Accounting 26th Edition Warren Reeve Duchac Solutions Manual

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TEST BANK for Accounting 26th Edition by Carl S. Warren, James M.
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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO ACCOUNTING AND BUSINESS

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1. Some users of accounting information include managers, employees, investors, creditors,

customers, and the government.
2. The role of accounting is to provide information for managers to use in operating the business.
In addition, accounting provides information to others to use in assessing the economic
performance and condition of the business.
3. The corporate form allows the company to obtain large amounts of resources by issuing stock.
For this reason, most companies that require large investments in property, plant, and equipment
are organized as corporations.
4. No. The business entity concept limits the recording of economic data to transactions directly
affecting the activities of the business. The payment of the interest of $4,500 is a personal
transaction of Josh Reilly and should not be recorded by Dispatch Delivery Service.
5. The land should be recorded at its cost of $167,500 to Reliable Repair Service. This is consistent
with the cost concept.
6. a. No. The offer of $2,000,000 and the increase in the assessed value should not be recognized
in the accounting records.
b. Cash would increase by $2,125,000, land would decrease by $900,000, and owner’s equity
would increase by $1,225,000.
7. An account receivable is a claim against a customer for goods or services sold. An account
payable is an amount owed to a creditor for goods or services purchased. Therefore, an account
receivable in the records of the seller is an account payable in the records of the purchaser.
8. (b) The business realized net income of $91,000 ($679,000 – $588,000).
9. (a) The business incurred a net loss of $75,000 ($640,000 – $715,000).
10. (a) Net income or net loss
(b) Owner’s equity at the end of the period
(c) Cash at the end of the period

1-2
 1-1

PRACTICE EXERCISES
PE 1–1A
$230,000. Under the cost concept, the land should be recorded at the cost to Kountry
Repair Service.

PE 1–1B
$437,500. Under the cost concept, the land should be recorded at the cost to Higgins
Repair Service.

PE 1–2A
a. A = L + OE
$780,000 = $150,000 + OE
OE = $630,000

b. A = L + OE
+$90,000 = +$25,000 + OE
OE = +$65,000
OE on December 31, 2016 =
$695,000 = $630,000 + $65,000

PE 1–2B
a. A = L + OE
$395,000 = $97,000 + OE
OE = $298,000

b. A = L + OE

1-3
 –$65,000 = +$36,000 + OE
OE = –$101,000
OE on December 31, 2016 =
$197,000 = $298,000 – $101,000

PE 1–3A
(2) Asset (Cash) decreases by $3,750;
Liability (Accounts Payable) decreases by $3,750.
(3) Asset (Accounts Receivable) increases by $22,400;
Revenue (Delivery Service Fees) increases by $22,400.
(4) Asset (Cash) increases by $11,300;
Asset (Accounts Receivable) decreases by $11,300.
(5) Asset (Cash) decreases by $6,000;
Asset (Gates Deeter, Drawing) increases by $6,000.

1-4
PE 1–3B
(2) Expense (Advertising Expense) increases by $4,850;
Asset (Cash) decreases by $4,850.
(3) Asset (Supplies) increases by $2,100;
Liability (Accounts Payable) increases by $2,100.
(4) Asset (Accounts Receivable) increases by $14,700;
Revenue (Delivery Service Fees) increases by $14,700.
(5) Asset (Cash) increases by $8,200;
Asset (Accounts Receivable) decreases by $8,200.

PE 1–4A
OUSEL TRAVEL SERVICE
Income Statement
For the Year Ended November 30, 2016
Fees earned $1,475,000
Expenses:
Wages expense $885,000
Office expense 320,000
Miscellaneous expense 28,000
Total expenses 1,233,000
Net income $ 242,000

PE 1–4B
SENTINEL TRAVEL SERVICE
Income Statement
For the Year Ended August 31, 2016
Fees earned $750,000
Expenses:
Wages expense $450,000
Office expense 295,000
Miscellaneous expense 12,000
Total expenses 757,000
Net loss $ (7,000)

1-5
PE 1–5A
OUSEL TRAVEL SERVICE
Statement of Owner’s Equity
For the Year Ended November 30, 2016
Shane Ousel, capital, December 1, 2015 $666,000
Additional investment by owner during year $ 50,000
Net income for the year 242,000
$292,000
Less withdrawals 30,000
Increase in owner’s equity 262,000
Shane Ousel, capital, November 30, 2016 $928,000

PE 1–5B
SENTINEL TRAVEL SERVICE
Statement of Owner’s Equity
For the Year Ended August 31, 2016
Barb Schroeder, capital, September 1, 2015 $380,000
Additional investment by owner during year $36,000
Net loss for the year (7,000)
$29,000
Less withdrawals 18,000
Increase in owner’s equity 11,000
Barb Schroeder, capital, August 31, 2016 $391,000

PE 1–6A
OUSEL TRAVEL SERVICE
Balance Sheet
November 30, 2016
Assets Liabilities
Cash $308,000 Accounts payable $ 62,500
Accounts receivable 186,000
Supplies 16,500 Owner’s Equity
Land 480,000 Shane Ousel, capital 928,000
Total liabilities and
Total assets $990,500 owner’s equity $990,500

