Plastic Alternative PDF

Exploring the potential for
adopting alternative materials

to reduce marine plastic litter
Exploring the potential for adopting alternative materials to reduce marine plastic litter
ISBN No: 978-92-807-3703-5

Job No: DEW/2177/NA
Published by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), May 2018

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Citation: United Nations Environment Programme (2017). Exploring the potential for adopting alternative materials to reduce
marine plastic litter.
Cover Photos
Back Cover: Shutterstock/multiz12
Front cover page: Right to left: Shutterstock, Shutterstock/ GParker, Shutterstock
Bottom right: Alain Bachellier
UN Environment
promotes environmentally
sound practices globally
and in its own activities. Our
distribution policy aims to reduce
UN Environment's carbon footprint.
Exploring the potential
for adopting alternative
materials to reduce marine
plastic litter
Acknowledgements: Aditi Gupta of Leaf Republic GmbH, Claire Mueller of Ananas Anam, Diana Ndungi
and pupils of the Thika Girls’ Karibaribi , Achenyo Idachaba of Mitimeth, Cosmos Githinji Karari , Brian
auer and os anuel of lgramo afia ureshi and leur of up lub Tom han and an of Trio up
Kikori Mor College and the Patrada Project, Evoware, Jeff Bates and Shane Boland of Ecovative Design,
Prof. Geoff Robson of Manchester University, Tara St James of Study-NY, Paul Gurbutt, Liz of Elephant
o eth Williams of Turtle ags ose eredia- uerrro iego and red from ali- oo aniel itomer
and Nic enn of ar uette University nne chauer- imene of ango aterials eoff of riendly
Soap, Lise Honsinger of Skipping Rocks Lab, Aleksi Vesaluoma Richard Sullivan and Louis Johnston of
Mandin Collective, Tereza Dohnalova of MIWA, Stephen M. Roberts of Dell Corporation, Anke Domaske
of mil tiya ivingston of hop alue ate of egware Environmental andra dar of ittle herry
Hideshige Takada of Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Liz Lund, Tom Kershaw, the
‘Bagmonster’, delegates at the UN SDG14 conference in June 2017 and delegates at the UNEA-3 in
December 2017.
Author: Peter Kershaw, Independent consultant – Marine Environmental Protection Norfolk, UK
Reviewers: aleria idalgo- u Universidad at lica del Norte olegio an drian de uilicura hile
Peter yan University of ape Town Evelyn ngige and usan utebi- ichards UN Environment
ender ei hno ecretariat of the asel otterdam and toc holm onventions aron uola and
eidi avelli UN Environment lobal Programme of ction Nagwa El arawy and ula alyoubi
UN Environment anama ahrain and laudia iacovelli UN Environment - International
EXPLORING THE POTENTIAL FOR ADOPTING ALTERNATIVE MATERIALS TO REDUCE MARINE PLASTIC LITTER
Environmental Technology entre apan ngeline ampou UN Environment- cience ivision .
Production team: inita hah UN N P atherine imeu UN N P
Project manager: oana rofi cience ivision
2
Glossary
Organisations and miscellaneous terms

Acronym/term Definition
bandoned ost or otherwise iscarded ishing ear
Biodegradable Biologically-mediated process involving the complete or partial converted
to water 2
/methane, energy and new biomass by microorganisms
bacteria and fungi .
Compostable-domestic Capable of being biodegraded at low to moderate temperatures, typically
found in a domestic compost system
Compostable-industrial apable of being biodegraded at elevated temperatures under specific
conditions and time scales
E IN rganisation for the efence and Ecological onservation of Inta
Equador
EI Environmental Impact Index
ESI Ecological Sustainability Index
EU European Union
ood and griculture rganisation of the United Nations
GESAMP oint roup of E perts on cientific spects of arine Environmental
Protection
IUPAC International Union of Pure & Applied Chemistry
LCA Life Cycle Analysis
N National ceanic and tmospheric dministration
PE Product Environmental ootprint
SDG Sustainable Development Goals
W T nalysis of trengths Wea nesses pportunities and Threats
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
UNEA United Nations Environment Assembly
UNEP United Nations Environment Programme
Naturally-occurring polymers and materials

Material Composition, derivation or process
Abaca/Manila hemp Cellulose, lignin & pectin from the inedible Banana (Musa textiliis)
Alginate/alginic acid Polysaccharide copolymer of mannuronate and guluronate derived from
Brown seaweed (Phaeophyceae)
Alpaca wool eratin fibre from the alpaca
Angora wool eratin fibre from ngora rabbit
Araca Araca palm (Araca catechu), grown for the ‘betel’ nut
Bagasse Waste fibrous material from agricultural production
Bamboo Moso bamboo (Phyllostachys edulis) is most widely used species
Casein Protein fibre in mil
Cashmere eratin fibre from ashmere goats
3
Cellulose Naturally-occurring polysaccharide in plant cells
Chitin Naturally-occurring polyester in fungal cell walls and the exoskeleton of
crustacea e.g. shrimps
Coir ellulose and lignin fibre from coconut outer shell
Cotton ellulose fibre from the cotton plant Gossypium sp.)
Cutin Waxy biopolyester in plant cuticles
la linen ellulose fibre from the fla linseed plant (Linum usitatissimum)
ibroin Protein fibre forming sil
Gluten Protein composite found in the endosperm of cereal crops, having
viscoelastic properties
Hemp ellulose fibre from the hemp plant (Cannabis sativa)
Jute ellulose and lignin fibres from the plant Corchorus sp.
Keratin Protein fibre forming wool
Kenaf ibres obtained from the stems a species of the hibiscus (Hibiscus
cannabinus)
Kraft paper Paper manufactured using the kraft process, removing lignin and
maintaining long cellulose fibres for greater strength
Lignin Naturally-occurring polymer used to form cell walls in wood and bark
Maize Species of large grain plant, also known as corn (Zea mays)
Phyllosilicate Clay minerals with plate-like structure
Piña ellulose and lignin fibre from Pineapple leaf (Ananas comosus)
Piñatex™ abric made from pineapple leaves
ilch asein fibre from soured cow s mil
Retting Process of e tracting fibres from hemp fla and coir by soa ing in water
and physical extraction
Seagrass arine species of flowering plant angiosperms
Sheep’s wool eratin fibre
Silk ibroin fibre from the sil moth (Bombyx mori)
Sisal ibres obtained from a species of gave (Agave sislana)
taple fibre fibre of a defined length natural or cut to length synthetic fibre
ein Maize protein
Synthetic and semi-synthetic polymers and associated chemicals

Short form Composition/full name/function
ABS Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene resin
Cellophane emi-synthetic cellulose-based film
Cellulose acetate emi-synthetic cellulose-based fibre or film
BPA Bisphenol A
Composite A material composed of two or more polymers or other substances
EP Epo y resin thermoset
EPS Expanded polystyrene
Ingeo™ ibre composed of P
Monomer The ‘building blocks’ making up a polymer
4
PA Nylon, Polyamide 4, 6, 11, 66
PAN Polyacrylonitrile, acrylic
PBDE Polybrominated diphenyl ethers flame retardants
PBS Poly (butylene succinate)
PBSA Polybutylene succinate-co-butylene adipate
PBT Polybutylene terephthalate
PCBs Polychlorinated biphenols
PCL Polycaprolactone
PE Polyethylene
PE-LD Polyethylene low density
PE-LLD Polyethylene linear low density
PE-HD Polyethylene high density
PES Polyester
PET Polyethylene terephthalate
PHA Polyhydroxylkanoates
Phthalate Plasticiser
PLA Poly lactic acid
PMMA Poly methyl methacrylate
PP Polypropylene
PS Polystyrene
PT E Polytetrafluroethylene
PU PU Polyurethane
PVA Polyvinyl alcohol
PVC Polyvinyl chloride
Rayon emi-synthetic cellulose-based fibre
Spandex Polyether-polyurea
TPS Thermoplastic starch
Viscose The most common form of rayon
5
Contents
Glossary 3
Executive summary 13
1. Background 15
1.1 Marine litter as a global issue 15
1.2 The Response 16
1.3 Purpose and content of the report 17
2. Our relationship with plastic 19

2.1 Criteria for adopting plastics 19
2.2 Conventional plastics 21
2.3 Semi-synthetic biomass-based fibres and films 28
2.4 Microplastics 32
2.5 The plastics economy 33
3. Marine plastics and microplastics – the main culprits 39

3.1 The leakage of plastics to the ocean 39
3.2 Plastic litter on shorelines and beaches 41
3.3 Seabed litter 42
3.4 Micro-fibres in the ocean 5
4
4. Alternative materials - natural polymers/ materials 47

4.1 Natural polymers and organic materials 47
4.2 Plant-based polymers 48
4.3 Animal-based polymers 52
4.4 Additional organic polymers 53
4.2 Case studies 53
5. Alternative materials - biomass-based compostable bio-polymers 69

5.1 An introduction to compostable polymers 69
5.2 Starch-based polymers 71
5.3 Synthetic biomass-based polymers 75
5.4 Case studies 79
6. Alternative materials – re-usable objects 81

6.1 Designed for re-use 81
6.2 Case studies 82
7. Pursuing the sustainability goals - social, economic and environmental considerations 89

7.1 Agenda 2030 89
7.2 Towards a cradle-to-cradle approach 91
7.3 Life cycle analysis of natural materials and thermoplastics
(conventional & biomass-based biopolymers) 96
7.4 Alternative materials and the circular economy 104
8. Future trends and opportunities 107

8.1 Future trends in fibre production 107
8.2 Scope for developing the case studies 108
8.3 The role of the Clean Seas Campaign 112
8.4 Encouraging the appropriate response 112
9. Conclusions and recommendations 114

9.1 Conclusions 114
9.2 Recommendations 115
References 117
6
List of Tables
Table 1.1 Presentation of a SWOT analysis ........................................................................................................... 17

