GUIDELINE NO.

GD-ED-2205
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PREFERRED DESIGN AND MANUFACTURING

RELIABILITY
PRACTICES GUIDELINE FOR AEROSPACE
COMPOSITES

Guideline:

Composites must be considered as unique materials in the design and manufacturing process
because manufacturing equipment, tooling, and inspection equipment and processes have a
pronounced effect on design. Since the material is formulated while the part is being built;
(1) multidisciplinary, concurrent engineering design principles and (2) careful material selection
and fabrication processes must be used to obtain optimum properties in aerospace composites.

Benefits:

Conscientious adherence to proven concurrent engineering principles and careful design and
material selection guidelines in the design, manufacture, and testing of aerospace composites
will result in low rejection rates and high product integrity. Successful composite designs can
provide design flexibility, lightweight parts, ease of fabrication and installation (generally fewer
parts), corrosion resistance, impact resistance, high fatigue strength (compared to metal
structures with the same dimensions), and product simplicity when compared to conventional
fabricated metal structures.

Center to Contact for More Information:

Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC)

Implementation:

Introduction:

Composites are combinations of two or more distinct materials present as separate phases and
combined to form desired structures. They take advantage of the desirable properties of each
component. The manufacturing technique used to fabricate a composite structure is dependent
upon material performance requirements, structure configuration, and
production rates. The composite design and manufacturing methods
MARSHALL
discussed in this guideline are primarily for structural and mechanical SPACE FLIGHT
applications and are composed of a resin (matrix) and a fiber CENTER
reinforcement. Typical reinforcements are shown on Figure 1.
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Performance of composite
materials in aerospace
applications is superior to
conventional structural
materials such as steel and
aluminum. Composite
materials and their manu-
facturing processes can be
tailored specifically to given
design constraints. The
superior physical properties of
composites allow for design
with minimum concern for
dimensional stability,
corrosion, and crack
formation. While it is
possible to tailor the
Figure 1. Typical Composite Reinforcements properties of a composite
structure to minimize
problems in these areas, it is imperative that this be taken into consideration during the design
process. Composite materials are significantly superior to conventional materials in strength-to-
weight ratio, one of the most important requirements of aerospace structures.

Design:

Concurrent engineering principles (i.e., the team approach to design using designers, thermal and
structural analysts, manufacturing engineers, materials process engineers, tool designers,
machinists, quality engineers, quality control specialists, and reliability engineers) contribute
noticeably to the success of a composite materials program. Designs of composite components
which are fault tolerant to known manufacturing conditions and variables should be selected.

The success of a composite program is dependent upon establishing material properties early in
the program. Establishing an accurate and reliable material property data base is one of the most
important steps toward achieving a functional design. Experience indicates that the basic
material allowables of a specific composite product should be determined utilizing the
manufacturing facilities where production will take place prior to finalizing design. The
preferred process should approximate the following: (1) define environmental and performance
requirements; (2) review available materials against requirements to determine the family of
material to be used; (3) determine materials; (4) determine materials allowables using material
processed at the intended manufacturer; (5) proceed with design based on known material
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allowables; (6) test geometric configurations (i.e., special joints, specific contours, special ply
layups, etc.); (7) along with nondestructive evaluation (NDE), use destructive evaluation to
determine voids, ply dropoff, resin rich areas, etc., during initial manufacturing process
development; (8) begin manufacturing production. Typical mechanical and impact damage
properties of selected composites are shown in Tables 1 and 2.

Table 1. Typical Mechanical Properties of Selected Composites

Material Type Nomenclature Tensile Strength Modulus (Msi) Strain (%)

(ksi)

Carbon/Epoxy T300/934 245 20 1.0-1.2

IM7/8551-7 400 24 1.62
P75/934 135 44 0.2-0.5
AS4/3501-6 100 10 1.0
IM6/3501-6 330 23 1.5
Glass/Epoxy E-glass/934 150-170 6-8 2.75
Kevlar®/Epoxy K-49/7934 80-85 4 1.85
Carbon/PEEK IM7/APC-2 419 24 1.6
Carbon/Phenolic FM5055 15-20 2.6-2.8 1.0-1.2

PEEK= Polyetheretherketone
Note: All samples were prepared from 16-ply quasi-isotropic layups.