1-6
PE 1–6B
SENTINEL TRAVEL SERVICE
Balance Sheet
August 31, 2016
Assets Liabilities
Cash $ 45,400 Accounts payable $ 44,600
Accounts receivable 75,500
Supplies 4,700 Owner’s Equity
Land 310,000 Barb Schroeder, capital 391,000
Total liabilities and
Total assets $435,600 owner’s equity $435,600

PE 1–7A
OUSEL TRAVEL SERVICE
Statement of Cash Flows
For the Year Ended November 30, 2016
Cash flows from operating activities:
Cash received from customers $ 1,465,000
Deduct cash payments for operating expenses (1,230,000)
Net cash flows from operating activities $ 235,000
Cash flows used for investing activities:
Cash payments for purchase of land (150,000)
Cash flows from financing activities:
Cash received from owner as investment $ 50,000
Deduct cash withdrawals by owner (30,000)
Net cash flows from financing activities 20,000
Net increase in cash during year $ 105,000
Cash as of December 1, 2015 203,000
Cash as of November 30, 2016 $ 308,000

1-7
PE 1–7B
SENTINEL TRAVEL SERVICE
Statement of Cash Flows
For the Year Ended August 31, 2016
Cash flows from operating activities:
Cash received from customers $ 734,000
Deduct cash payments for operating expenses (745,600)
Net cash flows used for operating activities $(11,600)
Cash flows used for investing activities:
Cash payments for purchase of land (50,000)
Cash flows from financing activities:
Cash received from owner as investment $ 36,000
Deduct cash withdrawals by owner (18,000)
Net cash flows from financing activities 18,000
Net decrease in cash during year $(43,600)
Cash as of September 1, 2015 89,000
Cash as of August 31, 2016 $ 45,400

PE 1–8A
a. Dec. 31, Dec. 31,
2016 2015
Total liabilities……………………………………………… $547,800 $518,000
Total owner’s equity………………………………………… $415,000 $370,000
Ratio of liabilities to owner’s equity…………………… 1.32 * 1.40**
* $547,800 ÷ $415,000
** $518,000 ÷ $370,000
b. Decreased

PE 1–8B
a. Dec. 31, Dec. 31,
2016 2015
Total liabilities……………………………………………… $4,085,000 $2,880,000
Total owner’s equity………………………………………… $4,300,000 $3,600,000
Ratio of liabilities to owner’s equity…………………… 0.95 * 0.80**
* $4,085,000 ÷ $4,300,000
** $2,880,000 ÷ $3,600,000
b. Increased

1-8
 EXERCISES
Ex. 1–1
a. 1. manufacturing 6. manufacturing 11. service
2. manufacturing 7. service 12. service
3. manufacturing 8. service 13. manufacturing
4. service 9. manufacturing 14. service
5. merchandise 10. merchandise 15. merchandise
b. The accounting equation is relevant to all companies. It serves as the basis
of the accounting information system.

Ex. 1–2
As in many ethics issues, there is no one right answer. Oftentimes, disclosing
only what is legally required may not be enough. In this case, it would be best
for the company’s chief executive officer to disclose both reports to the county
representatives. In doing so, the chief executive officer could point out any flaws
or deficiencies in the fired researcher’s report.

Ex. 1–3
a. 1. M 5. O 9. X
2. L 6. O 10. O
3. O 7. X
4. M 8. L
b. A business transaction is an economic event or condition that directly
changes an entity’s financial condition or results of operations.

Ex. 1–4
Green Mountain Coffee Roasters’ owners’ equity: $3,616 – $1,345 = $2,271
Starbucks’ owners’ equity: $8,219 – $3,110 = $5,109

Ex. 1–5
Dollar Tree’s owners’ equity: $2,329 – $984 = $1,345
Target’s owners’ equity: $46,630 – $30,809 = $15,821

1-9
Ex. 1–6
a. $1,271,000 ($376,000 + $895,000)
b. $520,000 ($1,375,000 – $855,000)
c. $652,500 ($863,500 – $211,000)

Ex. 1–7
a. $540,000 ($720,000 – $180,000)
b. $606,500 ($540,000 + $96,500 – $30,000)
c. $357,000 ($540,000 – $168,000 – $15,000)
d. $733,000 ($540,000 + $175,000 + $18,000)
e. Net income: $120,000 ($880,000 – $220,000 – $540,000)

Ex. 1–8
a. (2) liability
b. (1) asset
c. (3) owner's equity (revenue)
d. (1) asset
e. (1) asset
f. (3) owner's equity (expense)

Ex. 1–9
a. Increases assets and increases owner’s equity.
b. Decreases assets and decreases owner’s equity.
c. Increases assets and decreases assets.
d. Increases assets and increases liabilities.
e. Increases assets and increases owner’s equity.

Ex. 1–10
a. (1) Total assets increased $183,000 ($298,000 – $115,000).
(2) No change in liabilities.
(3) Owner’s equity increased $183,000.
b. (1) Total assets decreased $80,000.
(2) Total liabilities decreased $80,000.
(3) No change in owner’s equity.
c. No, it is false that a transaction always affects at least two elements (Assets,
Liabilities, or Owner’s Equity) of the accounting equation. Some transactions
affect only one element of the accounting equation. For example, purchasing
supplies for cash only affects assets.