Table 2.1 SWOT analysis (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats) of conventional synthetic
polymers. ................................................................................................................................................. 19
Table 2.2 Typical applications by polymer, excluding fibres (adapted from Plastics Europe 2016) .................. 22
Table 2.3 Synthetic polymer fibres and their applications .................................................................................... 23
Table 2.4 Ranking of selected polymers based on the hazard classification component monomers, based
on Lithner et al. (2011), which should be consulted for more comprehensive hazard rankings and
explanation of the methods used. The hazard score for some polymers will vary depending on the
plasticiser used (e.g. PVC) or the incorporation of another monomer (e.g. PAN) ............................. 25
Table 2.5 Examples of common plastic additives, associated functions, potential effect and status under the
Stockholm Convention ............................................................................................................................ 26
Table 2.6 Definitions of degradation, biodegradation and compostable ............................................................. 28
Table 2.7 Semi-synthetic fibres and films: types, biomass source, manufacturing process
and common uses ................................................................................................................................... 30
Table 2.8 Semi-synthetic polymers with a qualitative assessment of biodegradable and composting properties
(based on reported observations, where available, otherwise estimated): domestic composting C-d,
industrial composting C-i, biodegradable B; degradation rate: high H, medium M or low L; qualitative
sustainability indicator: blue high, medium purple, low red). ............................................................... 31
Table 2.9 SWOT analysis (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats) of semi-synthetic cellulose-
based fibres and films as a substitute for conventional synthetic polymers. ..................................... 31
Table 2.10 Characteristics of secondary microplastics: common polymers, typical applications and potential for
microplastic generation by shape category. .......................................................................................... 32
Table 2.10 Characteristics of secondary microplastics: common polymers, typical applications and potential for
microplastic generation by shape category. .......................................................................................... 33
Table 3.1 Common synthetic and semi-synthetic polymers and applications, together with their tendency to
float or sink in the aquatic environment, based on density difference without additional floatation,
such as a fishing float (modified from Joint Group of Experts on Scientific Aspects of Marine
Environmental Protection 2016)............................................................................................................. 40
Table 4.1 Polymers and their occurrence in nature ............................................................................................... 47
Table 4.2 Plant-based materials, polymer(s), plant source and common uses, together with biodegradable
and composting properties (based on reported observations, where available, otherwise estimated):
domestic composting C-d, industrial composting C-i, biodegradable B; degradation rate: high H,
medium M or low L; qualitative sustainability indicator: blue high, medium purple, low red). ........... 49
Table 4.3 Commercially important natural fibres: data 2004 from Suddell (2009), 2014* from FAOSTAT9, 2014^
from Food and Agricultural Organisation (2015), 2015 from Food and Agricultural Organisation
(2016) ; a value for 2013/14, b value for 2014/15 (adapted from Suddell 2009) ............................... 50
Table 4.4 SWOT analysis (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats) of utilising plant materials as a
substitute for conventional synthetic polymers. ................................................................................... 50
Table 4.5 Examples of animal-based materials, polymer(s), animal source and common uses, together with a
qualitative indication of biodegradable and composting properties (based on reported observations,
where available, otherwise estimated): domestic composting C-d, industrial composting C-i,
biodegradable B; degradation rate: high H, medium M or low L; qualitative sustainability indicator:
blue high, medium purple, low red). ....................................................................................................... 52
Table 5.1 Definitions of degradation, biodegradation and compostable. ............................................................ 69
Table 5.2 Comparison of standards for industrial and home composting (from: Song et al. 2009) ................. 70
Table 5.3 Composition of different starches (from: Avérous and Halley 2009) .................................................. 71
Table 5.4 SWOT analysis (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats) of thermoplastic starch
production and use.................................................................................................................................. 72
Table 5.5 Starch-based polymers, biomass source and common uses, together with biodegradable and
composting properties (based on reported observations, where available, otherwise estimated):
medium M or low L; qualitative sustainability indicator: blue high, medium purple, low red). ........... 75
7
Table 5.6 SWOT analysis (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats) of PLA production and use
(based on: De Matos et al.2015). ........................................................................................................... 77
Table 5.7 SWOT analysis (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats) of PHA production and use
(based on: De Matos et al.2015). ........................................................................................................... 78
Table 5.8 Starch-based polymers, biomass source and common uses, together with a qualitative assessment
of worst-case biodegradable and composting properties (based on reported observations, where
available, otherwise estimated): domestic composting C-d, industrial composting C-i, biodegradable
B; degradation rate: high H, medium M or low L; qualitative sustainability indicator: blue high, medium
purple, low red); the degree and rate of decomposition will depend on the application, for example a
bottle vs. thin agricultural film, and the presence of additional co-polymers such as PCL................ 78
Table 6.1 SWOT analysis (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats) of re-usable materials as a
substitute for conventional synthetic polymers. ................................................................................... 81
Table 7.1 SDG targets related to reducing marine plastics and encouraging the sustainable development of
alternatives to conventional plastic ....................................................................................................... 90
Table 7.2 Summary of the Principles of Green Chemistry and Engineering, from Tabone et al. (2010) ........... 92
Table 7.3 (a) Qualitative indicators of sustainability for the production of textiles and other products from biomass
sources, from harvesting to the manufacturer. Indicators are based on estimates of the relative
environmental and human health impact, for a series of stages or characteristics in the production
process, from sources cited in the text or by inference; where BLUE indicates high, PURPLE indicates
medium and RED indicates low sustainability. In addition, the relative importance or impact of each
stage is assigned a value of low (L), medium (M) or high (H). (Cot = cotton, Org = organic, Hem =
hemp, Lin = linen, Abac = abaca, Rami = ramie, Woo = wool, Sta = starch, TPS = thermoplastic starch,
CP - composite, Ray = rayon). ................................................................................................................. 100
Table 7.3 (b) Qualitative indicators of sustainability for the production of textiles and other products from biomass
sources, during manufacture. Indicators are based on estimates of the relative environmental and
human health impact, for a series of stages or characteristics in the production process, from
sources cited in the text or by inference; where BLUE indicates high, PURPLE indicates medium
and RED indicates low sustainability. In addition, the relative importance or impact of each stage
is assigned a value of low (L), medium (M) or high (H). (Cot = cotton, Org = organic, Hem = hemp,
Lin = linen, Abac = abaca, Rami = ramie, Woo = wool, Sta = starch, TPS = thermoplastic starch, CP -
composite, Ray = rayon).......................................................................................................................... 101
Table 7.3 (c) Qualitative indicators of sustainability for the production of textiles and other products from
biomass sources, during use and at the end-of-life. Indicators are based on estimates of the relative
environmental and human health impact, for a series of stages or characteristics in the production
process, from sources cited in the text or by inference; where BLUE indicates high, PURPLE indicates
medium and RED indicates low sustainability. In addition, the relative importance or impact of each
stage is assigned a value of low (L), medium (M) or high (H). (Cot = cotton, Org = organic, Hem =
hemp, Lin = linen, Abac = abaca, Rami = ramie, Woo = wool, Sta = starch, TPS = thermoplastic starch,
CP - composite, Ray = rayon). ................................................................................................................. 102
Table 7.4 A comparison of rankings for PLA, PHA and a range of conventional polymers, based of Green
Design and Life Cycle Analysis scores; from Tabone et al. 2010......................................................... 103
Table 8.1 Qualitative assessment of the technical complexity, start-up costs, regional relevance (TR - tropical/
sub-tropical, TE – temperate), possibility to scale up, advantages and disadvantages of solution
involving natural materials: L- low, M – medium, H- high; blue - most favourable, red - least favourable.
109
sub-tropical, TE – temperate), possibility to scale up, advantages and disadvantages, of solutions
involving biomass-based, compostable, synthetic biopolymers: L- low, M – medium, H- high; blue -
most favourable, red - least favourable.................................................................................................. 110
sub-tropical, TE – temperate), possibility to scale up, advantages and disadvantages, of solutions
involving re-usable materials: L- low, M – medium, H- high; blue - most favourable, red - least
favourable. ............................................................................................................................................... 111
8
List of Figures
Figure 1.1 Per capita use (kg) of plastics by region in 2014; data source https://www.statista.com................. 15
Figure 2.1 The ‘Bagmonster’, pictured at the SDG14 Oceans Conference in New York, June 2017 UNHQ,
illustrating the number of bags an individual shopper might use in a year ©Peter Kershaw ............ 20
Figure 2.2 Production of conventional synthetic plastics from fossil fuel and biomass sources (adapted from
Joint Group of Experts on Scientific Aspects of Marine Environmental Protection 2015) ................ 21
Figure 2.3 European demand for plastics (thermoplastics and polyurethanes) by market sector in 2015
(Plastics Europe 2016) ............................................................................................................................ 22
Figure 2.4 Synthetic staple fibre production, 2014 (The Fiber Year Consulting 2015). ........................................ 23
Figure 2.5 Global fibre production (million tonnes) of polyester, cotton and wool, to 2025; reproduced from
Lusher et al. 2017; data source Tecnon OrbiChem. ............................................................................ 24
Figure 2.6 Global production of plastics (thermoplastics, thermosets, polyurethanes, adhesives, coatings
and sealants) and synthetic fibres (PA, PE, PP, PUR, PET, acrylic and PES fibres);
from data compiled by Lusher et al. 2017. ............................................................................................ 24
Figure 2.7 Production of semi-synthetic fibres and films from biomass sources ................................................ 29
Figure 2.8 Closing the loop within the plastic economy, showing options for re-using, recycling and
recovering energy, within the globally-understood 3 Rs principle of Reduce,
Re-use and Recover (adapted from United Nations Environment Programme 2016). ....................... 34
Figure 2.9 Clothing label illustrating the source of PET fibres, from recycled bottles, ©Peter Kershaw ............ 34
Figure 2.10 A selection of food for consumption, but only a single option for purchase – in plastic packaging;
JFK airport New York, June 2017 ©Peter Kershaw. ............................................................................. 35
Figure 2.11 The short life of a plastic lunch container, plastic cutlery, plastic drinks bottle and plastic cup:
International Institutional staff canteen, June 2017 © Peter Kershaw. ............................................... 36
Figure 2.13 A wasteful breakfast - a plastic mesh teabag, presented in a plastic wrapper, Bremen Germany, May
2017, ©Peter Kershaw............................................................................................................................. 36
Figure 2.12 Simplified schematic of the production and fate of food packaging made from conventional plastics
(original by P J Kershaw). ....................................................................................................................... 37
Figure 2.14 Loose fill used to protect goods in transit, made from EPS,
©Peter Kershaw. ...................................................................................................................................... 37
Figure 2.15 Plastic ‘blister pack’ covers – necessary protection or marketing ploy? ©Peter Kershaw. .............. 38
Figure 3.1 Estimated annual mass (tonnes) of plastic entering the oceans via rivers. River contributions are
derived from individual watershed characteristics such as: population density (inhabitants km-2);
per capita mismanaged plastic waste (MPW) production (kg d-1) and monthly averaged run-off
(mm d-1). The model is calibrated against river plastic concentration measurements from Europe,
Asia, North and South America (reproduced from Lebreton et al. 2017 under a Creative Commons
Attribution 4.0 International License). ................................................................................................... 39
Figure 3.2 Schematic of which synthetic polymers tend to float and which tend to sink in the ocean; image from
GRID-Arendal (2016). .............................................................................................................................. 40
Figure 3.3 Arcadis 4 seas study proportion of single-use consumer items.......................................................... 41
Figure 3.4 Compilation of shoreline litter monitoring at four European sites near urban areas, indicating the
probable source: (a) Constanta, Black Sea; (b) Barcelona, Mediterranean Sea; (c) Oostende, North
Sea; and, (d) Riga, Baltic Sea; (adapted from Arcadis 2012). ............................................................. 43
Figure 3.5 Composition of shoreline debris: (a): national survey in China September 2016 (304 km, 41 tonnes)
(Hong ed. 2017); (b) national survey in the UK 2016 (Marine Conservation Society 2017); (c) clean-up
of the Ha Long Bay UNESCO World Heritage Site, Vietnam, 2016-2017 (2.2 km, 1.6 tonnes) (Hong ed.
2017); and, (d) International Coastal Clean-up 2016 (Ocean Conservancy 2017). ........................... 44
Figure 3.6 Composition of microfibers sampled in different compartments of the marine environment, compiled
from published sources: (a) fish guts from the English Channel (Lusher et al.2013); (b) deep sea
sediments in the North and North-Eastern Atlantic, Mediterranean Sea and South-Western Indian
Ocean - ‘other’ includes polyamide and acetate (Woodall et al. 2014);
(c) Arctic sea ice (Obbard et al. 2014); and (d) shoreline sediments near urban areas worldwide,
excluding rayon fibres (Browne et al. 2011). ...................................................................................... 46
9
Figure 4.1 Main categories of plant fibres with examples (adapted from Suddell 2009) .................................... 48
Figure 4.2 Global use of natural fibres by major group in 2008, excluding use of straw, grass and wood fibres
(adapted from Rashka and Carus 2012)................................................................................................ 48
Figure 4.3 Cardboard packaging for protecting goods in postal transit ©Peter Kershaw ................................... 51
Figure 4.4 Wooden cartons to protect artisan cheese and butter ©Peter Kershaw ............................................. 52
Figure 4.5 Production of Mycofoam™ from agricultural waste, showing the raw material,
inoculation by a fungal strain, incubation and pressing. The example shows
protective corner mounts, replacing the use of EPS; images courtesy of Ecovative. ......................... 54
Figure 4.6 Grown structures created using waste cardboard, cotton bandage and inoculation with oyster
mushroom mycelium – practical and edible; images courtesy of the Mandin Collective.................. 55
Figure 4.7 A selection of personal care products in which the use of plastic has been reduced or
eliminated: a toothbrush with a bamboo handle marketed in a cardboard box,
wooden toothpicks and a nailbrush made with wood and natural bristle; ©Peter Kershaw. ............. 56
Figure 4.9 Bamboo straws, produced by Bali-boo in partnership with a family business in
Bali Indonesia; images courtesy of Bali-boo. ........................................................................................ 57
Figure 4.8 Harvesting jute in Bangladesh, image courtesy of the Tarango Project. ............................................. 57
Figure 4.10 Plates made from dried, stitched plant leaves; image courtesy of Leaf Republic GmbH. ................. 58
Figure 4.11 Plates and bowls produced from the leaves of the areca palm (Araca catechu);
photographs courtesy of Little Cherry.................................................................................................... 59
Figure 4.12 Manufacturing household objects from discarded orange and lemon peel;
images courtesy of the Mandin Collective. .......................................................................................... 60
Figure 4.13 The production cycle of Qmilch fabric, from source to finished product; central image
entrepreneur and company founder Anke Domaske; Holstein Freisian cow ©Liz Lund, all other
images courtesy of QMilch, model in red dress Britta Pathe ©Anna-Marina Fuhr. ............................ 61
Figure 4.14 Production of Piñatex™ fibres and products, from harvested pineapple leaves
(images courtesy of Claire Mueller, Ananas Anam). ............................................................................. 62
Figure 4.15 The intended life cycle of Piñatex™ as proposed by the manufacturer
(image courtesy of Ananas Anam). ...................................................................................................... 62
Figure 4.16 Shopping bags made from papyrus and baobab fibres ©Peter Kershaw ........................................... 63
Figure 4.17 Teacher Diana Ndungi and pupils from the Thika Girls’ Karibaribi school, weaving containers from
sisal as a replacement for plastic bags, for use in the forestry industry; image of single pot
courtesy of Thika Girls’ Karibaribi, other images ©Peter Kershaw. ..................................................... 64
Figure 4.18 Household items made from dried water hyacinth fibres: ladies handbag made from loom-woven
water hyacinth fibres and leather, place mats and floor-standing lampshade;
images courtesy of Achenyo Idachaba of Mitimeth. ............................................................................ 65
Figure 4.19 Carrier bags, cards and envelopes made from dried water hyacinth fibres harvested from
Lake Victoria, Kenya, with decorations made from scrap materials. ©Peter Kershaw...................... 65
Figure 4.20 The Triocup – a one-piece paper coffee cup with folding lid, image courtesy of Triocup. ................ 65
Figure 4.21 Bowls made by Afghan refugee women in Delhi, as part of the ENACTUS Patrada Project,
image courtesy of Kikori Mor College ................................................................................................... 66
Figure 4.22 Food sachets made from seaweed; images courtesy of Evoware ..................................................... 67
Figure 4.23 The ‘Ooho’ - flexible and edible packaging for water and other fluids, made from seaweed
and other plants; images courtesy of Skipping Rocks Lab,
photo credit upper left Katherine Fawsett. ........................................................................................... 68
Figure 4.24 Lampshades manufactured from minimally processed brown seaweed (Fucus sp.), by Louis
Johnston of the Mandin Collective; images courtesy of the Mandin Collective. ................................ 68
Figure 5.1 Global production of biomass-based biopolymers in 2014 (European Bioplastics 2015). ................ 69
Figure 5.2 Simplified schematic of the production of starch-based polymers ..................................................... 74
Figure 5.3 Tomato skins – a source of cutin for a novel biomass-based polymer; ©Peter Kershaw.................. 74
Figure 5.4 Simplified schematic of the production of poly(lactic acid) (PLA) and
polyhydroxylkanoates (PHA). ................................................................................................................. 76
Figure 5.5 Applications of PLA by sector (data from Karamanlioglu et al. 2017) ............................................... 77
Figure 5.6 Food packaging made from a combination of compostable materials, including paper, cardboard,
cellophane and TPS-sugarcane bagasse composite; images courtesy of Vegware™. ...................... 79
Figure 5.7 Catering ware made from PLA thermoplastic; images courtesy of Vegware™. .................................. 79
10
Figure 5.8 Schematic illustrating the production cycle of PHA-based products, including fibres;
images courtesy of Anne Schauer-Gimenez of Mango Materials ....................................................... 80
Figure 6.1 Re-useable stainless steel and aluminium bottles and a re-useable stainless
steel mug, promoting the sustainability message, ©Peter Kershaw ................................................... 82
Figure 6.2 A selection of stainless steel re-usable containers and vessels, for food storage and
consumption; images courtesy of Liz from Elephant Box. ................................................................... 83
Figure 6.3 Dispensing machine for installation in retail stores, allowing small quantities of
household products to be purchased using small re-fillable containers; image courtesy Algramo. . 83
Figure 6.4 The MIWA packaging solution, utilising re-fillable capsules; images courtesy MIWA........................ 84
Figure 6.5 Milk bottles, filled by an automatic dispensing machine, used for direct farms sales,
Suffolk UK ©Peter Kershaw. ................................................................................................................... 85
Figure 6.6 Delegates at a conference of the Japan Society of Environmental Chemistry in 2013,
with metal re-fillable water bottles issued at registration to minimise the use of
PET bottles; the text is an extract of the Conference flyer, explaining the aim to minimise
plastic waste at the conference; the single bottle is a newer design with a bamboo lid,
shown with a re-fillable bamboo-handled fountain pen; images courtesy of Hideshige Takada....... 86
Figure 6.7 Re-usable coffee cups connected by smart phone to customers – the model for CupClub;
image courtesy of Safia Queresi (pictured) of CupClub. ..................................................................... 86
Figure 6.8 Products made from re-cycled chopsticks, collected, processed and marketed by
ChopValue of Vancouver Canada; images courtesy of Atiya Livingston of ChopValue. .................... 87
Figure 6.9 Examples of fabrics produced using sustainable principles by STUDY Design of
New York; images courtesy of Tara St James of STUDY Design ......................................................... 88
Figure 7.1 The 17 UN Sustainable Development Goals ......................................................................................... 90
Figure 7.2 Simplified framework to guide design of more sustainable food packaging, adapted from
Gronman et al. 2013. ............................................................................................................................. 94
Figure 7.3 Environmental, economic, technical and functional challenges of the packaging
value chain, adapted and further developed from Gronman et al. 2013. ............................................ 95
Figure 7.4 Environmental impact Index (EI) scores for a variety of fibres: C – cotton,
OC – organic cotton, F – flax, W – wool, V – viscose, PA-6 polyamide 6,
PA-66 - polyamide 66, PES – polyester, PP – polypropylene, A – acrylic;
adapted from Muthu et al. 2012. ........................................................................................................... 98
Figure 7.5 Ecological Sustainability Index (ESI)scores for a variety of fibres: C – cotton, OC – organic cotton,
F – flax. W – wool, V – viscose, PA-6 polyamide 6, PA-66 - polyamide 66, PES – polyester, PP –
polypropylene, A – acrylic; adapted from Muthu et al. 2012. .............................................................. 99
Figure 7.6 Simplified schematic of end-of-life options for biomass-based materials and fossil fuel-based
synthetic polymers (original by P J Kershaw). ...................................................................................... 105
Figure 7.7 Simplified schematic of a closed-loop system for food waste and food packaging, based on the
exclusive use of: compostable synthesised bio-polymers, such as PLA, PHA and starch blends, and
other compostable materials (original by P.J. Kershaw). .................................................................... 105
11
12
Photo Credit: Shutterstock/
Marine plastic debris on beach
Executive summary
The ocean has become a repository for an increasing quantity of plastics and microplastics. This
has been matched, in recent years, by growing awareness of the social, economic and environmental
impacts that this phenomenon is causing. There is widespread recognition that urgent action is required
to reduce the leakage of plastics to the ocean, but that there is no simple solution. It is clear that the
traditional linear production, use and disposal model for conventional plastics is not sustainable and
results in unacceptable harm. This requires the development and implementation of more closed-loop,
or circular, production models. But there is scope for assessing whether there are alternative solutions
that minimise the use of conventional plastics for applications in which they are not essential.
The purpose of this study was to assess the potential of replacing conventional plastics with alternative
materials in certain applications, as part of a wider strategy of reducing marine plastic litter and
microplastics. The target audience is governments and businesses. This may appear a daunting task,
given the ubiquity of plastics in our daily lives, described in Chapter 2, so it seemed sensible to identify
certain categories of plastics that may prove more amenable to reduction or replacement. ollowing
an assessment of the most common items reported in field surveys hapter it was decided to
focus part of the study on ‘single-use’ plastic waste from single-use packaging and consumer products
intended for short-term use, such as food and drink containers, given the preponderance of these
categories in surveys of ocean plastics, especially in shoreline debris. Another common feature of
microplastics identified in surveys of biota sediments and seawater is the abundance of micro-fibres.
icro-fibres on shorelines especially near urban centres consist mostly of te tile fibres and this
provided a second focus for the study.
Three main categories of alternative materials were considered natural fibres hapter biomass-
based compostable synthetic biopolymers hapter and re-usable durable non-plastic materials
hapter . Each of the chapters considers the potential options available and then presents a series
of illustrative case studies. Twenty-five case studies are presented in total. Natural fibres derived from
both plants and animals were considered and their uses were illustrated in a series of case studies.
This included fibres with a long history of use as well as more novel applications. The latter includes
the use of fungal mycelium with biomass waste to ‘grow’ structures and protective packaging for
delicate goods. The three main categories of compostable biopolymers considered were thermoplastic
starch poly lactic acid P and polyhydro yl anoates P . These can all be synthesised from
waste biomass but need to be used in closed-loop systems to ensure i they are ept separate from
recycled plastic waste streams and ii they do not enter the ocean where P and P will behave li e
conventional plastics and fail to degrade. ne case study is presented that illustrates the use of P
for food packaging and food canteen items in the University of Cambridge in the UK. The case studies
illustrating the re-use of materials focussed on stainless steel food containers and ‘up-cycling’ used
bamboo chopsticks and waste textiles in the clothing sector.
The following chapter hapter places the potential use of alternative materials in the conte t of
the UN Sustainable Development Goals and the cradle-to-cradle philosophy, including carbon-neutral,
ero waste options. specific e ample was described of the application of green design principles
to the packaging sector. Life Cycle Analysis is a useful tool to assess the potential social, economic
and environmental consequences of using different materials. All LCAs depend on making a number
of assumptions about which factors to include and the weighting given to each of these as well as
the value assigned. Some factors, such as energy use, are relatively easy to quantify whereas others,
such as end-of life fate, are much more problematic to describe. Unfortunately, most published LCAs
comparing plastics with alternative materials only consider the cradle-to-factory gate phases of the
production cycle. eaving out the end-of-life phase and possible beneficial uses of the waste means
that such analyses are grossly misleading. There is a clear need for environmental economists to work
with agronomists, material scientists, environmental scientists and others, to devise more realistic and
reliable techniques for whole life cycle analysis assessment. Chapter 8 presents a series of suggested
13
next steps. These encompass the need for an incremental and multi-stakeholder approach, with
due attention paid to the challenges and opportunities presented in different social, economic and
environmental contexts. The potential for taking forward some of the examples presented in the report
is e plored including a summary of the technical and financial re uirements of the various schemes
and their potential for scaling up.
This report aims to provide representative examples of some of the many alternative materials that are
either available commercially, or are in development. It is intended to encourage entrepreneurs, ‘start-
ups and established businesses - as well as researchers in the fields of materials science engineering
agronomy and related fields to e plore more effective and sustainable products and practices. The
overall aim should be to reduce society’s dependence on the unnecessary use of plastics, especially
from fossil-fuel sources. Potential solutions will need to take account of regional and local differences
in the social, economic and environmental circumstances. It is important to foresee and eliminate
unintended consequences; for example, putting at risk food security or affordability by using staple
food crops such as cassava for non-food uses. Life Cycle Assessments are a key tool to test the
sustainability of different options but they must be sufficiently broadly based to include all the relevant
factors, including how the alternative materials will behave in the environment and the degree to which
different options can be scaled up. To encourage greater take up, avoid confusion and minimise misuse,
it is important for regulators to ensure that the labelling of products is clear, accurate, comprehensive
and understandable by users.
14
1. BACKGROUND
1. Background
1.1 Marine litter as a global issue
Plastics1 are regarded by many as an essential part of our lives, in the 21st Century. Since their
widespread introduction in the mid-1950s, the production and development of plastics has expanded
dramatically, the number of applications has grown substantially, with plastics being utilised in
construction, food and water provision, clothing, medicine, transport, electronics and household goods.
Undoubtedly plastics have brought about a great many societal benefits with greatest per capita use
occurring in developed or large emerging economies igure . . Unfortunately the pace of adoption
has not been matched by an appreciation of the social, economic and environmental damage being
caused by improper disposal of unwanted or end-of-life plastics. Perhaps as a consequence, these costs
have rarely been included in assessments of the ‘sustainability’ of plastics production and use. We have
paid insufficient attention to preventing the unnecessary use and inappropriate disposal of unwanted
and end-of life plastics with the inevitable results that we now find plastic litter on every continent in
some of the most remote regions, and throughout the ocean.
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
es
pe
il
a
az
in
di
pa
ic
at
ro
ex
Ch
In
Br
Ja
St
Eu
M
d
ite
Un
Figure 1.1 Per capita use (kg) of plastics by region in 2014; data source https://www.statista.com2
ortunately it is becoming much more widely recognised that plastic debris in the ocean represents
a very significant form of pollution with demonstrable social economic and environmental impacts
United Nations Environment Programme . It is not a new problem. eports in the scientific
literature about the occurrence and possible impact of plastics in the ocean started to emerge in 1960s
and 1970s. But there was a failure to embrace the magnitude of the issue, by society in general and in
part by the wider scientific community. ther forms of contamination such as heavy metals biocides
and radionuclides tended to receive more attention. ‘Business as usual’ continued, with land- and
sea-based commercial sectors, as well as and the general public, treating the ocean as a convenient
repository for waste plastics, and many other unwanted pollutants. It was not until the mid-2000s that
the problem started to emerge and attract the attention of the scientific and wider community by which
time enormous quantities of plastics had entered the ocean.
Plastic is defined here as a synthetic polymer with thermo-plastic or thermo-set properties which may be synthesi ed from
hydrocarbon or biomass raw materials UNEP .
2 https://www.statista.com/statistics/270312/consumption-of-plastic-materials-per-capita-since-1980
15
Geyer et al. have estimated that million tonnes of virgin plastics have been generated to
date of which tonnes of plastic waste has been generated as of . f this they estimate
has been recycled incinerated and accumulated in landfill or the natural environment.
We do not know, with certainty, the total quantity of plastics currently residing in the ocean, nor the
annual incremental increase from land- and sea-based sources. What has been possible is to use
proxy evidence of plastics production, use and disposal to provide estimates of what may have entered
the ocean. This can be compared with estimates of what is there by combining data from sampling
programmes with the results of ocean circulation models. Estimates have been made of the total
production of plastics globally and the uantities that are recycled or sent to landfill. Estimates have
also been made of the quantities of plastic that may be entering the ocean as a result of inadequate
land-based waste management, for example 4.8 – 12.7 million tonnes in 2010 (Jambeck et al. .
These types of study are extremely helpful in indicating the scale and geographical distribution of the
problem. or e ample the analysis by ambec et al. based on figures of waste generation by
country from the World Bank, suggested that the leakage of waste plastic was greatest from a relatively
small number of large developing economies, due to inadequate solid waste generation rather than
higher per capita use.
Unfortunately, even these quite sophisticated investigations have not been able to take account of all
significant marine litter sources. Not included are direct inputs from maritime activities such as sea-
based sources from shipping fisheries and a uaculture and shipping as well as plastics from shoreline
or coastal water activities such as beach tourism and recreational boating and fishing. Without these
sources we cannot estimate the total annual inputs to the ocean. In addition, we are largely ignorant
of the quantities of plastics and microplastics residing on the seabed. Despite these caveats, we can
state with a high degree of confidence that there is too much plastic in the ocean that it causes
unwanted social, economic and environmental impacts, and that too much continues to enter each year.
onse uently an intervention is essential United Nations Environment Programme .
1.2 The Response
The response to tackling the issue of marine plastics and microplastics in the ocean has been focused
largely around identifying ‘leakage’ points in the current plastic-based economy. Leakage of plastics
into the environment can come at every stage of the production, manufacturing, distribution, use
and disposal pathway. A common approach has been to identify these points and then intervene by
designing measures to reduce or eliminate the source s . These issues were described in some detail
the report ‘Marine plastic debris and microplastics – global lessons and research to inspire action
and guide policy change’, which was presented at UNEA-2 in May 2016 (United Nations Environment
Programme . This approach can be viewed as fitting into a broader strategy of adopting a more
circular or closed-loop production cycle. This is reflected in a number of arine itter ction Plans
developed in recent years both at an intergovernmental e.g. countries countries EU and
national e.g. Indonesia level. In general the ction Plans include involvement by local government and
municipalities, the private sector – encouraging the adoption of more sustainable practices in industrial
and commercial practices and business models - and pressure from civil society.
Rather less attention, at an inter-governmental level, has been paid to the potential of reducing our
use of plastics altogether by exploring the wider adoption of alternative naturally available materials,
particularly for short-life applications such as packaging, as well as textiles. The widespread adoption of
plastics in many aspects of modern living, for reasons of cost and convenience, has proceeded without
due regard to the significant social and environmental costs. This trend may lead us to ignore society s
historic dependence on plants and animals for non-food use, such as clothing, shelter, textiles and food
storage, over millennia.
There are many applications for which synthetic plastics provide an essential role, particularly in the
medical field. ut there are applications for which plastics are not essential and where natural materials
16
1. BACKGROUND
and existing or emerging technologies may have an important part to play to wean society off an overly
dependent relationship with traditional plastics. To ma e a significant difference such materials will
need to meet the demands of applications where they are replacing plastics. It is essential that progress
is accelerated on developing and implementing a more sustainable use of resources, both for plastics
and non-plastics.
1.3 Purpose and content of the report
This report presents a range of alternative approaches and materials that have the potential for
reducing our use of plastics for a range of common applications. All alternative approaches have one
thing in common with conventional polymers; they can be characterised in terms of their Strengths,
Wea nesses the pportunities they present and the Threats W T that may be associated with their
adoption. This can be neatly summarised in a W T analysis table Table . and this is used as a
unifying thread through the report.
Table 1.1 Presentation of a SWOT analysis
Weaknesses Opportunities
Strengths Threats
Chapter 2 describes society’s current relationship with plastics and microplastics, and is intended to
provide conte t to the following chapters. It ac nowledges the great benefits that have been gained
from the widespread adoption of plastics but also identifies the unintended but significant social
economic and environmental impacts that have been experienced. We cannot rid the oceans of plastics
simply by seeking alternative materials, but we can identify which types of litter occur most commonly
on shorelines and in the ocean hapter to help focus where change may have the greatest impact.
The three following chapters provide e amples of the use of naturally-occurring materials hapter
newer-generation biomass-based and compostable polymers hapter and re-usable durable ob ects
hapter . The emphasis is on consumer products especially for pac aging applications as these
represent a major use of traditional plastics and the prime categories contributing to marine litter. The
United Nations genda and the ustainable evelopment oals s provide a ey framewor
for integrating efforts to reduce ocean plastics and microplastics with wider effects to improve human
welfare and encourage more sustainable practices. Within the 2030 Agenda it is important to consider
the wider social and economic context of developing different approaches, as well as the environmental
consequences in the production, use and post-use phases. These issues are discussed in Chapter 7.
ptions for further developing options for reducing our dependence on plastic pac aging and other
short-lived wastes are explored in Chapter 8. The report concludes with a series of conclusions and
recommendations for action.
17
The #CleanSeas Campaign
UN Environment launched #CleanSeas in February 2017, with the aim of engaging governments,
the general public, civil society and the private sector in the fight against marine plastic litter.
So far, 43 countries have joined the campaign, and more than 80 000 people worldwide have
pledged to take action to reduce their own plastic footprints.
Going forward, we will address the root-cause of marine litter by targeting the production and
consumption of non-recoverable and single-use plastic. To do this effectively, we need citizens
to be aware, engaged and active in addressing the problem in their own lives and beyond. We
are giving a platform to hundreds of local organizations who are already doing important work
on marine litter to highlight their efforts. We also need to be informed about what alternatives to
plastic exist, and this report is an important contribution in that regard.
By connecting individuals, civil society groups, industry and governments, UN Environment aims
to transform habits, practices, standards and policies around the globe to dramatically reduce
marine litter and the harm it causes. It is time to turn the tide on plastic!
http://www.cleanseas.org/
UN Environment launch of the Clean Seas campaign in Bali, Indonesia.