Table 2. Typical Impact Damage Properties of Selected Composites (1), (4)

Nomenclature Max Impact Load (lb) Energy at Max Load Compression After
(ft-lb) Impact (CAI) (ksi) (2)

IM6/3501 850 9.2 23.2

IM7/SP500 1100 9.1 36.2
IM7/F3900 1080 9.7 39.9
IM7/977-2 1170 10.3 47.1
T300/934 560 3.7 (3)
T650-42/1939-3 1010 8.5 (3)
IM7/8551 1240 12.1 50
IM8/8553 900 7.4 (3)
Notes: (1) All samples prepared from 16-ply quasi-isotropic layups.
(2) CAI values are normalized to approximately 125 ft-lb impact energy per inch thickness. MSFC M&P
Lab data unless noted otherwise.
(3) MSFC M&P Lab CAI testing planned for these materials.
(4) Hercules data unless otherwise noted.
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The factors of safety shown in Table 3 should be used in the analysis and design of composites.
During design and manufacturing process development, credible accept/reject criteria and
acceptable repair methods should be developed.

Table 3. Safety Factors for Composites

Item Ultimate Minimum Test Factor Acceptance Test

Flight Units
Qual Unit Flight Unit

Nonprotoflight (1) 1.4 1.4 1.05

Structure 2.0 (3)

Protoflight (2) 1.5 1.2

Structure 2.0 (3)
Notes: (1) Fly separate test article.
(2) Fly the article tested.
(3) Stress riser or discontinuity

Recommended Design and Analysis Guidelines for Composites:

During the concept definition phase of the composite part design cycle, all of the critical design
parameters are established. Geometric constraints and material considerations are outlined in
order to establish the amount of design flexibility allowable. Maximum loads, both mechanical
and thermal, are estimated. Weight, cost, and producibility concerns should be considered at this
juncture. These factors should then be weighted and balanced to produce an initial design
concept. For example, thermal material limitations should be balanced against cost and
producibility concerns to select the appropriate composite material. Likewise, the layup of the
laminate should be chosen considering not only the desired load capability, but also the thermal
environment. High heat transfer areas could be cooled by using additional plies to act as a heat
sink. These two factors in turn are offset by weight considerations. Several preliminary analysis
and sizing tools can be used at this stage. PANDA, an elastic-plastic composite shell
optimization program, is used in the analysis of stiffened panels. For flat composite panels,
PASCO is sometimes used for preliminary sizing. The use of a Computer Aided Design (CAD)
package is highly desirable in drawing the initial configuration.

The configuration is then subjected to stress analysis. Depending on complexity, the part may
be subdivided into subcomponents for separate analysis. If required, a structural computer
model may be generated. For most parts, a finite element model is generated using
PDA/PATRAN and the surface definitions from the CAD drawing. PATRAN is used as
preprocessor and post-processor for MSC/NASTRAN, which has the capability of analyzing
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composite plate elements. Aerodynamic, vibroacoustic and thermal loads are obtained from the
appropriate discipline areas for input into the stress analysis. The vibroacoustic analysis is
performed by dynamics loads engineers using MSC/NASTRAN as a processor and IDEAS as a
preprocessor and post-processor. A temperature profile for the part is provided by thermal
engineers using MIDAS, a finite difference thermal analyzer, and thermal material properties
supplied by the composites materials engineers.

For shells of revolution under axisymmetric loading, BOSOR, a finite difference structural
analysis program, may be employed. A simple general shell element finite element program,
STAGS, is sometimes used to obtain input loads for BOSOR models. For more detailed analysis
at a particular point, SQ5, a point stress laminate analysis program, is used. Edge loads for a
critical element from a finite element or finite difference model are input into this program to
obtain more detailed results. Thermal effects may be approximated using this program.
However, if temperature gradients become excessive, in-house developed software may be
required. Although buckling coefficients may be obtained from NASTRAN, NASA-supplied
buckling knockdown factors for plates with complex curvature are used to compensate for
inaccuracies inherent in the finite element program.

