states on bases of physical states

solid
liquid
gases

Properties of matter:-
1) matter is made up of small particles
2) these particles are very small in size
3) these particles are moving constantly
4) these particles have between them
5) particles of matter attract each other because of the force of attraction

Diffusion:-Diffusion is the process of a substance spreading out to evenly fill its container or
environment. In a solution, a concentrated solute diffuses to spread evenly in its solvent. In air,
gas molecules diffuse to mix thoroughly. Substances diffuse from areas of high concentration to
low concentration.

Solid:-A solid is a state of matter characterized by particles arranged such that their shape
and volume are relatively stable. The constituents of a solid tend to be packed together much
closer than the particles in a gas or liquid. The reason a solid has a rigid shape is because the
atoms or molecules are tightly connected via chemical bonds. The bonding may produce either
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a regular lattice (as seen in ice, metals, and crystals) or an amorphous shape (as seen in glass
or amorphous carbon).

A solid is one of the four fundamental states of matter, along with liquids, gases, and plasma.

Solid state physics and solid state chemistry are two branches of science dedicated to studying
the properties and synthesis of solids. Examples of things that are not solids include liquid
water, air, liquid crystals, hydrogen gas, and smoke.

The different types of chemical bonds that join the particles in solids exert characteristic forces
that can be used to classify solids. Ionic bonds (e.g. in table salt or NaCl) are strong bonds that
often result in crystalline structures that may dissociate to form ions in water. Covalent bonds
(e.g., in sugar or sucrose) involve the sharing of valence electrons.

Electrons in metals seem to flow because of metallic bonding. Organic compounds often contain
covalent bonds and interactions between separate portions of the molecule due to van der
Waals forces.

Liquid:-A liquid is one of the states of matter. The particles in a liquid are free to flow, so while a
liquid has a definite volume, it does not have a definite shape. Liquids consist of atoms or
molecules that are connected by intermolecular bonds.

Liquids are nearly incompressible fluids. In other words, even under pressure, their value only
decreases slightly.

The density of a liquid is affected by pressure, but generally the change in density is small. The
density of a liquid sample is fairly constant throughout. The density of a liquid is higher than that
of its gas and usually lower than that of its solid form.

Liquids, like gases, take the shape of their container. However, a liquid cannot disperse to fill a
container (which is a property of a gas).
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Liquids have surface tension, which leads to wetting.

Although liquids are common on Earth, this state of matter is relatively rare in the universe
because liquids only exist over a narrow temperature and pressure range. Most matter consists
of gases and plasma.

Particles in a liquid have greater freedom of movement than in a solid.

When two liquids are placed into the same container, they may either mix (be miscible) or not
(be immiscible).

Examples of two miscible liquids are water and ethanol. Oil and water are immiscible liquids.

Properties of state of matter:

1) Filling container:-The force of attraction between the tiny particles in gases is very less. Due
to this, these particles can early move away from each other and thus filling the container. In soil
and liquid attraction force is sufficient enough for not letting the particles move away from each
other.

2) Shape and volume:-Due to less attraction force between particles of liquid and gas can
easily move around. Thus they can take any shape as per the container.

Volume: gases have so little attraction among particles that they can easily change sparing
themselves so, they can change their volume.

In liquids, attraction force is large enough so, that spacing between particles does not change
early, so liquids have fixed volume.

In solids can change shape on applying force where liquid and gases do not need force to be
applied for changing shape.

Some solids have gas inside them, so they can be early squeezed to change shape.
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3) Compressibility and rigidity:-Compressibility is one of the most important characteristics of

gas. Because of lot of space between particles, a gas can be compressed to a great extent.
Liquid and solid cannot be compressed because of the least space between their particles.

The greatest force of attraction between particles and close packing of particles make solids
rigid. Rigidity is one of the unique properties of solids. Because of rigidity, a solid can resist from
getting distorted. Because of rigidity a solid has definite shape and volume. Rigidity is negligible
in fluid and gas.

4) Moving through:-As we try to move through gases and liquids their particles move away
from our path creating space for us. So, we can move through them. Particles of solids cannot
move away from our path, so we cannot move through them.

5) Fluidity:-The ability to flow is called fluidity. The less force of attraction and more space
between particles make liquid and gas to flow. That‘s why liquid and gas are called fluid.

6) Density: The mass per unit volume of a substance is called density. The density of solid is
highest, of liquid is less than solid and of gas is minimum.

7) Diffusion:-Diffusion is the process of mixing of difference substances each other due to

random motion of their particles. Example: bottle of perfume opened in corner of room. Aquatic
animals take O2 and CO2 for their survival because of the diffusion phenomenon O2 and CO2
in air diffusion into water.

8) Pressure:-Take a container filled with gas. The tiny particles of gas collide walls of container
while doing random motion. Due to this pressure in exerted on the walls of container. If
temperature of gas high increases particles move fastest and exert move pressure increases on
walls. Particles of liquid can also exert pressure as they can do random motion.

Measurement of temperature:-Temperature is measured with a thermometer, historically

calibrated in various temperature scales and units of measurement. The most commonly used
scales are the Celsius scale, denoted in °C (informally, degrees centigrade), the Fahrenheit
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scale (°F), and the Kelvin scale.

Kelvin:-It is one of the three best-known scales used to measure temperature, along with
Fahrenheit and Celsius. Like other temperature scales, the freezing and boiling points of water
are factors in establishing the scale‘s range. There are 100 degrees between the temperate at
which water freezes at (273.16 K) and boils (373.16 K).
Degree Celsius:-In science, the Celsius scale is used more often than the Fahrenheit scale.
The Celsius scale is divided into 100 equal parts, called degrees Celsius (°C), between the
freezing point and boiling point of water. This scale was invented by Anders Celsius in 1742.
Celsius also based his scale on the freezing and boiling points of water. The freezing point of
water on this scale is 0 degrees Celsius (0°C). The boiling point of water is 100 degrees Celsius
(100°C). This thermometer scale is sometimes called the centigrade scale because there are
100 Celsius degrees between the two fixed points.
Temperature:-In everyday terms, temperature is a measure of the "hotness" or "coldness" of a
substance. More technically, temperature indicates the direction in which energy flows (as heat)
when two objects are in thermal contact: energy flows as heat from a high temperature region to
a low temperature region.
Melting point:-Melting point, temperature at which the solid and liquid forms of a pure
substance can exist in equilibrium. As heat is applied to a solid, its temperature will increase
until the melting point is reached. More heat then will convert the solid into a liquid with no
temperature change. When all solid has melted, additional heat will raise the temperature of the
liquid. The melting temperature of crystalline solids is a characteristic figure and is used to
identify pure compounds and elements. Most mixtures and amorphous solids melt over a range
of temperatures. The thermometer shows 0⁰C until all ice melted.

Boiling point:- The boiling point is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of a liquid
equals the external pressure surrounding the liquid. Therefore, the boiling point of
a liquid depends on atmospheric pressure. The boiling point becomes lower as the
external pressure is reduced. As an example, at sea level the boiling point of water is 100 °C
(212 °F), but at 2000 meters (6600 feet) altitude the boiling point is 93.4 °C (200.1 °F).
Boiling differs from evaporation. Evaporation is a surface phenomenon that occurs at any
temperature in which molecules at the liquid edge escapes as vapor because there is no
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enough liquid pressure on all sides to hold them. In contrast, boiling affects all molecules in the
liquid, not just ones on the surface. Because molecules within the liquid change to vapor,
bubbles form.

Latent heat:-Latent heat is the heat energy per mass unit required for a phase change to occur.
If we think about substances at a molecular level, gaseous molecules have more vibration than
liquid molecules. So when you add heat to a liquid, you are actually causing the molecules to
vibrate. The latent heat is the energy required to change the molecular movement. Each
substance has a unique latent heat value. Normally when heat energy is added to or removed
from an object, the temperature of the object changes; however, during phase changes, the
temperature of an object stays constant. The temperature remains the same because energy is
required for an object to change phases.
Latent heat is of two types:
a) Latent heat of fusion
b) Latent heat of vaporization
a) Latent heat of fusion:-latent heat of fusion, is a category of latent heat describing the energy
for the phase change between a liquid and a solid to occur without a change in temperature. To
fully grasp this concept, let's first review latent heat. The three common states of matter are gas,
liquid, and solid. Thus, there are three different terms for latent heat describing phase changes
between these states of matter. The latent heat of fusion refers to the phase change between
solid and liquid. Take note that although 'heat' is often thought as state of being hot, heat
actually refers to the transfer of heat energy between objects. Thus, the latent heat of fusion
encompasses the process of adding heat to melt a solid and the process of subtracting heat to
freeze a liquid.
b) Latent heat of vaporization:-Latent heat of vaporization is a physical property of a
substance. When a material in liquid state is given energy, it changes its phase from liquid to
vapor; the energy absorbed in this process is called heat of vaporization. The heat of
vaporization of water is about 2,260 kJ/kg, which is equal to 40.8 kJ/mol.
I) Sublimation:-Fill your ice cube trays with water, place them in the freezer, and the next day,
you will have ice cubes formed through a process called freezing. If you drop those ice cubes on
the floor, soon they will have melted into a puddle of water. Freezing and melting are two
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common phase transitions, or changes in the states of matter to or from solid, liquid, gas, or
plasma. Sublimation is another one of these phase transitions; except in this case, we have a
solid turning directly into a gas. As a sublimating material changes from a solid to a gas, it never
passes through the liquid state. This image shows water in its three forms: ice, water, and
steam. Sublimation is just one of the ways water or another substance can change between its
potential phases.
II) Pressure:
solid:-There is no effect on pressure on solids, solids are non compressible.
Liquid:-There is no effect on pressure on liquid, liquid are non compressible.
Gas:-The volume of gas Decrease, increase in pressure. Since, there is lot of space between
the particles of gas and gas is highly compressible.
Evaporation:-Evaporation is the process by which water changes from a liquid to a gas or
vapor. Water boils at 212 degrees F (100 degrees C), but it actually begins to evaporate at 32
degrees F (0 degrees C); it just occurs extremely slowly. As the temperature increases, the rate
of evaporation also increases. The amount of evaporation depends on the temperature, and it
also depends on the amount of water there is to evaporate.
Factors affection evaporation:
1) Nature of liquid:-Different liquid have difference rates of evaporation. A liquid having weaker
inter particle attraction forces evaporates at faster rate because less energy is required in
overcome the attraction forces.
2) Surface area of the liquid:-The evaporation depends upon the surface area. If the surface
area is increased, the rate of evaporation increases because the high energy particles from
liquid can go into gas phase only through surface.
III) Temperature:-Temperature is a physical quantity expressing the subjective perceptions of
hot and cold. Temperature is measured with a thermometer, historically calibrated in
various temperature scales and units of measurement. The most commonly used scales are
the Celsius scale, denoted in °C (informally, degrees centigrade), the Fahrenheit scale (°F), and
the Kelvin scale. The Kelvin (K) is the unit of temperature in the International System of
Units (SI), in which temperature is one of the seven fundamental base units.
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IV) Humidity in air:-Ever heard the phrase 'It's not the heat, it's the humidity'? People say this
because humidity, which is the amount of water vapor in the air, can make hot temperatures
even more unbearable than they already are. Humidity is actually a broad term, and we can
describe different types of humidity in different ways. Humidity is an important thing to
understand because it affects the weather and climate as well as global climate change.
Humidity also affects indoor environments, so understanding it can help you determine the best
place to store your books, clothing and other important items in your house.
V) Wind speed:-The rate of evaporation also increase in speed of the wind, this is because with
increase in speed of wind. The particles of water vapor move away with wind resulting decrease
in the amount of vapor in the atmosphere.
Evaporation causes cooling:-When you spray perfume on your body, your body feels slightly
cooler. The same goes for acetone and water. This is an effect of evaporation, or the change of
matter from its liquid state to its vapor state. The only difference is the rate at which the
coolness is felt. In the case of acetone, the part of your body that is in contact with the liquid will
cool the fastest. This happens because the evaporation rate of acetone is higher than that of
water or perfume. Let‘s understand how this cooling takes place.

Evaporation causes cooling naturally. The underlying principle behind this is, in order to change
its state, matter must either gain or lose energy. In the case of change of phase from liquid to
gas, molecules of matter require energy to overcome their potential energy by their kinetic
energy. So, the liquid takes this energy from its surroundings. Generally, when energy transfer
occurs, it results in an increase or decrease in temperature of the substance, depending on
whether the energy is being transferred from the substance to the surroundings or vice versa.
However, there are exceptions to this rule. Although there is an increase in temperature of the
substance till the boiling point is attained during evaporation, phase change results in no
observable heat transfer.

The molecules of the substance absorb heat energy continuously from the surroundings and
thus cool the surroundings till they reach the boiling point, after which they start to break free
from the liquid and turn into vapor. Since there is no change in temperature till the evaporation
process is complete i.e. the entire liquid gets converted into vapor, the amount of energy
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required for this phase change is called the latent heat of vaporization, where the word ‗latent‘
means ‗hidden‘, meaning this heat will not change the temperature reading on a thermometer.

Two more states of matter:

1) Bose-Einstein condensate:-Bose-Einstein condensate (BEC), a state of matter in which
separate atoms or subatomic particles, cooled to near absolute zero (0 K, − 273.15 °C, or −
459.67 °F; K = Kelvin), coalesce into a single quantum mechanical entity—that is, one that can
be described by a wave function—on a near-macroscopic scale. This form of matter was
predicted in 1924 by Albert Einstein on the basis of the quantum formulations of the Indian
physicist Satyendra Nat Bose.

Although it had been predicted for decades, the first atomic BEC was made only in 1995,
when Eric Cornell and Carl Wireman of JILA, a research institution jointly operated by
the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) and the University of Colorado at
Boulder, cooled a gas of rubidium atoms to 1.7 × 10−7 K above absolute zero. Along
with Wolfgang Kestrel of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), who created a BEC
with sodium atoms, these researchers received the 2001 Nobel Prize for Physics. Research on
BECs has expanded the understanding of quantum physics and has led to the discovery of new
physical effects.

BEC theory traces back to 1924, when Bose considered how groups of photons behave.
Photons belong to one of the two great classes of elementary or submicroscopic particles
defined by whether their quantum spin is a nonnegative integer (0, 1, 2, …) or an odd half
integer (1/2, 3/2, …). The former type, called bosons, includes photons, whose spin is 1. The
latter type, called fermions, includes electrons, whose spin is 1/2.

As Bose noted, the two classes behave differently (see Bose-Einstein and Fermi-Dirac
statistics). According to the Pauli Exclusion Principle, fermions tend to avoid each other, for
which reason each electron in a group occupies a separate quantum state (indicated by
different quantum numbers, such as the electron‘s energy). In contrast, an unlimited number of
bosons can have the same energy state and share a single quantum state.
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Is Matter around us Pure

Anything occupies space and has mass is called matter. Matter can be divided into two
categories pure substances, mixture.
Pure substances:-It consists of single type of particles which are same in their chemical
nature.
Mixture:-Mixture consists, of more than one kind of pre substances which can be separated by
physical method.
Mixture is divided two types:
1) Homogeneous mixture 2) Hetero generous mixture
1) Homogeneous mixture:-There are all types of mixtures, and we encounter them frequently
in our daily lives. Mixtures can be found in the liquids we drink, the foods we eat, and the air we
breathe. Homogeneous mixtures have the same composition throughout, and the individual
parts of the mixture are not easily identifiable. Homogeneous mixtures are also referred to as
solutions. While we normally think of solutions as liquids, such as soft drinks and lemonade,
they can actually be in the form of solids, liquids, and gases. Homogeneous mixtures can also
be a combination of these forms, as in a liquid-gas mixture.
2) Hetero generous mixture:-A mixture is a combination of two or more pure substances in
which the original substances retain their chemical properties. In some mixtures, the initial
substances cannot be detected after they have been mixed. In a heterogeneous mixture, the
substances do not blend smoothly throughout, and the individual substances that compose the
mixture can be detected. Heterogeneous mixtures can typically be separated back into their
individual components through chemical or physical means.