Photo Credit: UN Environment/Shawn Heinrichs
18
2. OUR RELATIONSHIP WITH PLASTIC
2. Our relationship with plastic
2.1 Criteria for adopting plastics
The widespread adoption of plastics from the s onwards has brought about very significant
benefits for society. These benefits have rapidly been e tended to most communities across the globe
and include:
1. Improved human health – medical applications

2. Improved food security reducing food wastage from field to mar et and from mar et to the
consumer
3. Improved efficiency of resource use e.g. lower energy and water consumption
4. Lower costs of products to the consumer (the cost excludes the external costs to society and the
environment
5. Novel applications where there are no equivalent non-plastic alternatives
The benefits of conventional synthetic polymers together with some of the disadvantages are
summarised in a W T analysis Table . .
Table 2.1 SWOT analysis (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats) of conventional synthetic
polymers.
S1. Improved human health outcomes from W1. Utilises fossil fuels and is not carbon neutral
medical applications W2. Risk to human health during production
. Pac aging reduces food wastage from field due to exposure to chemicals, including
to market and market to consumer endocrine-disrupting chemicals
S3. Lower water and energy consumption in W3. Risk to human health, social and economic
production well-being and the environment during use
S4. Novel applications where there are no and end-of-life phases
equivalents W4. Very limited biodegradation in the
S5. Lower fuel consumption in aviation and environment, especially in the ocean, leading
vehicular transport to rapid accumulation
S6. Packaging reduces damage to goods during W5. Waste management solutions are grossly
transport inadequate in most countries
S7. Convenience to consumers, including for W6. Circular production patterns are rarely
‘take-away’ or ‘fast-food’ applications implemented
. evelopment of new polymers and T1. Continuing accumulation of plastics and

composites for diverse applications microplastics in the environment
. edesign of products to allow lower material T2. Long term consequences for human
use, product re-use and improved recycling reproductive and developmental health
potential, in a circular or closed-loop T3. Long term consequences for social and
production cycle economic well-being due to impact of plastic
. Utilisation of intrinsically lower ris waste
chemicals in production and as additives to
maintain performance
19
ne of the main drivers of this approach has been
convenience. It can seem easier to use plastics for
some applications. Another characteristic has been a
reluctance to deal with plastics once the product is no
longer required – the end-of-life phase. Unfortunately,
convenience is often accompanied by another
characteristic, the emergence of ‘single-use’ plastics. This
is e emplified by the emergence of the ubi uitous thin-
film shopping bag which are used globally in enormous
uantities igure . . This is one area that has
witnessed a number of initiatives to reduce or curtail use,
including the use of fees and outright bans, providing a
clear incentive to introduce alternative materials. Another
example is the extensive use of plastic micro-beads in
personal care products such as toothpaste and skin
cleaning scrubs. Their inclusion is unnecessary. Prior
to their introduction many products were produced
Figure 2.1 The ‘Bagmonster’, pictured at
containing a natural equivalent, such as ground nut the SDG14 Oceans Conference
ernels wood fibres mica fla es or pumice. The in New York, June 2017 UNHQ,
replacement of plastic micro-beads by such materials illustrating the number of bags an
will not detract from the performance of the product, individual shopper might use in a
whether it is to clean or to provide sparkle3. year ©Peter Kershaw
Single-use food containers are not a uniquely modern phenomenon. Many communities in South Asia,
Southeast Asia, Africa and South America have a long tradition of the sustainable use of the leaves from
several species of plant to wrap, cook or serve food. Examples include the leaves of the Sal (Shorea
robusta), Banyan (Ficus benghalensis) and banana or plantain (Musa sp.). There has been a decline in
popularity in some regions following the introduction of plastic products4.
The adoption of single-use, short-lived products is seen at its most extreme in the ‘fast food’ economy,
in which plastic food and drink containers, lids, cutlery, stirrers and straws are used extensively, only
to become waste sometimes ust a few minutes later see section . . . It is also seen in our use of
plastics for the protection of goods in transit, and for the presentation of goods to the consumer, both
edible and non-edible. It seems reasonable to as whether all such uses are fully ustified. The uestion
could be framed as is the adoption of plastics for this application useful ustified and appropriate or
useful convenient but inappropriate The uest to find alternatives to plastics is probably best directed
towards applications where the answer to this uestion is b .
Is the adoption of plastics for this application:

a) useful, justified and appropriate?
or
b) useful, convenient but inappropriate?
Most attention in the development of applications for plastics has focussed on the part of the plastics
economy that starts with the raw material and ends either at the factory gate or upon delivery to the
retail outlet or customer. ost ife ycle nalysis s of plastics production are confined in a
similar way hapter . This e cludes the downstream costs of plastics use e emplified by an almost
complete absence of the social and environmental costs of plastics use in such assessments. The
relatively recent upsurge in public and political interest in marine plastic litter has highlighted this
3 https://www.lushusa.com/Stories-Article?cid=article_all-that-glitters
https timesofindia.indiatimes.com city ranchi al-leaf-dishes-ma e-way-for-plastic-ones articleshow .
cms?referral=PM
20
dis-connect between two competing social demands – for plastics in their myriad forms and for an
environment free from plastic waste.
The proposition presented in this report is that the wider adoption on non-plastic alternative materials
will allow the functions provided presently by plastics to be met at lower social and environmental
cost. Before examining the potential of this approach it is necessary to look at some key aspects of the
current plastics economy and society’s utilisation of this broad range of materials.
2.2 Conventional plastics
2.2.1 Synthetic thermoplastic and thermoset polymers
In the present context the term ‘plastic’ refers to a group of synthetic polymers, composed of repeating
chains of carbon-based units. The source of carbon can be from fossil fuels or biomass. There are two
main groups of plastic: thermoplastics, capable of being deformed by heating; and thermoset, which
cannot be re-moulded igure . . In volume terms the mar et in conventional plastics is dominated by
four classes of polymer synthesised primarily from fossil fuel sources polyethylene PE polyethylene
terephthalate PET polypropylene PP and polyvinyl chloride P . owever there are many other
plastics produced, and many new formulations based on combinations of existing polymers. Some of
the most important polymers are listed in table 2.2, together with their typical applications.
Fossil fuel derived Biomass derived
Synthetic polymer
Thermoplastic Thermoset
PE PP PS PVC PET PU SBR epoxy
Figure 2.2 Production of conventional synthetic plastics from fossil fuel and biomass sources (adapted
from Joint Group of Experts on Scientific Aspects of Marine Environmental Protection 2015)
21
Table 2.2 Typical applications by polymer, excluding fibres (adapted from Plastics Europe 2016)
Polymer Typical applications

Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene ABS High impact parts in automobiles
resin
Polybutylene terephthalate PBT ptical fibres
Polycarbonate PC ubstitute glass in greenhouses roofing sheets spectacles
Polyethylene – low and linear PE-LD ags trays containers agricultural film food pac aging film
low density PE-LLD
Polyethylene – high and PE-HD Toys, milk bottles, shampoo bottles, pipes, household goods
medium density PE-MD
Polyethylene terephthalate PET Bottles for water and other drinks, dispensing containers for
cleaning fluids
Poly methyl methacrylate PMMA Touch screens for electronic goods
Polypropylene PP ood pac aging snac sweet wrappers microwave-proof
containers, automotive parts, bank notes
Polystyrene PS Spectacle frames, cutlery, plates and cups
Expanded polystyrene EPS Packaging, insulated food packaging, building insulation,
buoyancy
Polytetrafluoroethylene PT E Telecommunication cables
Polyurethane PUR Building insulation, insulation for fridges/freezers, foam

mattresses
Polyvinyl chloride PVC Window frames floor and wall coverings cable insulation
ther thermoset and Epoxy resins, surgical devices, seals, coatings and many other
thermoplastics diverse uses
European plastics demand is dominated by the pac aging and construction sectors with
appreciable uantities used in the automotive electrical and electronics and agricultural
sectors igure . Plastics Europe .
22%
3%
40%
6%
packaging
9% building and construction
automotive
electrical and electronics
agricultural
20% others
Figure 2.3 European demand for plastics (thermoplastics and polyurethanes) by market sector in 2015
(Plastics Europe 2016)
22
2.2.2 Synthetic fibres
ynthetic polymers are widely used for the production of fibres particularly for use in te tiles and
rope. ere the mar et is dominated by polyester PE and PET which is a particular form of polyester
but there are several others that are used for more specialist applications, including: polyacrylonitrile
acrylic P N polyamide nylon P polypropylene PP and polyether-polyurea co-polymer pande
Table . igure . . ost synthetic fibres are made from fossil-fuel sources although a large
proportion of PET fibres are made from recycled PET bottles. abrics are fre uently manufactured using
combinations of synthetic polymers and natural fibres.
Table 2.3 Synthetic polymer fibres and their applications
Polymer Typical applications

Polyacrylonitrile PAN Thermal clothing fire-resistant fabrics carpets protective
clothing, hair extensions, faux fur
Polyamide aliphatic PA Nylon P P clothing other te tiles rope fishing line
Polyamide aromatic PA Body armour, racing sails, bicycle tyres, rope e.g. Kevlar™
Polyester PES Clothing, other textiles
Polyethylene terephthalate PET utdoor clothing other te tiles
polyester
Polypropylene PP Thermal clothing sleeping bag filler
Polyether-polyurea Spandex Sportswear, swimwear, under-garments e.g. Elastane, Lycra™
The mar et in synthetic fibres is dominated by polyester igure . and production has increased
substantially compared with cotton igure . .
1%
6%
10%
polyester
83% acrylics
polypropylene
polyamide
Figure 2.4 Synthetic staple fibre production, 2014 (The Fiber Year Consulting 2015).
23
Global fibre production and projections until the year 2025
100
90
80
70
Million tonnes
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
80
83
86
89
92
95
98
01
04
07
10
13
16
19
22
25
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
Figure 2.5 Global fibre production (million tonnes) of polyester, cotton and wool, to 2025; reproduced
from Lusher et al. 2017; data source
polyesterTecnon cotton
OrbiChem. wool
Natural and synthetic fibres occur in two forms. taple fibre is characterised as a fibre of a particular
length either occurring naturally wool cotton or cut to length synthetics . ilament fibres are
produced in near continuous form and may occur naturally e.g. sil or be synthesised and left uncut.
ibre production represents about of total synthetic polymer production igure . based on
Lusher et al. . ost production of synthetic fibres is occurs in sia followed by Europe
the mericas and the rest of world .
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
Year
fibres plastics
Figure 2.6 Global production of plastics (thermoplastics, thermosets, polyurethanes, adhesives, coatings
and sealants) and synthetic fibres (PA, PE, PP, PUR, PET, acrylic and PES fibres); from data
compiled by Lusher et al. 2017.
24
2.2.3 Human health aspects
The introduction and widespread adoption of plastics in so many aspects of our lives has brought about
enormous benefits. Unfortunately there have been many unwanted conse uences resulting in impacts
on human society and the environment, including due to chemical hazards associated with plastics
production (Lithner et al. . This has led to some significant impacts on human health particularly
for those people who have experienced occupational exposure during plastics manufacture. Well
documented examples include the increased incidence of certain cancers amongst workers exposed
to styrene monomer in the reinforced plastics industry (Ruder et al. 2016, Christensen et al. and
a number of conditions in wor ers e posed to vinyl chloride monomer such as genoto icity liver
cancer and neurological dysfunction, collectively called VCM disease (Wang et al. . summary of
hazard rankings for selected polymers is presented in Table 2.4.
Table 2.4 Ranking of selected polymers based on the hazard classification component monomers, based
on Lithner et al. (2011), which should be consulted for more comprehensive hazard rankings
and explanation of the methods used. The hazard score for some polymers will vary depending
on the plasticiser used (e.g. PVC) or the incorporation of another monomer (e.g. PAN)
Polymer Monomer(s) Hazard level Hazard score

Polyurethane PU Propylene oxide, ethylene V 13,844
oxide
Polyacrylonitrile P N Acrylamide V 11,521
Polyvinyl chloride P - plasticised Vinyl chloride V 10.551
crylonitrile butadiene styrene Styrene, acyonitrile V 6,552
terpolymer
Epo y resin E P Bisphenol A V 4,226
Polycarbonate P Bisphenol A, phosgene IV 1,177
Polymethyl methacrylate P Methyl methacrylate IV 1,021
Polyamide P nylon -caproamide II 50
E panded polystyrene EP Styrene II 44
Polystyrene P Styrene II 30
igh-density polyethylene PE Ethylene II 11
inear-low-density polyethylene PE Ethylene II 11
inear-low-density polyethylene PE Ethylene II 10
Polyethylene terephthalate PET Dimethyl terephthalate, II 4
ethylene glycol
PP Propylene I 1
PVAc Vinyl acetate I 1
Applications of single-use plastics in medicine include disposable syringes, intravenous bags, dialysis
tubing and surgical gloves with great benefits to patients and wor ers. owever even within the
healthcare sector concerns have been raised about the resultant exposure to endocrine disrupting
chemicals characteristics of certain polymers and products North and alden .
The association of endocrine disorders with a range of environmental stressors has been reviewed
by Maqbool et al. . hemicals with endocrine disrupting E s properties include a range of
pesticides additives in plastics Table . and Persistent rganic Pollutants P P such as P s.
In-vitro studies have demonstrated very significant impacts due to e posure to E s ang et al. .
Epidemiological evidence has been reported of the link between endocrine-disrupting chemicals and the
incidence of breast cancer (Brophy et al. diabetes elmurugan et al. metabolic syndrome
alden cardiovascular and reproductive health ariana et al. . oetal brain development
is influenced by the maternal endocrine system. E posure to certain phthalates in late pregnancy
25
has been lin ed to a range of neurobehavioural problems in boys obrosly et al. and abnormal
sexual maturation, including low sperm quality (Bergman et al. . The ubi uity of E s in the home
provides a ready source for potential low-level but persistent exposure, which may occur via a variety of
routes including ingestion and inhalation. Establishing more reliable dose-response data requires further
research, including exposure in the womb and during early life stages, when the risk may be greatest
(Koch and Calafat 2009, Meeker et al. . useful literature review on plastics gender and the
environment has been compiled by Lynn et al. ( 5
.
Table 2.5 Examples of common plastic additives, associated functions, potential effect and status under
the Stockholm Convention
Additive Function Effect Listing under