Specialized computer programs are used to analyze joints and fasteners and their interface with
the composite parts. Bolt programs determine the capability of bolted joints under combined
bending, tension and shear applied loads, as well as tension due to preload and differential
thermal expansion. Clip analysis programs analyze metal clips using empirical data. Composite
joint programs are also employed; for example, BJSFM is used for bearing loads, and JOINT is
used for elastoplastic multiple bolt joints.

Below is a list of representative commercial computer programs that are available for analyzing
stresses and strains in composite materials under various conditions. The ones most often used
by MSFC are indicated as: [MSFC]. These computer programs are available from the company
or source shown in parentheses.

1. ABAQUS (Hibbitt, Carlson & Solenson, Inc.)

2. ADINA (ADINA Engineering)
3. ANSYS [MSFC] (Swanson Analysis Systems, Inc.)
4. BOSOR [MSFC] (David Bushnell)
5. NASTRAN (MacNeal-Schwendles Corp.)
6. STAGS (COSMIC)
7. CHAMPION (MSFC-used but not commercially available)
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Critical factors affecting strength and stiffness for fiber are modulus of elasticity, strength, strain
to failure, and curvature. Critical factors for the matrix are modulus of elasticity, elongation to
failure, stress-strain behavior, void content, and fatigue performance.

Manufacturing:

Typical aerospace composite manufacturing processes consist of filament winding, fiber

placement, pultrusion, tape laying, tape wrapping, press molding, hand layup and resin transfer
molding. Typical fiber/matrix composite uses and processing techniques for various MSFC
programs are shown in Table 4 and Table 5, respectively. A summary of composite
manufacturing processes is shown in Table 6.

Table 4. Typical MSFC Uses of Fiber/Matrix

FIBER/MATRIX USAGE
Carbon (Graphite)/Epoxies 1. Most used material for structural composites
2. Used in trusses, pressure vessels, optical benches, racks
3. Available in low, intermediate, and high modulus forms
4. Damage tolerance typically varies inversely with modulus

Glass/Epoxies 1. Used in pressure vessels and sacrificial layers

2. Used as flame barriers for carbon/epoxy structures and as
galvanic corrosion barrier between carbon/epoxy, carbon/
phenolics and aluminum components

Kevlar®/Epoxies 1. Used in pressure vessels and small solid rocket motors

2. Excellent damage tolerance
3. Low compressive strength

Fiber-Reinforced Thermoplastics 1. Excellent damage tolerance

2. Good repairability
3. Lower structural performance thermosets

Fiber-Reinforced Bismalemides, Phenolics 1. Excellent high temperature properties

2. Used in areas of high heat flux (nozzles, fairings, nosecaps)
3. Requires higher processing temperatures

There are sensitive manufacturing variables that must be closely controlled during composite
fabrication. Therefore, using certified and highly skilled technicians is required. Typical
manufacturing variables are heat input, cooling input, roller pressure, machine speed, tape
tension, curing temperatures and curing pressures. Technicians must understand what to do
when one of these variables changes. Properly controlled manufacturing processes will result in
proper tensile strength, density, thermal conductivity, and interlaminar shear strength.
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Table 5. Processing Techniques

SUPPLIED FORMS PREPARATION CURING METHODS

METHODS
C Prepreg tape of varying widths C Filament winding-wet winding C Autoclave/hydroclave
- unidirectional or fabric or prepreg tool C Oven
C Prepreg “tow” - preimpregna- C Hand layup C Press
tion fiber bundles C Tape wrapping C Compression molding
C Dry fiber plus wet resin C Tape laying
C Fiber-reinforced bulk modulus C Pultrusion
compound C Polar winding
C Braiding
C Resin transfer molding
C Fiber placement

Tooling:

Major factors to be considered in the design and fabrication of tooling for structural and
mechanical components are: (1) dimensional tolerance control and configuration stability,
(2) location of parts in a structurally reliable assembly to give the lowest possible cost,
(3) contour and size of the part, and (4) control of fiber orientation. Other significant factors
which control final tool concept selection are cost, tool service life, heat up rate, total energy
requirements, production rates and related facility costs.

