Connected space

Connected space
Connected and disconnected subspaces ofR²

From top to bottom: red spaceA, pink space B, yellow space C and orange space D are all connected, whereas
green space E (made of subsets E1, E2, E3, and E4) isnot connected. Furthermore, A and B are also simply
connected (genus 0), while C and D are not: C has genus 1 and D has genus 4.

In topology and related branches of mathematics, a connected space is a topological space that cannot be represented as the union of
two or more disjoint nonempty open subsets. Connectedness is one of the principal topological properties that are used to distinguish
topological spaces.

A subset of a topological spaceX is a connected set if it is a connected space when viewed as asubspace of X.

Contents
Formal definition
Connected components
Disconnected spaces
Examples
Path connectedness
Arc connectedness
 Local connectedness
Set operations
Theorems
Graphs
Stronger forms of connectedness
See also
References
Further reading

Formal definition
A topological space X is said to be disconnected if it is the union of two disjoint nonempty open sets. Otherwise, X is said to be
connected. A subset of a topological space is said to be connected if it is connected under its subspace topology. Some authors
exclude the empty set (with its unique topology) as a connected space, but this article does not follow that practice.

For a topological spaceX the following conditions are equivalent:

1. X is connected, that is, it cannot be divided into two disjoint nonempty open sets.
2. X cannot be divided into two disjoint nonemptyclosed sets.
3. The only subsets of X which are both open and closed c( lopen sets) are X and the empty set.
4. The only subsets of X with empty boundary are X and the empty set.
5. X cannot be written as the union of two nonemptyseparated sets (sets for which each is disjoint from the other's
closure).
6. All continuous functions fromX to {0,1} are constant, where {0,1} is the two-point space endowed with the discrete
topology.

Connected components
The maximal connected subsets (ordered by inclusion) of a nonempty topological space are called the connected components of the
space. The components of any topological space X form a partition of X: they are disjoint, nonempty, and their union is the whole
space. Every component is a closed subset of the original space. It follows that, in the case where their number is finite, each
component is also an open subset. However, if their number is infinite, this might not be the case; for instance, the connected
components of the set of therational numbers are the one-point sets (singletons), which are not open.

Let be the connected component of x in a topological space X, and be the intersection of all clopen sets containing x (called
quasi-component of x.) Then where the equality holds ifX is compact Hausdorff or locally connected.

Disconnected spaces
A space in which all components are one-point sets is called totally disconnected. Related to this property, a space X is called totally
separated if, for any two distinct elementsx and y of X, there exist disjoint open sets U containing x and V containing y such that X is
the union of U and V. Clearly, any totally separated space is totally disconnected, but the converse does not hold. For example take
two copies of the rational numbersQ, and identify them at every point except zero. The resulting space, with the quotient topology, is
totally disconnected. However, by considering the two copies of zero, one sees that the space is not totally separated. In fact, it is not
even Hausdorff, and the condition of being totally separated is strictly stronger than the condition of being Hausdorf
f.

Examples
The closed interval [0, 2] in thestandard subspace topology is connected; although it can, for example, be written as
the union of [0, 1) and [1, 2], the second set is not open in the chosen topology of [0, 2].
 The union of [0, 1) and (1, 2] is disconnected; both of these intervals are open in the standard topological space
[0, 1) ∪ (1, 2].
(0, 1) ∪ {3} is disconnected.
A convex set is connected; it is actuallysimply connected.
A Euclidean plane excluding the origin, (0, 0), is connected, but is not simply connected. The three-dimensional
Euclidean space without the origin is connected, and even simply connected. In contrast, the one-dimensional
Euclidean space without the origin is not connected.
A Euclidean plane with a straight line removed is not connected since it consists of two half-planes.
ℝ, The space of real numbers with the usual topology, is connected.
If even a single point is removed fromℝ, the remainder is disconnected. However , if even a countable infinity of
points are removed fromℝn, where n ≥ 2, the remainder is connected.
Any topological vector spaceover a connected field is connected.
Every discrete topological spacewith at least two elements is disconnected, in fact such a space istotally
disconnected. The simplest example is thediscrete two-point space.[1]
On the other hand, a finite set might be connected. For example, the spectrum of discrete a valuation ring consists of
two points and is connected. It is an example of aSierpiński space.
The Cantor set is totally disconnected; since the set contains uncountably many points, it has uncountably many
components.
If a space X is homotopy equivalent to a connected space, thenX is itself connected.
The topologist's sine curve is an example of a set that is connected but is neither path connected nor locally
connected.
The general linear group (that is, the group of n-by-n real, invertible matrices) consists of two connected
components: the one with matrices of positive determinant and the other of negative determinant. In particular , it is
not connected. In contrast, is connected. More generally, the set of invertible bounded operators on a
(complex) Hilbert space is connected.
The spectra of commutativelocal ring and integral domains are connected. More generally , the following are
equivalent[2]

1. The spectrum of a commutative ringR is connected

2. Every finitely generated projective moduleover R has constant rank.
3. R has no idempotent (i.e., R is not a product of two rings in a nontrivial way).