Stockholm
Conventiona
Phthalates Plasticiser used to soften Endocrine disruptor
plastics, especially PVC
Nonylphenol Antioxidant and Endocrine disruptor
plasticiser
isphenol P Antioxidant and estrogen mimic
plasticiser PP PE P
rominated flame retardants educe flammability Endocrine disruptor
hexabromobiphenyl educe flammability Endocrine disruptor Elimination

hexabromocyclododecane educe flammability Endocrine disruptor Eliminationb
commercial penta, octa and educe flammability Endocrine disruptor Elimination
decabromodiphenyl ether
hort-chain chlorinated paraffins Plasticiser, reduce Carcinogenic Elimination
P flammability
Pentadecafluorooctanoic acid Surfactant in production Carcinogenic Under consideration
P of fluropolymers and
as water and stain
protection on textiles
a
as of ctober b
special exemption for the production and use of HBCD in EPS for buildings
Greatest exposure from ECDs may be expected to occur in occupational settings, where exposure
may be prolonged over many years. This appears to be the case for workers in the automotive plastics
industry, for example by exposure to mists and vapours during injection moulding (Brophy et al. .
emale wor ers in this industry who account for appro imately of the wor force in North merica
reported abnormally high occurrences of breast cancer and reproductive disorders. verall women in
this sector had a three-fold increase in the risk of developing breast cancer compared to the control
group according to one anadian study with the ris increasing to five-fold in pre-menopausal women
(Brophy et al. .
This phenomenon is not limited to the plastics industry. Higher incidences of breast cancer have been
observed in female wor ers in the agricultural sector following e posure to pesticides. ne difficulty
in proving that these and similar endocrine disorders are related to occupational or environmental
exposure is the lack of adequate epidemiological studies. The same is true when looking at the
incidence and causes of development abnormalities, where exposure may have occurred in the womb
or during early life stages (Halden 2010, Kobrosly et al. .
A concise but comprehensive consensus statement on the impact of endocrine disruption, based on
the published scientific literature has been compiled by ergman et al. . This provides a summary
5 http://www.wecf.eu/english/publications/2017/Gender-and-Plastics.php
26
of major UN report produced jointly in 2013 by the United Nations Environment Programme and the
World ealth rganisation erman et al. eds. . further complicating factor is that the wor place
may represent the source of a number of additional to ic and carcinogenic compounds enga .
Separating the contribution of these various environmental stressors may be challenging. However, it
is clear that the substantial increase in endocrine-related disorders, and the potential contribution of
plastics, requires urgent attention.
Female workers in the automotive plastics industry in Canada have a three-fold

increased risk of developing breast cancer due to exposure to endocrine disrupting
chemicals.
Brophy et al.2012
Concern about the impact of plastics on human health extends to the end-of-use phase. Recycling is
often heralded as the most important aspect of preventing plastics from ‘leaking’ into the environment
and promoting a more closed-loop plastic production cycle see section . on the plastics economy .
Unfortunately workers employed in the commercial recycling sector can be exposed to damaging levels
of a number of compounds. There is a well-developed import-export trade in waste plastic, with much
of the waste from Europe and North merica the regions with the greatest per capita use ending up
in India, China and West Africa, where working conditions and compliance with regulation may be poor
United Nations Environment Programme . or e ample a study amongst wor ers engaged in the
recycling of plastic e-waste in hina demonstrated that e posure to s during the recycling of P P
and P resulted in a significant increase in the lifetime ris of developing cancer e et al. .
ne ma or area of uncertainty remains the ris to health from e posure to nano-si ed plastic particles.
Most research on nano materials has focussed in the behaviour of nano-metals, such as nano-gold,
and it is unclear to what extent the results are relevant to nano-plastics due to differences in the
surface properties (Bouwmeester et al. . Wic et al. reported that nano-si ed particles of
polystyrene P up to nm in diameter were able to cross the human placental barrier. The study
used a perfusion technique on placentas retrieved at full term. However, a later study demonstrated that
the placenta perfusion model was sub ect to significant artefacts including migration of the fluorescent
dye across cell membranes, which raises uncertainties on the validity of the conclusions in the original
study (Grafmueller et al. . This is an area of research re uiring much greater attention. .
The point of raising these concerns is not to vilify plastics in general, but to illustrate that our use of
plastics comes with certain risks to human health. Some of these risks are associated with plastics
manufacture and others with use or the end-of-life stage. These risks need to be more widely recognised
by manufactures regulators and users. This will allow the ris s to be better uantified and more
effective steps adopted to minimise them, with stakeholders acting in partnership (Thompson et al.
. E uivalent ris s to human health from E s occur in other sectors such as agriculture. ny
initiatives to substitute conventional plastics with alternative materials need to take such risks into
account, for example from the use of biocides or the inclusion of additive chemicals to enhance the
properties of the finished goods e.g. dyes flame retardants water-proofing surfaces . therwise there
is the potential for one set of risks to be replaced by a different but still unwanted set of new risks.
2.2.4 Degradation of synthetic polymers in the environment
Almost all conventional polymers share one common feature: they are very durable. Weathering,
cracking, weakening and fragmentation will occur in the terrestrial environment, given suitable
conditions of high temperature, oxygen availability and exposure to UV irradiation. However, further
degradation and eventual conversion to simple molecules of methane, carbon dioxide and water by
the process of biodegradation is extremely slow, and this sequence appears to be delayed almost
indefinitely in the marine environment United Nations Environment Programme oint roup
27
of E perts on cientific spects of arine Environmental Protection . table of definitions of
degradation, biodegradation and compostable is provided in Table 2.6. The inclusion of metal-based
additives to accelerate the fragmentation of plastic PE films to produce o o-degradable plastics merely
increases the rate of production of microplastics, and does not reduce the quantity of the polymer in
the environment. In addition, the inclusion of such polymers in waste streams can compromise the
uality of recycled plastics epartment for Environment ood and ural ffairs o-degradable
plastics should not be considered an environmentally-friendly alternative to conventional plastic films
(International Biodegradable Polymers Association & Working Groups 2005, European Bioplastics 2015,
United Nations Environment Programme .
Table 2.6 Definitions of degradation, biodegradation and compostable
Term Definition
Degradation The partial or complete breakdown of a polymer due to some
combination of UV radiation, oxygen attack, biological attack and
temperature. This implies alteration of the properties, such as
discolouration, surface cracking, and fragmentation
Biodegradation Biologically-mediated process involving the complete or partial
converted to water 2
/methane, energy and new biomass by
microorganisms bacteria and fungi .
ompostable industrial -i Capable of being biodegraded at elevated temperatures under
specified conditions and time scales usually only encountered in an
industrial composter standards apply

ompostable domestic -d Capable of being biodegraded at low to moderate temperatures,
typically found in a domestic compost system
Some polymers synthesised from fossil fuels have been reported to have show biodegrading properties,
but the extent and rate of degradation is critically dependent on the conditions that the material is
subject to. In some cases, the claim of ‘biodegradability’ may not be matched by the environmental
conditions in which the material is used.
2.3 Semi-synthetic biomass-based fibres and films
2.3.1 Materials, biomass sources and uses
emi-synthetic fibres and films are produced from biomass principally cellulose. ellulose is the
most abundant organic polymer on the planet. It is a relatively ‘stiff’ polysaccharide with an important
structural role in supporting plant cell walls. The source of cellulose can include agricultural waste, wood
chips or crops grown specifically for use as a raw material such as bamboo in particular the fast-
growing moso bamboo (Phyllostachys edulis), native to China. The term semi-synthetic is used because
the raw product is transformed using a variety of chemical processes. The main materials produced
include vulcanised rubber rayon fibres cellophane and cellulose acetate fibres and films igure . .
These all re uire chemically-intensive processing to e tract and separate the cellulose lanc .
ibres and films are produced by e trusion through spinnerets or slits.
There are several forms of rayon, which differ in the source of cellulose or the chemistry of the
production methods Table . . The viscose method dates from the late th century and became the
most common production method. Wood pulp is dissolved with aqueous sodium hydroxide and carbon
disulphide producing a viscous solution resulting in the labelling of the fibres and fabrics as iscose.
The method allows the inclusion of lignin in addition to cellulose in the raw material, making wood a
convenient source. This is e truded through spinnerets to produce rayon fibres.
28
Biomass derived
Cellulose
Semi-synthetic fibres/films
Rayon Cellulose acetate cellophane
Viscose Acetate Cellophane™

Lyocell Tenite™ Natureflex™
Modal™
Cupro
Figure 2.7 Production of semi-synthetic fibres and films from biomass sources
The form of rayon nown as yocell originally developed as Tencel involves the dissolution of wood
chips using either the sulphite process sulphurous acid or the sulphate raft process to produce a
pulp from which most of the lignin and hemicellulose has been removed. The pulp is then dissolved in
N-methylmorpholine N-o ide filtered and passed through spinnerets to produce yocell fibre. odal is
made from beech wood, and is one of several forms of rayon currently produced by Austrian company
Lenzing using the viscose method, but in a closed-loop chemical process (Shen et al. .
upro is a form of rayon made from cellulose derived from cotton linter ultra-fine fibres that adhere
to the seeds after the initial separation with a cotton gin. The cellulose is dissolved in a solution of
ammonia and copper o ide cuproammonium process . It is often used as a substitute for sil in
fashion garments.
ellophane the thin transparent film is made with cellulose from a variety of sources using the
viscose process with glycerin added to increase fle ibility. It was invented in and is still produced
commercially. It is mar eted as a breathable film for the pac aging of cheese and bread and can be
used as an ovenproof wrapping for cooking food. Cellophane is often marketed as ‘biodegradable’, but
should more correctly be labelled as compostable. The rate of microbial degradation can be inhibited
by the use of polymer coatings which are commonly applied to improve the barrier resistance and to
extend shelf life (Benyathiar et al. . Unintentionally, the polymer coating may inhibit the subsequent
degradation of the products.
ellulose acetate is produced from purified cellulose usually from wood pulp or cotton. It is reacted with
acetic acid and acetic anhydride before being dissolved in acetone. ellulose acetate fibres are created
by e trusion as filaments through spinnerets. The solvent is evaporated in warm air via dry spinning
producing the acetate fibres. It is sometimes combined with other polymers to improve performance
e.g. fle ibility durability but this may affect end-of life behaviour and waste treatment. It is used to
manufacture photographic film and te tiles but perhaps is most familiar as the main ingredient of
cigarette filters.
29
Table 2.7 Semi-synthetic fibres and films: types, biomass source, manufacturing process and common
uses
Product Common biomass Chemical process Uses

source
Rayon
Viscose Bamboo, cotton, hemp, Sodium hydroxide and Clothing fabrics
wood pulp hydrogen disulphide
yocell formerly Tencel a birch trees Sulphurous acid or Clothing fabrics
sulphate raft process
followed by dissolution
in N-methylmorpholine
N-oxide
Modal® Beech wood Sodium hydroxide and
hydrogen disulphide
(closed-loop in Lensing Clothing fabrics
factory ustria
Cupro Cotton linter Cuproammonium Clothing fabrics
(ammonia and copper
o ide
Other materials
Cellophane Cotton, hemp, wood pulp Sodium hydroxide and Packaging, food
hydrogen disulphide contact packaging,
adhesive tape
Naturefle ellophane Cotton, hemp, wood pulp Sodium hydroxide and Packaging, food
hydrogen disulphide contact packaging
Cellulose acetate Cotton, wood pulp Acetic acid, acetic Photographic film
anhydride, sulphuric acid, clothing fabrics,
acetone cigarette filters
2.3.2 Human health aspects
The marketing of viscose is often couched in terms of advertising its ‘green credentials’, on the basis
that the raw material is from a renewable resource. This reputation may be enhanced if the source
of the cellulose is waste organic matter or bamboo, a fast growing crop that requires relatively little
additional fertiliser or pesticide use. However, the use of carbon disulphide represents a substantial
health risk to unprotected workers. There appears to have been scant regard for occupational health and
the health of residents living close to manufacturing facilities, throughout most of the history of viscose
production lanc .
The production of viscose using carbon disulphide continues to have significant health
impacts for the workforce and local inhabitants, especially in parts of Asia.
Blanc 2016
Although improvements to workers’ welfare started to be introduced in the last decades of the 20th
century in North America and Western Europe, there is continuing concern about occupational health
for workers in some parts of the world, especially in Asia. In some countries the use of closed-loop
chemical processing systems is less common and the chain of custody may be more difficult to
establish lanc . This needs to be accounted for when conducting comparative ife ycle
nalyses of different types of synthetic semi-synthetic and natural materials hapter .
30
2.3.3 Behaviour of rayon fibres, cellophane and cellulose nitrate in the environment
The behaviour of semi-synthetic fibres and films in the environment has received less attention than that
of conventional synthetic polymers, particularly in the marine environment. However, some observations
can be made from the results of monitoring activities hapter . The widespread occurrence of rayon
fibres and cellulose acetate cigarette filters in the ocean implies a limited degree of degradation even if
the rate has not been uantified Table . .
Table 2.8 Semi-synthetic polymers with a qualitative assessment of biodegradable and composting
properties (based on reported observations, where available, otherwise estimated): domestic
composting C-d, industrial composting C-i, biodegradable B; degradation rate: high H, medium
M or low L; qualitative sustainability indicator: blue high, medium purple, low red).
Material Polymer Terrestrial Aquatic

C-d C-i B B
iscose fibres Rayon L H L L
yocell fibres Rayon L H L L
odal fibres Rayon L H L L
Cellophane Cellophane L H L L
Cellulose acetate Cellulose acetate L H L L
The relative benefits and disadvantages of semi-synthetic cellulose-based fibres and films are
summarised in a W T analysis in Table . .
Table 2.9 SWOT analysis (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats) of semi-synthetic
cellulose-based fibres and films as a substitute for conventional synthetic polymers.
S1. Utilises renewable natural resources W1. Risk to human health during production due
S2. Sources of cellulose are readily available in to exposure to harmful chemicals
most developing and developed countries, W2. Biocides and artificial fertiliser may be used
S3. Can be composted in an industrial facility on commercial crops, resulting in risks to
or decomposed by anaerobic digestion at human health and the environment
end-of-life W3. Substitution for conventional polymers
S4. Lost-cost substitute for natural fibres limited by intrinsic properties of the
S5. Can be used for food contact material
W4. Fibres and films may remain in the aquatic
environment for several years before
degrading, posing a risk to social well-being
and the environment
O1. Expanded utilisation of renewable natural T1. Loss of habitat and biodiversity
resources T2. Intensification of production will drive
greater use of biocides and artificial
fertiliser, and hence increased risks to
human health and the environment
T3. Use of agricultural land for non-food use
may drive up prices and impact food
security
31
2.4 Microplastics
‘Microplastic’ is a term that has been adopted within the past decade to describe pieces of synthetic
polymer of mm diameter or less oint roup of E perts on cientific spects of arine Environmental
Protection . This definition is rather arbitrary but is sufficient to designate a class of plastics that
tend to exhibit different behaviours from larger items of plastic. A further division is often made to
distinguish ‘primary’ and ‘secondary’ microplastics, according to their origin. ‘Primary’ microplastics
are those that are purposefully manufactured to a particular si e or shape to fulfil a specific purpose.
These include plastic resin pellets used to transport the initial plastic resin between production facilities;
powders used for the injection moulding of manufactured goods; abrasive powders used for industrial
applications e.g. hull cleaning and micro-beads used in some domestic cleaning and personal care
products e.g. toothpaste facial scrubs . econdary microplastics represent fragments fla es or fibres
that originated from a larger item, either before entry into the environment or afterwards. The principal
sources and composition of secondary microplastics are summarised in Table 2.10.
ne of the main areas of concern is the potential harm caused by the ingestion of microplastics by
marine organisms, both to the organism and potentially to human consumers of seafood (Lusher et al.
. Interaction with microplastics could cause direct physical damage or indirect damage through an
inflammatory response to an ingested particle. lternatively there may be a satiation effect where the
organism feels full, but the ‘food’ lacks nutrition and cannot be readily digested. In addition, there is the
potential for harm due to the leaching of chemicals from within the polymer. There are three possible
sources of chemical contamination:
i. monomers, or building blocks, making up the polymer – some are intrinsically hazardous but the
degree of ha ard varies substantially Table .
ii. additive chemicals included to adjust the properties and performance of the polymer, for example:
U resistance fle ibility flame retardation and colour Table . in many cases these chemicals
are not strongly bound within the plastic matrix so will tend to leach into the surrounding
environment (some additives are subject to review and regulation under the Stockholm and
Rotterdam Conventions6
iii. absorbed contaminants – many persistent organic pollutants already present in the environment
e.g. P s P Es T are preferentially absorbed by plastics with the potential for being
desorbed into an organism after ingestion, in the different chemistry of an animal’s gut (Joint Group
of E perts on cientific spects of arine Environmental Protection .
Table 2.10 Characteristics of secondary microplastics: common polymers, typical applications and
potential for microplastic generation by shape category.
Polymer Typical applications Potential for secondary microplastic

generation during use
PAN crylic fibres clothing yacht sails ibres from washing wear and tear
fire-resistant te tiles
PUR oam insulation carpet underlay sports ibres and fragments from wear and
clothing tear
PC Drinking vessels la es and fragments due to damage
P nylon Te tiles clothing carpets ibres due to washing and wear and
tear
PS Disposable food and drink containers ragments and fla es due to wear and
and cutlery tear and damage
EPS Construction insulation, fresh food ragments and fla es due to wear and
storage e.g. fish ta eaway containers tear, damage during installation and
flotation devices removal
Contd...
6 http://www.brsmeas.org/
32
Table 2.10 Characteristics of secondary microplastics: common polymers, typical applications and
potential for microplastic generation by shape category.
HDPE Drinks bottles, bottle caps, piping, ragments and fla es due to wear and
storage containers tear
Polymer Typical applications Potential for secondary microplastic
generation during use
LDPE Plastic bags, food wrap, food and drink la es due to wear and tear
cartons, snap-on lids
LLDPE Plastic bags, food wrap, food and drink la es due to wear and tear
cartons fle ible tubing
PP Potable plumbing, textiles (clothing, ibres due to washing wear and tear
carpets rope sanitary products
sutures
PVAc Paper coating, adhesives, sanitary la es short-lived
products, water-soluble bags
PET Drink bottles, clothing ibres from washing fibres and fla es
from wear and tear
PLAa ood and drin containers ragments and fla es due to wear and
tear
a
PLA is a biomass-based biopolymer, see Chapter 5
2.5 The plastics economy

2.5.1 Introducing the 3 Rs
There is a widespread recognition that the current use of resources to manufacture conventional
plastics is inefficient and that end-of-life solutions for unwanted plastics are wholly inade uate i.e.
the current plastics economy is unsustainable. This has led to the promotion of a great number of
initiatives to promote improved stewardship under what is often described as the 3 Rs principle: Reduce,
e-use and ecycle igure . . It is possible to introduce further elaborations on this theme for
e ample to include re-design refuse to use and replace creating the s United Nations Environment
Programme . owever the s is a more familiar and widely accepted term especially in East
sia where the number three has special significance and the term is being incorporated into national
and regional marine litter action plans. pportunities to replace conventional plastics with alternative
materials will be considered in more detail in Chapters 4, 5 and 6.
Two factors that are frequently cited as inhibiting the wider application of the 3 Rs principle are cost
and scale. It can appear more expensive to re-use or recycle plastics than to generate new plastics from
fossil fuel-based resources. Critically, the social, economic and environmental costs of the damage
caused by waste plastic in the environment are rarely taken into account. This will be examined further
in Chapter 7, together with a comparison of the relative costs of alternative materials.
Plastics recycling can be an effective solution to reducing the leakage of plastics into the environment.
owever there are a number of factors that can reduce the effectiveness of this approach. or e ample
some single-use drin s bottles can be difficult to recycle because design considerations have been
mar et-led e.g. use of several polymers and colours rather than concerned with improving the end-of-
life waste management of the product arrabin . ingle-use coffee cups and pac ets for food
snacks are often composed of mixed materials, with limited options for recycling. The contamination of
food packaging by residual food waste may also limit the recycling potential. In addition, the Stockholm
onvention does not permit the recycling of plastics containing P Ps under rticle although penta-
E and octa- E will be allowed until provided the ecretariat is notified. report presented at
the th onference of the Parties P revealed that Es had been found in a range of articles that
were not sub ect to flammability re uirements including childrens toys. It was concluded that this had
arisen inadvertently from the use of recycled plastic containing BDEs.
33
Reduce Re-use Recycle
Intervention
points
raw
rawmaterials
materials manufacture use waste
Re-use Energy
Recovery
Material
flow
Recycle Energy
Recovery
Figure 2.8 Closing the loop within the plastic economy, showing options for re-using, recycling and
recovering energy, within the globally-understood 3 Rs principle of Reduce,
Re-use and Recover (adapted from United Nations Environment Programme 2016).
Recycling can also lead to unintended consequences.