Solution:-A solution is a type of homogeneous mixture that is made up of two or more

substances. A homogeneous mixture is a type of mixture with a uniform composition. This
means that the substances cannot be distinguished easily from one another.

Some examples of solutions are salt water, rubbing alcohol, and sugar dissolved in water. When
you look closely, upon mixing salt with water, you can't see the salt particles anymore, making
this a homogeneous mixture.
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A solution has two components:-

solvent
solute
solvent:-This is the substance that makes up the majority of the solution. This is the part where the
solute is dissolved. In our example of salt water, the solvent is water.
Solvent:-This is the substance that makes up the minority of the solution, or this is the part that is
dissolved. In our example of salt water, the solute is the salt. Usually we think of a solution as a
liquid that contains a solid, liquid or gas dissolved in it. But we can also have solid solutions i.e.,
alloys
Alloys:-An alloy is a substance made by melting two or more elements together, at least one of
them a metal. An alloy crystallizes upon cooling into a solid solution, mixture, or inter metallic
compound. The components of alloys cannot be separated using a physical means.
Three types of solution:
I) True solution
II) suspension
III) colloid
I) True solution:-True Solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances in which
substance dissolved (solute) in solvent has the particle size of less than 10-9 m or 1 nm. Simple
solution of sugar in water is an example of true solution. Particles of true solution cannot be
filtered through filter paper and are not visible to naked eye.
II) Suspension:-Suspension is a heterogeneous mixture in which particle size of one or more
components is greater than 1000nm.When mud is dissolved in water and stirred vigorously,
particles of mud are distributed evenly in water. After some time, the particles of this solution
settle under water due to influence of gravity. This solution is an example of Suspension (see
picture below). Contrary to True Solution, particles of suspension are big enough to be seen
with naked eye.
Connection of a solution:
1) Saturated solution:-When no more amount of solute can be dissolved in a solution at given
temperature it is called as saturated solution.
2) Unsaturated solution:-When more amount of solution can be dissolved in a solution at
given temperature.
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3) Solubility:-The amount of solute present in the saturated solution at the given temperature.
Connection of solution is the amount of solution present in a given amount of solution.
Connection of solution=amount of solute/amount of solvent
Two method of finding connection of solution :-
1) Mass by mass percentage of a solution:-
=mass of solute/mass of solution x100
2) Mass of volume percentage of solution:-
=Mass of solute/volume of solutionx100
III) Colloid:-Colloidal Solution is a heterogeneous mixture in which particle size of substance is
intermediate of true solution and suspension i.e. between 1-1000 nm. Smoke from a fire is
example of colloidal system in which tiny particles of solid float in air. Just like true solutions,
Colloidal particles are small enough and cannot be seen through naked eye. They easily pass
through filter paper. But colloidal particles are big enough to be blocked by parchment paper or
animal membrane.
Separation of mixture:-The method to be used for separating a mixture depends on the nature
of it‘s constitutes of mixture.
1) Filtration:-Filtration is a process used to separate solids from liquids or gases using a filter
medium that allows the fluid to pass, but not the solid. The term "filtration" applies whether the
filter is mechanical, biological, or physical. The fluid that passes through the filter is called
the filtrate. The filter medium may be a surface filter, which is a solid that traps solid particles, or
a depth filter, which is a bed of material that traps the solid. Filtration is typically an imperfect
process. Some fluid remains on the feed side of the filter or embedded in the filter media and
some small solid particulates find their way through the filter. As a chemistry and engineering
technique, there is always some lost product, whether it's the liquid or solid being collected.
2) Evaporation:-Evaporation is a type of vaporization of a liquid that occurs from the surface of a
liquid into a gaseous phase that is not saturated with the evaporating substance. The other type of
vaporization is boiling, which is characterized by bubbles of saturated vapor forming in the liquid
phase. Steam produced in a boiler is another example of evaporation occurring in a saturated vapor
phase. Evaporation that occurs directly from the solid phase below the melting point, as commonly
observed with ice at or below freezing or moth crystals is called sublimation.
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3) Crystallization:-Crystallization is the solidification of atoms or molecules into a highly

structured form called a crystal. Usually, this refers to the slow precipitation of crystals from a
solution of a substance. However, crystals can form from a pure melt or directly from deposition
from the gas phase. Crystallization can also refer to the solid-liquid separation and purification
technique in which mass transfer occurs from the liquid solution to a pure solid crystalline
phase. Although crystallization may occur during precipitation, the two terms are not
interchangeable. Precipitation simply refers to formation of an insoluble (solid) from a chemical
reaction. A precipitate may be amorphous or crystalline
Process:
Impure sub-dissolved in H2O solution.

Solution filtered to remove insoluble impurities.

Clear solution gently heated-saturated solution obtained.

Then allow hot, solution to cool slowly.

Crystal of pure solution are formed, impurities remain dissolved in the solution.

Separate the crystal of pure solution by filtration and dry.

4) Chromatography:-Chromatography is a technique used for the separation of those solutes

that dissolve in same solvent in very small quantities. The most common method is paper
chromatography.
Method of separation:
Take a thin, long strip of filter paper.

Dram a peanut line on it about 3 cm above

Put small drop of ink on filter paper

Let ink dry

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Filter paper into a tall glass jar containing some water at its lower part

Lower end of paper above pencil line

When H2O reaches top end, the strip is removed and dried

Paper containing separate color spots is obtained

5) Sublimation:-The changing of a solid directly into vapor on heating and of vapor into solid on
cooling is called sublimation. The process of sublimation is used to separate that component of
solid mixture which sublimes on heating. The solid substances that obtained cooling is called
sublimate.
Procedure:
Take mixture of ammonium chloride + common salt in china dish.

Place it on tripod stand and cover it inverted glass funnel and put cotton plug on the opening

Heat the mixture using Bunsen burner

On heating the chloride changes into white vapor, rise up and convert in solid. A chloride on
coming in contact cold inner walls of funnel.

Since common salt is not prone to sublimation so it remains behind in the china dish.

6) Separation of two immiscible liquid:-This process is used to separate 2 liquids which don‘t
mix into one another. These two immiscible liquids are separated through separating funnel is a
type of funnel which has a stopcock in its stem to allow the flow of liquid from it, or to stop the
flow of liquid from it. The separation of two immiscible liquid depends on the differences in their
densities.

7) Separation of miscible liquids/distillation:-This process is used to separate 2 liquids which

are miscible i.e., they mix into each other in all proportion and from single layer when put in a
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container. In this method, we start heating a liquid to form vapor and then cooling decreases the
vapor to get back liquid. The liquid obtained by condensing the vapor is called as distillate and
process condemnation. The process is used for those liquid which have sufficient different in
boiling point.
Fraction distillation:-When the boiling point difference between two miscible liquids is less
than 25k then fractional distillation is used i.e., the distillation being collected in fraction, boiling
at different temperature. A simple fraction column has glass beads, these beads provide surface
for vapor to cool and condense rapidly.
8) Separation of gases from air:-Air is a homogeneous mixture and can be separated into its
components by fractional distillation.

Air

Compress and cooled by increasing

Pressure increase and decreasing temperature decrease

Liquid air

Allow to warm up slowly in fractional distillation column

Gases get separated at different height by temperature differences

9) Centrifugation:- Have you ever wondered how they separate skim milk from whole milk? Or
how your washing machine is able to get the majority of water out of your clothes? Or how,
during a blood test, the hospital is able to separate out the different pieces that make up your
blood?

Well, the answer to all of these life mysteries is one and the same. Centrifugation is the process
where a mixture is separated through spinning. It is used to separate skim milk from whole milk,
water from your clothes, and blood cells from your blood plasma. Although centrifugation is
primarily used to separate mixtures, it is also used to test the effects of gravity on people and
objects. We'll delve into all of this later in the lesson, but let's start by discussing how
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centrifugation works.
Application:
Used in diagnostic lab for blood and urine test
Used in dairies to separate butter from cream
Used in washing machines to squeeze out water from wet clothes
Centrifugation is a process which involves the application of the centrifugal force/centripetal
force for the sedimentation of homogeneous mixture a centrifuge
Aids in separation of protein such as salting out
Blood samples-upper plasma layer
–Thin interface layer consisting WBC‘S and platelets
-lower layer consisting RBC,S
DNA & RNA separation:-
This is two steps process
Involves spinning the sample at top speed for short while
Later carrying out the second step in the lab using chemicals.
11) Cleaning water for drinking:-To have clean water we need to pass the water obtained
from lake through long process.
I) Sedimentation tank:-Heavy impurities particles settle down when water is left for some time.
II) Loading tank:-Alum is mixed in water; even small suspended particles settle down.
III) Filtration tank:-It has 3 layers of fine sand, tiny stones when H2O pass through it further
cleaned.
IV) Chlorination tank:-Chlorine is mixed in water in the tank. It kills germs. Now water is sent to
home storage tank.

Chemical reaction and equation

Most of the substances around as undergoes various changes some of these changes are
temporary with number new substances being formed they are called physical changes. When
these changes in chemical properties with new substances formed are called as chemical
changes The new substances formed in which the reactants or the parent loses its identity to
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form new substances called product these changes are permanent changes as we won‘t get the
reactants back and termed as chemical changes.

Chemical reaction:-A chemical reaction is a chemical change which forms new substances. A
chemical reaction may be represented by a chemical equation, which indicates the number and
type of each atom, as well as their organization into molecules or ions. A chemical
equation uses the element symbols as shorthand notation for the elements, with arrows to
indicate the direction of the reaction.
These are the following changes in chemical reaction has take place
-Changes in state
–changes in color
–evolution of gas
–changes in temperature

Changes in state:-Chemical reactions are characterized by changes in state. Example: Wax is

liquid where as CO2 is a gas. Their means during the combustion reaction of wax the physical
state changes from solid to liquid and gas.
Changes in color:-The chemical reaction between citric and purple color potassium
permanganate solution is characterized by changes in color from purple to colorless.
Evolution of gas:-The chemical reaction between Zinc and dilute sulfuric is characterized by
the evolution of hydrogen gas.
Changes in temperature:-The chemical reaction in quick time and water to form slaked lime
characterized by change in temperature

Chemical equation:-A chemical equation is the symbolic representation of a chemical reaction

in the form of symbolic and formula.
1) Reactants:-Substances which take part in chemical reaction and the reactants entitles are
given on the left hand side of the reaction.
2) Product:-New substances formed after chemical reaction and the product entitles are given
on right hand side. Example:-Mg+O2 Mg O
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Chemical equation can be divided into two types:

I) balanced chemical equation
II) unbalanced chemical equation

I) Balanced Chemical Equation:-A/C to law of conservation of mass, the mass neither be

created nor destroyed in the chemical reaction. So the balanced chemical equation has number
of atom on each element equal on both sides. Example:-Zn+H2 SO4 Zn SO4+H2
In this equation, number of atom of Zn, H, and sulphate are equal on both sides so, it is a
balanced equation.

Element name no. of atoms present in reactants no. of atoms present in products

Zinc 1 1
Hydrogen 2 2
Oxygen 4 4
Sulphur 1 1
Thus, the no. of atoms on both sides is equal.
II) Unbalanced chemical equation:-If the no. of atoms of each element in reactants is
not equal to the no. of atoms of elements present in the product then the chemical
equation is called as unbalanced chemical equation.
Example: Fe+H2O Fe3 O4+H2
4Fe+3CO2 2Fe2 O3+3C
LHS RHS
1x4=4 2x2=4
2x3=6 3x2=6
1x3=3 1x3=3
S8+8O2 8SO2
S=8 S=1x8=8
0=2x8=16 0= 2x8=16
Step1:-count the atom on each side of equation
Step2:-We can only change the coefficient those are numbers after the atom
subscripts cannot be changed.
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If no coefficient written, we assume it as one step for balancing equation.

Write atom of element present in reactants and products in a table.
Write no. of atoms of elements present in reactants and products.
Step3:-Select the element which has the maximum number of atoms.
Step4:-Thus, balance the equation, by changing coefficient on both sides of the
reactions.
Balanced the given equation:-
1) H2+O2 H2O
2H2+O2 2H2O
2) Fe+H2O Fe2O3+H2
2Fe+3H2O Fe2O3+3H2
3) CO2+H2O C6H12O6+6O2
6CO2+6H2O C6H12O6+6O2
4) FeO3+C Fe+CO2
2Fe2O3+3C 4FC+3CO2
Making chemical equation more informative:-
1) Writing the physical state of substances gaseous(g), liquid(l), solids(s)
2) Exothermic and Endothermic reaction

Exothermic reaction:-Many chemical reactions release energy in the form of heat, light, or
sound. These are exothermic reactions. Exothermic reactions may occur spontaneously and
result in higher randomness or entropy of the system. They are denoted by a negative heat flow
(heat is lost to the surroundings) and decrease in enthalpy. In the lab, exothermic reactions
produce heat or may even be explosive.

Endothermic reaction:-There are other chemical reactions that must absorb energy in order
to proceed. These are endothermic reactions. Endothermic reactions cannot occur
spontaneously. Work must be done in order to get these reactions to occur. When endothermic
reactions absorb energy, a temperature drop is measured during the reaction. Endothermic
reactions are characterized by positive heat flow (into the reaction) and an increase in enthalpy

Writing conditions in which the reaction takes place. The condition is wri tten above
and/or below the arrow of a chemical equation.
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Catalyst:-Catalyst, in chemistry, any substance that increases the rate of a reaction without
itself being consumed. Enzymes are naturally occurring catalysts responsible for many essential
biochemical reactions.

Oxidation and reduction Reaction:-

Oxidation:-Addition of oxygen or non-metallic element or removal of H2 or metallic element

from a compound is known as oxidation.

Oxidation agent:-Compounds which can add oxygen or non metallic element to remove
hydrogen or metallic element are known as oxidizing agent.

Reduction:-Addition of hydrogen or metallic element/compound or removal of O2 or

non metallic element from a compound is called as reduction.

Reducing agent:-Compound which cause reduction are called reducing agents. In a

chemical reaction the oxidation and reduction both take place simultaneously and such
reaction also known as ‗Red ox reaction‘.

Types of chemical reaction:-

1) Combination reaction:-In chemical reactions, you can combine two or more reactants to
form a new product. This reaction is classified as a combination reaction, which can also be
referred to as a synthesis reaction.

2) Decomposition reaction:-A chemical reaction is a process by which the atoms of one or

more substances are rearranged to form different substances. There are many types of
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chemical reactions. These reactions are often classified by what they form or what happens
during the course of the reaction.

A decomposition reaction is a type of chemical reaction in which a single compound breaks

down into two or more elements or new compounds. These reactions often involve an energy
source such as heat, light, or electricity that breaks apart the bonds of compounds.

CaCO3(s)+ heat→CaO (s)+CO2(g) - calcium carbonate decomposes into calcium oxide and
carbon dioxide when heated

2KClO3 (s)+heat→2KCl (s)+3O2(g) - potassium chlorate decomposes into potassium chloride

and oxygen gas when ehated

2Fe (OH)3+heat→Fe2O3+3H2O -ferric dioxide decomposes into ferric oxide and water when
heated

Thermal decomposition:-Thermal decomposition, or thermolysis, is a chemical

decomposition caused by heat. The decomposition temperature of a substance is the
temperature at which the substance chemically decomposes. The reaction is usually
endothermic as heat is required to break chemical bonds in the compound
undergoing decomposition.

Electrolytic decomposition:-Electrolytic decomposition may result when electric current is

passed through an aqueous solution of a compound. A good example is the electrolysis of
water. Electrolysis of water: Electrolysis of water is the decomposition of water into hydrogen
and oxygen due to the passage of electric current through it

Photo decomposition:-Photodecomposition is a chemical reaction in which a chemical

compound is broken down by photons. It is defined as the interaction of one or more photons
with one target molecule.
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3) Displacement reaction:-Displacement reaction is a chemical reaction in which a more

reactive element displaces a less reactive element from its compound. Both metals and non-
metals take part in displacement reactions.