An example of a space that is not connected is a plane with an infinite line deleted from it. Other examples of disconnected spaces
(that is, spaces which are not connected) include the plane with an annulus removed, as well as the union of two disjoint closed disks,
where all examples of this paragraph bear thesubspace topology induced by two-dimensional Euclidean space.

Path connectedness
A path-connected space is a stronger notion of connectedness, requiring the
structure of a path. A path from a point x to a point y in a topological space X is a
continuous function ƒ from the unit interval [0,1] to X with ƒ(0) = x and ƒ(1) = y. A
path-component of X is an equivalence class of X under the equivalence relation
which makes x equivalent to y if there is a path from x to y. The space X is said to be
path-connected (or pathwise connected or 0-connected) if there is exactly one
path-component, i.e. if there is a path joining any two points in X. Again, many
authors exclude the empty space.
This subspace of R² is path-
Every path-connected space is connected. The converse is not always true: examples connected, because a path can be
drawn between any two points in the
of connected spaces that are not path-connected include the extended long line L*
space.
and the topologist's sine curve.

Subsets of the real line R are connected if and only if they are path-connected; these
subsets are the intervals of R. Also, open subsets of Rn or Cn are connected if and only if they are path-connected. Additionally,
connectedness and path-connectedness are the same forfinite topological spaces.

Arc connectedness
A space X is said to be arc-connected or arcwise connected if any two distinct points can be joined by an arc, that is a path ƒ which
is a homeomorphism between the unit interval [0, 1] and its image ƒ([0, 1]). It can be shown any Hausdorff space which is path-
connected is also arc-connected. An example of a space which is path-connected but not arc-connected is provided by adding a
second copy 0' of 0 to the nonnegative real numbers [0, ∞). One endows this set with a partial order by specifying that 0'<a for any
positive number a, but leaving 0 and 0' incomparable. One then endows this set with the order topology, that is, one takes the open
intervals (a, b) = {x | a < x < b} and the half-open intervals [0, a) = {x | 0 ≤ x < a}, [0', a) = {x | 0' ≤ x < a} as a base for the topology.
The resulting space is a T1 space but not a Hausdorff space. Clearly 0 and 0' can be connected by a path but not by an arc in this
space.

Local connectedness
A topological space is said to be locally connected at a point x if every neighbourhood of x contains a connected open
neighbourhood. It is locally connected if it has a base of connected sets. It can be shown that a space X is locally connected if and
only if every component of every open set of X is open. The topologist's sine curve is an example of a connected space that is not
locally connected.

Similarly, a topological space is said to be locally path-connectedif it has a base of path-connected sets. An open subset of a locally
path-connected space is connected if and only if it is path-connected. This generalizes the earlier statement about Rn and Cn, each of
which is locally path-connected. More generally
, any topological manifold is locally path-connected.

Neither local connectedness nor local path connectedness necessarily implies

connectedness or path connectedness. For example, the space is
locally connected and locally path connected but neither connected nor path
connected.

Set operations
The intersection of connected sets is not necessarily connected.

The union of connected sets is not necessarily connected. Consider a collection

of connected sets whose union is . If X is disconnected and
is a separation of X (with disjoint and open in X), then each must
Examples of unions and intersections
be entirely contained in eitherU or V, since otherwise, and (which
of connected sets
are disjoint and open in ) would be a separation of , contradicting the
assumption that it is connected.

This means that, if the union X is disconnected, then the collection can be
partitioned to two sub-collections, such that the unions of the sub-collections are
disjoint and open in X (see picture). This implies that in several cases, a union of
connected sets is necessarily connected. In particular:

1. If the common intersection of all sets is not empty ( ), then

obviously they cannot be partitioned to collections with disjoint unions.
Hence the union of connected sets with non-empty intersection is
connected.
2. If the intersection of each pair of sets is not empty ( )
then again they cannot be partitioned to collections with disjoint unions, Each ellipse is a connected set, but
so their union must be connected.
the union is not connected, since it
3. If the sets can be ordered as a "linked chain", i.e. indexed by integer
can be partitioned to two disjoint
indices and , then again their union must be
connected. open sets U and V.
4. If the sets are pairwise-disjoint and thequotient space is
connected, then X must be connected. Otherwise, if is a

separation of X then is a separation of the quotient space (since are disjoint and open in
 separation of X then is a separation of the quotient space (since are disjoint and open in
the quotient space).[3]
The set difference of connected sets is not necessarily connected. However, if X ⊇ Y
and their difference X \ Y is disconnected (and thus can be written as a union of two
open sets X1 and X2), then the union of Y with each such component is connected
(i.e. Y ∪ Xi is connected for all i).