1-10
Ex. 1–11

1. (b) decrease
2. (a) increase
3. (b) decrease
4. (a) increase

Ex. 1–12
1. c 6. c
2. a 7. d
3. e 8. a
4. e 9. e
5. c 10. e

Ex. 1–13
a. (1) Provided catering services for cash, $71,800.
(2) Purchase of land for cash, $15,000.
(3) Payment of cash for expenses, $47,500.
(4) Purchase of supplies on account, $1,100.
(5) Withdrawal of cash by owner, $5,000.
(6) Payment of cash to creditors, $4,000.
(7) Recognition of cost of supplies used, $1,500.
b. $300 ($40,300 – $40,000)
c. $17,800 (–$5,000 + $71,800 – $49,000)
d. $22,800 ($71,800 – $49,000)
e. $17,800 ($22,800 – $5,000)

Ex. 1–14
No. It would be incorrect to say that the business had incurred a net loss of
$8,000. The excess of the withdrawals over the net income for the period is a
decrease in the amount of owner’s equity in the business.

1-11
Ex. 1–15
Jupiter
Owner's equity at end of year ($844,000 – $320,000)…………………………… $524,000
Deduct owner's equity at beginning of year ($550,000 – $215,000)………… 335,000
Net income (increase in owner’s equity)……………………………………… $189,000

Mars
Increase in owner’s equity (as determined for Jupiter)……………………… $189,000
Add withdrawals……………………………………………………………………… 36,000
Net income………………………………………………………………………… $225,000

Saturn
Increase in owner’s equity (as determined for Jupiter)……………………… $189,000
Deduct additional investment……………………………………………………… 60,000
Net income………………………………………………………………………… $129,000

Venus
Increase in owner’s equity (as determined for Jupiter)……………………… $189,000
Deduct additional investment……………………………………………………… 60,000
$129,000
Add withdrawals……………………………………………………………………… 36,000
Net income…………………………………………………………………………… $165,000

Ex. 1–16
Balance sheet items: 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 10

Ex. 1–17
Income statement items: 3, 7, 8, 9

1-12
Ex. 1–18
a. UDDER PRODUCTS COMPANY
Statement of Owner’s Equity
For the Month Ended April 30, 2016
Mark Kominksy, capital, April 1, 2016 $384,500
Net income for November $166,000
Less withdrawals 25,000
Increase in owner’s equity 141,000
Mark Kominksy, capital, April 30, 2016 $525,500

b. The statement of owner’s equity is prepared before the April 30, 2016, balance
sheet because Mark Kominksy, Capital as of April 30, 2016, is needed for the
balance sheet.

Ex. 1–19
DAIRY SERVICES
Income Statement
For the Month Ended August 31, 2016
Fees earned $783,000
Expenses:
Wages expense $550,000
Rent expense 35,000
Supplies expense 8,500
Miscellaneous expense 11,400
Total expenses 604,900
Net income $178,100

1-13
Ex. 1–20
In each case, solve for a single unknown, using the following equation:
Owner’s Equity (beginning) + Investments – Withdrawals + Revenues – Expenses
= Owner’s Equity (ending)
Freeman
Owner’s equity at end of year ($1,260,000 – $330,000)……………… $930,000
Owner’s equity at beginning of year ($900,000 – $360,000)………… 540,000
Increase in owner’s equity………………………………………………… $390,000
Deduct increase due to net income ($570,000 – $240,000)………… 330,000
$ 60,000
Add withdrawals………………………………………………….………… 75,000
Additional investment in the business……………………………… (a) $135,000
Heyward
Owner’s equity at end of year ($675,000 – $220,000)………………… $455,000
Owner’s equity at beginning of year ($490,000 – $260,000)………… 230,000
Increase in owner’s equity………………………………………………… $225,000
Add withdrawals………………………………………………….………… 32,000
$257,000
Deduct additional investment…………………………………………… 150,000
Increase due to net income………………………………………………… $107,000
Add expenses………………………………………………….…………… 128,000
Revenue………………………………………………….…………………(b) $235,000
Jones
Owner’s equity at end of year ($100,000 – $80,000)………………… $ 20,000
Owner’s equity at beginning of year ($115,000 – $81,000)…………… 34,000
Decrease in owner’s equity………………………………………………… $(14,000)
Deduct decrease due to net loss ($115,000 – $122,500)…………… 7,500
$(21,500)
Deduct additional investment…………………………………………… 10,000
Withdrawals from the business……………………………………… (c) $(31,500)
Ramirez
Owner’s equity at end of year ($270,000 – $136,000)………………… $134,000
Add decrease due to net loss ($115,000 – $128,000)………………… 13,000
$147,000
Add withdrawals………………………………………………….………… 39,000
Owner’s equity at beginning of year…………………………………… $186,000
Deduct additional investment…………………………………………… 55,000
$131,000
Add liabilities at beginning of year……………………………………… 120,000
Assets at beginning of year…………………………………………… (d) $251,000

1-14
Ex. 1–21
a.
EBONY INTERIORS
Balance Sheet
February 29, 2016
Assets Liabilities
Cash $ 320,000 Accounts payable $ 310,000
Accounts receivable 800,000
Supplies 30,000 Owner’s Equity
Justin Berk, capital 840,000
Total liabilities and
Total assets $1,150,000 owner’s equity $1,150,000