PET drinks bottles are readily recycled, but about 80%
of recycled PET is used for fibre production rather than
producing new PET bottles igure . . ibres are readily
lost from fabrics during wear and washing, and this
represents a significant source of microplastics to the
environment hapter .
ome polymers such as EP are inherently difficult

to recycle. Inevitably the best option will be collection
for energy regeneration with landfill the second best
but with great scope for waste generation and littering Figure 2.9 Clothing label illustrating the
in areas of use such as construction, durable goods source of PET fibres, from
protection and food packaging. As packaging forms such recycled bottles, ©Peter Kershaw
an important component of the plastics economy it is
worth considering in more detail.
34
2.5.2 Plastic packaging and the throw-away catering industry
Packaging can help to minimise food waste from harvesting to market, preserve food in storage and
ensure food is delivered to the consumer in a safe and edible condition. When used appropriately,
pac aging confers enormous benefits to society whether manufactured from plastics or more natural
materials. Unfortunately, the use of food packaging can be problematic for a number of reasons:
the type of material may be inappropriate; the design of the packaging may make re-use or recycling
difficult or the use of pac aging may be e cessive or unnecessary. This third point is e plored in this
section.
ood pac aging composed of conventional polymers is used widely in the catering industry particularly
for take-away and ‘fast-food’ outlets. There is great scope for littering and rather limited scope for
waste collection, separation and recycling, even where the consumers are constrained in some way, for
e ample within the security one of an airport igure . .
Unfortunately, there is a tendency for the use of plastic packaging and implements to become the norm,
even when it would be quite feasible to offer an alternative, such as in institutional settings such as
hospitals commercial premises and government or I buildings igure . .
Figure 2.10 A selection of food for consumption, but only a single option for purchase – in plastic
packaging; JFK airport New York, June 2017 ©Peter Kershaw.
35
Figure 2.11 The short life of a plastic lunch container, plastic cutlery, plastic drinks bottle and plastic cup:
International Institutional staff canteen, June 2017 © Peter Kershaw.
In the case of the institutional canteen, plastics, aluminium and glass are allocated one waste bin, paper
and cardboard a second bin, with everything else allocated the third bin for ‘general trash’. There is no
separate bin for food waste. s igure . reveals users of the canteen are not very efficient at sorting
their waste. ood-contaminated pac aging ma es recycling conventional plastics more problematic
and may lead to a higher proportion going to landfill or diverted to energy recovery igure . . The
useful life of the packaging, in this example, is approximately 15 - 20 minutes.
The use of plastic may be presented as a novel alternative

to a traditional application where the implied benefit is
of questionable value. An example is the introduction of
the plastic teabag individually wrapped in plastic film
replacing the traditional natural fibre bag which is usually
presented either separately in a small paper wrapper or in
bul in a cardboard bo igure . . This appears to be a
case of unnecessary and wasteful ‘innovation’ to improve
the marketability of an everyday product. Unfortunately,
there are many other examples, including plastic straws,
Figure 2.13 A wasteful breakfast - a plastic
cotton bud sticks, toothpicks and lolly sticks for icecream mesh teabag, presented in a
and other sweets. ptions for reducing the use of plastic wrapper, Bremen Germany,
conventional plastics in food packaging, and reducing May 2017, ©Peter Kershaw.
the overall impact of food packaging in the marine
environment will be considered in later Chapters.
36
sun biomass fossil fuels
compost/ conventional
food
digestion polymers
recycled
energy mixed food

recovery waste packaging
ocean
landfill
plastics
Figure 2.12 Simplified schematic of the production and fate of food packaging made from conventional
plastics (original by P J Kershaw).
2.5.3 Plastic packaging and durable goods
Many durable goods need to be protected during transit. Not to do so would result in unnecessary
damage and be a waste of resources. However, there is great scope for reducing the impact of such
packaging on the environment in the selection of the packaging design and materials used.
E panded polystyrene EP is commonly used as

pre-formed protective moulds around electronic goods,
and as loose fill igure . . uch of this material
is consigned to landfill as recycling EP is difficult
and few facilities exist, even in the most developed
economies. The very nature of the polymer means that
a proportion of waste EPS it is very likely to leak to the
environment, enter waterways and reach the ocean. This
source is compounded by the extensive use of EPS in
construction insulation sheets for food pac ing e.g.
fresh or fro en fish and for ta e-away street food as
well as its widespread use in aquaculture in Asia. Each
Figure 2.14 Loose fill used to protect goods in
of these sources will require different approaches, but transit, made from EPS,
there are alternative materials available which need to be ©Peter Kershaw.
considered.
Another common style of packaging is the use of preformed clear plastic ‘blister pack’ covers, often
used with card backing, to display a wide range of goods, such as: toothbrushes, tools, toys and
household goods igure . . It is not always obvious that the uantity of pac aging used is needed to
protect the item, rather than increase the visibility and marketing potential of the goods.
37
Figure 2.15 Plastic ‘blister pack’ covers – necessary protection or marketing ploy? ©Peter Kershaw.
2.6 Final thoughts

ociety will continue to use plastics for many good ustifiable reasons. ut we need to be aware of
the environmental, social and economic damage that plastics can cause, especially at the end-of-life
stage due to our inadequate response. Members of society interact with plastics in different ways and
this needs to be recognised when targeting education and intervention. or e ample as women tend
to make most of the spending decisions in a household context, especially around food purchases,
it is logical to target women in outreach programmes about the impact of food packaging. Similarly,
personal care products containing plastic micro-beads, such as body scrubs, are used most commonly
by women, so it makes sense to target outreach campaigns to illustrate their impact in the marine
environment.
It is instructive to review what might be described as the ‘main culprits’ when it comes to marine plastic
litter hapter before considering whether and how we should re-assess our use of conventional
synthetic and semi-synthetic polymers. This reassessment might include improved implementation of the
3Rs, but it is important to consider whether there are alternative approaches and materials which reduce
our dependence on plastics overall. A number of options to substitute conventional synthetic polymers
with alternative materials are presented in Chapter 4, 5 and 6, together with illustrative case studies.
38
3. MARINE PLASTICS AND MICROPLASTICS – THE MAIN CULPRITS
3. Marine plastics and microplastics –

the main culprits
3.1 The leakage of plastics to the ocean
The lea age of plastics and microplastics to the ocean has been the sub ect of several high profile
publications in the scientific literature Eric sen et al. 2014, Jambeck et al. 2015, Lebreton et al.
and global assessments oint roup of E perts on cientific spects of arine Environmental
Protection United Nations Environment Programme . The sources of marine plastics
and microplastics are highly diverse, from land- and sea-based activities, and the reasons why leakage
occurs often complex. The quantities of plastics and microplastics in the ocean are unknown, although
attempts have been made to uantify certain categories of litter such as floating plastics by combining
observations with ocean circulation modelling (Eriksen et al. 2014, van Sebille et al. . In addition
methods to estimate the contribution of some of the ma or sources e.g. mismanaged solid waste and
entry points e.g. riverine inputs igure . are becoming more sophisticated and provide a good basis
for targeting reduction measures (Jambeck et al. 2015, Lebreton et al. .
Figure 3.1 Estimated annual mass (tonnes) of plastic entering the oceans via rivers. River contributions
are derived from individual watershed characteristics such as: population density (inhabitants
km-2); per capita mismanaged plastic waste (MPW) production (kg d-1) and monthly averaged
run-off (mm d-1). The model is calibrated against river plastic concentration measurements
from Europe, Asia, North and South America (reproduced from Lebreton et al. 2017 under a
Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License).
bservations from official monitoring programmes scientific research cruises citi en science initiatives
and coastal clean-ups are providing an improved understanding on the composition and distribution of
plastics and microplastics in the environment, on shorelines, in the water column, on the seabed and
associated with biota entangled or ingested . Unfortunately differences in the methods and protocols
used in separate monitoring surveys can create difficulties in the compilation and interpretation of the
results, despite the emergence of guidelines to encourage a more consistent approach (Cheshire et al.
.
A lack of harmonisation in sampling design and monitoring methods limits the reliable
comparison of survey results
39
In the present context, quantifying the distribution of difference categories and sources of litter - including
identifying accumulation ‘hotspots’ and mapping the extent or scale of particular features - can help to
target where intervention using alternative materials might be most effective. ne caveat to this approach
is that there is a general lack of consistency in the methods adopted by those responsible for organising
the monitoring programmes or other initiatives. The extent to which this limits reliable comparisons to
be made between survey results was graphically highlighted by a comparison of results of surveys of the
coastline of the U made by N and the cean onservancy International oastal lean-up section
. United tates National ceanic and tmospheric dministration in press .
Table 3.1 Common synthetic and semi-synthetic polymers and applications, together with their tendency
to float or sink in the aquatic environment, based on density difference without additional
floatation, such as a fishing float (modified from Joint Group of Experts on Scientific Aspects
of Marine Environmental Protection 2016).
Polymer Common applications Density Behaviour

Polyethylene Plastic bags, storage containers, 0.91–0.95 loat
Polypropylene Rope, bottle caps, gear, strapping 0.90–0.92 loat
Pure water 1.00
Polystyrene e panded ool bo es floats cups 0.96 –1.05 loat
Average seawater 1.025
Polystyrene Utensils, containers 1.04–1.09 Sink
Polyamide or Nylon ishing nets rope 1.13–1.15 Sink

Polyacrylonitrile acrylic Textiles 1.18 Sink
Polyvinyl chloride ilm pipe containers 1.16–1.30 Sink
Cellulose Acetate igarette filters 1.22–1.24 Sink
Poly ethylene terephthalate Bottles, strapping 1.34–1.39 Sink
Polyester resin glass fibre Textiles, boats >1.35 Sink
Rayon Textiles, sanitary products 1.50 Sink
Figure 3.2 Schematic of which synthetic polymers tend to float and which tend to sink in the ocean;
image from GRID-Arendal (2016).
40
Having a better understanding of what ocean plastic litter is composed of, and where it comes from, can
help to target where substituting plastics with alternative materials may be most effective, at reducing
overall levels of marine plastics.
3.2 Plastic litter on shorelines and beaches
cean plastic litter is most readily observed on shorelines. egular beach monitoring surveys and
coastal clean-ups have provided growing evidence of the categories of litter most often encountered.
Despite methodological differences it has been possible to discern some general patterns, and
some stri ing regional differences igures . . . . The latter can be a reflection of the relative
importance of land-based and maritime sectors, the adequacy of infrastructure and waste management
controls and even cultural or demographic variations United Nations Environment Programme .
This report is not intended to provide a comprehensive overview of marine litter distribution, but some
examples are presented to illustrate the types of materials and variations in relative quantities that have
been reported. or e ample one study compared the uantity and composition of shoreline litter ad acent
to four urban centres in Europe onstanta lac ea arcelona editerranean ea iga altic ea
and ostende North ea rcadis . The study used similar sampling and recording protocols at all
four sites, and developed a methodology to allocate each item to its probable source. Litter was allocated
to two categories i single-use consumer plastics or ii non-consumer plastics and other materials. This
revealed clear differences in the total uantity of litter items at each site igure . . The proportion of
single-use consumer plastic was relatively constant at three sites - but significantly lower at
ostende where maritime sources were dominant.
The proportion of different types of single-use plastics varied between sites which is reflected in the
allocation of items to probable source igure . . Two sites had significant uantities of sewage-
related waste with large numbers of plastic stic s used for cosmetic cotton buds. This reflects
inadequate wastewater infrastructure as well as cultural habits in using lavatories for solid waste
disposal. Recreational use was associated with high levels of disposable plastic packaging (bottles,
bags food wrappers and cigarette stubs.
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
Barcelona Oostende Constanta Riga
single use consumer plastic items non-consumer
Figure 3.3 Arcadis 4 seas study proportion of single-use consumer items
41
National surveys conducted in the U and hina igure . a and b using similar methodologies
ong ed. reveal the preponderance of plastic fragments as the most significant category. In
China there is a much greater proportion of EPS fragments, which is thought to be due to the extensive
use of EP buoys in a uaculture. This was also seen in a more limited survey in ietnam igure . c .
All three surveys recorded variable quantities of consumer packaging waste. In contrast, the protocol
used in the annual coastal clean-up organised by the cean onservancy cean onservancy
results in the under-reporting of plastic fragments. Consequently this category does not appear in the
list of the top ten most common items igure . d . This apparent emphasis on recording single-use
consumer items is due to differences in the methodology used, and illustrates why caution is needed
when interpreting survey data United tates National ceanic and tmospheric dministration in
press .
3.3 Seabed litter
Seabed surveys of litter are harder and more expensive to conduct, often involving sophisticated camera
systems, or diving surveys in shallow waters. The latter often reveal large quantities of plastic litter,
including consumer items such as plastic bags and bottles. In regions close to continental margins,
such as off the editerranean coast of rance and the onterey anyon off alifornia large uantities
of consumer plastics, including PET bottles, were observed using camera surveys (Galgani et al. 1995;
Schlining et al. . ere plastic debris originating from rivers shorelines and recreational users
Floating plastic debris

Photo Credit: Shutterstock
42
0%
(a)
2% 2% (b) 8%
1%
4%
11%
11% 4%
3%
32%
2%
4%
11%
13%
17%
11%
26%
11%
(c) 4% (d)
12% 10%
6%
9% 5% 24%
1% 10% 4%
3%
2%
8% 4%
26%
13% 19% 29%
11%
fishing coastal/beach tourism

shipping sanitary
ports household & general waste
recreational boating and fishing construction & demolition
other maritime activities other land-based
Figure 3.4 Compilation of shoreline litter monitoring at four European sites near urban areas, indicating
the probable source: (a) Constanta, Black Sea; (b) Barcelona, Mediterranean Sea; (c)
Oostende, North Sea; and, (d) Riga, Baltic Sea; (adapted from Arcadis 2012).
43
(a) 2% (b)
3%
2%
3%
3% 3%
3%
5%
3%
3%
5%
4%
5% 6%
46%
61% 8%
14%
10%
11%
foam pieces (EPS) bottle caps plastic/polystyrene pieces cotton bud sticks
cigarette ends balloons cigarette ends glass
plastic drink bottles plastic bags food packets wet wipes
food packets plastic grocery bags caps & lids fishing line
EPS (food packaging) glass string/cord plastic drinks bottles
(c) (d)
5%
5%
23% 5%
25%
5%
2% 6%
3% 45%
7%
9%
21%
10%
18% 11%
foam pieces (EPS) cigarette ends plastic lids

plastic grocery bags plastic drinks bottles plastic straws/stirrers
plastic drink bottles plastic bottle caps glass bottles
rubber shoes food wrappers other plastic bags
bottle caps plastic grocery bags EPS food containers
other
Figure 3.5 Composition of shoreline debris: (a): national survey in China September 2016 (304 km, 41
tonnes) (Hong ed. 2017); (b) national survey in the UK 2016 (Marine Conservation Society
2017); (c) clean-up of the Ha Long Bay UNESCO World Heritage Site, Vietnam, 2016-2017
(2.2 km, 1.6 tonnes) (Hong ed. 2017); and, (d) International Coastal Clean-up 2016 (Ocean
Conservancy 2017).
44
cascades down submarine canyons to deep waters e.g. m . amera surveys have also revealed
the presence of fishing-related plastic debris in areas on the continental shelf slope and seamounts
fre uented by fishing vessels Pham et al United Nations Environment Programme . The
recording of litter collected during fisheries management bottom-trawl surveys can provide a rich source
of data United Nations Environment Programme . The total amount and regional distribution of
seabed litter is hard to quantify. However, it is clear that in some regions, such as submarine canyons off
narrow continental shelves, a high proportion of single-use consumer plastic items can accumulate.
3.4 Micro-fibres in the ocean
A great deal of interest has been generated by the recognition that microplastics are widespread in
the marine environment, and that they may act as vectors for the transfer of chemical contaminants
through the food chain. This is partly driven by concerns for food safety, although a recent
comprehensive assessment concluded that the risk to human health from seafood consumption,
due to chemical exposure to absorbed and additive chemicals is low (Lusher et al. . owever
it is only relatively recently that attention has started to focus in more detail on the physical and
chemical characteristics of different categories of microplastics. This revealed the presence of micro-
fibres composed of a number of common polymers. ecent studies have reported that these occur
extensively in the marine environment, in seabed sediments and biota (Browne et al. 2011, Lusher et al.
2013, Woodall et al. 2014, Remy et al. . The main sources appear to be te tiles and ropes nets
with synthetic and semi-synthetic fibres recorded.
Browne et al. first reported the presence of fibres in shoreline sediments claiming that higher
abundances occurred near urban areas, close to wastewater discharge points. In contrast, Nel and
roneman and Nel et al. found no evidence that the distribution of fibres along the
coastline of southern frica was influenced by the population density. The authors suggested that
regional hydrodynamic conditions were more important.
Browne et al. suggested that the washing of fabrics was a significant source of synthetic fibres.
Napper and Thompson e amined the loss of fibres during clothes washing using three types of
fabric: polyester, polyester-cotton mix and acrylic. They also tested different washing treatments, which
were found to influence the uantity released. ewer fibres were shed for polyester-cotton fabrics than
polyester or acrylic. It was estimated that over fibres of acrylic could be released in a single g
load.
owever fibres are not restricted to the near shore. Woodall et al. revealed the presence of fibres
in deep ocean sediments in the North-east tlantic editerranean and outhern Indian cean reporting
that fibres were preferentially being deposited on the seabed whereas fla es were relatively more
numerous in surface waters. usher et al found that fibres were common in the gut contents
of fish sampled from the English hannel. The polymer composition does vary reflecting the probable
source igure . . crylic viscose PET and polyester fibres are associated with te tiles whereas
polyamide polypropylene polyethylene and polystyrene have more mi ed sources Table . . It should
be noted that the accurate identification of fibre polymer types is challenging. ayon and cotton fibres
show similar TI profiles and can only be distinguished by detailed inspection of the form of the fibre.
This may lead to the over-reporting of rayon fibres when cotton fibres are present in the sample7.
6 http://www.brsmeas.org/
45
(a) 1% (b)
5% 15%
5%
36%
58% 57%
23%
rayon rayon
polyamide polyamide
polyester polyester
others others
(c) (d)
2% 3%
2% 6%
2%
3%
8%
16%
54%
24% 59%
21%
rayon polystyrene polyester

polyester acrylic acrylic
polyamide polyethylene polypropylene
polypropylene polyethylene
polyamide
Figure 3.6 Composition of microfibers sampled in different compartments of the marine environment,
compiled from published sources: (a) fish guts from the English Channel (Lusher et al.2013);
(b) deep sea sediments in the North and North-Eastern Atlantic, Mediterranean Sea and South-
Western Indian Ocean - ‘other’ includes polyamide and acetate (Woodall et al. 2014);
(c) Arctic sea ice (Obbard et al. 2014); and (d) shoreline sediments near urban areas
worldwide, excluding rayon fibres (Browne et al. 2011).
7 Conclusion of the PICES S2 Topic Session on microplastics, 28 September, 2017 Annual Science Conference, Vladivostok,
ussian ederation www.pices.int
46
4. ALTERNATIVE MATERIALS - NATURAL POLYMERS/MATERIALS
4. Alternative materials - natural polymers/

materials
4.1 Natural polymers and organic materials
ur early human ancestors used natural materials for covering and shelter in order to survive. The
materials used whether derived from plants or animals reflected their local availability which in turn
reflected the geography and climate of the region. With time humans while still hunting and gathering
started to domesticate livestock, grow crops and develop trade. So the global trade in natural organic
materials began. Natural organic materials are composed of polymers, chains of identical molecules.
or the purposes of this report the main polymers to consider are lignin cellulose and cutin a natural
polyester in plant-derived materials and chitin and protein fibres in animal-derived materials Table . .
Table 4.1 Polymers and their occurrence in nature
Polymer Natural occurrence Common uses