Example:-A + B-C → A-C + B

Displacement reaction takes place only when ‗A‘ is more reactive then B. if ‗B‘ is more
reactive than ‗A‘ then ‗A‘ will not displace ‗C‘ from BC and reaction will not takes place i.e.,
the more reactive element displace the less reactive element.

3) Double displacement reaction:-A double displacement reaction, also known as

a double replacement reaction or metathesis, is a type of chemical reaction where two
compounds react, and the positive ions (cation) and the negative ions (anion) of the two
reactants switch places, forming two new compounds or products.

The reaction
AgNO3 + NaCl → AgCl + NaNO3
is a double replacement reaction. The silver traded its nitrite ion for the sodium's chloride ion.

Another example is the reaction between sodium sulfide and hydrochloric acid to form
sodium chloride and hydrogen sulfide:

Na2S + HCl → NaCl + H2S

Physical and chemical changes

There are several differences between a physical and chemical change in matter
or substances. A physical change in a substance doesn't change what the substance is. In a
chemical change where there is a chemical reaction, a new substance is formed and energy
is either given off or absorbed.
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Physical properties:-Physical properties can be observed or measured without changing

the composition of matter. Physical properties are used to observe and describe
matter. Physical properties include: appearance, texture, color, odor, melting point, boiling
point, density, solubility, polarity, and many others.

Chemical properties:-A chemical property is a property of a substance that is observed

when a substance undergoes a chemical change. A chemical change is a type of change that
also changes the identity of a substance due to breakage and formation of new chemical
bonds.

Reversible:-A reversible process is a process whose direction can be "reversed" by

inducing infinitesimal changes to some property of the system via its surroundings, with no
increase in entropy. Throughout the entire reversible process, the system is in
thermodynamic equilibrium with its surroundings.

Irreversible:-A process that is not reversible is called irreversible. Because entropy is a state
function, the change in entropy of the system is the same, whether the process is reversible
or irreversible. The second law of thermodynamics can be used to determine whether a
process is reversible or not.

Types of changes:-

Physical changes:-Physical changes are concerned with energy and states of matter. A
physical change does not produce a new substance, although the starting and ending
materials may look very different from each other. Changes in state or phase (melting,
freezing, vaporization, condensation, sublimation) are physical changes. Examples
of physical changes include crushing a can, melting an ice cube, and breaking a bottle.

1) Folding of paper:-A paper can be folded or unfolded and hence it is example of physical
changes. Moreover no new substance is formed in this process, so it is a physical change.
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2) Tearing of paper sheet:-Even after being born in very small pieces, each piece
is a piece of paper. Since no new substance is formed in this process so, it is a
physical change.

3) Melting of wax:-In melting, only the state of wax changes from solid to liquid.
Solid wax can be obtained from molten wax.

4) Melting of ice into water:-In melting only the state of water changes. Water can
be changed to ice and vice-versa. This is example of physical and reversible
changes.

5) Freezing of water:-After freezing water changes into ice. In this changes, there is
only the changes in the state of water.

6) Changes of vapor into water:-This is also a physical changes and reversible

changes as water can be changed into vapor again by the process of vaporization.

7) Stretching of rubber band:-In this changes, only the size of the rubber band
changes. The rubber band comes back in its original shape and size once it is
released this physical and reversible changes.

Chemical changes:-Chemical changes take place on the molecular level. A chemical

change produces a new substance. Another way to think of it is that a chemical change
accompanies a chemical reaction. Examples of chemical changes include combustion
(burning), cooking an egg, rusting of an iron pan, and mixing hydrochloric acid and sodium
hydroxide to make salt and water. Chemical changes occur when a substance combines with
another to form a new substance, called chemical synthesis or, alternatively,
chemical decomposition into two or more different substances. These processes are called
chemical reactions and, in general, are not reversible except by further chemical reactions.
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1) Burning of paper, wood, fuel or anything:-When something is burnt, many new

substances are formed; especially carbon dioxide is formed in most of the cases. Once
something is burnt the ash or CO2 cannot be turned into the original substances.

When something is burnt, the new substances are formed especially CO2 is formed in most of
cases.

Melting of wax and burning of wax different kinds of changes. Burning of wax is chemical
changes while melting of wax is a physical change. Burning of wax is irreversible while melting
of wax is reversible or reversible back.

2) Reaction between vinegar and baking soda:-Vinegar is an acid. The chemical name of
baking soda sodium hydrogen carbonate/sodium bicarbonate When vinegar reach a sound is
produced when baking soda is added to vinegar due to the production CO2.

3) Burning of magnesium ribbon:-The ash of magnesium oxide gives magnesium hydroxide

when mixed with water. Mg+O2 MgO, MgO+H2O Mg (OH) 2

These are chemical changes as new substances are formed after change. Original sub cannot
be retrieved by simple physical process.

Reaction between solution of COSO4 and Iron:-Copper sulphate is blue in color and
also known as ‗blue vitriol‘. When an iron nail or shaving blade is left in CUSO4 for
some time, the color of solution turn from ‗blue to pale green‘ This is due to formation
of iron sulphate additionally a layer of brown copper gets deposited over iron nail or
blade. Reaction: CUSO4+Fe FeSO4+CU

Rusting of iron:-Deposition of brown layer on iron is called rusting moisture and forms
red substances or brown layer rust

The chemical structure of iron and rust is completely different

Rust in iron oxide and iron is a grey black material while rust is reddish brown.
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This is a chemical and irreversible change.

Reaction:-Fe+H2O+O2 Fe2O3
When article made of iron come in contact moisture present air get rusted the iron
article becomes weak in due course as all the iron slowly turns into rust. This is
corrosion of iron.
Prevention of rusting:-For rusting, both water and oxygen should come in contact
iron. If anyone of these is prevented to come in contact iron rusting is prevented using
following methods
Painting:-If iron article like gates, chairs, bodies of car, trucks, ships etc are painted
then it prevents moist air from coming in contact iron Hence, rusting stops.
Coating other metals/galvanization:-In the process of galvanization a layer of non-
reactive metal such as zinc is deposited over iron articles
The layer of non reactive metal prevents the iron articles from coming in contact
moisture.
Applying of layer of grease:-Applying of layer of grease prevents the iron articles
from coming in contact moist air this prevents rusting. Example: -grease applied over
the chain of bicycle.
Crystallization:-Common salt is obtained by the vaporization of sea water, crystal of
common salt are very small. When a small crystal of common salt is left dipped in
saturated solution of common slat. The layer of non reactive meta l such as zinc
When common salt crystal dipped in saturated solution of common slat for some time
Big crystal of common salt obtained.
Formation of big and pure crystal of a substance from the saturated solution is
crystallization.
Coating iron into stainless steel:-Molten iron is mixed with a certain amount of
carbon, chromium and nickel to form an alloy called stainless steel. This does not rust
in moist air so it is used for making household utensils and surgical instrument.

Characteristics of physical change:-

 Physical changes are generally reversible
 Temporary in nature
 No new substances formed
 Energy in the form heat, light and temperature no emitted
Characteristics of chemical change:-
 Chemical change is permanent
 A new substances is formed
 Form of energy such as light, heat, temperature may be emitted or absorbed
during chemical reaction.
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 Chemical changes is generally irreversible

Periodic classification of element

The periodic table is a tabular arrangement of chemical elements, ordered by their

atomic number, electronic configurations and recurring chemical properties. In inverse
118 elements have discovered till today each of these elements possess different
properties.

Dobereiner’s triads:-In the year 1829, Johann Wolfgang Dobereiner, a German scientist,
was the first to classify elements into groups based on John Dalton's assertions. He grouped
the elements with similar chemical properties into clusters of three called 'Triads'. The distinctive
feature of a triad was the atomic mass of the middle element. When elements were arranged in
order of their increasing atomic mass, the atomic mass of the middle element was
approximately the arithmetic mean of the other two elements of the triad. In the famous atomic
theory of John Dalton (1805), it was suggested that the atoms of an element have a
characteristic mass. So, attempts were made to classify elements on the basis of their atomic
masses.

Limitations:-Idea of classification of element into triads did not receive acceptance as

he could arrange only an element in triad form.

Newlands’s law of octaves:-In 1866, an English chemist, John Newlands, Proposed a new
system of grouping elements with similar properties. He tried to correlate the properties of
elements with their atomic masses. he arranged the then known elements in the order of
increasing atomic masses. He started with the element having the lowest atomic mass
(hydrogen) and ended at thorium which was the 56th element. He observed that every
eight element had properties similar to that of the first. Thus, Newlands suggested that when the
elements are arranged in the order of increasing atomic masses, the properties of every eight
element are a repetition of that of the first element.
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 Newlands assumed that only 56 elements existed in nature and no more elements would
be further discovered in the nearer future. But later on several new elements were
discovered, whose properties couldn‘t be defined as per the Law of Octaves.

 In order to fit elements into law of octaves Newlands not only adjusted
in the same slot but also adjusted some unlike elements under the same note. two
elements

 Cobalt and nickel are in the same slot and are positioned in the same column with
fluorine, chlorine and bromine possessing different properties than these elements.

 Iron possessing similar properties as cobalt and nickel, is placed far away from these
elements.

Mendeleev’s periodic table:-Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeléev, a Russian chemist, was the most
important contributor to the early development of the periodic table. Many periodic tables were
made but the most important one was Mendeleev periodic table.

In 1869, after the rejection of Newlands Octave Law, Mendeleev Periodic table came into the
picture. In Mendeleev‘s periodic table, elements were arranged on the basis of the fundamental
property, atomic mass, and chemical properties. During Mendeleev‘s work, only 63 elements
were known. After studying the properties of every element, Mendeleev found that the
properties of elements were related to atomic mass in a periodic way. He arranged the
elements such that elements with similar properties fell into same vertical columns of the
periodic table.

Merits of Mendeleev:-

(A) Systematic study of elements:-He arranged known elements in order of their

increasing atomic masses considering the fact that elements with similar properties should fall in
the same vertical column.
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(B) Correction of atomic masses:-The Mendeleev periodic table could predict errors in
the atomic masses of certain elements were corrected. For example, atomic mass of beryllium
was corrected from 13.5 to 9. Similarly, with the help of this table, atomic masses of indium,
gold, platinum etc. were corrected.

(C) Mendeleev predicated the properties of those missing elements from the known properties
of the other elements in the same group. Eka-boron, eka – aluminum and eka – silicon names
were given for scandium, gallium and germanium (not discovered at the time of Mandeleev).

(D) Position of noble gases:-Noble gases like helium (He), neon (Ne) and argon (Ar)
were mentioned in many studies. However, these gases were discovered very late because
they are very inert and are present in extremely low concentrations. One of the achievements of
Mendeleev‘s periodic table was that when these gases were discovered, they could be placed in
a new group without disturbing the existing order.

Characteristics of periodic table:-

1) In the periodic table, the elements are arranged in vertical rows called groups and horizontal
rows called periods.

2) There are eight groups indicated by roman numbers I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, and VIII.

3) The elements belonging to first VII groups have divided into sub groups as A and B on the
basis of similarities.

4) The elements on left hand side- group A and on right hand side-sub group B.

5) Group VIII consists of nine elements arranged in three triads.

6) There are six periods (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6) the first half of the elements are placed in upper left
corner and second half occupy lower right corner in each box.
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Achievements:-Arrangements of elements in groups and periods made the study elements

quite systematic manner.

Prediction of new elements and their properties

Correction of doubtful atomic masses

Limitations:-

Could not assign a correct position of hydrogen in his periodic table (because the properties of
H2 resembles both metals as well as halogen)

Isotopes of same elements will be given different position if atomic number is take as basis

The atomic masses do not increase in a regular manner in going from one element to the next.
At some locations, elements were put in order of decreasing atomic masses. Example:-CO, Ni.

Modern periodic law:-Modern Periodic Law of element may be defined as the Physical and
chemical properties of the elements are periodic functions of their atomic numbers. It means,
when the elements are arranged in the order of their increasing atomic numbers, it is observed
that the elements of similar properties recur at regular intervals or periodically. As a result of
this, the elements fall in certain groups and lead to an arrangement called the modern periodic
table of elements. It must be noted that elements are arranged in the periodic table in order of
atomic numbers because atomic number is the most fundamental property of an element. The
systematic arrangement of elements in modern periodic table according their atomic number
helps in justification of isotopes of elements at one place.

Modern periodic table:-Mostly proposed this modern periodic tables and accounts to which
physical and chemical properties of element are periodic function of their atomic number and
not the horizontal rows called periods.
The groups have been numbered 1-18 from left to right and periods. The vertical columns are
called groups.
Group 1 on extreme left position contains alkali metals (Li, Na, Le, Rb, Cs, Fr).
Group 18 on extreme right side position contains noble gases (He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn).
The horizontal rows on the periodic table/ chart are called periods.
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There are seven rows in the periodic table. Each row is called periods. The periods have been
numbered from 1-7.
The first period is the shortest period of all and contains only 2 elements (H & He).
The second and third period is called short periods and contains 8 elements.
Fourth and fifth periods are long periods are long periods and contains 18 elements.
Sixth and seventh period is very long periods containing 32 elements.
The periodic table is divided into blocks:-

A) S block elements

1) Elements in which the last electron enters the s orbital of their respective outermost shells are
called s block elements.

2) s sub shell has only 1 orbital which can accommodate only 2 electrons, therefore, there are
only two groups of s block elements.

3) Elements of and group 1(hydrogen and alkali metals) and group 2 (alkaline earth metals) and
helium comprises s-block element.

4) Hydrogen has only one electron and this enters 1s orbital. The rest of the elements i.e. Li,
Na, K, Rb, Cs and Fr receive the last electron in 2s, 3s, 4s, 5s,6s and 7s orbital‘s.

5) Helium and the elements of group 2 i.e. Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba and Ra. The last electron in these
elements also enter the s orbital i.e. 1s, 2s, 3s, 4s, 5s, 6s and 7s orbital‘s. These elements also
belong to s block and have ns2 as their general outer electronic configuration.

6) There are 14 s-block elements in the periodic table.

General electronic configuration of s-block elements: ns1-2 where n=2-7

Helium belongs to s – block but its positioning within the p block along with other group 18
elements is justified because it has a completely filled valence shell and thus exhibits properties
characteristic of other noble gases.

Because of its unique behavior, we shall place hydrogen separately at the top of the
periodic table it because:

1) It has a single s-electron and hence can be placed along with alkali metal group.

2) It can also gain one electron to acquire a noble gas configuration and hence can be placed
along with halogens.

Characteristics of s-block elements

1) They are soft metals with low melting and boiling points.
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2) They have low ionization enthalpies and are highly electropositive.

3) They lose the valence electrons readily to form +1 and +2 ions.

4) They are very reactive metals. The metallic character and reactivity increases as we move
down the group. Because of high reactivity, they are never found pure in nature.

5) The compounds of s-block elements with the exception of beryllium are predominantly ionic.

6) Most of the metal of this blog impart characteristic colour to flame.

7) They are strong reducing agents.

8) All are good conductors of heat and electricity.

B) P-block element:- Elements in which the last electrons enter any one of the three p orbital‘s
of their respective outermost shell are called p block elements.

1) A p sub shell has three degenerate p orbital‘s each one of which can accommodate 2
electrons.

2) There are 6 groups of p block elements. These are 13,14,15,16, 17and 18.

3) The atoms of the elements belonging to these groups receive the last electron in 2p, 3p, 4p,
5p and 6p orbital‘s.

4) Their outer shell electronic configuration vary from ns1 np6 to ns2 np6 as we move from group
13 outward up to group 18.

5) Elements of group 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18 in which p orbital‘s are being progressively filled in
are called p block elements. There are 36 p-block elements in the periodic table.