EBONY INTERIORS
Balance Sheet
March 31, 2016
Assets Liabilities
Cash $ 380,000 Accounts payable $ 400,000
Accounts receivable 960,000
Supplies 35,000 Owner’s Equity
Justin Berk, capital 975,000
Total liabilities and
Total assets $1,375,000 owner’s equity $1,375,000

b. Owner’s equity, March 31……………………………………………………… $975,000

Owner’s equity, February 29…………………….…………………………… 840,000
Net income…………………………………………………………………… $135,000

c. Owner’s equity, March 31……………………………………………………… $975,000

Owner’s equity, February 29…………………….…………………………… 840,000
Increase in owner’s equity………………………………………………… $135,000
Add withdrawal…………………………………………………………………… 50,000
Net income…………………………………………………………………… $185,000

1-15
Ex. 1–22
a. Balance sheet: 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13
Income statement: 5, 12, 14, 15
b. Yes, an item can appear on more than one financial statement. For example,
cash appears on both the balance sheet and statement of cash flows. However,
the same item cannot appear on both the income statement and balance sheet.
c. Yes, the accounting equation is relevant to all companies, including Exxon
Mobil Corporation.

Ex. 1–23
1. (a) operating activity
2. (a) operating activity
3. (b) investing activity
4. (c) financing activity

Ex. 1–24
ETHOS CONSULTING GROUP
Statement of Cash Flows
For the Year Ended May 31, 2016
Cash flows from operating activities:
Cash received from customers $637,500
Deduct cash payments for operating expenses 475,000
Net cash flows from operating activities $162,500
Cash flows used for investing activities:
Cash payments for purchase of land (90,000)
Cash flows from financing activities:
Cash received from owner as investment $ 62,500
Deduct cash withdrawals by owner 17,500
Net cash flows from financing activities 45,000
Net decrease in cash during year $117,500
Cash as of June 1, 2015 58,000
Cash as of May 31, 2016 $175,500

1-16
Ex. 1–25
1. All financial statements should contain the name of the business in their
heading. The statement of owner’s equity is incorrectly headed as “Omar
Farah” rather than We-Sell Realty. The heading of the balance sheet needs
the name of the business.
2. The income statement and statement of owner’s equity cover a period of time
and should be labeled “For the Month Ended August 31, 2016.”
3. The year in the heading for the statement of owner’s equity should be 2016
rather than 2015.
4. The balance sheet should be labeled “August 31, 2016,” rather than “For the
Month Ended August 31, 2016.”
5. In the income statement, the miscellaneous expense amount should be listed
as the last expense.
6. In the income statement, the total expenses are incorrectly subtracted from
the sales commissions, resulting in an incorrect net income amount. The
correct net income should be $24,150. This also affects the statement of
owner’s equity and the amount of Omar Farah, Capital, that appears on
the balance sheet.
7. In the statement of owner’s equity, the additional investment should be added
first to Omar Farah, capital, as of August 1, 2016. The net income should be
presented next, followed by the amount of withdrawals, which is subtracted
from the net income to yield a net increase in owner’s equity.
8. Accounts payable should be listed as a liability on the balance sheet.
9. Accounts receivable and supplies should be listed as assets on the balance
sheet.
10. The balance sheet assets should equal the sum of the liabilities and owner’s
equity.

1-17
Ex. 1–25 (Concluded)
Corrected financial statements appear as follows:
WE-SELL REALTY
Income Statement
For the Month Ended August 31, 2016
Sales commissions $140,000
Expenses:
Office salaries expense $87,000
Rent expense 18,000
Automobile expense 7,500
Supplies expense 1,150
Miscellaneous expense 2,200
Total expenses 115,850
Net income $ 24,150

WE-SELL REALTY
Statement of Owner’s Equity
For the Month Ended August 31, 2016
Omar Farah, capital, August 1, 2016 $ 0
Investment on August 1, 2016 $15,000
Net income for August 24,150
$39,150
Less withdrawals during August 10,000
Increase in owner’s equity 29,150
Omar Farah, capital, August 31, 2016 $29,150

WE-SELL REALTY
Balance Sheet
August 31, 2016
Assets Liabilities
Cash $ 8,900 Accounts payable $22,350
Accounts receivable 38,600
Supplies 4,000 Owner’s Equity
Omar Farah, capital 29,150
Total liabilities and
Total assets $51,500 owner’s equity $51,500

1-18
Ex. 1–26
a. Year 2: $17,898 ($40,518 – $22,620)
Year 1: $18,889 ($40,125 – $21,236)
b. Year 2: 0.79 ($17,898 ÷ $22,620)
Year 1: 0.89 ($18,889 ÷ $21,236)
c. The ratio of liabilities to stockholders’ equity decreased from 0.89 to 0.79
indicating a slight decrease in risk for creditors from Year 1 to Year 2.