The tooling required to fabricate most composite parts can be subdivided into several major
categories including ply layup tools, skin or mold forms, curing aids, handling tools, drilling and
trimming tools, assembly tools, molds and mandrels. Additional tooling and equipment are
shown in Table 6.

Testing:

Component, subcomponent, and generic structural tests are performed to verify analysis.
Particular component tests may include elements of aerodynamics, vibroacoustic and thermal
loading conditions, as well as significant externally applied mechanical loads. Subcomponent
tests may be performed for critical areas of the component. Generic tests include flange and
stiffened panel tensile tests, damage tolerance tests, and standard temperature effect tensile and
compressive coupon tests.
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Table 6. Summary of Composite Manufacturing Processes

PROCESS COMPOSITE COMMON USES TYPICAL TOOLING

MATERIAL AND/OR EQUIPMENT
Filament Winding Glass/Epoxy Solid Rocket Motor cases, Removable mandrels, automated
Graphite/Epoxy pressure vessels lathe, resin bath, heat source,
Kevlar®/Epoxy vacuum source, curing oven,
Carbon/PEEK autoclave, hydroclave, handling
Carbon/Phenolic tools, trial fixtures, drill fixtures,
Thermosets and assembly tools.

Pultrusion Glass/Epoxy Structural shapes of constant Pultrusion machine similar to

Graphite/Epoxy cross-section, e.g., tees, metal extrusion machine, heat
Thermosets angles, channels, rods, source, resin bath, cut-off device.
Thermoplastics tubing, and squares

Resin Transfer Glass/Epoxy Small to large structures of Low tonnage press, contoured
Molding Graphite/Epoxy simple to complex shapes. molds (male and female), low-
Kevlar®/Epoxy Ply fibers placed in mold, cost tooling using standard
Carbon/PEEK mold closed, resin injected production steel, room
Carbon/Phenolic into mold (heated or room temperature cure, oven or
temp.) autoclave.

Hand Laying Glass/Epoxy Small quantity production of Lay-up molds, vacuum bags,
Graphite/Epoxy test panels, prototype parts, vacuum source, autoclave or
Kevlar®/Epoxy or parts of complex contour hydroclave, and curing oven.
Carbon/PEEK
Carbon/Phenolic

Mechanized Tape Glass/Epoxy Small to large structures of Molds, computer-controlled ply

Laying Graphite/Epoxy simple or complex shapes cutting, flat and contoured tape
Kevlar®/Epoxy laying, automated ply
Carbon/PEEK lamination, autoclave,
Thermosets hydroclave, curing oven.
Thermoplastics

Fully Automatic Glass/Epoxy Small to large structural Contoured molds, automatic tape
Tape Laying Graphite/Epoxy components of simple to laying equipment consists of
Kevlar®/Epoxy complex shapes automatic cutter, broadgood
Carbon/PEEK dispenser, trim table, ply transfer
Carbon/Phenolic table, tape laying, stitching
Bismalemides module and contour ply handling
Thermoplastics system, autoclave, hydroclave,
curing oven, handling tools, trim
fixture, drill fixture, and
assembly tools.
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PROCESS COMPOSITE COMMON USES TYPICAL TOOLING

MATERIAL AND/OR EQUIPMENT
Press Molding Glass/Epoxy Flat panels, molded Planten press molds (top and
Graphite/Epoxy components for subscale bottom) and heat source to mold.
Kevlar®/Epoxy solid rocket motor ablative
Carbon/PEEK materials
Carbon/Phenolic

Inspection:

Quality assurance for composite parts centers on techniques for validating the physical and
mechanical properties of a cured composite. However, quality assurance begins long before the
end item is tested. A logical approach to quality control follows the fundamentals of composite
reaction control: (1) raw material validation reaction control; (2) material characteristics; (3) in-
process fabrication/handling/tooling effects; (4) cure process control and documentation; (5) post
cure machining.