Lignin Cell walls of plants Construction, fuel, newsprint
Cellulose Cell walls of plants and many Clothing, paper, cardboard/paperboard (Kraft
algae paper raw material for biopolymers
Cutin Plant cuticles Raw material for biopolymers
Chitin Cell walls of fungi Mycelium-based packaging, conversion to
Exoskeleton of crustacean and chitosan
insects
Protein fibre e.g. fibroin Silk, wool, milk Clothing
eratin casein
ne of the principle differences between synthetic or semi-synthetic and natural polymers is that
the latter biodegrade very rapidly when not being maintained by a living organism. This is why the
preservation of ancient fabrics or other organic artefacts, or human corpses, is so rare. It is why we
are not buried under enormous quantities of dead plants and animals. Most of these materials will
biodegrade relatively rapidly in the ocean, although a large-diameter ship’s hawser made of coir will take
longer to disappear than a thin piece of coir string.
In the enthusiasm to embrace synthetic and semi-synthetic polymers, the availability, utility, social and
economic benefits of natural fibres have received less attention. In response the UN passed a resolution in
E declaring to be the International ear of Natural ibres. The resolution noted
‘…… the diverse range of natural fibres produced in many countries provides an
important source of income for farmers, and thus can play an important role in
contributing to food security and in eradicating poverty and hence in contributing to
the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals’
extract from: 2006 UN Resolution A/RES/61/189
was re uested to facilitate the observance of the ear in collaboration with others. in
collaboration with the ommon und or ommodities8 organised a ymposium on Natural ibres
in ctober . The proceedings of the ymposium provide a rich source of information on the topic
ommon und for ommodities an autonomous intergovernmental financial institution established within the framewor of
the United Nations, http://common-fund.org/
47
ood and griculture rgani ation of the United Nations . has also published a study on
unloc ing the commercial potential of natural fibres including their use as composites with conventional
polymers in the automotive industry ood and griculture rgani ation of the United Nations .
4.2 Plant-based polymers
4.2.1 Types, uses and production
wide variety of natural materials are utilised to meet many of society s needs. igure . indicates
e amples of commercially important plants grouped by the source of the fibre together with a non-
exhaustive list of common examples.
conventional
polymers
Straw Grass Bast Leaf Seed Fruit Wood

fibres fibres fibres fibres fibres fibres fibres
maize bamboo flax sisal cotton coconut pine
wheat miscanthus hemp curua capok
Figure 4.1 Main categories of plant fibres with examples (adapted from Suddell 2009)
The production of plant fibres for te tiles is dominated by cotton followed by ute and related
plants igure . . otton is of ma or importance for the manufacture of clothing bedding furnishing
fabrics, bags and many other uses. Table 4.2 lists a variety of common plant materials, the component
polymer s plant source and e amples of common uses. The table also provides a ualitative estimate
of the degradation properties under a variety of terrestrial and aquatic conditions. Generally, degradation
rates will be higher under warmer conditions. The main countries of origin are indicated in Table 4.3,
together with global production in uddell .
1%
2%
11%
cotton
jute, kenaf & related
86% flax/hemp
sisal & related
Figure 4.2 Global use of natural fibres by major group in 2008, excluding use of straw, grass and wood
fibres (adapted from Rashka and Carus 2012)
48
Table 4.2 Plant-based materials, polymer(s), plant source and common uses, together with
biodegradable and composting properties (based on reported observations, where available,
otherwise estimated): domestic composting C-d, industrial composting C-i, biodegradable B;
degradation rate: high H, medium M or low L; qualitative sustainability indicator: blue high,
medium purple, low red).
Material Polymer Common Examples of Terrestrial Aquatic

biomass source common uses C-d C-i B B
Cotton Cellulose Cotton plant Clothing, other H H H H
(Gossypium sp.) fabrics
Hemp Cellulose Hemp (Cannabis Clothing, other H H H H
sativa) fabrics
la inen Cellulose la linseed Clothing, other H H H H

(Linum fabrics
usitatissimum)
Jute Cellulose (Corchorus sp.) Sacks, carpets, H H H H
& lignin clothing, rope,
other fabrics
oir fibre Cellulose Coconut (outer Mats, brushes, H H H M
& lignin shell sacking, rope,
fishing nets
Ramie Cellulose China grass Clothing, other H H H H
(Boehmeria fabrics, industrial
nivea) sewing thread,
Abaca/Manila Cellulose, lignin Banana (Musa Tea bags, H H H H
hemp & pectin textiliis inedible banknotes,
matting, rope
Piña Cellulose & lignin Pineapple Clothing, other H H H H
leaf (Ananas fabrics
comosus)
Sisal (Agave sislana) Textiles, bags, H H H H
rope, twine
49
Table 4.3 Commercially important natural fibres: data 2004 from Suddell (2009), 2014* from FAOSTAT9,
2014^ from Food and Agricultural Organisation (2015), 2015 from Food and Agricultural
Organisation (2016) ; a value for 2013/14, b value for 2014/15 (adapted from Suddell 2009)
Fibre Main countries Origin Global production in (‘000 tonnes)

2004 2014 2015
Wood arious species Stem 1,750,000
Bamboo hina species Stem 10,000
Jute India, Bangladesh Stem 2,861 3,393* 2,563 b
2,860^a
Kenaf India, China Stem 970 252^a 230
Coir India, Vietnam, Sri Lanka ruit 931 1,131* 1,024
1,064^
la China, Europe Stem 830 320*
Sisal Brazil, Tanzania, Kenya Leaf 378 248* 247
253^
Ramie China Stem 249 113*
Hemp China, Europe Stem 214
Abaca Philippines, Ecuador Stem 98 77^ 78
Agave Columbia, Cuba, Mexico Leaf 56 41*
It is clear that plant-based materials have provided for many of society’s domestic needs for millennia.
There is evidence that cotton has been used to make fabrics since 7-8,000 years BP. This raises the
question as to why synthetic and semi-synthetic polymers were adopted in preference, and whether this
trend can be reversed, without causing unintended negative impacts. This becomes especially pertinent
when society has to react uic ly to political decisions such as the introduction of bans on thin-film
synthetic shopping bags Table . .
Table 4.4 SWOT analysis (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats) of utilising plant materials
as a substitute for conventional synthetic polymers.
S1. Utilises renewable natural resources W . iocides and artificial fertiliser may be used
S2. Potential to be carbon neutral on commercial crops, resulting in risks to
S3. Provides social and economic opportunities human health and the environment
in rural areas for vulnerable groups in society W2. Limited availability may inhibit development
S4. Can be composted in a domestic or of wider markets
industrial facility or decomposed by W3. Substitution for conventional polymers
anaerobic digestion at end-of-life limited by intrinsic properties of the material
S5. Biodegradable in the environment W4. Supply chains to market may be poorly
developed
. E panded utilisation of renewable natural T1. Loss of habitat and biodiversity

resources T . Intensification of production will drive greater
. evelopment of social and economic use of biocides and artificial fertiliser and
independence in rural area hence increased risks to human health and
. ubstitution for single-use consumer the environment
products such as shopping bags T3. Use of agricultural land for non-food use may
drive up prices and impact food security
9 http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data
50
The degree of processing required from harvesting to use varies greatly, depending on the nature of the
plant and the intended use. Timber and bamboo for construction may need quite limited preparation,
whilst the production of paper requires a much higher input of water, energy and chemical processing.
Some plant leaves can be used directly, for example, to make woven baskets and containers or as a
plate or food wrapper. ometimes more comple processing is needed to produce useful fibres for
making into textiles. Each type of plant will require different processes and treatments. The soft seed
cover or boll of the cotton plant is readily collected and spun into a yarn before being woven into fabric.
or most other plants more robust treatment is re uired to e tract the fibres. isal fibres are e tracted
from the leaves by the process of mechanical decortication. The fibres of hemp fla and coir are
extracted by a combination of mechanical crushing and a process known as retting. Bundles of the
raw material are submerged in water, causing the stalks to swell and allowing partial bacterial decay. If
poorly managed it can result in significant contamination of ponds and rivers including fish ills.
Plant materials are also used e tensively for the production of semi-synthetic rayon fibres cellulose
acetate and cellophane section . and for the production of biomass-based biopolymers hapter .
Both purposely grown and waste agricultural material can be used.
4.2.2 Production of paper
Paper is produced from cellulose, with wood pulp being

the most common modern source. There are many
different grades of paper, determined by the length of the
cellulose fibres the chemical treatments applied the use
of additives such as chalk, and the proportion of lignin
that is retained. Newsprint is made from logs that have
been mechanically ground producing short fibres and a
higher proportion of lignin ma ing the finished product
weaker and liable to yellowing.
The material variously known as cardboard or

paperboard, used extensively for packaging, is also called
Figure 4.3 Cardboard packaging for
sack kraft paper, named after the kraft pulping process protecting goods in postal transit
that removes lignin effectively. It is much stronger and ©Peter Kershaw
has greater tear resistance than standard paper made
using other pulping processes, due to the lack of lignin
and longer cellulose fibres. The raw material is softwood timber although bamboo and enaf can also
be used. Kraft paper has been used for many decades to provide inexpensive and effective packaging,
including thin-walled paper bags and durable corrugated composite sheet bo es igure . .
4.2.3 Other uses of plants
Bamboo is a type of grass, consisting of about 1250 species of bamboo with a widespread distribution
across Asia, Africa, Australasia and the Americas. Greatest densities occur in tropical and warm
temperate latitudes. It is a highly versatile material with a very long history of being used as a
construction material, as well as a wide variety of other products such as chopsticks, baskets, wall
coverings window blinds and as a foodstuff. ne of the best- nown species is the oso bamboo
(Phyllostachys edulis), which occurs in China, Taiwan and Japan. It can grow up to 28m in height and is
cultivated in plantations in hina. amboo fibres are e tracted by crushing and retting and can be woven
in textiles. This is a quite different process than that used to produce ‘bamboo rayon’, in which bamboo
is used as a source of cellulose hapter .
Various species of woody plants are used for applications as diverse as providing structural timbers for
buildings to protecting artisan cheese igure . .
51
Seagrasses form an important shallow water marine
habitat, providing nutrition, sanctuary and spawning sites
for many species of fish as well as acting as a stabiliser
on soft sediment bottoms. Unlike seaweed, seagrasses
are classified as flowering plants. limited number of
applications have been identified and one is described
below.
allen palm leaves have been used to create plates and

bowls by a simple process of pressing in moulds. The
leaves of the pinapple (Ananas comosus) are used to
produce Pi a fibres composed of cellulose and lignin. Figure 4.4 Wooden cartons to protect
It used to manufacture clothing and other fabrics and artisan cheese and butter
©Peter Kershaw
is a by-product of commercial pineapple cultivation
(Kannojiya et al. 2013. Case studies describing the
processes involved and the products produced are presented below.
4.3 Animal-based polymers
The fibres obtained from animal sources are all forms of protein. Wool and hair are composed of eratin
and sil from fibroin. asein is contained in mil and is the basis for fibres made from soured cow s
milk. Table 4.5 list common materials, the animal source and example of common uses, together with
a qualitative assessment of degradation behaviour in the environment. Sheep have been bred to be
adaptable to a wide range of climates and terrain, and the importance of the wool trade dates back
centuries. or e ample it was the basis for much of the wealth generation in England in edieval
times, with the modest sized city of Norwich once only second to London in importance. Sheep’s wool
was used for underwear, breeches, dresses, coats/cloaks, hats, gloves, scarves and jumpers, and was
particularly important for protection and warmth in colder climates. All these uses are still evident,
although at a lower relative volume following the introduction of cotton and synthetic fabrics. Improved
breeding and production techniques has allowed the development of new applications, such as base
Table 4.5 Examples of animal-based materials, polymer(s), animal source and common uses, together
with a qualitative indication of biodegradable and composting properties (based on reported
observations, where available, otherwise estimated): domestic composting C-d, industrial
composting C-i, biodegradable B; degradation rate: high H, medium M or low L; qualitative
sustainability indicator: blue high, medium purple, low red).
Material Polymer Common Examples of common Terrestrial Aquatic

biomass source uses C-d C-i B B
Sheep’s wool Keratin Sheep (e.g. Knitwear, carpets H H H H
erino ther fabrics
Mohair Keratin Angora goat Clothing other fabrics H H H H
& carpets
Angora wool Keratin Angora rabbit knitwear H H H H
Alpaca wool Keratin Alpaca Clothing, other fabrics H H H H
Cashmere wool Keratin Cashmere goats Clothing, other fabrics H H H H
Silk ibroin Silk moth Clothing, other fabrics H H H H
(Bombyx mori)
ilch Casein Cow’s milk Clothing, other fabrics H H H H
soured
52
layers for outdoor sports made with soft erino wool. ther sources of wool such as cashmere and
mohair, have tended to be used for higher end, more expensive clothing, outside the regions of origin.
In New ealand possum fur is used in combination with wool to produce a sought after material. il is
produced by the silk moth (Bombyx mori), and is hugely important in many parts of Asia.
4.4 Additional organic polymers
4.4.1 Fungi-based polymers
ungi are members of a group of organisms formerly referred to as a ingdom that utilise chitin as in
their cell walls. They do not photosynthesise, unlike plants, but depend on the absorption of dissolved
nutrients li e animals allen and reene . The group includes mushrooms molds and yeasts.
ungi have long been used by society as a direct source of food for fermentation and for various
pharmaceutical and industrial purposes. The reason for considering fungi in this chapter is the recent
development of using fungal mycelium to produce relatively robust structures when inoculated in a
suitable growing medium, such as agricultural plant waste. Examples of applications, for packaging and
insulation, are given later in this chapter.
4.4.2 Algae-based polymers
Brown seaweeds (Phaeophyceae) are ubiquitous on many shorelines and coastal waters in temperate
latitudes, providing a continuing source of alginate, or alginic acid. Alginic acid is a polysaccharide, a
copolymer of mannuronate and guluronate, and has been used for a wide variety of applications, include
food and pharmaceuticals. New developments include packaging applications for dry goods, pastes and
fluids and e amples are provided in this chapter.
4.2 Case studies
Rationale for the selection of case studies
The case studies have been selected to illustrate a wide range of applications or initiatives, on a wide
variety of scales. ome are suitable for adoption by individuals. thers are most effectively implemented
on a much larger corporate basis. All have the goal of increasing the more sustainable use of resources.
The intention is to provide examples to show what is possible, and to inspire others to follow. Three of
the e amples were winners of ircular esign awards in the Ellen c rthur oundation Innovation
Prize, part of the New Plastics Economy initiative .
10
Case study 1 – One Million Women
ne illion Women11 was founded by Natalie Isaacs, a former business leader in the cosmetics industry
based in Australia. Natalie became disillusioned with our current patterns of living and realised that over-
consumption was having a significant impact on the planet. The focus of the movement on women was
in recognition that, on average, women are estimated to make 85% of household purchasing decisions.
It follows that if one million women make better choices then it should lead to real change, and the
greater the adoption of this approach then the greater the progress towards a more sustainable future.
The movement promotes a number of campaigns. ne of these is called eave it on the shelf . It is
targeted at the excess use of food packaging when it is not required to protect the items, either from
damage or getting soiled e.g. bananas sold in a polyethylene bag . hoppers are encouraged to sign
the pledge’ and refuse to purchase over-packaged items. The pledge and number of signatories is being
10 https://newplasticseconomy.org/innovation-prize
11 https://www.1millionwomen.com.au/
53
sent to the E s of ma or supermar et chains in countries on five continents. Natalie argues based
on her commercial experience, that manufacturers and retailers will respond to changes in customer
behaviour. In a recent interview she made two important points: be passionate about the issue, and live
it; and, changing the way we live is hard but it is also empowering12.
‘Be passionate about the issue, and live it

Even the smallest actions in your personal life can and will make a difference.
Changing the way we live is hard - but it is also empowering

Start with one thing then another. It’s challenging, but will soon become a habit and
second nature’.
Natalie Isaacs
Case study 2 – Products from fungal mycelium
Several initiatives have explored the potential of using fungal mycelium to create structures, using waste
vegetable material as a source of nutrition. Mycelium is the vegetative part of a fungus, consisting of
branching threads that can form dense mats. nce dry the mycelium-infused material has useful
properties that can be exploited for several applications.
Mycofoam™
Mycofoam™ was developed by Ecovative13, a company based in New York, which developed from a
concept explored in 2006 by the two-co-founders, whilst still at college. It is intended as a compostable
alternative to EP for a number of pac aging applications. The raw material is cellulose lignin fibre from
agricultural waste that is inoculated with a strain of fungus. Mycelia generated by the fungus permeate
the organic waste which acts as an energy source and glue the fibres together during an incubation
Figure 4.5 Production of Mycofoam™ from agricultural waste, showing the raw material, inoculation by a
fungal strain, incubation and pressing. The example shows protective corner mounts, replacing
the use of EPS; images courtesy of Ecovative.
12 https://womensagenda.com.au/latest/eds-blog/cosmetics-entrepreneur-climate-warrior-meet-natalie-isaacs/
13 https://ecovativedesign.com/about
54
period. This can be pressed into a variety of shapes such as protective caps to fit onto the corners of
cartoons and flat panels igure . These have been used by a number of companies for shipping
high value goods, including Dell Computers.
urther developments include ycoboard whose production uses particular types of fibre such as
hard and soft wood chips fla and rape canola depending on the intended use. It is used as a core in
engineered wood applications such as chair backs and doors, as well as wall tiles. Clearly there is scope
for extending this approach much more widely, to wherever there is a regular and dependable source of
waste organic material.
Grown structures
In addition, fungal mycelium can be used to ‘grow’ structures. This is the idea of Aleksi Vesaluoma, of
the Mandin Collective, based in London,. The aim is to make use of waste materials such as cardboard
to produce something that is an elegant combination of function and form. In its simplest form, waste
cardboard is inoculated with oyster mushroom mycelium and packed into tubes formed of cotton
bandage. This ‘mushroom sausage’ is bent into the desired shape and left to grow in a greenhouse
for wee s. nce growth is complete the structure is dried and becomes uite robust igure
. . Potential applications include structures for fairs and festivals and other pop-up events. The
external fruiting bodies provide a source of gourmet oyster mushrooms, and the whole structure can be
composted after use.
Figure 4.6 Grown structures created using waste cardboard, cotton bandage and inoculation with oyster
mushroom mycelium – practical and edible; images courtesy of the Mandin Collective.
55
Case study 3 – Dell Computers
Dell Technologies represents a major international manufacturer and provider of information systems,
desktop and laptop computers, monitors and a range of peripheral devices. This involves the shipping of
a very large number of ‘units’, both small and large, with an equivalent volume of protective packaging.
Dell has a declared vision to achieve a ‘100% waste-free’ solution to their use of packaging, and currently
report having achieved 94%14. The concept fits into the overall corporate responsibility programme
described in the annual updates of their egacy of ood Plan ell . The approach is to
make modest incremental improvements, with minimal disruption to existing production patterns. The
selection of suitable materials is the first critical step with the aim to utilise waste materials where
possible, or materials from sustainable sources. Attention to packaging design can reduce the quantity
of material required and allow tighter packing of boxed goods, with lower energy use in transportation.
ell has acted partly in response to customers reporting difficulty in disposing of EP pac aging
commonly used for IT equipment. The approach has used a variety of materials, including wheat straw,
cardboard and bamboo with sufficient fle ibility to accommodate changes in material availability
competition with other sectors and price. Some EPS is still used but alternatives are being sought, such
as the use of mycelium-based protective corner moulds for bo ed goods see ycofoam case study .
The ultimate aim is for all packaging to be suitable for home composting or household collection.
Case study 4 – Personal care cleaning products