Proof:[4] By contradiction, suppose Y ∪ X1 is not connected. So it can be written as

Two connected sets whose
the union of two disjoint open sets, e.g. Y ∪ X1 = Z1 ∪ Z2. Because Y is connected,
difference is not connected
it must be entirely contained in one of these components, say Z1, and thus Z2 is
contained in X1. Now we know that:

X = (Y ∪ X1) ∪ X2 = (Z1 ∪ Z2) ∪ X2 = (Z1 ∪ X2) ∪ (Z2 ∩ X1)

The two sets in the last union are disjoint and open inX, so there is a separation ofX, contradicting the fact thatX is connected.

Theorems
Main theorem of connectedness: Let X and Y be topological spaces and letƒ : X → Y be a continuous function. If
X is (path-)connected then theimage ƒ(X) is (path-)connected. This result can be considered a generalization of the
intermediate value theorem.
Every path-connected space is connected.
Every locally path-connected space is locally connected.
A locally path-connected space is path-connected if and only if it is connected.
The closure of a connected subset is connected.Furthermore, any subset between a connected subset and its
closure is connected.
The connected components are alwaysclosed (but in general not open)
The connected components of a locally connected space are also open.
The connected components of a space are disjoint unions of the path-connected components (which in general are
neither open nor closed).
Every quotient of a connected (resp. locally connected, path-connected, locally path-connected) space is connected
(resp. locally connected, path-connected, locally path-connected).
Every product of a family of connected (resp. path-connected) spaces is connected (resp. path-connected).
Every open subset of a locally connected (resp. locally path-connected) space is locally connected (resp. locally
path-connected).
Every manifold is locally path-connected.

Graphs
Graphs have path connected subsets, namely those subsets for which every pair of points has a path of edges joining them. But it is
not always possible to find a topology on the set of points which induces the same connected sets. The
5-cycle graph (and any n-cycle
with n > 3 odd) is one such example.

As a consequence, a notion of connectedness can be formulated independently of the topology on a space. To wit, there is a category
of connective spaces consisting of sets with collections of connected subsets satisfying connectivity axioms; their morphisms are
those functions which map connected sets to connected sets (Muscat & Buhagiar 2006). Topological spaces and graphs are special
cases of connective spaces; indeed, the finite connective spaces are precisely the finite graphs.

However, every graph can be canonically made into a topological space, by treating vertices as points and edges as copies of the unit
interval (see topological graph theory#Graphs as topological spaces). Then one can show that the graph is connected (in the graph
theoretical sense) if and only if it is connected as a topological space.

Stronger forms of connectedness

There are stronger forms of connectedness fortopological spaces, for instance:

If there exist no two disjoint non-empty open sets in a topological space, X, X must be connected, and thus
hyperconnected spacesare also connected.
Since a simply connected spaceis, by definition, also required to be path connected, any simply connected space is
also connected. Note however, that if the "path connectedness" requirement is dropped from the definition of simple
connectivity, a simply connected space doesnot need to be connected.
Yet stronger versions of connectivity includethe notion of a contractible space. Every contractible space is path
connected and thus also connected.
In general, note that any path connected space must be connected but there exist connected spaces that are not path connected. The
deleted comb space furnishes such an example, as does the above-mentionedtopologist's sine curve.

See also
Connected component (graph theory)
Connectedness locus
Extremally disconnected space
Locally connected space
n-connected
Uniformly connected space
Pixel connectivity

References
1. George F. Simmons (1968). Introduction to Topology and Modern Analysis. McGraw Hill Book Company. p. 144.
ISBN 0-89874-551-9.
2. Charles Weibel, The K-book: An introduction to algebraic K-theory(http://www.math.rutgers.edu/~weibel/Kbook.html)
3. Credit: Saaqib Mahmuud and Henno Brandsma at Math StackExchange(http://math.stackexchange.com/questions/
302059/how-to-prove-this-result-involving-the-quotient-maps-and-connectedness)
.
4. Credit: Marek at Math StackExchange(http://math.stackexchange.com/a/302094/29780)

Further reading
Munkres, James R. (2000). Topology, Second Edition. Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-181629-2.
Weisstein, Eric W. "Connected Set". MathWorld.
V. I. Malykhin (2001) [1994],"Connected space", in Hazewinkel, Michiel, Encyclopedia of Mathematics, Springer
Science+Business Media B.V. / Kluwer Academic Publishers, ISBN 978-1-55608-010-4
Muscat, J; Buhagiar, D (2006). "Connective Spaces" (PDF). Mem. Fac. Sci. Eng. Shimane Univ., Series B: Math. Sc.
39: 1–13..

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