Visual inspection is used to inspect bond lines that are visible in the various bond stages and to
detect any visible surface discontinuities and/or delaminations. Mechanical inspection is used to
verify design dimensions, acoustics, input resistance, static loads and dynamic loads. Non-
destructive evaluation is perhaps the most important inspection technique for determining
defects in composites, particularly the defects specified in Table 7.

Technical Rationale:

MSFC experience with composites includes filament winding, tape laying, fiber placement, hand
layup, computerized pultrusion, and automated tape wrapping. Computer programs are available
to assist in the composite design process. The mechanical properties and impact damage
properties that have been derived from tests of various composite materials can be used by
designers to select the proper material and configuration for the job. Research is continuing to
expand the available storehouse of design guidelines, leading to the production of reliable
aerospace composite components. Valuable references which provide detailed design and
analysis parameters for composite materials are provided in this guideline.
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Table 7. NDE Techniques for Detecting Defects in Composite Materials

Defect/ X-ray Ultra- Computer Alcohol Thermo- Eddy Dye

Composite sonics Tomo- Wipe graphy Current Penetrant
Method* graphy

Delamina- X X X X X
tions/All 8

Density X X
Variations/
#5

Resin X X
Rich-Resin
Poor/All 8

Voids/#1 X X X
Crazing X X X
(Micro-
cracks)/ All
8

Wrinkles/A X X
ll 8

Conductive X
Materials/
#2
* Composite Methods:
1. Filament winding 5. Tape wrapping
2. Fiber placement 6. Press molding
3. Pultrusion 7. Hand layout
4. Tape laying 8. Resin transfer molding

Impact of Nonpractice:

Failure to use state-of-the-art design techniques, tooling, manufacturing techniques, and

automated manufacturing and inspection techniques for composite materials could result in the
choice of inappropriate materials, costly scrappage, and potential failures in use. Failure to use
composites in appropriate applications could result in noncompetitive products with greater
complexity, weight, or damage susceptibility.
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Related Guidelines/Practices:

1. Applications of Ablative Composites in Solid Rocket Motor Nozzles Practice No. PD-ED-
1218; Marshall Space Flight Center.
2. Structural Laminate Composites for Space Applications Practice No. PD-ED-1217; Marshall
Space Flight Center.

References:

1. Agarwal, B.D., Broutman, L.J.: "Analysis and Performance of Fiber Composites,"

John Wiley and Sons, Inc., Second Edition, 1990.

2. ASM International Handbook Committee: “Composite, Engineered Materials Handbook,”

Volume 1, Third Printing, August 1989.

3. DOD/NASA: “Advanced Composites Design Guide,” Volume I-IV, 1989.

4. Jones, W.K.: "Test Report Graphite/Bismalemide Allowables Data Base," Martin Marietta
Composites Technology Group, August 1987.

5. Lubin: "Handbook of Composite Materials," 1982.

6. MSFC-HDBK-505A: "Structural Strength Program Requirements," January 1981.

7. MSFC-HDBK-1453: "Fracture Control Program Requirements," October 1987.

8. Morgan, Jr. L., Sigur, W.A.: "Fastening Techniques for Composite Materials," Martin
Marietta Composites Technology Group, August 1985.

9. NHB 8071.1: "Fracture Control Requirements for Payloads," September 1988.

10. Sherrouse, M., Blum, C.: "Recommend Practices for Composites, Design and Analysis,"
Martin Marietta, Michoud, LA, March 1992.

11. Strong, Dr. A. Brent: “Fundamentals of Composites Manufacturing; Materials; Methods, and
Applications,” Society of Manufacturing Engineers, Dearborn, MI, 1989.

12. Whitney, J.M., Daniel, I.M., Pipes, R.B.: "Experimental Methods of Fiber Reinforced
Composite Materials," SESA Monograph Number 4, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ,
1982.