Plastic has taken over as the norm for many products

used in the home, directly or indirectly, to keep our selves
and our homes clean. However, their use is not inevitable
and some examples are provided here of alternative
materials and approaches. These include toothbrushes
with bamboo handles, a nailbrush made of wood and
natural fibre bristle and wooden tooth pic s igure
. . nother novel e ample is a bar of shampoo that is
supplied in a cardboard box rather than the usual liquid
version in a plastic bottle15.
Some cosmetics are manufactured to meet a demand Figure 4.7 A selection of personal care
for glitter ma eup and micro-fla es of plastic are products in which the use of
sometimes used. As an alternative, some manufacturers plastic has been reduced or
use fla es of the roc -forming natural mineral mica a eliminated: a toothbrush with
a bamboo handle marketed
layered aluminosilicate mineral or fla es of a synthetic
in a cardboard box, wooden
mica’ synthesised at high temperature with the addition toothpicks and a nailbrush made
of fluorine. These will act no differently from natural roc with wood and natural bristle;
dust in the environment. ©Peter Kershaw.
Case study 5 – Turtle bags™ - partnerships

with workers’ collectiveness in Bangladesh and Ecuador
Turtle bags™ was set up by an entrepreneur based in the UK, working in partnership with three workers
collectives in Bangladesh and Ecuador. The company promotes the sustainable production of natural
fibres and manufacture of bags made from ute seagrass and sisal.
14 This case study was based on a telephone interview with Stephen M. Roberts of Dell Corporation; see also: http://www.
techpageone.co.u business-u -en dells-legacy-good-benefits-people-planet
15 http://www.friendlysoap.co.uk/friendly/
56
Jute production is one of the oldest cottage industries

in the Tangail region of angladesh igure . . ute is
harvested locally and made into bags both T N 16,
a Womens Empowerment Programme N . This
programme provides training, support, employment and
financial independence for vulnerable women in by rural
and urban areas. The pro ect has certification through
the World air Trade rganisation W T helping to
develop markets overseas. The bags have featured in the
fashion magazine Vogue.
Baskets made from seagrass and jute, with a cotton lining, Figure 4.8 Harvesting jute in Bangladesh,
are made in southern Bangladesh. The baskets have won image courtesy of the Tarango
a sustainability award for incorporating seagrass into the Project.
design. In this example seagrass is harvested sustainably,
providing a long-term income stream and ensuring the seagrass beds are maintained and protected.
This helps to stabilise coastal areas that are vulnerable to flooding and provides an additional economic
argument to counter other developments that might damage the habitat.
A women’s collective, living in Intaq Valley in the cloud forest of Ecuador, use sisal to make bags.
The sisal is produced from locally grown native agave plants. The collective is part of E IN17
rganisation for the efence and Ecological onservation of Inta . E IN has been active for over
20 years, providing support to communities to resist mining interests, helping to conserve over 12,000
hectares of biodiversity and encourage alternative livelihoods for communities. E IN was one of
eight organisations, out of over 800 nominations, awarded the 2017 UNDP Equator Prize18. The Equator
Prize is an initiative to promote nature-based local solutions for sustainable development.
Figure 4.9 Bamboo straws, produced by Bali-boo in partnership with a family business in Bali Indonesia;
images courtesy of Bali-boo.
16 http://www.tarango-bd.org/about-us-2/
17 http://www.decoin.org
18 http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/presscenter/pressreleases/2017/06/29/equator-prize-2017-winners-
announced-highlighting-outstanding-nature-based-solutions-for-local-sustainable-development.html
57
Case study 6 – Bali-boo bamboo straws
Plastic drinking straws can be considered one of the best examples of the unnecessary manufacture
of single-use plastics. They are not needed apart from medical necessity but remain surprisingly
popular, even amongst adults. Paper straws were used quite satisfactorily prior to the invention of the
plastic variety. A more recent development has been the introduction of bamboo straws. They have the
added advantage of being re-usable and, if discarded, will degrade in the environment. Bamboo straws
only require boiling and steaming to sanitise them, so the process does not create unwanted chemical
waste. Bali-boo is a small company based on Bali in Indonesia, set up by two wandering European
entrepreneurs r d ric reder and iego orodo who arrived in ali and decided they wanted to do
something to stem the flow of single-use plastic to the ocean which was all too evident. They developed
a partnership with a family in central Bali who harvest locally grown bamboo, providing training and
a steady income stream which is about four-times the commercial rate igure . . The company
brings marketing expertise and innovation, such as the laser labelling of products for hotel chains, has
expanded distribution well outside the region, and is developing other bamboo-based products.
Case study 7 – Plates and bowls made from leaves
Many communities have traditionally used plant leaves as plates for presenting and consuming food.
or e ample it has been customary to use leaves from the sal or shala tree (Shorea robusta), which
occurs extensively in northern and central India. However, a trend has been reported of decreasing use
as plastic plates have become more widespread19. Against this background there have been attempts to
widen the appeal of leaf plates to new markets, and two such initiatives are reported here.
Banana leaves
Leaf Republic GmbH20 is a Munich-based start-up, initiated in 2013, with a self-proclaimed quest to
disrupt the pac aging industry . Pedram olgadri the co-founder and E started to research possible
alternatives to the widespread use of conventional polymers for packaging, in an effort to reduce the
Figure 4.10 Plates made from dried, stitched plant leaves; image courtesy of Leaf Republic GmbH.
https timesofindia.indiatimes.com city ranchi al-leaf-dishes-ma e-way-for-plastic-ones articleshow .cms

20 http://leaf-republic.com/
58
negative impact of plastics on society and the environment. Travelling to India, Pedram observed the
traditional use of Patraveli plates for daily consumption of food. Patraveli plates are made from the
leaves of local plants, including the Banyan tree. Leaf Republic works with subsidiaries in India who
employ experienced local women in rural areas to harvest leaves from the forest. The leaves are stitched
together to make round discs, using a natural thread, before being dried. In Germany the leaf ‘patches’
are pressed with a layer of paper between into a variety of shapes igure . . The cuttings from this
process are used for pac aging. uture plans include using the waste for pulp production.
Araca palm
Manufacturing disposable plates from discarded palm leaves was the inspiration of Sandra Adar,
Director of Little Cherry, a UK business set up to provide a range of catering products made from
compostable materials21. The leaves come from the areca palm (Araca catechu), which grows in much
of tropical sia the tropical Pacific and parts of east frica. The areca nut also called the betel nut is
chewed as a stimulant, a practice that is widespread throughout the growing region. It is sometimes
chewed with betel leaf (Piper betle). Unfortunately significant health problems are associated with the
practice.
Figure 4.11 Plates and bowls produced from the leaves of the areca palm (Araca catechu); photographs
courtesy of Little Cherry.
Little Cherry has formed a partnership with communities in rural areas of India, bringing an additional
source of revenue and local autonomy. Each areca palm sheds about 8 to 10 leaves each year, as part
of its natural life cycle. This provides the raw material for producing the disposable plates. The leaves
are gathered from the ground and soaked in water before rinsing. The leaf sheaths are left to dry in
closed chambers, before being pressed in heated moulds. Production takes place in communities close
to the source of the leaves, reducing transport costs. Attention is paid to minimise the environmental
impacts of the packaging used, which has resulted in a 20% increase in the number of items that be
carried in a shipping container. Production waste is composted at the point of origin. The plates and
bowls are suitable for wet and oily foods igure . . fter use the plates can be disposed of by home
21 https://www.littlecherry.co.uk/
59
composting or can be included in food waste. The company also market compostable ‘clam-shell’ food
containers made from pressed compressed wheat straw pulp and a range of plates and other catering
items made from bamboo.
Case study 8 – Products from peel
Enormous uantities of fruit and vegetable peel are generated everyday. or e ample it has been
estimated that more than 16 million tonnes of orange peel are produced year on a global scale. Peel is
used for animal feed but can also be used on a smaller scale in cosmetic products and for pest control.
In this case example, orange peel is collected from commercial juice sellers. It is dried and ground, then
mi ed with a homemade organic glue and resulting paste is pressed into moulds and left to set igure
. . It is the wor of le si esaluoma and ichard ullivan of the andin ollective a design team
based in ondon. ther peels with the same potential include beetroot carrot lychee mandarin lemon
honeymelon, kiwi, mango, lime, potato, banana and avocado.
Figure 4.12 Manufacturing household objects from discarded orange and lemon peel;
images courtesy of the Mandin Collective.
This is an example of a local initiative, operating at a small scale, but illustrates a model of utilising what
otherwise might be regarded as food waste. As such the model has scope for much wider application.
Case study 9 – From waste milk to high fashion: QMilch fabric
ilch fabric is the creation of erman entrepreneur n e omas e a former microbiology student.
The fabric is manufactured from casein fibres e tracted from raw sour-mil from cows igure . .
The idea for using casein emerged in the 1930s, but the process required a fairly complex process and
chemical treatment. Domaske’s aim was to simplify the process with a minimum of intervention. The
unused raw milk cannot be traded, under current German legislation, leading to the annual disposal of
million tonnes of mil . The company milch mb was formed in and is engaged on further
development of biopolymers manufactured from milk proteins.
This particular example of using unwanted food production may have limited application, but it serves to
illustrate the potential of utilising raw materials from a variety of potentially over-looked sources.
60
Figure 4.13 The production cycle of Qmilch fabric, from source to finished product; central image
entrepreneur and company founder Anke Domaske; Holstein Freisian cow ©Liz Lund, all other
images courtesy of QMilch, model in red dress Britta Pathe ©Anna-Marina Fuhr.
Case study 10 – Piñatex™ ‘leather’ from pineapple leaves
Piñatex™ is manufactured by the London-based company Ananas Anam, using the leaves from
commercial pineapple cultivation in the Philippines igure . . Pi ate can be used as a substitute
for leather, and applications include the manufacture of shoes, bags and furnishings. The collection and
processing of the pineapple leaves provides an additional source of income for the farmers. The long
Pi a fibres are e tracted by a process involving the mechanical removal of the outer layers of the leaf
decorticating followed by de-gumming.
The waste biomass from this process can be used as a natural fertiliser or to produce biogas. The fabric
is bonded together without weaving. It can be recycled after use and the whole process has the potential
of being operated in a closed loop system igure . .
61
Piñatex™
Figure 4.14 Production of Piñatex™ fibres and products, from harvested pineapple leaves (images courtesy
of Claire Mueller, Ananas Anam).
Piñatex™ intended Life Cycle

Fibres
Leaves Decorticating Degumming Non woven mesh

Gathering
Pineapple
Crops
Possible uses
•Soil nutrients
•Biogas
Finishing
Fields
• Extra revenue steam to farmers: Products

Decorticated fibres
• Added revenue: organic fertiliser and
/or biogas from the biomass left Consumer
• Piñatex recyclable Disposal
Dr C. Hijosa©
19 06 2013
Figure 4.15 The intended life cycle of Piñatex™ as proposed by the manufacturer
(image courtesy of Ananas Anam).
62
Case study 11 – Responding to the Kenya plastic bag ban
Kenya introduced a nationwide plastic bag ban in August 2017, in response to a growing problem with
littering and underdeveloped waste management infrastructure. At the time of the ban, the Kenya
Environment Minister was quoted as saying: ‘Plastic bags now constitute the biggest challenge to solid
waste management in Kenya. This has become our environmental nightmare that we must defeat by
all means.’22 The response has been to encourage the greater use of traditional materials, such as
sisal papyrus paper and baobab igure . as well trigger the development of innovative potential
solutions.
Figure 4.16 Shopping bags made from papyrus and baobab fibres ©Peter Kershaw
The forestry industry in Kenya has relied on single-use plastic bags to grow seedlings. With the advent of
the ban an alternative was urgently needed. This provided the incentive for Diana Ndungi, an agriculture
teacher at a girls’ high school, to seek a solution, turning to sisal and banana and enlisting the help of
some enthusiastic pupils.23 The pupils of the Thika Girls’ Karibaribi high school now produce woven sisal
containers to grow saplings igure . . s the bags are biodegradable they can be left in the soil. The
school takes inspiration from the late environmental campaigner and Nobel Laureate Wangari Maathai,
a founder of the Green Belt Movement in Kenya, set up to protect and restore the country’s forests.
Case study 12 – Creating business opportunities from invasive water hyacinth
In some circumstances the utilisation of natural materials can provide both an economic opportunity
and a solution to an unwelcome problem. The water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) is native to the
Amazon basin but has spread to many tropical and sub-tropical parts of South and North America,
sub-Saharan Africa, South and South East Asia and Australia. It grows rapidly in favourable conditions,
causing a hindrance to navigation loss of fisheries bloc ing of water inta es and irrigation systems
flooding by bloc ing drainage ditches proliferation of disease such as schistosomiasis bilhar ia and
increased water loss by transpiration Patel .
A number of innovative solutions have been devised in an attempt to both control the spread of this
unwanted weed and make use of it as a raw material. Uses include: remediation of wastewater;
production of briquettes for fuel (Munjeri et al. as an alternative to collecting wood and the
production of paper; as a limited life geotextile in construction, with superior properties to some
alternatives such as coir and sisal (Bordoloi et al. as a feedstoc for bio-refining antibane -
Aguilar et al. for the production of household goods and artefacts using the dried woven plant
stems and for paper production alvert .
22 http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-41069853
23 http://www.nyikasilika.org/innovation-bio-degradable-seedling-bag-beatpollution/
24 http://www.rainharvest.co.za/2011/03/kenyan-villagers-turn-invasive-water-hyacinth-into-moneymaker/
63
Figure 4.17 Teacher Diana Ndungi and pupils from the Thika Girls’ Karibaribi school, weaving containers
from sisal as a replacement for plastic bags, for use in the forestry industry; image of single
pot courtesy of Thika Girls’ Karibaribi, other images ©Peter Kershaw.
E amples of the utilisation of water hyacinth as a source of hard-wearing fibre can be found in many
countries, including Indonesia, India, the Philippines, Kenya24 and Nigeria. Mitimeth is a social enterprise
operating around Lagos and in the delta region of Nigeria, founded by Achenyo Idachaba, formerly
a computer scientist based in the USA25. The knowledge and skills needed to utilise water hyacinth
are based on traditional methods of weaving, applied to this underutilised raw material by means of
developing partnerships and running workshops in the local rural community26. The plant stems are air
dried and woven into ropes that are used to create a wide variety of mats, bags and other containers
igure . . The waste from manufacturing is combined with cow dung and fed into a bio-digester for
energy generation.
25 https://www.mitimeth.com/
26 http://www.rainharvest.co.za/2016/01/using-water-hyacinth-seaweed-to-create-everyday-household-products/
64
Figure 4.18 Household items made from dried water hyacinth fibres: ladies handbag made from loom-
woven water hyacinth fibres and leather, place mats and floor-standing lampshade; images
courtesy of Achenyo Idachaba of Mitimeth.
ther initiatives in angladesh27 India, Indonesia,

Kenya and the Philippines, have examined the potential
to use water hyacinth to produce paper and paper
products, with the potential to reduce the demand for
conventional plastic products as well as for traditional
paper pulp, easing the pressure on over-utilised
timber stocks, in addition to dealing with a serious
social and environmental problem alvert .
ne pro ect in enya is receiving support from the
National Environment Management Authority. Cosmos
Githinji Karari, the entrepreneur behind the venture, is
experimental with mixing the water hyacinth with other Figure 4.19 Carrier bags, cards and envelopes
fibres such as papyrus to ad ust the properties of the made from dried water hyacinth
finished product and uses waste materials to produce fibres harvested from Lake
ingenious designs igure . . Victoria, Kenya, with decorations
made from scrap materials.
Case study 13 – Compostable coffee cups ©Peter Kershaw
The global demand for coffee is huge and growing, and

much of it is dispersed in single-use containers, either
entirely made of plastic of with a plastic component,
such as a waterproof membrane. Such composite
designs are difficult to recycle so many used coffee cups
end up as solid waste. Single-use coffee cups represent
one of the best examples of our throwaway culture,
offering the convenience of drinking coffee on the move
but with little thought going into the consequences of
this profligate use of resources for a product with a
useful life measured in minutes. Billions of disposable
coffee cups are produced every year. Figure 4.20 The Triocup – a one-piece paper
coffee cup with folding lid, image
ortunately several ideas have been advanced to tac le courtesy of Triocup.
this problem28. ne of the most promising is a one-
piece paper cup produced by Triocup, co-founded by Tom Chan. This start-up was a winner of the 2017
Ellen c rthur oundation Innovation Pri e in the ircular esign hallenge29. The cup is designed on
origami principles with a folding lid that prevents spills and obviates the need for a separate lid igure
. . The cup is suitable for industrial composting.
27 http://www.bangladesh.com/blog/prokritee-promoting-bangladeshi-handicrafts
28 http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-40951041
29 https://newplasticseconomy.org/innovation-prize/winners/triocup
65
Case study 14 – Producing edible plates and cutlery from cereal crops
In many cultures it has been common practice to use foods such as flatbreads made of wheat or mai e
flour as a means of eating in preference to western-style cutlery. There have been several initiatives to
take this further and explore the potential of making plates, bowls and cutlery out of materials than can
be eaten afterwards.
The Patrada Project

The Patrada Project is based in Delhi and has been
developed to help a group of women refugees from
Afghanistan. The idea for the project came from a
group of students from the Kikori Mor College of the
University of Delhi30. The project operates within the
ENACTUS framework, a global partnership of universities
and businesses31. The ENACTUS model promotes
entrepreneurship as part of a social enterprise, bringing
together students, academics and business leaders in
collaboration to bring about ‘a better world’.
The Afghan women live in a marginalised community

Figure 4.21 Bowls made by Afghan refugee
in the Bhogul area of Delhi and the project has enabled
women in Delhi, as part of the

them to become more self-sufficient. They have been ENACTUS Patrada Project, image
trained to ma e bowls formed in moulds using a flour courtesy of Kikori Mor College
paste from cereals such as wheat rice and ragi finger
millet, Eleusine coracana . The bowls are available in a range of si es and are mar eted as ‘designed not
to last’ igure . . The target mar et includes food outlets cafes ice cream parlours and ba eries
reducing the demand for plastic equivalents. The bowls can be consumed with the meal or otherwise
will readily biodegrade.
Bakeys cutlery
Bakeys was established in Hyderabad India in 2010 by Narayana Peesapaty32. The company produces
edible spoons made by baking a dough consisting primarily of sorghum (Sorghum bicolor), with some
additional wheat and rice flour. orghum a member of the grass family is preferred as it considered to
increase resistance to liquids and needs less water and added nutrients than other cereals such as rice
and maize. S. bicolor is drought- and heat-resistant and represents an important food crop in South
Asia, Africa and Central America. The company claim that the production of sorghum uses 2% of the
energy required to produce polypropylene and 14% of the water required to produce maize-based PLA33.
Cupffee coffee cup

A start-up in the Czech Republic is experimenting with producing an edible coffee cup. The Cupffee is
composed of a cereal-based crisp waffle and is claimed to hold coffee for up to minutes34.
Case study 15 – Producing edible food packaging from seaweed
Seaweed represents a widespread, renewable natural resource and is used for a great many different
purposes. Recent developments have included exploring opportunities for using seaweed-based
materials for food packaging. Two examples are described below, both of which were winners of
ircular esign awards as part of the Ellen c rthur oundation New Plastics Economy initiative.
30 https://www.enactuskmc.org/patradya
31 enactus.org/
32 http://www.bakeys.com/edible-cutlery/
33 https://www.kickstarter.com/projects/1240116767/edible-cutlery-the-future-of-eco-friendly-utensils
http://worldcentric.org/sustainability/energy-savings
34 http://www.cupffee.me/en/
66
Evoware
Evoware is a social enterprise based in Indonesia. It has two main aims i to utilise seaweed as a
renewable resorce in a sustainable manner as an alternative to plastic pac aging and ii to help
impoverished seaweed farmers improve their livelihoods35. Evoware produces a thin-film pac aging
for dry goods. The edible grade is suitable for products such as food wraps and sachets for coffee or
sauces with the non-edible grade used for pac aging items such as soap and sanitary pads igure
. . The pac aging is reported to be almost odourless and tasteless and should last for up to two
years in a cool, dry environment.
Figure 4.22 Food sachets made from seaweed; images courtesy of Evoware
Skipping Rocks Lab