Ex. 1–27
a. Year 2: $16,533 ($33,559 – $17,026)
Year 1: $18,112 ($33,699 – $15,587)
b. Year 2: 1.03 ($17,026 ÷ $16,533)
Year 1: 0.86 ($15,587 ÷ $18,112)
c. The risk for creditors has increased from 0.86 in Year 1 to 1.03 in Year 2.
d. Lowe’s ratio of liabilities to stockholders’ equity is more than 1 in Year 2 (1.03)
and less than 1 in Year 1 (0.86). In comparison, The Home Depot’s ratio of
liabilities to stockholders’ equity is less than 1 for both years. Thus, the risk to
creditors of Lowe's is slightly more than The Home Depot.

1-19
 CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Accounting and Business

PROBLEMS
Prob. 1–1A
1. Assets = Liabilities + Owner’s Equity
Andrea Andrea

Accts. Accts. Byrd, Byrd, Fees Rent Salaries Supplies Auto Misc.
Cash + Rec. + Supplies = Payable + Capital – Drawing + Earned – Expense – Expense – Expense – Exp. – Exp.
 CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Accounting and Business
(a) + 45,000 + 45,000
(b) + 2,000 + 2,000
Bal. 45,000 2,000 2,000 45,000
(c) + 8,500 + 8,500
Bal. 53,500 2,000 2,000 45,000 8,500
(d) – 5,000 – 5,000
Bal. 48,500 2,000 2,000 45,000 8,500 – 5,000
(e) – 1,375 – 1,375
Bal. 47,125 2,000 625 45,000 8,500 – 5,000
(f) + 11,250 + 11,250
Bal. 47,125 11,250 2,000 625 45,000 19,750 – 5,000
(g) – 1,740
Bal. 45,385 11,250 2,000 625 45,000 19,750 – 5,000
(h) – 3,600 – 3,600
Bal. 41,785 11,250 2,000 625 45,000 19,750 – 5,000 – 3,600
(i) – 1,450
Bal. 41,785 11,250 550 625 45,000 19,750 – 5,000 – 3,600
(j) – 2,000 – 2,000
Bal. 39,785 11,250 550 625 45,000 – 2,000 19,750 – 5,000 – 3,600

2. Owner’s equity is the right of owners to the assets of the business. These rights are
increased by owner’s investments and revenues and decreased by owner’s
withdrawals and expenses.
3. $7,960 ($19,750 – $5,000 – $3,600 – $1,450 – $840 – $900)

4. April’s transactions increased Andrea Byrd’s capital by $50,960 ($45,000 + $7,960 – $2,000), which is the
initial capital investment of $45,000 plus
April's net income of $7,960 less Andrea Byrd’s withdrawals of $2,000.

1
-
1
8

Prob. 1–2A
1. NORDIC TRAVEL AGENCY
Income Statement
For the Year Ended December 31, 2016
Fees earned $912,500
Expenses:
Wages expense $510,000
Rent expense 36,000
Utilities expense 28,500
Supplies expense 4,100
Miscellaneous expense 6,400
Total expenses 585,000
Net income $327,500

2. NORDIC TRAVEL AGENCY

Statement of Owner’s Equity
For the Year Ended December 31, 2016
Ian Eisele, capital, January 1, 2016 1-19 $670,000
Net income for the year $327,500
Less withdrawals 42,000
 CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Accounting and Business

3. NORDIC TRAVEL AGENCY

Balance Sheet
December 31, 2016
Assets Liabilities
Cash $ 190,500 Accounts payable $ 69,500
Accounts receivable 285,000
Supplies 5,500
Land 544,000 Owner’s Equity
Ian Eisele, capital 955,500
Total liabilities and
Total assets $1,025,000 owner’s equity $1,025,000

4. Ian Eisele, Capital of $955,500

1-20
 CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Accounting and Business

Prob. 1–3A
1. RELIANCE FINANCIAL SERVICES
Income Statement
For the Month Ended July 31, 2016
Fees earned $144,500
Expenses:
Salaries expense $55,000
Rent expense 33,000
Auto expense 16,000
Supplies expense 4,500
Miscellaneous expense 4,800
Total expenses 113,300
Net income $ 31,200

2. RELIANCE FINANCIAL SERVICES

Statement of Owner’s Equity
For the Month Ended July 31, 2016
Seth Feye, capital, July 1, 2016 $ 0
Investment on July 1, 2016 $50,000
Net income for July 31,200
$81,200
Less withdrawals 15,000
Increase in owner’s equity 66,200
Seth Feye, capital, July 31, 2016 $66,200

3. RELIANCE FINANCIAL SERVICES

Balance Sheet
July 31, 2016
Assets Liabilities
Cash $32,600 Accounts payable $ 3,400
Accounts receivable 34,500
Supplies 2,500 Owner’s Equity
Seth Feye, capital 66,200
Total liabilities and
Total assets $69,600 owner’s equity $69,600
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Acoustics is the branch of physics that deals with the study of all mechanical
waves in gases, liquids, and solids including topics such as vibration, sound,
ultrasound and infrasound. A scientist who works in the field of acoustics is an
acoustician while someone working in the field of acoustics technology may be
called an acoustical engineer. The application of acoustics is present in almost all
aspects of modern society with the most obvious being the audio and noise control
industries.