6) Group 18 are called noble gases, except helium all the elements have closed shell
ns2 np6 electronic configuration in the outermost shell. All the energy levels which are occupied
are completely filled and this stable arrangement of electrons cannot be easily altered by
addition or removal of electrons. As a result, these elements are highly stable and hence exhibit
very low chemical reactivity.

7) The elements of group 17 are called halogens while those of group 16 are called
halogens. Elements have high negative electron gain enthalpy and hence readily add one or
two electrons to attain the stable noble gas configuration.

The elements of s and p block are called representative or main group elements

Characteristics of p block elements

1) P block elements include both metals and non-metals but the number of non metals is much
higher than that of metals. Metallic character increases from top to bottom within a group
and non metallic character increases from left to right along a period.
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2) Their ionization enthalpies are relatively higher as compared to those of s block elements.

3) They mostly form covalent compounds.

4) Some of them show more than 1 Oxidation state in their compounds.

5) Their oxidizing character increases from left to right in a period and reducing character
increases from top to bottom in a group.

C) D-block element:-Elements in which the last electron enters any one of the five d orbitals of
their respective penultimate shells are called d- block element.

Since a d sub shell has 5 d-orbital‘s, each one of which can accommodate 2 electrons
,therefore, in all there are 10 vertical columns comprising 10 groups of d- block elements
namely 3, 4 ,5 ,6 ,7 ,8 ,9 ,10 ,11 and 12.

The atoms of the elements belonging to these groups usually have 1 or 2 electrons in the s
orbital of the outermost shell i.e. ns orbital while the electrons are being progressively filled in,
one at a time in the d orbital of the respective penultimate shell i.e. (n-1) d orbital. Thus

General outer shell electronic configuration of d block elements: (n-1) d1-10ns1-2

Whereas, n=4-7.

The properties of these elements are midway between those of s- block and p- block elements,
they are also called transition elements .All these elements are further divided into four series
called 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th transition series.

The first transition series forms a part of the fourth period of the long form of periodic table. It
contains 10 elements from scandium (Z=21) to zinc (Z=30) in which 3d orbital‘s are being
progressively filled in.

The second transition series which forms a part of the 5th period also contains 10 elements
from Ytterbium (Z= 39) to cadmium (Z=48) in which the 4d orbital‘s are being progressively filled
in.

The third transition series which form a part of the sixth period also contains 10 elements i.e.
lanthanum (Z=57) and from hafnium (Z=72) to mercury (Z=80) in which the 5d orbital‘s are the
progressively filled in.

The fourth transition series which forms a part of 7th period also contains 10 elements i.e.
actinium (Z=89) and element from rutherfordium (Z=104) to Copernicus (Z=112) .In all these
elements 6d orbital‘s are being successively filled in.

The elements of group 3 ,4 ,5 ,6 ,7 ,8 ,9 ,10 ,11 and 12 belonging to 4th 5th 6th and 7th period
in which the last electron enters the d orbital of their respective penultimate shells are called d
Block Elements. There are 40 d block elements in the periodic table.
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General characteristics of d-block elements

1) They are hard, malleable and ductile metals with high melting and boiling point.

2) They are good conductors of heat and electricity.

3) Their ionization enthalpy is between s and p block elements.

4) They show variable oxidation States.

5) They form both ionic and covalent compounds.

6) Their compounds are generally colored and paramagnetic.

7) Most of the transition metals such V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu etc and their compounds are
used as catalyst.

8) Most of the transition metals form alloys.

9) Zn, Cd and Hg which have the (n-1) d10 ns2 electronic configuration, do not show most of the
properties of transition elements.

D) F-block elements:-The elements in which the last electron enters any one of the 7 f-orbitals
of their respective ante -penultimate shell are called f block elements.

In all these element the s orbital of last shell is completely filled, the d orbital of the penultimate
(n-1) shell invariably contains 0 or one electron but the f orbital of the ante-penultimate (n-2)
gets progressively filled in.

General outer shell electronic configuration of f block elements: (n-2) f 0-14(n-1) d0-1 ns2

There are two series of f block elements each containing 14 elements. These are placed at the
bottom of the periodic table.

The elements of the first series i.e. cerium(Z=58) to lutetium(Z=71) which form a part of the
sixth period are called as lanthanides or lanthanides since all these elements follow lanthanum
in the periodic table and also closely resemble lanthanum in their properties. These are also
called rare Earth elements since they occur scarcely in the earth crust. In lanthanides,4f orbital‘s
are been progressively filled in.

The elements of the second series i.e. thorium (Z=90) to lawrencium (Z=103) which forms are
part of the incomplete 7th period are called actinides are actinides since all these elements
follow actinium in the periodic table and also closely resemble actinium in their properties. 5f-
orbitals are being progressively filled in.

The first 3 elements i.e. Thorium, protactinium and uranium occur in nature but the remaining 11
elements i.e. neptunium (Z=93) to lawrencium (Z=103) have been prepared artificial through
nuclear reactions.
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All the f block elements i.e. lanthanides and actinides are also called inner transition elements
since they form transition series within the transition elements of d- Block.

Characteristics of f block elements

1) They are heavy metals

2) They have high melting and boiling point

3) The show variable Oxidation State

4) Their compounds are generally colored

5) They have high tendency to form complexes

6) Most of the elements of the actinide series are Radioactive.

Trends in Modern Periodic Table:

Valence electrons:

 Number of valence electron remains the same while moving from top to bottom in a
group.
 Number of valence electron increases while moving from left to right in a period.

Valence:

 Valence remains the same on moving from top to bottom in a group.

 Valence first increases up to 4 on moving from left to right in a group and then
decreases up to zero

Acid bases and salts

The sour and better tastes of food are due to the acids and bases presents in them. Substances
can be divided into three type‘s acids, base, salts. Acids, bases and salts are part of a variety of
things we handle daily. Acids give citrus fruit its sour taste, while bases such as ammonia are
found in many types of cleaners. Salts are a product of the reaction between an acid and a
base. A common method used to determine an acid or a base is a litmus test, but there are
other characteristics that can help you identify acids, bases and salts.
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Acids:-Acids have a sour taste. Citric acid is what makes the sour taste of lemons, oranges and
other citrus fruits, while acetic acid gives vinegar its sour taste. An acid will turn litmus paper
red. Litmus is a vegetable dye that turns red to indicate an acid and blue to indicate a base.
Acids also contain combined hydrogen. According to the website Journey Into Science, when
metals such as zinc are placed in an acid, a reaction will occur. The acid and zinc will bubble
and release hydrogen gas. Acids will release hydrogen in water as well. Acids also conduct
electricity and react with bases to form water and salt. Acids are classified as being either strong
or weak. A strong acid detaches or separates in a water solution and a weak acid does not.

Bases:-Bases are ionic compounds that contain metal and hydrogen ions. Bases taste bitter
and are slippery when dissolved in water. For example, if you rub household ammonia between
your fingers, you will feel the slipperiness of a base. Soap is slippery because it contains a base
as well. When placed on red litmus paper, bases will turn blue. Bases also release hydroxide
ions in water. Ammonium hydroxide, or ammonia, is a common base used in compounds like
nitric acid and is also used in household cleaners.

Salt:-Salt is a compound, which is an acid and a base combined. There are many chemical
compounds that are classified as salts according to Journey Into Science. The most common is
table salt, or sodium chloride. Baking soda, or sodium bicarbonate, is also a salt. Salts are
typically made of metallic and non-metallic ions; it separates in water because the tightly
bonded ions present in salts are weakened. Salts can be several different colors and may be
any of the five tastes, including salty, sweet, bitter, sour or savory. Their odor depends on the
acid and base it is comprised of. Salts comprised of strong acids and bases, called strong salts,
are odorless. Salts made from weak bases and acids, called weak salts, may smell like the acid
or base used to make it. For example, vinegar smells like acetic acid and cyanides smell like
hydrogen cyanide, which has an almond-like odor. Just as acids neutralize bases, a base will
also neutralize an acid. For example, magnesium hydroxide, found in milk of magnesium,
neutralizes stomach acid.
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Neutralization reaction in ever day life:-

Indigestion:-Our stomach release HCL to kill bacteria and also help in digestion of food.
Sometimes our stomach produce more HCL required which manifests as indigestion. This
condition is painful acidity. To get rid of thin a medicine made of milk of magnesia is taken orally
it neutralizes the HCL and gives relief.

Ant sting:-Ant sting or bee sting consists of methodic. While biting bee or ant inject formic into
our skin result in pain. Rubbing baking NaHCO3 soda our skin gives relief (zinc carbonate)
calamite solution also used.

Soil treatment:-Sometimes soil becomes aˉ or bˉ due to excess use of fertilization or wrong

method of harvesting, which affects the yield of plants.
Acidic soil treated cˉ slake lime/quicklimeneutralization.
Basic soil treated cˉ organic matter which release a` and neutralizes.

Factory waste:-Waste of most factories is acidic. There is treated ac Cˉ basic substance to

neutralization before being flushed into the river.

Properties of acids:
Acids have sour taste.
They can be corrosive.
They turn blue litmus paper to red and yellow and orange into red and phenolphthalein into
colorless.
They give H+ ion in aquatic solution

Properties of bases:-Bases are usually oxides and hydroxides of metals. Bases that dissolve
in water are called alkalis. They have the following properties:

1. Bases are bitter to taste and soapy to touch.

2. Bases turn red litmus paper blue.

3. Bases are characterized by the presence of hydroxyl (-OH) group.

4. Bases react with acids to form salt (a neutral substance) and water.

5. Bases are corrosive to skin; they should not be touched by hand.

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Types of acids:-Acids can be divided into 2 types on the basis 1) Natural acids 2) Mineral acids

1) Natural acids:-Acids which are obtained from natural (plants and animals) are called natural
or organic.
2) Mineral acids:-Acids that prepare from minerals are known as
minerals/inorganic/manmade/synthetic such as HCL, H2SO4, HNO3, etc

Conduction of electricity in acids/bases:-

Take solution of HCL

Fix two nails on a cork and place cork in beaker

Connect the nails to the two terminals of 6 volt battery through a blub and a switch

Now pour some dilute HCL in the beaker and switch on the current

Bulb will start glowing

It indicates that there is flow of electricity in HCL solution

When we pour some dilute HCL in beaker, it gets ionized and produces hydrogen ion (H+) and
chloride (Cl-).

Reaction metal oxide:-Metal oxide is a chemical compound that contains oxygen and one
metal in its chemical formula. Acid give water along with respective salt when thry react metal
oxide. Na2O+2HCL 2NaCL+H2O
MgO+2HCL MgCL2+H2O
CUO+H2SO4 CUSO4+H2O
CUO+2HCL CUCL2+H2O
Base reacts with non metal oxide both neutralization each other resulting respective salt and
water are produced.
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Reaction metals:-Acids gives hydrogen gas along with respective salt when they React the
metal. Mental + aˉ salt + H2 gas
Examples: Zn + HCL ZnCl2 + H2
2Na+2HCL 2NaCl+H2
Fe +2HCL  2NaCL + H2
Zn+H2SO4 ZnSO4 +H2

Base reacts cˉ Metals, it produces salt and hydrogen gas.

Alkali + metal respective salt+H2 gas
Example:-2 NaOH + Zn Na2 ZnO2 + H2
2 NaoH + 2AI + H2O Na AlO2 (q) + 2H2

Reaction of carbonate and bicarbonate:-Acids give carbon dioxide gas and respective salts
along Cˉ water when they reacts Cˉ carbonate.
Example:-Na2CO3 + 2HCL 2NaCL + CO2 + H2O
MgCO3 + 2HCL MgCl2 + CO2+H2O
CaCO3+2HCL CaCl2+CO2+H2O

Corrosive nature of acids and bases:-Acids and bases are corrosive in nature they damage
the sub cˉ which they come in contact. Corrosive is the process by which something
deteriorates because of oxidation, a chemical reactions that creates oxides that flake away from
the base.
Acid rain:-Due to air pollution, many harmful gases like nitrogen oxide and sulphur dioxide
(SO2).
1) Sulphuric aˉ (H2SO4)-Make fertilization, dyes, chemical, plastics and fibers, detergent,
explosive, car batteries.

2) Nitric acids (HNO3)-Make fertilizer, explosives (TNT-Tri nitro toluene), dyes, plastics.

3) HCL-Used to form dye (textile industry, food and leather industry, removing metal oxide films
from steel objects.
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4) NaO4-Use to form soap, paper, fiber.

5) Ca (OH) 2-Used in a beaching powder, white wash.

PH scale:-The PH (potential power of hydrogen) is a numeric scale used to specify the acidity
or basic city of an aqueous solution.
The PH scale values lower than 7-acidic.
PH value higher than 7-alkaline
The PH scale range from 0-14

Acid:-When aˉ is dissolved in H2O it dissociate and the hydrogen ion (H+) in aqueous solution
increase and number of hydrogen (OH-) decrease. HCL H+ + CL-

PH meter= Determine PH by measuring the voltage difference between two electrodes. Base
dissociates hydroxide ion in water, due to which hydrogen in aqueous solution increase and
hydrogen ion (H+) decrease.

If connection of H+ ions > connection of OH- ion  acidic

connection of OH- ions > connection of H+ ions  basic
connection of H+ ions = connection of OH- ions  neutral

If connection of H+ ion much > connection of Onˉ ion  highly aˉ connection of OHˉ ion much >
connection of H ion highly bˉ
saliva=5.8
Lemon=2.5
Colorless aerated drink=6
Carrot juice=6
Coffee=5
Tomato juice=4.1
Tap water=6.8
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Acids and bases absence in water:-Dry acid do not dissociate into H+ ions. When dissolved
in water it dissociate into H+ ions. Example:- Dry HCL do not change color of litmus paper to red
because dry do not dissociate H+ ion this is the cause that a moist litmus paper is used to check
acidic/basic nature of a gas. Similarly NaOH (solid)—no dissociation of OHˉ ion

PH value of acidic, basic and neutral salt:

Neutral salt:-Salts produced because of reaction between strong aˉ and strong bˉ are neutral in
nature PH value of such salts is equal to 7 i.e., neutral.
Example:-NaOH+ HCLNaCL+H2O
NaOH+H2SO4 Na2SO4+H2O
KOH+HCL KCL+H2O

Basic slat:-Salt which is formed after the reaction between weak acid and strong base called
basic salt.
Example:-NaOH+H2CO3 Na2Co3+H2O
NaOH+CH3COO4 CH3 COONa+H2O

Acidic salt:-Salt which are formed after the reaction between a strong acid and weak base are
called acidic salt. PH value of acidic salt is lower than 7.
Example:-NH4OH+HCL NH4Cl+H2O
NH4OH+H2SO4 (NH4)2 SO4+H2O

Characteristics of salt:-
Most of the salts are crystalline solid
Salt may be transparent or opaque
Most of the salt are soluble in H2O
Solution of salt conduct electricity They conduct electricity in their molten state.
Salt may be salty, sour, sweet, bitter and savory.
Neutral salt are odorless.
Salt can be colorless or of colored.
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Water of crystallization:-
Many salts contain water molecule and are known as hydrated salts. The water molecule
present is known as water of crystallization.
Example: Copper sulphate pent hydrate(CUSO4.5H2O)
Ferrous sulpahte heptahydrate (FeSO4.H2O)
Plaster of Paris (CaSO4. ½ H2O)
Blue color of CUSO4.5H2O is due to presence of water.
When CUSO4.5H2O is heated it loses water molecule and turns into grey white color which is
known as anhydrous copper sulphate

CUSO4.5H2O CuSO4

On adding water to anhydrous copper sulphate it becomes blue again.

Uses:-soil sterilizes alloys, dental amalgam, and prevention of malaria, antiseptic.
Similarly green color of FeSO4.7H2O commonly known as blue green is due to presence of 7
moles.
Plaster of Paris:-Plaster of pair is obtained by heating of gypsum a hydrated salt of calcium.

CUSO4.2H2O CaSO4.½ H2O+1 ½ .H2O

CUSO4.½ H2O+1 ½ H2O CuSO4.2H2O

Common salt:-sodium chloride is also known as common salt formed after the reaction
between sodium hydroxide and hydrochloride.
It is neutral salt cˉ PH of 7.
Nacl is used in cooking as well as to prepare many other important chemical such as chemical
used in manufacturing industries. Example: Sod.Carbonate, sod.Hydrogen carbonate, NaOH,
HCL.
Methods of obtaining sodium chloride (NaCl):-
1) From sea water by evaporation:-Spread sea water in open, in summer season, water of
sea water evaporation in atmosphere and we get NaCl.
2) From rock salt found in mines:-Sodium chloride is mined from deposits of which form
underground. Deposits of rock salt are usually the remains of inland sea, which evaporated
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thousands of millions of years ago.

Rock salt also called as halite.
Highly crystalline salt.
Made by evaporating sea water and does not contain high amount of NaCl.
It improves digestion and natural way to relive stomach pain.
Also great for purifying the air around you.
It contains 84 out of 92 trace elements (element required by man in amount ranging from 50kgs-
18 million/day)
Example: cobalt, Copper, Fluorine, iodine, iron, manganese, and zinc.
Utilized for physiological and biochemical process.

Making other chemical from common salt:-NaOH is strong base also known as caustic soda
years. It is obtained by electrolytic decomposition of solution chloride.
In the process of electrolytic decomposition NaCl decompose to form NaOH, where chlorine is
obtained at anode and hydrogen gas is obtained at cathode as by products. This whole process
is called as (chlor-alkali) process.
Use of by product:
H2 gas:-Used as fuel, margarine, making of ammonia fertilizer.
Cl2 gas:-Used in water treatment, manufacturing of PVC, disinfection, CFC, pesticides.
Manufacturing of bleaching powder and HCL aˉ
NaOH:-Used in de-greasing of metal, manufacturing paper, soap, detergents, artificial fibers,
bleach etc.

Bleaching powder (CaOCl2) calcium oxy chloride:-It is also known as chloride of lime. It is
solid and yellowish white in color. It can be easily identified by strong smell of chlorine.
Reaction:-The term bleach means removal of color. Bleaching powder is often used as
bleaching agent, it works on oxidation principle. The chlorine present in bleaching powder
responsible for bleaching affect.
Uses:
Use as disinfectant to clean water, mass remover etc.
Used for bleaching of cotton in textile industry, bleaching of wood pulp in paper industry.
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Used as oxidizing agent in many industries

Baking soda (NaHCO3):-baking soda is another important product which is obtained using
byproduct of chlor alkali
Process:-
Other names-sod. Hydrogen carbonate
Bread soda
cooling soda
bicarbonate of soda
sodium bicarbonate
bicarbonate of soda
simply bicarbonate Baking soda is obtained by the reaction of NaCl (brine) cˉ CO2 and
ammonia this process is known as Solvay process.

Nacl+CO2+NH2+H2O NH4Cl+NaHCO3

In this process calcium carbonate is used as source of CO2 and the resultant CaO is used to
recover ammonia from ammonia chloride.

Prop of NaHCO3:-
White crystalline solid
Amphotericin in nature
Sparingly soluble in H2O
When baking soda heated- sod. Carbonate, H2O, CO2
i) NaHCO3 Na2CO3+H2O+CO2
ii) Na2CO3 Na2O+CO2

Uses:-
Used in making baking powder, produces CO2 which makes the better soft and spongy.
Used as antacid.
Used in tooth paste this makes teeth white plaque free.
Used in cleaning of ornaments, this is made up of silver.
Used as extinguisher as NaHCO3 gives CO2 and Na2O on strong heating.
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Baking powder:-When baking soda heated-Na2CO3+CO2

when baking powder (backing soda+ edible acid) heated, the Na2CO3 formed neutralizes cˉ
and sod.tartarate is formed.
The smell of this sod.tartarnate salt is pleasant and taste good. This makes cake or any other
food tasty.
Washing soda (sodium carbonate) Na2CO3:-Na2CO3 obtained by thermal decomposition of
NaHCO3 (baking soda) by solvency process.
NaCl+CO2+NH2+H2O NH4Cl+NaHCO3
NaHCO3 Na2CO3+CO2+H2O
The sod. Carbonate obtained in this process is dry called soda ash/anhydrous sodium
carbonate. Washing soda is obtained by rehydration of sodium carbonate.
Na2CO3+H2O Na2CO3.10H2O
Uses:-
Used in cleaning clothes
Making detergent cake and powder
Removing permanent hardness of water
Used in glass and paper industries

Indicators:-The substances which identify/show the acidic or basic behavior of other

substances by change in color are known as indicator.
Indicator can be classified into:
1) Natural 2) Synthetic 3) Olfactory 4) universal

1) Natural indicator:-Indicator obtained from natural sources are called as natural indicator.
Example:-Litmus, Turmeric, China rose.
Litmus:
Litmus is extracted from lichens.
Lichen consists of fungi and algae living symbolic relationship
Litmus is a purple colored liquid in dist H2O it comes in the form of strips of two colors. One is
blue litmus paper and red litmus paper
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Turmeric:-It is yellow in color. It turns (turmeric solution) or turmeric paper turns into red when
dipped in basic solution and does not show any change its color cˉ acid.
China rose:-China rose solution gives dark pink color cˉ acid and green color cˉ base.

2) Synthetic indicator:-Indicator that are synthesized in laboratory are known as synthetic

indicators. Example:-phenolphthalein, methyl orange, methyl red.

3) Olfactory indicator:-Substances which change these smell when mixed aˉ or base are
known as olfactory indicators.
Onion:-Paste or juice of onion loses its smell when added cˉ base, but does not change cˉ acid.
Vanilla:-The smell of vanilla vanishes cˉ base does not Vanish cˉ acid.

4) Universal indicator:-Using litmus, phenolphthalein, methyl orange etc only the aˉ and bˉ
character of solution can be determined, but does not give the idea of PH of aˉ or bˉ.
So to get strength as well as aˉ and bˉ nature of a given solution universal indicator is used.
Universal is show difference color over the range of PH 1-14 in a given solution.
Universal is available as both strip and solution. It is the combination of many indicators such
as H2O, propanol, phenolphthalein, sodium salt, NaOH, Methyl red, bromomethyl blue
monosodium salt and monosodium salt red cabbage- it is simple universal indicator.

Synthetic fibers and plastics

Fiber or fiber is a natural or synthetic substance that is significantly longer than it is wide. Fibers are
often used in the manufacture of other materials. The strongest engineering materials often
incorporate fibers, for example carbon fiber and ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene.

Fabrics:-It is a cloth or other material produced by weaving together the natural fibers such as
cotton, nylon, wool, silk etc. fabrics are made from fibers obtained from natural or artificial
sources.
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Natural fibers:-Fibers (or fibers) form a class of hair-like materials that occur as continuous
filaments or in discrete elongated pieces, similar to pieces of thread. They are of two types:
natural fibers and man-made or synthetic fibers. Natural fibers may be obtained from plant,
animal, and mineral sources. Those from plant sources include cotton, flax, hemp, sisal, jute,
kenaf, and coconut. Fibers from animal sources include silk, wool, and mohair. Those from
mineral sources include asbestos and metal fibers.

Synthetic fiber:-Synthetic fibers and synthetic fabrics consist of bulk fibers, yarns, woven cloth
or other textile products manufactured from polymer-based materials such as polyamide (nylon),
polyester, aramid, or other spun thermoplastics. The end-product is the form of the
fiber/fabric when manufacturing is complete

Types of Synthetic Fibers:

Rayon:-Rayon is synthesized from wood pulp. Rayon resembles silk, so it is also known as
artificial silk. Rayon fiber can be dyed in different colors. Rayon is very cheap compared to silk.
Bed sheets, shirts, sarees, and many other clothes are made from rayon.

Nylon:-Nylon was first commercially synthesized fiber. The production of nylon was started
almost simultaneously in New York and London, thus it got its name (NY for New York and Lon
for London) as nylon. Nylon is synthesized from coal, water and air. Fiber of nylon is very strong
and it also resembles silk. For the first time, nylon was used in making bristle of toothbrush
commercially. After that, it was started used as fabrics. Nylon is used in making of different
types of clothes, ropes, socks, curtains, sleeping bags, parachutes, etc. The fiber of nylon is
stronger than a steel wire of same thickness.

Polyester:-Polyester is one of the most popular man-made fibers which are used in making
clothes. It is made of repeating unit of a chemical called ester. Terylene is one of the most
famous types of polyester. Polyester is used in making different types of apparel; such as shirts,
pants, jacket, bed sheets, curtains, sarees, mouse-pad, etc. Polyester is used in making ropes,
fabrics for conveyor belt, cushioning and insulating material in pillow, etc. Fabrics made from
polyester fiber are almost wrinkle-free, easy to wash and have shiny appearance. It is the
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polyester which made the fabric cheaper in India as well as in the whole world. Terry cot is a
fabric made after mixing of Terylene and cotton. Polycot, polywool, etc. are other fabrics which
are made by the mixing of polyester with other natural fibres.PET (Polyethylene terepthalate)
is very famous term for polyester. Water bottles and many containers (used in kitchen), films,
wires, and many other useful products are made using PET (polyester).

Acrylic:-Acrylic is man-made fiber. Since, acrylic resembles wool so it is also known as artificial
wool or synthetic wool. Acrylic is cheaper than natural wool and can be dyed in various color.
Thus acrylic is very popular and taking the place of wool today. Acrylic is used in making
sweaters, blanket, and other many clothes.

Acrylic glass:-Poly (methyl methacrylate) is a transparent thermoplastic, often used as a

lightweight or shatter-resistant alternative to glass. Although it is not technically a type of glass,
the substance has sometimes historically been called acrylic glass. Chemically, it is the
synthetic polymer of methyl methacrylate. The material was developed in 1928 in various
laboratories by many chemists such as William Chalmers, Otto Rohm and Walter Bauer and
was first brought to market in 1933 by the Rohm and Haas Company, under the trademark
Plexiglas. It has since been sold under many different names, including ACRYLITE, Lucite and
Perspex. PMMA is an economical alternative to polycarbonate when extreme strength is not
necessary. Additionally, PMMA does not contain the potentially harmful biphenyl-A sub units
found in polycarbonate. It is often preferred because of its moderate properties, easy handling
and processing, and low cost. The non-modified PMMA behaves in a brittle manner when
loaded, especially under an impact force, and is more prone to scratching than conventional
inorganic glass. However, the modified PMMA achieves very high scratch and impact
resistance. The often-seen spelling poly—that is, spelled with an instead of en—is a misspelling
of poly.

Characteristics of synthetic fibers:-

1) Synthetic fibers are very strong

2) Synthetic fibers are more durable: They have high resistance to wear and tear. Due to this,
clothes made of synthetic fibers are very durable.
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Natural fibers have low abrasion due to which the clothes made of natural fibers are not much
durable.

3) Synthetic fibers absorb very little water: Clothes made of Synthetic fibers dry very quickly.

Clothes made from natural fibers do not dry quickly.

4) Synthetic fibers are wrinkle resistant: The clothes made of Synthetic fibers do not get
crumpled easily during washing or wear.

Natural fibers get crumpled easily during washing and wear.

5) Synthetic fibers are light weight

6) Synthetic fibers are extremely fine: The fabric made from synthetic fibers have a very smooth
texture whereas natural fibers are not so fine.

7) Synthetic fibers are not attacked by moths

8) Synthetic fibers do not shrink

9) Synthetic fibers are less expensive and readily available.

Disadvantages of synthetic fiber:-

 Synthetic fibers do not burn more readily than natural.

 Prone to heat damage
 Prone to damage by hot washing
 More electrostatic charge is generated by rubbing than with natural fibers.

Nylon:-Nylon is made when the appropriate monomers (the chemical building make up
polymers) are combined to form a long chain via condense polymerization reaction are adipic aˉ
and hexamethylene diamine

Plastics:-A natural is said to be plastics if it can be molded or formed into different shapes. OR
a synthetic material made from a wide range of organic polymers such as polyethylene, pvc,
nylon etc. that can be moulded into shape while soft and then set into rigid formPlastic is any
synthetic or semi-synthetic organic polymer. While plastics may be made from just about any
organic polymer, most industrial plastic is made from petrochemicals. Thermoplastics and
thermosetting polymers are the two types of plastic. The name "plastic" refers to the property of
plasticity, which is the ability to deform without breaking.
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The polymer used to make a plastic is almost always mixed with additives, including colorants,
plasticizers, stabilizers, fillers, and reinforcements. These additives affect the chemical
composition, chemical properties, and mechanical properties of a plastic and also affect its cost.

Plastic is material consisting of any of a wide range of synthetic or semi-synthetic organic

compounds that are malleable and so can be moldedinto solid objects. Plasticity is the general
property of all materials which can deform irreversibly without breaking but, in the class of
moldable polymers, this occurs to such a degree that their actual name derives from this ability.

Plastics are typically organic polymers of high molecular mass and often contain other
substances. They are usually synthetic, most commonly derived from petrochemicals, however,
an array of variants are made from renewable materials such as polylactic acid from corn or
cellulosics from cotton linters

Types of plastic:-
Divided into two main types: Thermoplastics Thermosetting

Thermoplastics:-Thermoplastic materials are those materials that are made of polymers linked
by intermolecular interactions or van der Waals forces, forming linear or branched structures.A
thermoplastic material it can be compared to a set of strings that are mixed on a table, each of
these string is represents a polymer, the greater degree of mixing of the strings greater the
effort will be made to separate the strings from each other, due the friction that occurs between
each of the cords offers resistance to separate, in this example the friction represents the
intermolecular forces that holds together the polymer.

Types of thermoplastics:-

1) PVC:-Polyvinyl chloride (PVC), a synthetic resin made from the polymerization of vinyl
chloride. Second only to polyethylene among the plastics in production and consumption, PVC
is used in an enormous range of domestic and industrial products, from raincoats and shower
curtains to window frames and indoor plumbing. A lightweight, rigid plastic in its pure form, it is
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also manufactured in a flexible ―plasticized‖ form. PVC is sometimes known as ‗Vinyl‘ in Europe
and predominantly so in North America.

In Europe, ‗Vinyl‘ usually refers to certain specific flexible applications, such as flooring,
decorative sheets and artificial leather. PVC is a thermoplastic made of 57% chlorine (derived
from industrial grade salt) and 43% carbon (derived predominantly from oil / gas via ethylene). It
is less dependent than other polymers on crude oil or natural gas, which is nonrenewable, and
hence can be regarded as a natural resource saving plastic, in contrast to plastics such as PE,
PP, PET and PS, which are totally dependent on oil or gas. This chlorine gives to PVC excellent
fire resistance.

2) Polytetrafluoroethylene:-Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) is a
synthetic fluoropolymer of tetrafluoroethylene that has numerous applications. The best known
brand name of PTFE-based formulas is Teflon by Chemours. Chemours is a 2015 spin-
off of DuPont Co. which discovered the compound in 1938. PTFE is a fluorocarbon solid, as it is
a high-molecular-weight compound consisting wholly of carbon and fluorine. PTFE
is hydrophobic: neither water nor water-containing substances wet PTFE, as fluorocarbons
demonstrate mitigated London dispersion forces due to the high electro negativity of fluorine.
PTFE has one of the lowest coefficients of friction of any solid.

PTFE is used as a non-stick coating for pans and other cookware. It is non-reactive, partly
because of the strength of carbon–fluorine bonds, and so it is often used in containers and pipe
work for reactive and corrosive chemicals. Where used as a lubricant, PTFE reduces friction,
wear and energy consumption of machinery. It is commonly used as a graft material in surgical
interventions. Also, it is frequently employed as coating on catheters; this interferes with the
ability of bacteria and other infectious agents to adhere to catheters and cause hospital-
acquired infections.