Hearing is one of the most crucial means of survival in the animal world, and
speech is one of the most distinctive characteristics of human development and
culture. Accordingly, the science of acoustics spreads across many facets of human
society—music, medicine, architecture, industrial production, warfare and more.
Likewise, animal species such as songbirds and frogs use sound and hearing as a
key element of mating rituals or marking territories. Art, craft, science and
technology have provoked one another to advance the whole, as in many other
fields of knowledge. Robert Bruce Lindsay's 'Wheel of Acoustics' is a well
accepted overview of the various fields in acoustics.[1]

The word "acoustic" is derived from the Greek word ἀκουστικός (akoustikos),
meaning "of or for hearing, ready to hear"[2] and that from ἀκουστός (akoustos),
"heard, audible",[3] which in turn derives from the verb ἀκούω (akouo), "I
hear".[4]

The Latin synonym is "sonic", after which the term sonics used to be a synonym
for acoustics[5] and later a branch of acoustics.[6] Frequencies above and below
the audible range are called "ultrasonic" and "infrasonic", respectively.

Contents
1 History
1.1 Early research in acoustics
1.2 Age of Enlightenment and onward
2 Fundamental concepts of acoustics
2.1 Definition
2.2 Wave propagation: pressure levels
2.3 Wave propagation: frequency
2.4 Transduction in acoustics
3 Acoustician
3.1 Education
4 Subdisciplines
4.1 Archaeoacoustics
4.2 Aeroacoustics
4.3 Acoustic signal processing
4.4 Architectural acoustics
4.5 Bioacoustics
4.6 Electroacoustics
4.7 Environmental noise and soundscapes
4.8 Musical acoustics
4.9 Psychoacoustics
4.10 Speech
4.11 Ultrasonics
4.12 Underwater acoustics
4.13 Vibration and dynamics
5 Professional societies
6 Academic journals
7 See also
8 Notes and references
9 Further reading
10 External links
History
Early research in acoustics

The fundamental and the first 6 overtones of a vibrating string. The earliest records
of the study of this phenomenon are attributed to the philosopher Pythagoras in the
6th century BC.
In the 6th century BC, the ancient Greek philosopher Pythagoras wanted to know
why some combinations of musical sounds seemed more beautiful than others, and
he found answers in terms of numerical ratios representing the harmonic overtone
series on a string. He is reputed to have observed that when the lengths of vibrating
strings are expressible as ratios of integers (e.g. 2 to 3, 3 to 4), the tones produced
will be harmonious, and the smaller the integers the more harmonious the sounds.
If, for example, a string of a certain length would sound particularly harmonious
with a string of twice the length (other factors being equal). In modern parlance, if
a string sounds the note C when plucked, a string twice as long will sound a C an
octave lower. In one system of musical tuning, the tones in between are then given
by 16:9 for D, 8:5 for E, 3:2 for F, 4:3 for G, 6:5 for A, and 16:15 for B, in
ascending order.[7]

Aristotle (384–322 BC) understood that sound consisted of compressions and

rarefactions of air which "falls upon and strikes the air which is next to it...",[8] a
very good expression of the nature of wave motion.

In about 20 BC, the Roman architect and engineer Vitruvius wrote a treatise on the
acoustic properties of theaters including discussion of interference, echoes, and
reverberation—the beginnings of architectural acoustics.[9] In Book V of his De
architectura (The Ten Books of Architecture) Vitruvius describes sound as a wave
comparable to a water wave extended to three dimensions, which, when interrupted
by obstructions, would flow back and break up following waves. He described the
ascending seats in ancient theaters as designed to prevent this deterioration of
sound and also recommended bronze vessels of appropriate sizes be placed in
theaters to resonate with the fourth, fifth and so on, up to the double octave, in
order to resonate with the more desirable, harmonious notes.[10][11][12]

During the Islamic golden age, Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī (973-1048) is believed to
postulated that the speed of sound was much slower than the speed of
light.[13][14]

Principles of acoustics have been applied since ancient times : A Roman theatre in
the city of Amman.
The physical understanding of acoustical processes advanced rapidly during and
after the Scientific Revolution. Mainly Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) but also Marin
Mersenne (1588–1648), independently, discovered the complete laws of vibrating
strings (completing what Pythagoras and Pythagoreans had started 2000 years
earlier). Galileo wrote "Waves are produced by the vibrations of a sonorous body,
which spread through the air, bringing to the tympanum of the ear a stimulus which
the mind interprets as sound", a remarkable statement that points to the beginnings
of physiological and psychological acoustics. Experimental measurements of the
speed of sound in air were carried out successfully between 1630 and 1680 by a
number of investigators, prominently Mersenne. Meanwhile, Newton (1642–1727)
derived the relationship for wave velocity in solids, a cornerstone of physical
acoustics (Principia, 1687).

Age of Enlightenment and onward

The eighteenth century saw major advances in acoustics as mathematicians applied
the new techniques of calculus to elaborate theories of sound wave propagation. In
the nineteenth century the major figures of mathematical acoustics were Helmholtz
in Germany, who consolidated the field of physiological acoustics, and Lord
Rayleigh in England, who combined the previous knowledge with his own copious
contributions to the field in his monumental work The Theory of Sound (1877).
Also in the 19th century, Wheatstone, Ohm, and Henry developed the analogy
between electricity and acoustics.