3) polyvinylidene chloride(saran):- Polyvinylidene chloride (PVDC),

a synthetic resin produced by the polymerization of vinylidene chloride. It is used principally in
clear, flexible, and impermeable plastic food wrap.
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Vinylidene chloride (CH2=CCl2), a clear, colorless, toxic liquid, is obtained

from trichloroethane (CH2=CHCl3) through the dehydrochlorination (removal of hydrogen
chloride [HCl]) of that compound by alkali treatment. For processing into PVDC, the liquid is
suspended in water as fine droplets or treated with soap like surfactants and dispersed in water
as an emulsion of small particles. Under the action of free-radical initiators, the vinylidene-
chloride monomers (small, single-unit molecules) are linked together to form large, multiple-
unit polymers. The polymer is obtained from the water phase as dry powder or beads, which
can be melted for extrusion into plastic film.

The outstanding property of PVDC is its low permeability to water vapor and gases—making it
ideal for food packaging. Copolymers of vinylidene chloride and other monomers are also
marketed. The best known is Saran, a copolymer consisting of about 87 percent vinylidene
chloride and 13 percent vinyl chloride. Saran was introduced by the Dow Chemical Company in
1939 and is still a widely used transparent food wrap.

4) Polyethylene LDPE (low density polyethylene):- LDPE is prepared from gaseous ethylene
under very high pressures (up to about 350 mega pascals, or 50,000 pounds per square inch)
and high temperatures (up to about 350 °C [660 °F]) in the presence of oxide initiators. These
processes yield a polymer structure with both long and short branches. Because the branches
prevent the polyethylene molecules from packing closely together in hard, stiff, crystalline
arrangements, LDPE is a very flexible material. Its melting point is approximately 110 °C (230
°F). Principal uses are in packaging film, trash and grocery bags, agricultural mulch, wire and
cable insulation, squeeze bottles, toys, and house wares.

5) Polypropylene:-Polypropylene (PP), also known as poly propene, is a thermoplastic polymer

used in a wide variety of applications. An addition polymer made from the monomer propylene, it can
be produced in a variety of structures giving rise to a variety of applications including packaging and
labeling, textiles, plastic parts and reusable containers of various types, laboratory equipment,
automotive components, and medical devices. It is a white, mechanically rugged, and resistant to
many chemical solvents, bases and acids.
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In 2013, the global market for polypropylene was about 55 million tones. Polypropylene is the world's
second-most widely produced synthetic plastic, after polyethylene.

Thermosetting plastic:-Thermosetting Plastics, also known as thermosetting resins, are rigid

polymeric materials that are resistant to higher temperatures than ordinary thermoplastics. They
are petrochemical materials that irreversibly cure. The cure may be brought on by heat,
generally above 392°F (200°C), chemical reaction or suitable irradiation. It is used as adhesives
as well as in semiconductors and integrated circuits. The International Union of Pure and
Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) defines a thermosetting plastics as petrochemicals in an indulgent
solid or viscous state that changes irreversibly into an infusible, insoluble polymer network by
curing.

Characteristics of plastic:-

1) Plastic is non reactive:-Due to this property it is suitable for making of container, water tank,
water bottle, plastic pipes, taps, chair, table and other many types of furniture.

2) Plastic is light, strong and durable:-Due to this property it is used for polythene pencil box,
water bottle, umbrella, furniture, aircraft.

3) Plastic is poor conductor:-Poor conductor of heat and electricity, due to this property, it is
suitable for making insulting covering electric wires, handle of electrical appliances, handle of
screw driver, kitchen ware, floor tiles.

Uses of plastics:-

Plastics enable sustainable, durable, long-lasting design and construction in homes,

buildings, and infrastructure like bridges.

In automotive design, plastics have contributed to a multitude of innovations in safety,

performance and fuel efficiency.
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Plastic packaging helps protect and preserve goods, while reducing weight in transportation,
which saves fuel and reduces greenhouse gas emissions.

From computers and cell phones to televisions and microwaves, durable, lightweight and
affordable plastics have helped revolutionize the electronics we rely on every day.

Plastics help make sports safety gear – such as plastic helmets, mouth guards, goggles and
protective padding – lighter and stronger to help keep sports enthusiasts of all ages safe.
Molded, shock-absorbent plastic foam helps keep feet stable and supported, while rugged
plastics shells covering helmets and pads help protect heads, joints and bones

Biodegradable and non biodegradable:-

Biodegradable:-The term ‗Biodegradable‘ is used for those things that can be easily
decomposed by natural agents like water, oxygen, ultraviolet rays of the sun, acid rains, micro-
organisms, etc. One can notice that when a dead leaf or a banana peel is thrown outside, it is
acted upon by several micro-organisms like bacteria, fungi or small insects in a time period. The
natural elements like oxygen, water,

The natural elements like oxygen, water, moisture, and heat facilitate the decomposition thereby
breaking the complex organic forms to simpler units. The decomposed matter eventually mixes
or returns back to the soil and thus the soil is once again nourished with various nutrients and
minerals.

Non biodegradable:-Materials which cannot be broken down or decomposed into the soil by
natural agents are labeled as non-biodegradable. These substances consist of plastic materials,
metal scraps, aluminum cans and bottles, hazardous chemicals etc. These things are practically
immune to the natural processes and thus cannot be fed upon or broken down even after
thousands of years. Therefore, these waste rather than returning back, contribute to solid waste
which is very hazardous for the environment. The ever increasing load of non-biodegradable
trash is a growing concern all over the world and several countries
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Plastics and the environment:-Due to non biodegradable property of plastic, it is a very major
problem for environment problem. Now a day‘s plastic is very popular and used it for many
purpose. As a result we generate a large amount of plastics waste, as it is non-biodegradable
property, it gets accumulated in the environment, cause environment pollution. An accumulated
plastic does not get completely burnt early and release lots of poisonous fomes into atmosphere
causing air pollution.

Preventive measures:-
1) Avoid the use of plastics as far as possible
2) Do not throw plastics bags in water, roads 3) The biodegradable and non biodegradable
waste should be collected separately and disposed off separately.
For dealing with plastic waste, we should follow the three R‘s i.e., reduce, re use and recycle.
Reduce:-We should reduce use of plastics. Example:-we should use cloth or jute bag for
purchasing any things instead of using plastic bags.
Re use:-We should reuse some plastic things and containers in our homes and offices.
Example:-Empty plastics bottles and container should be used for keeping other items in the
home and kitchen.
Recycle:-Thermoplastic can be recycled. So, items made of thermoplastic should be sent to the
recycling industry. Example:-toys, buckets, mugs etc.

Coal and Petroleum

There are different types of natural and manmade material such as

Natural:-wood, rubber, silk, leather and metals.
Manmade:-Paper, balloon cloth belt and spoon net.

Natural resources:-The resources which are obtained from nature are called natural resources.
Types of natural resources: 1) Inexhaustible 2) Exhaustible

1) Inexhaustible natural resources/renewable:-An inexhaustible resource is a resource that

never runs out or gets depleted. Some of such resources include wind, sun, solar energy,
tides, and geothermal energy. They are mostly the natural occurring resources hence they
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reappear naturally. The sun will burn out in just over 6 billion years. A million or so years
before then, the sun will expand, boiling

Precipitation (rainfall, snow fall, etc.) and atomic power are some instances of inexhaustible
natural resources. Some of them may undergo temporary imbalances due to human activity
e.g. the quality of atmosphere due to air pollution

Inexhaustible energy sources differ from renewable energy sources because they won't be
used up under any conditions. Sun, water, air are few examples of inexhaustible natural
resources. The minerals are natural resources. As a good citizen of India, what should we
do to conserve our natural resources. The five basic elements- air, water, fire, ether and
earth. A good number of elements like carbon, nitrogen, oxygen etc are being recycled and
so long the resources are recycled they are available to us forever. The natural resources
such as trees and shrubs are renewable and hence they are available to us. A natural
resource is like water or wind they are resources that are found naturally on the earth.

2) Exhaustible natural resources:-Anything that we find under the ground: coal, oil,
natural gas, uranium, iron ore, copper, nickel is exhaustible natural resources. Every resource is
exhaustible, except solar power, wind power, tidal and wave power, and thermal power.

Coal:-Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock usually occurring in rock

strata in layers or veins called coal beds or coal seams. The harder forms, such as anthracite
coal, can be regarded as metamorphic rock because of later exposure to elevated temperature
and pressure. Coal is composed primarily of carbon, along with variable quantities of other
elements, chiefly hydrogen, sulfur, oxygen, and nitrogen. Coal is a fossil fuel that forms when
dead plant matter is converted into peat, which in turn is converted into lignite, then sub-
bituminous coal, after that bituminous coal, and lastly anthracite. This involves biological and
geological processes. The geological processes take place over millions of years.

History of coal:-The history of coal mining goes back thousands of years. It became important
in the Industrial Revolution of the 19th and 20th centuries, when it was primarily used to power
steam engines, heat buildings and generate electricity. Coal mining continues as an important
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economic activity today. Compared to wood fuels, coal yields a higher amount of energy per
mass and can often be obtained in areas where wood is not readily available. Though it was
used historically as a domestic fuel, coal is now used mostly in industry, especially
in smelting and alloy production as well as electricity generation. Large-scale coal
mining developed during the Industrial Revolution, and coal provided the main source of primary
energy for industry and transportation in industrial areas from the 18th century to the 1950s.
Coal remains an important energy source because of its low cost and abundance compared to
other fuels, particularly for electricity generation. Coal is also mined today on a large scale
by open pit methods wherever the coal strata strike the surface or are relatively shallow. Britain
developed the main techniques of underground coal mining from the late 18th century onward,
with further progress being driven by 19th century and early 20th century progress. However, oil
and gas were increasingly used as alternatives from the 1860s onward.

By the late 20th century, coal was, for the most part, replaced in domestic as well as industrial
and transportation usage by oil, natural gas or electricity produced from oil, gas, nuclear
power or renewable energy sources. By 2010, coal produced over a fourth of the world's
energy, and by 2050 it is expected to produce about a third.

Since 1890, coal mining has also been a political and social issue. Coal miners' labor and trade
unions became powerful in many countries in the 20th century, and often, the miners were
leaders of the Left or Socialist movements (as in Britain, Germany, Poland, Japan, Chile,
Canada and the U.S.) Since 1970, environmental issues have been increasingly important,
including the health of miners, destruction of the landscape from strip mines and mountaintop
removal, air pollution, and coal combustion's contribution to global warming.

Some products obtained from coal:-

1) Coal:-Coal is one of the most useful fossil fuels. It has many applications such as producing
heat for households, firing industrial generators, manufacturing cast iron, etc. It can also be
produced in the industry to obtain products like coke, tar and coal gas. These by-products are
beneficial to us too.
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2) Coke:-Coke is a high-carbon product obtained by the destructive distillation of coal. The

amount of carbon content in coke is so high that it is said to be an almost-pure form of carbon.
Coke is grayish-black in color and is a hard, porous solid.
Uses:
The most common use of coke is as a fuel for stoves, furnaces and blacksmithing. It is
sometimes preferred over coal because burning coke produces very little smoke.
It is also used to produce iron in a blast furnace.
Coke is used to manufacture steel and many other materials.

Coal tar: It is obtained as a byproduct in the process of making coke. Though its color is the
same as coke, tar is a highly viscous liquid. It also has an extremely unpleasant smell.
Uses:
Coal tar is widely used to manufacture paints, perfumes, synthetic dyes, photographic
material, drugs and explosives.
It can be utilized to make insecticides and pesticides. Naphthalene balls that are commonly
used to keep moths away are made from tar.
Coal tar is an ingredient of anti-dandruff and lice-repelling shampoos, soaps and ointments.

Coal gas: This is also obtained as a byproduct while producing coke, and again, just like tar, its
smell is not very pleasant. It is a highly flammable gas as the main component of it is methane.
Thus, if not regulated carefully, it can form mixture with air resulting in explosions.
Uses:
It is mainly used as a fuel in industries situated near coal processing plants.
Earlier, it was used as a source of light. In the year 1820, it was used in London for the first
time as street lighting.
Now, it is more commonly used to provide heat for domestic and industrial purposes.

Petroleum:-Petroleum is a liquid found deep within the Earth's surface. It's categorized as
naturally occurring and is collected from drilling into the earth. Petroleum is often described as
brown or black in color.
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Although it's commonly found in liquid form, underneath the earth's surface, it can also be in the
form of a gas. A natural gas is a naturally-occurring combustible mix of different hydrocarbons
found below the earth's surface. Combustible refers to the ability for this gas to be explosive or
easily ignite a fire. A hydrocarbon is any type of substance that's got carbon atoms and
hydrogen atoms present. The petroleum you see when you drill down will either flow out as a
liquid (oil) or escape into the air as a gas.
History of petroleum:-The first successful oil well in North America was established in Oil
Springs, Ontario, Canada in 1858. The field is still in production although quantities are low.
The history of the petroleum industry in the United States goes back to the early 19th century,
although the indigenous peoples, like many ancient societies, have used petroleum seeps since
prehistoric times; where found, these seeps signaled the growth of the industry from the earliest
discoveries to the more recent. Petroleum became a major industry following the oil discovery at
Oil Creek Pennsylvania in 1859. For much of the 19th and 20th centuries, the US was the
largest oil producing country in the world. As of October 2015, the US was the world's third-
largest producer of crude oil.

Extraction of petroleum:-After an exploration effort has successfully discovered petroleum

within an acceptable range of reserve potential, the challenge becomes how to best optimize
extraction of recoverable reserves in a manner yielding an acceptable economic return on total
cash expenditures required over the life of the project. Surface and subsurface conditions of a
discovery have considerable impact on the extraction process, its related costs, and ultimate
project success or failure. Technical success is one thing; economic success is another. Real
world experience has shown that economic success is by far the more difficult accomplishment,
as it is dependent on factors well beyond the means of science and technology.

Process of refining petroleum:- Petroleum refining processes are the chemical

engineering processes and other facilities used in petroleum refineries (also referred to as oil
refineries) to transform crude oil into useful products such as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG),
gasoline or petrol, kerosene, jet fuel, diesel oil and fuel oils.
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Petroleum refineries are very large industrial complexes that involve many different processing units
and auxiliary facilities such as utility units and storage tanks. Each refinery has its own unique
arrangement and combination of refining processes largely determined by the refinery location,
desired products and economic considerations.

Some modern petroleum refineries process as much as 800,000 to 900,000 barrels (127,000 to
143,000 cubic meters) per day of crude oil.

Natural gas:-Natural gas is a naturally occurring hydrocarbon gas mixture consisting primarily
of methane, but commonly including varying amounts of other higher alkanes, and sometimes a
small percentage of carbon dioxide, nitrogen, hydrogen sulfide, or helium. It is formed when
layers of decomposing plant and animal matter are exposed to intense heat and pressure under
the surface of the Earth over millions of years. The energy that the plants originally obtained
from the sun is stored in the form of chemical bonds in the gas.

Applications:
1) Used as fuel in automobiles
2) A starting material for manufacturing of many chemical and fertilizers.
3) Currently there is a huge network of pipelines in vadodara and some in areas of Delhi used
for supplying CNG.

Limitations of natural resources:-Fossil fuel like coal, petroleum etc. needs millions of years
to get transformed from dead bodies to fuel. But currently their demands are so high that after
few hundred years there will be sear city of these resources. In addition, too much of air
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pollution is caused when these fuels are burnt. And these fuel are responsible for the problems
associated cˉ global warming. Hence, it is important to use these fuels with care and wisely.

Preventive measures to save fuels by petroleum conservation research association

(PCRA):-

I) Drive vehicle at average and constant speed

II) when not necessary shut down the vehicle engines
III) make sure pressure in tires is correct
IV) Always keep vehicles under good condition
V) Maintain correct type pressure for low consumption of fuel

1) Fractional distillation:-Separating crude oil to fractional of boiling point ranges, making it

ready for further processing. Distillations can atmosphere or vacuums.
1) Oil is heated up to 450⁰C and pumped into the bottom of tall tower fractionating column
where it vaporization.
2) Column very hot at bottom and cooler at top.
3) Heavy fractions (containing large molecule) have high boiling point increase and condense
near the bottom of column.
4) Lighter fraction has lower boiling point decrease and condenses further up the column.

2) Cracking:-It is the process of breaking heavy crude fractional into lighter products which can
be further processed or blended cˉ other streams to give final products. It can be either
thermal/catalytic.

3) Treatment:-Treatment is the final process of refining, and includes combining processed

products to create various octane levels, vapor pressure propositions and special properties for
products used in extreme environment.
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Combustion and Flame

We use different kinds of fuel for various purposed at home, in industry and for running
automobiles these fuels are cow dung, wood, coal, charcoal, petrol, diesel, compressed natural
gas (CNG) etc.
Combustion:-It is a chemical reaction in which heat is released by a material when it reacts
with oxygen.
Combustible substance or fuel:-Any material substance that undergoes combustion is called
as combustible substance. Also known as fuel. Example:-wood, charcoal, LPG, kerosene,
petrol, diesel. The fuel may be in solid, liquid and gas state. Sometimes, light is also given off
during combustion, either as a flame or as a glow.

Ignition temperature:-The minimum temperature at which a substance starts to burn is called

its ignition temperature. Different fuels have different ignition temperatures. Some fuels have
low ignition temperature and some have high ignition temperature. The fuels that have low
ignition temperature are highly inflammable and burn quickly at the spark of fire. While some
fuels that have high ignition temperature do not burn quickly. They require heating to burn. For
example kerosene oil does not burn unless it is heated up to its ignition temperature.

The auto ignition temperature or kindling point of a substance is the lowest temperature at which
it spontaneously ignites in normal atmosphere without an external source of ignition, such as a
flame or spark. This temperature is required to supply the activation energy needed
for combustion. The temperature at which a chemical ignites decreases as the pressure or
oxygen concentration increases. It is usually applied to a combustible fuel mixture.

Auto ignition temperatures of liquid chemicals are typically measured using a 500-millilitre flask
placed in a temperature-controlled oven in accordance with the procedure described
in ASTM E659. When measured for plastics, auto ignition temperature can be also measured
under elevated pressure and at 100% oxygen concentration. The resulting value is used as a
predictor of viability for high-oxygen service.
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Conditions/things necessary for combustion:

1) Fuel/combustible substance
2) Air
3) Temperature

Fuel:-It is substance which undergoes combustion

Supply of air:-oxygen helps in combustion air contains 29% of oxygen, thus supply of air
makes the O2 available, helps in combustion.
Temperature:-For catching fire, combustible substances must reach its ignition temperature. If
substance does not reach it ignition temperature, it will not catch fire so no combustion takes
place.

Measures to control fire:-

1) Fire bridge station:-In case of fire, fire bridges will extinguish the fire by sprinkling the water
on the affected areas. The water will bring down the increase temperature below its ignition
temperature. As a result fire will stop spreading. Water vapor also surround the combustible
material, helping in cutting off the supply of air so, the fire is extinguished. To extinguish fire at
least any one of the three conditions must be removed. Controlling fire when electrical
equipment is on fire water is not suitable in case, pouring water may prove more disastrous
because normal water is good conductor of electricity. Controlling fire in the case of oil, petrol:
water is heavier than oil. So when coater is pored over oil, oil comes on top and keeps on
burning.

2) Carbon dioxide as fire extinguisher:-CO2 does not support combustion and hence is
considered as bust fire extinguisher. CO2 is heavier than air so it covers the material which is
burning due to which supply of O2 is stopped. This puts off further combustion and fire is
controlled. Under high pressure, CO2 liquefier and takes place less space because of
compression liquid CO2 is stored in cylinders. A nozzle is attached cˉ cylinder to release CO2
when nozzle is opened, CO2 starts coming out because of high pressure, it expands and cover
the combustible material as blanket.
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Due to cut off of oxygen, supply and due expansion, the temperature of CO2 decrease and then
decrease temperature and bring down the combustible material below ignition temperature. The
combustible material put off fire

3) Sodium bicarbonate and potential bicarbonate as fire extinguisher:-Na2HCO3 (baking

soda) or potential bicarbonate release CO2 on heating. Then when the powder of NaHCO3 and
HCO3 is spread over a near the fire, they release CO2 and covers burning material and cut off
the O2 supply and puts off the fire.

4) Use of blankets:-If person catches fire, then blankets can be used to extinguish the fire ( not
allowing any O2 to the fire)

5) Forest fires:-In summer season, when temperature rises high then region having dry
grasses will catch fire. This fire spreads rapidly from grass to trees and eventually entire forest
is on fire it is difficult to manage such fires.

Types of combustion:-
1) Rapid
2) Spontaneous
3) Expulsion

Rapid combustion:-The combustion in which substances burn rapidly to produce heat and
light is called rapid combustion. In rapid combustion, external heat must be supplied so that
the substances can burn. For example, when a burning matchstick is brought near a gas
stove (with its knob turned on), LPG burns rapidly to produce heat and light. Similarly a
candle will start burning when a burning match stick is brought near its wick. This type of
combustion carries on as long as fuel is available

Spontaneous combustion:-The combustion in which substances suddenly burst into

flames, without the application of any apparent cause is called spontaneous combustion.
For example, sodium and phosphorus burn spontaneously in air at room temperature, even
when no external heat is provided to them. Due to the slow oxidation of white phosphorous,
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heat is produced during this process till the white phosphorous reaches its ignition
temperature. It is directly surrounded by enough oxygen, hence will start burning

Explosion:-The combustion in which sudden reactions take place on ignition of some

substances to produce heat, light, and sound is called explosion. For example, fireworks on
ignition produce heat, light, and sound. Other substances such as dynamite also explode
when ignited to produce huge amounts of energy. Dynamite is used to explode mountains
to build roads, train tracks, and tunnels in hilly areas. Large amount of gas is produced in
the reaction. Explosion can also take place if pressure is applied on the cracker. The
explosive powder used in fire crackers is a mixture of carbon, sulphur and potassium
nitrate. Another type of combustion is slow combustion

Complete and incomplete combustion:-

Complete combustion:-Combustion or heating is a reaction where heat is produced by an

exothermic reaction. Combustion is an oxidation reaction. For the reaction to take place, a fuel
and an oxidant should be there. Substances undergoing the combustion are known as fuels.
These can be hydrocarbons like petrol, diesel, methane, or hydrogen gas, etc. Usually the
oxidizing agent is oxygen, but there can be other oxidants like fluorine too.

In the reaction, the fuel is oxidized by the oxidant. So this is an oxidation reaction. When
hydrocarbon fuels are used, the products after a complete combustion are usually carbon
dioxide and water. In a complete combustion, few products will be formed, and it will produce
the maximum energy output that the reactant can give. However, for a complete combustion to
take place, unlimited and constant oxygen supply and optimum temperature should be there.
Hence, complete combustion is not always favored.

Incomplete combustion:-When there isn‘t enough oxygen, incomplete combustion takes

place. If the combustion had not happened completely, carbon monoxide and other particles
can be released into the atmosphere and which can cause a lot of pollution.
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Flame:-When something is burnt, a hot luminous gas emerges out of the substance. This gas is
called as flam. Flame is result of the substances which vaporizes on burning.

Flame structure:-When flames are observed carefully one can notice different layers of flame.
Outer most zone, middle zone, inner most zone.
Outer:-It is blue in color and is hottest amongst all the zones, in this portion complete
combustion takes place.
Middle:-It is yellow in color and is somewhat hot. In this portion partial combustion takes place.
Innermost:-It is black in color and coolest amongst all the zones.

Fuel:-The substance that undergoes combustion is called as fuel. Example:-Wood, coal, coke,
cow dung, cakes, CNG, biogas, LPG-Gaseous, kerosene, petrol, diesel- liquid.

Characteristics of good fuel:-

It should easily be available
It should be cheap
Should generate large amount of heat It should not leave any unwanted matter after
combustion.

Ideal fuel:-The fuel which satisfies all the characteristics of good fuel is termed as an ideal fuel.
Fuel efficiency:-The quantity of heat generated on combustion of 1 kg of a fuel is called its
calorific value.

Harmful effects of burning fuel:-The increasing fuel combustion has harmful effects on
environment.
1) Various air pollutants like un burnt carbon particles released due to partial burning of carbon
fuel causes many respiratory diseases.
2) The partial burning of some fuel release which is poisonous gas. And this gas can will a
person‘s if left in a room filled this gas.
3) Global warming: combustion most fuels increase amount of CO2 in the atmosphere that has
lead to increase in the average temperature on earth.
4) Acid rain:-Due to burning of coal and diesel chemicals like sulphur dioxide and nitrogen
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dioxide are released into the air. These pollutants will react cˉ water vapor in air forms sulphuric
aˉ and nitric aˉ. When it rains this kind of chemicals also present and such kind of rain is called
acid rain harmful for crops building, soil.
Prevention:-The diesel and petrol replaced by CNG because it produce harmful products in
small amount.

Metals and Non Metals

Elements can be classified into metals and non metals on the basis of their properties.
Metals:-The elements that have tendency to donate electrons/loose electrons positive ions in
order to complete its valence shell are called as metals.
A metals is a material that is typically hard, opaque, shiny and has good electrical thermal
conductivity. The metals are found or appears on left hand side of the periodic table. Example of
metals are Na, k, Cu, Zn, Hg nickel, gold, silver, platinum (jeweler bronze) lithium, aluminium,
titatnium, uranium, Ba, Chr, Co, Ni, Tin.

Physical properties of metals:-

1) Metals are solid (except mercury)
2) Malleability:-The property of substance due to which it can be beaten into thin sheet metal in
malleable.
3) Ductility:-The property substance by which it can be drawn into thin wires. Metals are ductile.
4) Conduction of heat:-Metals are good conduction of electricity.
5) Appearance of surface:-Metals are in pure state, having shining surface also called metallic.
Metals on reacting cˉ gases in atmosphere lose its shiny and appearance when kept in air for
long time.
6) Hardness:-Metal are generally hard cˉ exception of Li, sodium and potassium, that can be cut
cˉ lemife.
7) Density:-Metals have high density except sodium and potassium.
8) Melting point and boiling point metals have high melting and boiling point.
9) State at room temperature:-Metal are solid at room temperature
10) Sonority:-Property of producing sound on striking a hard surface. Metals are sonorous.
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Physical properties of non metals:-

1) Non- metals may be solid, liquid or gases.
Solids-carbon, sulphur, phosphorous
Liquid-Bromine
Gases-Oxygen,H2,N2 and noble gases
2) Hardness-Non-metals are soft (except diamond hardest natural sub)
3) Appearance of surface-Do not have luster
4)Non metals are not malleable and ductile
5) Non-metals which are solids and liquids have low melting points and low boiling point
Non metals are bad conductor of heat
Non metals are bad conductor of electricity (except graphite)
Non metals are not sonorous.

Exception in Physical properties:-

Graphite in non metals- good conductor of electricity
Iodine is lustrous non metals
Diamond- hardest which is non metals
Sodium and Potassium soft which are metals.
Mercury-metal but liquid at room temperature.
Sodium, potassium, calcium and gallium are metals c low melting and boiling points.
Diamond in non metals-but having high melting and boiling point.

Chemical properties:
Metals:-
1) Reaction with Oxygen:-Metals react with oxygen to form metal oxides.
2Cu+O2 2CUO
4Al+3O2 2AL2 O3
Some Metals oxides are basic oxides, they react cˉ water to form bases.
Example:
1) 2Na+O2 2Na2O
Na2O+H2O 2NaOH
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2) K+O2 K2O
K2O+H2O 2KOH

Some metals oxides show acidic and basic properties they are called amphoteric oxides.
Example:-Aluminum oxides, Zn oxides etc.
Al2O3+6HCl 2AlCl3+2H2O
Al2O3+NaOH NaAlO2+H2O
2) Reaction with water:-Metal reacts with H2O to form metals oxides and or metals hydroxides
and hydrogen.

2Na+2H2O 2NaOH+H2 violently

2K+H2O 2KOH+H2 cold H2O
Ca+H2O Ca (OH) 2+H2 less violently
2AL+3H2O AL2O3+H2
Zn+H2O ZnO+H2 steam
3Fe+4H2O Fe2O3+4H2
Mg+H2O Mg(OH)2+H2 hot water
The Reactivity of different metals cˉ water is different
Sodium and potassium react violently cˉ cold water to form sodium hydroxide and hydrogen
and catches fire.
Calcium reacts less violently with water to form Ca (OH)2 and H2O and does not catch fire.
Magnesium reacts only cˉ hot water for Mg (OH)2 and H2
Al, Zn, Fe, reacts only cˉ steam to form the metal oxides and H2O
3) Reaction with acids:-Metals reaction dilute to form salt and hydrogen.
Mg+2HCL MgCl2+H2
2Al+6HCL 2AlCl2+3H2
Zn+2HCL ZnCl2+H2
Fe+2HCL FeCl2+H2 Cu
Silver, gold do not react cˉ dilute HCL
H2 gas is not evolved when metals reacts c nitric acid (HNO3) because it is strong oxidizing and
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it oxidizes the H2 produces to H2 produced to water and is itself gets reduced to any one
oxides of nitrogen (N2O, NO, NO2)

Extraction of metals:-
1) Extraction of metals low in the activities series. Oxides of these can be reduced to metals by
heating alone.
2) Extraction of metals in the middle activity series. It is easy to obtain a metal from its oxide
compared to its sulphide and carbonate.
Roasting -process of converting sulphide ores into oxide by heating strongly in the presence
of excess air.
Calculation is the process of converting carbonate ores into oxides by heating strongly in
limited air.
Metals oxides are then reduced to corresponding metals using suitable reducing reagent such
as coke, aluminum etc on basis of their re activities using displacement reaction.
These displacement reactions are highly exothermic hence metals are produced in molten
state.
Termite reaction:-Reaction of iron oxide with aluminum used to join railway tracks or cracked
machine parts.
3) Extraction of metals high in the activity series. Since these are very reactive metals and thus
cannot be obtained by displacement reactions. These metals are obtained by electrolytic
refining.
They are generally obtained by electrolysis of their molten chloride.
Metals are deposited at cathode, while chlorine in liberated at anode.
Aluminum is obtained by electrolytic reduction of aluminum oxide.
Electrolytic Refining:-Metals obtained by various reduction processes contain impurities. The
most widely used method for refining impure metals is electrolytic refining.
An equipment amount of pure metals from electrolyte is deposited at cathode.
Soluble impurities go into solution, insoluble impurities settle at the bottom of anode called
‗anode mud‘.
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Carbon and its compounds