The twentieth century saw a burgeoning of technological applications of the large

body of scientific knowledge that was by then in place. The first such application
was Sabine’s groundbreaking work in architectural acoustics, and many others
followed. Underwater acoustics was used for detecting submarines in the first
World War. Sound recording and the telephone played important roles in a global
transformation of society. Sound measurement and analysis reached new levels of
accuracy and sophistication through the use of electronics and computing. The
ultrasonic frequency range enabled wholly new kinds of application in medicine
and industry. New kinds of transducers (generators and receivers of acoustic
energy) were invented and put to use.

Fundamental concepts of acoustics

Jay Pritzker Pavilion

At Jay Pritzker Pavilion, a LARES system is combined with a zoned sound

reinforcement system, both suspended on an overhead steel trellis, to synthesize an
indoor acoustic environment outdoors.
Definition
Acoustics is defined by ANSI/ASA S1.1-2013 as "(a) Science of sound, including
its production, transmission, and effects, including biological and psychological
effects. (b) Those qualities of a room that, together, determine its character with
respect to auditory effects."

The study of acoustics revolves around the generation, propagation and reception
of mechanical waves and vibrations.
The fundamental acoustical process
The steps shown in the above diagram can be found in any acoustical event or
process. There are many kinds of cause, both natural and volitional. There are
many kinds of transduction process that convert energy from some other form into
sonic energy, producing a sound wave. There is one fundamental equation that
describes sound wave propagation, the acoustic wave equation, but the phenomena
that emerge from it are varied and often complex. The wave carries energy
throughout the propagating medium. Eventually this energy is transduced again
into other forms, in ways that again may be natural and/or volitionally contrived.
The final effect may be purely physical or it may reach far into the biological or
volitional domains. The five basic steps are found equally well whether we are
talking about an earthquake, a submarine using sonar to locate its foe, or a band
playing in a rock concert.

The central stage in the acoustical process is wave propagation. This falls within
the domain of physical acoustics. In fluids, sound propagates primarily as a
pressure wave. In solids, mechanical waves can take many forms including
longitudinal waves, transverse waves and surface waves.

Acoustics looks first at the pressure levels and frequencies in the sound wave and
how the wave interacts with the environment. This interaction can be described as
either a diffraction, interference or a reflection or a mix of the three. If several
media are present, a refraction can also occur. Transduction processes are also of
special importance to acoustics.

Wave propagation: pressure levels

Main article: Sound pressure

Spectrogram of a young girl saying "oh, no"

In fluids such as air and water, sound waves propagate as disturbances in the
ambient pressure level. While this disturbance is usually small, it is still noticeable
to the human ear. The smallest sound that a person can hear, known as the
threshold of hearing, is nine orders of magnitude smaller than the ambient
pressure. The loudness of these disturbances is related to the sound pressure level
(SPL) which is measured on a logarithmic scale in decibels.

Wave propagation: frequency

Physicists and acoustic engineers tend to discuss sound pressure levels in terms of
frequencies, partly because this is how our ears interpret sound. What we
experience as "higher pitched" or "lower pitched" sounds are pressure vibrations
having a higher or lower number of cycles per second. In a common technique of
acoustic measurement, acoustic signals are sampled in time, and then presented in
more meaningful forms such as octave bands or time frequency plots. Both of
these popular methods are used to analyze sound and better understand the acoustic
phenomenon.

The entire spectrum can be divided into three sections: audio, ultrasonic, and
infrasonic. The audio range falls between 20 Hz and 20,000 Hz. This range is
important because its frequencies can be detected by the human ear. This range has
a number of applications, including speech communication and music. The
ultrasonic range refers to the very high frequencies: 20,000 Hz and higher. This
range has shorter wavelengths which allow better resolution in imaging
technologies. Medical applications such as ultrasonography and elastography rely
on the ultrasonic frequency range. On the other end of the spectrum, the lowest
frequencies are known as the infrasonic range. These frequencies can be used to
study geological phenomena such as earthquakes.

Analytic instruments such as the spectrum analyzer facilitate visualization and

measurement of acoustic signals and their properties. The spectrogram produced
by such an instrument is a graphical display of the time varying pressure level and
frequency profiles which give a specific acoustic signal its defining character.

Transduction in acoustics
An inexpensive low fidelity 3.5 inch driver, typically found in small radios
A transducer is a device for converting one form of energy into another. In an
electroacoustic context, this means converting sound energy into electrical energy
(or vice versa). Electroacoustic transducers include loudspeakers, microphones,
hydrophones and sonar projectors. These devices convert a sound pressure wave to
or from an electric signal. The most widely used transduction principles are
electromagnetism, electrostatics and piezoelectricity.

The transducers in most common loudspeakers (e.g. woofers and tweeters), are
electromagnetic devices that generate waves using a suspended diaphragm driven
by an electromagnetic voice coil, sending off pressure waves. Electret microphones
and condenser microphones employ electrostatics—as the sound wave strikes the
microphone's diaphragm, it moves and induces a voltage change. The ultrasonic
systems used in medical ultrasonography employ piezoelectric transducers. These
are made from special ceramics in which mechanical vibrations and electrical
fields are interlinked through a property of the material itself.