Carbon is the fourth most abundant chemical element in the universe by the mass. It is second
abundant element by mass in human body. Carbon is a chemical element like hydrogen,
oxygen and nitrogen etc. it is versatile non-metals.
Properties of carbon:-
1) Atomic number:-6
2) Electronic configuration:-2,4
3) Valence of carbon:-To complete the octet, either carbon can gain 4 electrons or lose 4
electrons.
But if carbon gets electrons, if would be difficult for nucleus to hold 4 extra electrons as
carbon atom is very small in size.
If carbon loses its electrons, it would require a large amount of energy to nucleus is more in
carbon atom.
Thus it is difficult for an atom of carbon to either gain or lose electrons. Carbon makes four
covalent bonds and attains the noble gas configuration by sharing its valence electrons.
4) Self-combination (catenation):-Due to small size of carbon, it has a unique ability to
combine with other carbon atoms to form long chains. This ability of carbon is known as
catenation.
Occurrence of carbon:-Carbon occurs in two forms in nature.
Free State:-Graphite, diamond, fullerenes.
Combined state:-Carbon combines with other elements to form compounds. Such as carbon
dioxide (CO2) Glucose (C6 H12 O6) Sugar (C12 H12 O11) etc.
Allotropes of carbon:-Different forms of an element which have different physical appearance
and properties but their chemical properties are same are called ‗allotropes‘.
A) Diamond B) Graphite C) Fullerenes
Diamond:-Diamond is three dimensional networks of strong carbon covalent bonds.
A diamonds is a transparent crystal of tetrahedral bonded carbon atoms in a covalent network
crystal lattice (SP3).
Lattice-Crises cross matrix.
Crystal lattice:-The symmetrical three dimensional arrangement of atoms inside a crystal.
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Crystal-A solid material that contains atoms structure the structural arrangement is three
dimensional.
Properties:-
(a) Due to the presence of this large 3-D network of C-C covalent bonds, diamond is very hard
and have high melting point(around 4827⁰).
(b) As all the 4eˉ are utilized in making covalent bonds, no free electrons in available for conduct
electricity and therefore diamond is bad conductor electricity.
(c)Diamond is transparent and shines in presence of light.
(d)Diamond is a semiconductor &very high resistivity at room temperature.
(e)High energy needed to remove carbon atom from lattice – radiation hardness.
Uses of Diamond:-
Due to its high hardness it is used in making cutting and drilling tools (for cutting glasses).
Jeweler:-Most of the diamonds use for jeweler by people, approximately 30% of diamond
every year use jeweler purpose.
Cutting &polishing:-Diamond is the hardest known material on earth therefore lots of
industries use this stone for many purposes such as cutting glass & polishing other stones.
Natural is very expensive, so synthetic diamond for these purposes.
Diamond in cars:-Every car that manufactures in America & Germany use Appro 1.5 carat of
diamond. It is used in the saws & drill bits that cut & finish the body & engine components to
diamond coated grinding wheels that bevel &polish the glass in car windows.
Medical equipment:-Diamonds are heat resistant & abrasion (scraping, erosion), therefore it
used for X-RAY machine & laser treatment equipment almost 10% of total diamonds used for
these purposes.
Electrical equipment:-For providing coating for semiconductors to polishing optical equipment.
Diamond dust makes many delicate parts of technical polls.
Oil & gas exploring:-Diamonds also works for drilling through hard materials.
Construction of road & repair:-Companies of diamond products offer a variety of equipment
for construction such as diamond saws, diamond blades, diamond-coated abrasive wheels.
Solar panels:-Researchers & other scientists are working on solar panels with the help of
diamond material.
Diamond in speaker:-Diamonds are believed to actually enhance the performance of light
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quality speakers, because diamond is very stiff materials they can vibrate rapidly.
OTHER USES:-
Heat sinks-Material that absorbs or transmit excess heat.
Low friction micro bearing-Needed in tiny mechanical devices.
Wear resistant parts-Diamond converted (resistant to damage from normal usage) into vapor
that deposits on the surface of parts to wear.
Graphite:-In graphite each carbon atom is bonded with three other carbon atoms to form
hexagonal rings. These hexagonal rings join together to form layers which contain hexagonal
rings, which are hold together by weak vander waal forces. Due to weak vander waal forces
(attraction of intermolecular forces between molecules), these layers can slide of over each
other & therefore graphite is used as a ‗dry-lubricant‘ for machine parts at high temperature.
Properties:-Due to layered structure, it is soft & has soapy touch.
Graphite is referred to as plumb ago is a crystalline allotrope of carbon, a semi metal a native
element minerals and form of a coal.
Graphite is the most stable form of carbon under standard conditions. Due to presence of one
free electron, it is good conductor of heat and electricity.
Uses:-It is used in pencil leads as it is soft and leaves black mark on paper.
Powdered graphite is used as drugs lubricate for machine parts which operates at high
temperature where oil can‘t be used as graphite in non volatile.
Used for making electrodes in the cell. Used in the crudities used in the steel industry.
Used to make brake linings, lubricates and molds in foundries.
Natural graphite-For refractory‘s, batteries, steel making, expanded graphite-brake lining
foundry facing and lubricates.
Allotrope:-Each of 2 or more different physical forms in which an element can exist.
Fullerenes:-Fullerenes is a molecule of carbon in the form of a hollow sphere, ellipsoid tube
and many other shapes.
Spherical fullerenes referred –Buck minster Fullerenes/Bucky balls.
Cylindrical Fullerenes-carbon tubes / Bucky tubes
The structure of fullerenes is same as graphite i.e., composed of hexagonal rings (each
carbon atom bonded cˉ 3 other carbon atom).
They also contain pentagonal and heptagonal rings. C60 is the smallest fullerenes molecule
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that forms shape of foot ball.

Properties:
Stable, but not totally uncreative.
Soluble in many solvents like CO2 etc
But in soluble in other those have small gap between the excited state and ground state.
Fullerenes are the only known allotropes of carbon that can be dissolved in common solvent
at room temperature like C28, C30 etc.
Uses:
Artificial Photosynthesis:-Scheme for capturing and storing energy from sunlight in the
chemical bonds of fuel.
Used in cosmetics Used in surface coating Drugs delivery system Use of this Fullerenes (C60)
in oils, gears, polymers and other material both organic and inorganic for improving lubricate
and water (damage) scratch.
Compounds of carbon:-
Compounds of carbon are classified into 2 types.
1) Organic 2) Inorganic
1) Organic:-Compounds made up of carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) and contain at
least one C-H bond. Example:-Methane (CH4), Methanol (CH3OH) and Glucose (C6H12O6)
2) Inorganic:-Compounds which do not have C-H bonds.
Organic compounds:-Compounds made up of carbon and hydrogen only.
Further Classified into: Saturated, unsaturated.
Saturated hydrocarbons:-The saturated hydrocarbon is in which carbon atoms are liked
together by single bonds only. Ex: Methane
Unsaturated hydrocarbon:-The hydro carbons containing multiple bonds between two carbon
atoms are called unsaturated hydrocarbons. These are further divided into
1) Alkenes:-Hydrocarbon having at least one double bond between two carbon atoms-Alkenes.
2) Alkynes:-Hydrocarbons having at least one triple bond between two carbon atoms are
known as alkynes.
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Naming and structure of saturated hydrocarbons/Alkynes:

The name of an alkynes is made up to 2 parts:
a) a prefix (first part of the name, alk)
b) a suffix (last part of the name, ane)
The prefix is dependent on the number of carbon atoms in the chain of carbon atoms.
No. of carbon atoms: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Prefix:- meth eth prop but pent hex hept oct non dec
Suffix:- ane ane ane ane ane ane ane ane ane ane
Straight chain alkynes:-In the straight chain alkynes, there are only single covalent bonds
joining one carbon atom to another carbon atom in straight line. Example:-Methane, ethane,
propane, butane, he plane etc.
Branched chain Alkynes:-Branched chain alkynes are derived from the straight chain alkynes
system by removing one of the hydrogen atoms from a ethylene group. The straight chain
joining all carbon atoms is called parent chain and branches of branched chain alkynes are
called substitutes groups.
For naming of branched chain alkynes rules:-
1) Longest chain rule-Longest possible chain containing
2) Numbering of chain-c atom Done from the ends from which substitutes as closer. If there are
substitutes that are same no of carbons in from either ends, starts the numbering from the end
nearest the next substitutes. Carbon number where the substitutes group is attached appears in
the name of compounds.
3) Naming of substituent groups-The hydrocarbons as an alley groups based on the number of
carbons in this chain. Place the name of the branched substituent proceeded by a number
indicating the carbon of the parent-chain carbon to which it join.
Naming of components:-The name of parent chain alliances is made up of two parts
Naming and structure of unsaturated hydrocarbons:-
Alkynes-Hydrocarbons with at least one double bond. The name of an alkynes is made up to
two part prefix-alk and suffix-ene.
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General formula:-CnH2n
n=2 C2 H2 x 2 = C2 H4 Ethane
n=3 C3 H2x 3 C3 H6 propane
n=4 C4 H2 x 4 C4 H8 Butane

Alkynes:-Hydrocarbon with at least one triple bond.

a) Prefix- alk b) suffix- yne
General formula- Cn H2n-2
n=2 C2 H2x2-2 = C2 H2 H-C= C-h Ethane
n=3 C3 H2x3-2 HC=CH-CH3 Propane

Isomers:-The organic compounds which have same molecular formula but different structure
are called ‗Isomers‘.
Example:-CH3-CH2-CH2-CH3
Cyclic Structure:-When series of atom is connected to form a loop or ring. It is called cyclic
structure.
When carbon atoms are connected in ring form such hydro carbon atoms are called cyclic
hydrocarbon.
Cyclo alkynes are a cyclic hydrocarbon in which all of the carbon- carbon bonds are single
bonds.
Generally formula for a cyclo alkynes composed of carbons is Cn H2n. Butane and cyclo butane
has same molecular formula C4H6 but different structural formula so they are called structural
isomers.
Benzene C6H6:-Benzene is an organic compound cˉ molecular formula C6H6. It is a six carbon
rings hydrocarbon in which carbon atoms are joined by alternating double and single bonds.
Homologous series:-The series of organic compounds having similar properties in which the
successive members differ by a CH2 groups is called a homologous.
Characteristics of homologous series:-
1) All members of a homologous series follow a general formula.
Example:-alkynes- Cn H2 n 12, alkynes- CnH2n, alkynes-Cn H2n-2
2) Two successive members different by ―a-CH2‖ group.
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3) All members of homo series show similar chemical properties.

4) In homo series, the molecular mass increase cˉ increase in no. of carbon atoms.
5) The molecular mass different by 14 between two members.
6) The members show gradual change in their physical properties like boiling point, melting
point, solubility etc.
Functional Group:-Atoms or group of atoms which provide certain specific properties when
attached to a carbon chain is called as ‗functionally group‘.
Some important groups:-
1) Halogen(X); X=F, Cl, Br, l prefix=Fluor, Chloro, Bromo, Iodo.
2) Alcohol (-OH):- -O-H; suffix:-Ol
3) Aidehyde Structure:- -C-H; suffix:-al
4) Ketone Structure:- -C-C- Suffix-one
5) Carboxytic aˉ structure:- -C-OH suffix: - oic acid
Example:-
1) Halogen: CH3-Cl Chloromethane
CH3-CH2-Br Bromoethane
CH3-Br Bromomethane
2) Alcohol:-CH3-OH methanol
CH3-CH2-OH ethanol
CH3-CH2-CH2-OH propanol
3) Aldeleyde:-CH3 CH2-C=o propanal
CH3-C-H ethanol
4) ketone: CH3-C-CH3 prop none, acetone
CH3-CH2-C-CH3 butanone
5) Carboxylic aˉ: H-C-O-H methanoic aˉ/Formic aˉ
CH3-C-O-H ethanoic
CH3-CH2-C-OH proponoic aˉ

Characteristics properties of carbon and its compounds:-

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1) Combustion:-Burning of carbon or its compounds in presence of O2. In this process, mainly

two products are formed CO2 and H2O.
2) Oxidation reaction:-Carbon components get easily oxidation on combustion.
CH4+O2CO2+H2O
3) Substitution reaction:-Reaction in which more than one H2 atoms of hydrocarbon are
replaced by another atom.
CH4+CL2  CH3CL+HCl
CH2 CL+CL2  CH2 CL2 + HCl
CH2 CL2+Cl2 CHCl3+HCl
4) Addition reaction:-The reaction in which an unsaturated hydro carbon combines with other
substance to form a single products is called addition reaction. Only unsaturated hydrocarbons
can show addition reaction. Reaction named account to the name of substance added to
unsaturated hydrocarbons.

Commercially important components of carbon:-

1) Ethanol (C2 H5OH):-Colorless liquid having pleasant smell. Ethanol is volatile liquid having
78⁰ c (B.P).
Solubility in H2O: Ethanol is a soluble in H2O in all proportion, so it is the main component of
alcoholic drinks known as alcohol.
Harmful effects:-
Consumption of alcohol not good for human health it shows down the metabolic process.
Depresses the CNS.
Causes lack of coordination metal confusion and drowsiness.
It affects kidney and liver function
2) Methanol (CH3OH):-It is colorless, volatile it is type of alcohol (poisonous in nature).
Poisonous:-Methanol is poisonous as it is oxidation to methanol in liver, which rapidly reacts
with the protoplasm (liquid present in cells) and coagulates it, lives egg is coagulated on boiling.
Methanol damages optic nerve causing permanent blindness in a person.
3) Denatured alcohol:-It is ethyl alcohol which is made unfit for drinking by adding small
amount of poisonous methanol, copper sulphate etc.
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Chemical properties of ethanol:-

a) Combustion:-2 C2H5OH+4O24CO2+6H2O+energy
b) Metals:-Ethanol + metalH2+metal salt
2C2 H5OH+2NaC2H5ONa+H2
c) Reaction cˉ connection H2SO4:- Ethanol +H2SO4ethanol
Uses of ethanol:-
Used as a solvent- for organization components insoluble in H2O
Used as a fuel in cars (mixture of alcohol and petrol is known as power alcohol
Used in alcoholic drinks like whisky, beer etc Used as an antiseptic to sterilize wounds and
syringes in hospitals.
4) Ethanoic aˉ:-
Acetic acid, sour, colorless liquid having smell of vinegar (5-8% solution acetic aˉ)
Boiling point is 118⁰c
when pure ethanol is cooled, it freezes to give a solid which looks like a glacier, due to which
it is known as glacial acetic acid.
i) Action of litmus-covert blue litmus paper into red.
ii) Reaction cˉ alcohol when acetic aˉ reacts with ethanol in the presence of an acid as a
catalyst, ethyl ethanol is produced.
5) Soaps and detergents:-
Soap: A soap is the sodium or potassium salt of a long chain carboxylic aˉ (cleansing property
H2O) Sodium stearate (C17 H35 COOˉ Na+) is the most common soap used in domestic
purpose.
Detergent:-Any substance which has cleansing action in water is called detergent.
Cleansing action of soap:-when a cloth with dirt attached to it in immersed in water containing
soap then the hydrocarbon is attached to the dirt particle where as the ionic end (pydrophilic
end points outward towards water. So the dirt particles are surrounded by the soap molecule
forming a micelle. This micelle gets attached cˉ water molecule through the ionic end and is
washed away along with the dirt particle.
Soft and hard water:-
Soft water easily generated foam cˉ soap.
But hard water contains salt of calcium and magnesium.
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When salt of calcium and magnesium react c soap molecule; they form a precipitate instead
of lather.
The particular product formed in this reaction is called Scum. Since the scum is insoluble in
water, soap cannot form lather in hard water.
Detergent are the sodium salt of long chain benzene sulphoric acids which has more
cleansing property in water than soap.

12 pairs of cranial nerves:-

Olfactory- sense of smell
Optic-sight (pupil reactivity to light and accommodation)
Oculomotor-eye movement (pupil size and reactivity)
Trochlear-eye movement (turns eye downwards decrease laterally)
Trigeminal-Face (sensory, motor) chewing
Abducens-eye movement (turns eye laterally)
Facial- face expression and sensory
Vestibulocochlear-hearing and balance
Glossopharynagcal-tongue, throat
Vagus-parasympahetic (heart rate content, control food digestion)
Accessory-head, neck shoulder
Hypoglossal-speech, chewing and swallowing (tongue movement and speech

Cerebellum function:-Coordination movement- most body movement require the coordination

of multiple muscle. Cerebellum times muscle action so that the body can move smoothly.
Maintaining balance:-Cerebellum has special sensor‘s that detect shifts in balance and
movement, it then sends signal for body to adjust and move.
Vision:-Responsible for coordinating eye movements.
Motor learning:-Cerebellum helps the body to learn movement that require practice and fine-
turning.
Example:-Cerebellum plays a role in learning the movement needed to ride a bicycle. Other:-
Also plays role in thinking concluding thoughts related to languages and mood.
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