Acoustician
An acoustician is an expert in the science of sound.[15]

Education
There are many types of acoustician, but they usually have a Bachelor's degree or
higher qualification. Some possess a degree in acoustics, while others enter the
discipline via studies in fields such as physics or engineering. Much work in
acoustics requires a good grounding in Mathematics and science. Many acoustic
scientists work in research and development. Some conduct basic research to
advance our knowledge of the perception (e.g. hearing, psychoacoustics or
neurophysiology) of speech, music and noise. Other acoustic scientists advance
understanding of how sound is affected as it moves through environments, e.g.
Underwater acoustics, Architectural acoustics or Structural acoustics. Others areas
of work are listed under subdisciplines below. Acoustic scientists work in
government, university and private industry laboratories. Many go on to work in
Acoustical Engineering. Some positions, such as Faculty (academic staff) require a
Doctor of Philosophy.

Subdisciplines
These subdisciplines are a slightly modified list from the PACS (Physics and
Astronomy Classification Scheme) coding used by the Acoustical Society of
America.[16]

Archaeoacoustics
Main article: Archaeoacoustics

The Divje Babe flute

Archaeoacoustics is the study of sound within archaeology. This typically involves
studying the acoustics of archaeological sites and artefacts.[17]

Aeroacoustics
Main article: Aeroacoustics
Aeroacoustics is the study of noise generated by air movement, for instance via
turbulence, and the movement of sound through the fluid air. This knowledge is
applied in acoustical engineering to study how to quieten aircraft. Aeroacoustics is
important to understanding how wind musical instruments work.[18]

Acoustic signal processing

See also: Audio signal processing
Acoustic signal processing is the electronic manipulation of acoustic signals.
Applications include: active noise control; design for hearing aids or cochlear
implants; echo cancellation; music information retrieval, and perceptual coding
(e.g. MP3 or Opus).[19]
Architectural acoustics
Main article: Architectural acoustics

Symphony Hall Boston where auditorium acoustics began

Architectural acoustics (also known as building acoustics) involves the scientific
understanding of how to achieve a good sound within a building.[20] It typically
involves the study of speech intelligibility, speech privacy, music quality, and
vibration reduction in the built environment.[21]

Bioacoustics
Main article: Bioacoustics
Bioacoustics is the scientific study of the hearing and calls of animal calls, as well
as how animals are affected by the acoustic and sounds of their habitat.[22]

Electroacoustics
See also: Audio Engineering and Sound reinforcement system
This subdiscipline is concerned with the recording, manipulation and reproduction
of audio using electronics.[23] This might include products such as mobile phones,
large scale public address systems or virtual reality systems in research
laboratories.

Environmental noise and soundscapes

Main article: Environmental noise
See also: Noise pollution and Noise control
Environmental acoustics is concerned with noise and vibration caused by
railways,[24] road traffic, aircraft, industrial equipment and recreational
activities.[25] The main aim of these studies is to reduce levels of environmental
noise and vibration. Research work now also has a focus on the positive use of
sound in urban environments: soundscapes and tranquility.[26]
Musical acoustics
Main article: Musical acoustics

The primary auditory cortex is one of the main areas associated with superior pitch
resolution.
Musical acoustics is the study of the physics of acoustic instruments; the audio
signal processing used in electronic music; the computer analysis of music and
composition, and the perception and cognitive neuroscience of music.[27]

Psychoacoustics
Main article: Psychoacoustics
Psychoacoustics explains how humans respond to sounds.[28]

Speech
Main article: Speech
Acousticians study the production, processing and perception of speech. Speech
recognition and Speech synthesis are two important areas of speech processing
using computers. The subject also overlaps with the disciplines of physics,
physiology, psychology, and linguistics.[29]

Ultrasonics
Main article: Ultrasound

Ultrasound image of a fetus in the womb, viewed at 12 weeks of pregnancy

(bidimensional-scan)
Ultrasonics deals with sounds at frequencies too high to be heard by humans.
Specialisms include medical ultrasonics (including medical ultrasonography),
sonochemistry, material characterisation and underwater acoustics (Sonar).[30]

Underwater acoustics
Main article: Underwater acoustics
Underwater acoustics is the scientific study of natural and man-made sounds
underwater. Applications include sonar to locate submarines, underwater
communication by whales, climate change monitoring by measuring sea
temperatures acoustically, sonic weapons,[31] and marine bioacoustics.[32]

Vibration and dynamics

Main article: Vibration
This is the study of how mechanical systems vibrate and interact with their
surroundings. Applications might include: ground vibrations from railways;
vibration isolation to reduce vibration in operating theatres; studying how vibration
can damage health (vibration white finger); vibration control to protect a building
from earthquakes, or measuring how structure-borne sound moves through
buildings.[33]

Professional societies
The Acoustical Society of America (ASA)
The European Acoustics Association (EAA)
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
Institute of Acoustics (IoA UK)
The Audio Engineering Society (AES)
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Noise Control and Acoustics Division
(ASME-NCAD)
International Commission for Acoustics (ICA)
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Aeroacoustics (AIAA)
International Computer Music Association (ICMA)
Academic journals
Main category: Acoustics journals
Acta Acustica united with Acustica
Applied Acoustics
Journal of the Acoustical Society of America (JASA)
Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, Express Letters (JASA-EL)
Journal of the Audio Engineering Society
Journal of Sound and Vibration (JSV)
Journal of Vibration and Acoustics American Society of Mechanical Engineers
Ultrasonics (journal)