The Skipping Rocks Lab is a start-up based at Imperial College in London. It is part of the Climate-KIC
start-up acceleration programme founded by the European Institute of Innovation & Technology36. The
first initiative has been to develop a fle ible pac aging from seaweed for containing water and other
fluids in bite-si e pac ages to satisfy the water-on-the-do mar et which they have named the oho
igure . . The membrane is edible and can be flavoured and dyed. It is claimed to generate of
the 2
emissions and use 11% of the energy requirements of PET production, as well as being cheaper
to produce. If it is discarded it will biodegrade in 4 – 6 weeks, ‘just like a piece of fruit’.
urther designs are being developed. The latest is the Delta, a small triangular water soluble sachet
intended for use in restaurants and the hospitality sector. This design was a winner of the 2017 Circular
esign hallenge organised through the Ellen c rthur oundation as part of the New Plastics
Economy Initiative. It is intended that sachets will be produced and filled using a machine based at
the user’s premises: for example, sauces at a fast-food restaurant or shampoo for a hotelier. This gets
around the disadvantage of the relatively short shelf-life of the seaweed-based membrane.
35 http://www.evoware.id//about_us/our_story
36 https://eit.europa.eu/
67
Figure 4.23 The ‘Ooho’ - flexible and edible packaging for water and other fluids, made from seaweed and
other plants; images courtesy of Skipping Rocks Lab, photo credit upper left Katherine Fawsett.
Case study 16 – Non-edible products from seaweed
Algu is based on utilising brown seaweed, pulped waste paper and water, all of which are in plentiful supply
in north-west Europe, where the material is manufactured. It is the inspiration of Louis Johnston, a member
of the London-based Mandin Collective37, a group of artists and designers inspired to create sustainable
products from a wide variety of natural and waste materials. The type of macro-algae used belongs to the
genus ucus. which is ubi uitous on e posed shorelines in this region. The algae is dried and ground to
a powder, before being mixed and heated with the pulped waste paper and water. This creates a viscous
paste that can be pressed into moulds and left to dry producing a wide variety of products igure . .
Figure 4.24 Lampshades manufactured from minimally processed brown seaweed (Fucus sp.), by Louis
Johnston of the Mandin Collective; images courtesy of the Mandin Collective.
Seaweed harvesting can be carried out in a sustainable manner, provided care is taken to avoid over
exploitation and damage to the underlying substrate. Seaweed is available on shorelines throughout the
ocean and there appears to be great potential to increase the range of applications based on alginate.
37 www.mandin.earth
68
5. ALTERNATIVE MATERIALS - BIOMASS-BASED COMPOSTABLE BIO-POLYMERS
5. Alternative materials - biomass-based

compostable bio-polymers
5.1 An introduction to compostable polymers
There has been growing interest in the development of polymers with ‘greener’ credentials in recent
years. This has led to the greater utilisation of renewable biomass-based feedstock, as well as
materials that are more readily degraded in the environment igure . . This has been accompanied
by an increase in the use of the term biodegradable European ioplastics but it is important
to consider under what circumstances the description is ustified. definition of degradation
‘biodegradation’ and ‘compostable’ is provided in Table 5.1. Most synthesised polymers are not
biodegradable under normal environmental conditions, whether derived from fossil fuel or renewable
biomass sources United Nations Environment Programme . egradation will occur under
favourable conditions, such as higher temperatures, physical abrasion and exposure to UV radiation,
with the rate dependent on the type of polymer and presence of stabilising compounds. But this
leads simply to weakening and fragmentation. Recommendations on the terminology for describing
degradation have been published by the International Union of Pure pplied hemistry IUP ert et
al. .
1%
4%
5%
33%
26%
cellulose polyesters
PLA
starch blends
PHA
regenerated cellulose
31%
other
Figure 5.1 Global production of biomass-based biopolymers in 2014 (European Bioplastics 2015).
Table 5.1 Definitions of degradation, biodegradation and compostable.
Term Definition
Degradation The partial or complete breakdown of a polymer due to some combination of UV
radiation, oxygen attack, biological attack and temperature. This implies alteration of
the properties, such as discolouration, surface cracking, and fragmentation
Biodegradation Biologically-mediated process involving the complete or partial converted to water,
2
methane energy and new biomass by microorganisms bacteria and fungi .
Compostable – apable of being biodegraded at elevated temperatures under specified conditions
industrial -i and time scales, usually only encountered in an industrial composter (standards
apply
Compostable – Capable of being biodegraded at low to moderate temperatures, typically found in a
domestic -d domestic compost system
69
Several national and international standards have been developed for biodegradable and compostable
materials United Nations Environment Programme . These stipulate the testing conditions and
expected performance. Marketing a product as ‘biodegradable’ may give a favourable commercial
advantage but the description can be misleading. or e ample several products initially labelled as
‘biodegradable’ in the state of California USA have not achieved such standards and restrictions have
been placed on their marketing38. ne standard was developed for the biodegradation on non-floating
polymers under marine conditions in the U T - . owever this was withdrawn in
and it does not appear to have been either re-instated or replaced.
Some polymers are biodegraded under composting conditions. There is scope for confusion over use
of the term ‘compostable’, as this can refer to either an industrial or a home/domestic setting, but the
difference is critical. In many cases, labelling a product or polymer as being ‘compostable’ only applies
to the conditions generated within an industrial composting system, where temperatures can be
maintained at around 60°C for many weeks. Normal domestic/garden compost bins or heaps operate at
much lower temperatures ma imum - but lower during higher latitude winter months . Emadian
et al. undertoo a comprehensive review of the biodegradation properties of a variety of biomass-
based biopolymers, demonstrating the substantial differences in reported behaviour under differing
environmental conditions. Even a similar product made from the same polymer may show significant
variability in degradation characteristics due to differences in production, as reported for PLA cleaning
cloths by aver ov and damcov .
There are several standards for industrial composting that can be applied IN - ermany
EN- EU T - U and reenPla apan . incotte39 a certification and standards
agency based in elgium provides certification for industrial composting ompost and domestic
composting ome . This stipulates the conditions that have to be met including disintegration of
> 90%. A comparison of the test conditions and minimum performance standards for industrial and
domestic composting is provided in Table . . incotte also provides certification for materials being
biodegradable in soil I and biodegradable under marine conditions INE . owever
MARINE is based on the ASTM D 7081-05 standard, which was withdrawn in 2014, and it is not clear
whether this certification is still valid. This is a matter for incotte to determine.
Table 5.2 Comparison of standards for industrial and home composting (from: Song et al. 2009)
Process Test conditions and minimum performance standards

Industrial composting (EN 13432) Home composting (Vincotte certification)
Biodegradation • Test at 58°C in 180 days • Test at 20 – 30°C in 365 days
• Biodegradation minimum 90% • Biodegradation minimum 90%
Disintegration • Test at 58°C in 90 days • Test at 20 – 30°C in 180 days
• Sieve 2mm mesh • Sieve 2mm mesh
• Disintegration > 90% • Disintegration > 90%
• Maximum 10% of dry weight allowed • Maximum 10% of dry weight allowed
to be retained by 2 mmm sieve to be retained by 2 mmm sieve
Designation in ertco ompost ome
38 http://www.calrecycle.ca.gov/Plastics/Degradables/default.htm
39 https://www.vincotte.be/en_be/home/
70
The synthetic polymers Poly butylene succinate P Polycaprolactone P and Polyvinyl alcohol
P e hibit some enhanced degradable properties United Nations Environment Programme .
or e ample thin P film and thread dissolve in seawater and are used by recreational anglers for
setting bait. In earlier decades P was used by oceanographers to release bunches of plastic seabed
passive drifters. P is sometimes added to starch mi es ection . . to improve performance and
is compostable in an industrial composter. P and P films are used for agricultural mulching films
but the degree and rate of biodegradation is difficult to uantify esins y et al. . toica- u un
et al. reported that the addition of bacterial-cellulose to P produced a film that performed its
intended function but which was more readily degraded in soil by a fungal strain (Aspergillus feotidus).
5.2 Starch-based polymers
5.2.1 Sources of starch
Starch is a polysaccharide, consisting of linked glucose molecules, and is used as an energy store in
plants. It is one of the most important forms of carbohydrate in the human diet. Common sources of
starch include rice, maize, wheat, potatoes and cassava. It is composed of two sorts of macromolecule:
amylose, which is a sparsely branched carbohydrate; and amylopectin, which is highly branched with
a high molecular weight v rous and alley . ifferent plant species and varieties tend to have
different proportions of amylose and amylopectin, as well as varying degrees of crystallinity and
granule diameter Table . . This can affect the degree of processing re uired and the properties of
the final product hogren et al. 2002, Bergel et al. . The common availability of this feedstoc
has generated considerable interest in the potential for starch-based products to replace conventional
plastics.
Table 5.3 Composition of different starches (from: Avérous and Halley 2009)
Starch Amylose content Amylopectin Granule diameter Crystallinity (%)

(%) content (%) (micron)
Wheat 26-27 72-73 25 36
Maize 26-28 71-73 15 39
Waxy starch <1 99 15 39
Amylomaize 50-80 20-50 10 19
Potato 20-25 79-74 40-100 25
5.2.2 Thermoplastic starch
Some degree of thermal and mechanical processing is required to disrupt the complex crystal structure
of starch, and achieve partial or complete gelatinisation. Closed cell expanded foams require the least
disruption, with the addition of water and elevated temperatures, followed by extrusion into a variety of
shapes. This material has good thermal insulation and shock-absorbing properties. Applications include
loose fill to protect pac aged goods in transit. The eventual goal is to produce a material that can
replace EPS, especially for food packaging (Kaisangsri et al. 2014, Ahmadzadeh et al. . uch of
the research has focussed on the use of cassava starch, an important staple crop, and therefore readily
available, in parts of Asia40, Africa and South America. However, any form of starch can be used so the
techniques and applications can be scaled to a widespread market, with the caveat that food security
and affordability are not compromised Table . .
inimally-modified starch foam readily dissolves in water is compostable under domestic conditions
and will degrade rapidly in the environment. This otherwise desired property does create a limitation
40 www.avanieco.com
71
on the range of applications starch foam can be used for. However, chitosan has been used to coat the
foam, thereby decreasing water absorption and increasing the tensile strength (Bergel et al. .
At higher temperatures and lower water content it is possible to produce thermoplastic starch
TP with the addition of a plasticiser such as sorbitol or glycerine han s and ong . ore
conventional chemical treatments could be used but these may introduce potential unwanted by-
products re uiring an additional purification phase. TP is transformed from native starch using the
same manufacturing techniques as conventional plastics, producing a homogenous molten phase that
is then e truded v rous and alley . The structure of the feedstoc can vary with geographical
source and growing season as well as plant variety ma ing it more difficult to control the properties of
the synthesised TP han s and ong . In addition the properties of TP may ma e it unsuitable
for some applications such as food pac aging without further modification for instance to improve
moisture sensitivity.
Table 5.4 SWOT analysis (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats) of thermoplastic starch
production and use
S1. Utilises renewable natural resources W . iocides and artificial fertiliser may be used
S2. Starch crops are readily available in most on commercial crops, resulting in risks to
developing and developed countries, and are human health and the environment
a staple in many countries in Asia, Africa and W2. Substitution for conventional polymers
South America limited by intrinsic properties of the material
S3. Can be composted in an industrial facility or W3. Products composed of TPS may remain in
decomposed by anaerobic digestion at end- the aquatic environment for several years
of-life before degrading, posing a risk to social well-
S4. Rate of biodegradable in the environment being and the environment
is significantly faster than for conventional
synthetic polymers
. E panded utilisation of renewable natural T1. Loss of habitat and biodiversity

resources T . Intensification of production will drive greater
. evelopment of social and economic use of biocides and artificial fertiliser and
independence in rural area hence increased risks to human health and
. ubstitution for single-use consumer the environment
products such as shopping bags T3. Use of agricultural land for non-food use may
drive up prices and impact food security
5.2.3 Starch-based bio-composites
tarch-based micro and nano bio-composites are produced by combining TP polymer with a filler such
as cellulose or lignin fibres a antia and orreale . This is done to improve the properties of the
finished product and increase the range of applications. or e ample the addition of cellulose fibres to a
TP matri was reported to bring the following benefits v rous and alley
• Higher mechanical properties

• Higher thermal resistance
• Reduced water sensitivity
• Reduced post-processing ageing
Soykeabkaew et al. have published a comprehensive review of starch-based polymers

summarising the various approaches that have been investigated. There are several natural fibres
that can be use to produce bio-composites with particular interest in utilising agricultural waste. or
e ample cassava bagasse consists of the fibres remaining after the e traction of starch from cassava.
The addition of unmodified cassava bagasse to cassava-based TP film was found to reinforce the film
and reduce its water solubility Edhire et al . alt bagasse is a by-product of the brewing industry.
72
The addition of malt bagasse fibres cellulose-lignin was found to increase the strength of food trays
made out of ba ed starch foams ello and ali . agasse from sugarcane processing has also
been used to reinforce starch-based composites, resulting in improved performance (Vercelheze et al.
ilfillan et al. . imin ne et al. reported that both the orientation and length of
sugarcane bagasse fibres influenced the tensile strength.
Kaisangsri et al. tested the effects of adding a variety of plant-based materials to the production
of cassava starch-based foams. These included ein mai e protein gluten soy raft fibre and palm
oil. The addition of raft fibre ein and gluten were all found to increase the fle ural strength and
compressive strength of the foam with raft providing the highest values. ther cellulose lignin
sources that have been investigated include fla and pine bar . The proportion of added cellulose
fibre has a significant effect on the properties of the manufactured composite thought to be due to
interactions between the fibres as well as with the starch compound ilfillan et al. .
The chemical composition of the starch raw material can have a significant influence on the physical
properties of the finished product. Wa y mai e starch consists of amylopectin. It was first
discovered in China in the early 20th Century but has been adopted in the maize-growing region of the
USA and elsewhere. Its use to manufacture starch foams was found to provide higher tensile strength
than standard mai e starch especially when combined with polyvinyl alcohol P and softwood
fibres hogren et al. .
Non-cellulose polymers such as chitosan have been used to manufacture TPS composites. The addition
of chitosan was reported to improve the water vapour and o ygen barrier properties of TP films ang
and osan . The authors suggested that this material has potential for use as an edible film for
food packaging, and pharmaceutical applications.
In addition, composites have been produced using clay minerals (Vercelheze et al. 2012, Rhim et al.
. These phyllosilicate minerals have a strongly layered plate-li e structure with well-developed
polarity on the plate edges and between the plates. This phenomenon is utilised by adjusting the
conditions in the reaction vessel to encourage cation e change between the organic TP and inorganic
clay components v rous and alley .
The potential for starch-based bio-composites to replace conventional plastics in many packaging
applications appears to be very promising, although further work is required to maximise this potential.
In particular, improvements need to be made to some fundamental aspects, such as mechanical
properties and moisture sensitivity, before this category of polymers can replace conventional polymers
in a wider range of applications (Xie et al. . comprehensive review of all-polysaccharide
composites has been published by im ovic .
5.2.4 Starch composites with synthesised polymers
Starch-based composites can also be produced with the addition of synthetic polymers, to improve
performance and increase the range of potential applications igure . . tarch-P is the most
common starch blend as it has a low melting temperature and can be readily hydrolysed. or e ample it is
used in the range of products mar eted as ater- i by Novamont in Italy astioli and arini .
P is compostable but is derived from fossil fuel. ther starch blends included composites with
biomass-based polymers section . such as polylactic acid P polybutylene succinate P
P polybutylene succinate-co-butylene adipate polyvinyl acetate P and polyhydro yal anoates
P .P P and P have the additional advantage that they can be produced by fermentation
of biomass. The composition and environmental behaviour of the finished product will be influenced
by the proportion and properties of the added polymer (Accinelli et al. . onventional recycling of
composite materials requires separation of the polymers and is very is challenging, but if the composite
can be recycled by composting or anaerobic digestion then the cost will be considerably reduced.
73
Biomass Fossil fuel
Maize, cassava
Starch PLA, PBS, PBSA PCL
Minimally Thermoplastic
processed starch blends
starch
Figure 5.2 Simplified schematic of the production of starch-based polymers

5.2.5 Non-starch thermoplastic bio-composite
It is possible to produced thermoplastic materials from natural sources other than starch, including
alginate and chitosan. Alginate is extracted from species of brown algae, which have a global extent.
Alginate has many industrial uses and annual production is > 50,000 tonnes (D’ayala et al. .
Gao et al. developed plasticised alginate using glycerol as a plasticiser using similar thermo-
mechanical disruption as used for TP . ne advantage of developing films based on alginate is that
there is no direct competition with food production. The opposite applies for starch-based composites,
which require the use of agricultural land to produce the raw material, potentially at the expense of food
production. Alginate-based thermoplastics are still under development but show great promise.
Chitosan-based composites are manufactured using chitin. Chitin is abundant globally, forming the
exoskeletons of insects and crustacea, such as shrimp. Chitosan is created by the partial de-acetylation
of chitin with sodium hydroxide, with the degree of acetylation determining the crystallinity. Early interest
focussed on biomedical applications, but this has broadened. The main source of chitin is the exoskeleton
of crustacea, especially from aquaculture where it can be seen as an under-utilised waste product with a
wide variety of potential applications (Cahú et al. .
The potential of utilising of cutin-based polymers has been

reviewed recently (Herredia-Guerroro et al. . utin
is an abundant wa y polymer biopolyester that occurs
in plant cuticle, the protective layer that forms the outer
surface of leaves, and other plant organs that do not have
a periderm. ne disadvantage of cutin is the wide range
of monomers that occur, which introduce an additional
complexity into the process. However, the type of cutin that
occurs in the skin of tomatoes is composed predominantly
of a single monomer -dihydro yhe adecanoic
acid . This will permit the development of relatively low
cost and scalable technologies to be developed, based on
hydrolysis by sodium hydroxide, allowing the utilisation of Figure 5.3 Tomato skins – a source of
the waste from the large-scale horticultural production of cutin for a novel biomass-based
tomatoes igure . . polymer; ©Peter Kershaw.
74
5.2.6 Behaviour of starch and starch-based composites in the environment
Biomass-based polymers have widely differing behaviours under different environmental conditions.
tarch-based polymers are often referred to as biodegradable ialho e oraes et al. 2017; Ezeoha and
E enwanne and it may be assumed that starch-based films and sheets are readily degraded in
the environment. However, the rate at which degradation occurs will depend on the external conditions
Table . . or e ample alestri et al. tested the rate of degradation of a commercially available
starch-based carrier bag ater- i in marine sediments in the editerranean. They demonstrated
that the bag retained 85% of its original mass after 6 months exposure. In addition, the presence of
the bag significantly altered the sediment pore water chemistry and influenced the seagrass species
assemblage. In contrast, starch-based materials are readily compostable, in both a domestic and
commercial setting.
Table 5.5 Starch-based polymers, biomass source and common uses, together with biodegradable and
composting properties (based on reported observations, where available, otherwise estimated):
medium M or low L; qualitative sustainability indicator: blue high, medium purple, low red).
Material Polymer Common Examples of common Terrestrial Aquatic

biomass source uses C-d C-i B B
Starch-based mixes
Expanded starch starch Maize, cassava, oose pac aging fill H H H H
foams potato, rice
Thermoplastic Starch Maize, cassava, Thin-film bags M H M M
starch TPS potato, rice
TPS-polmer Starch- Maize ater- i films M H M M
composite PCL/PLA agricultural mulch
TPS- Starch- Alpaca Clothing, other fabrics M H M M
biocomposites cellulose/
5.3 Synthetic biomass-based polymers
5.3.1 Introduction to synthetic biomass-based polymers
A variety of plant- and animal-based raw materials can be used to synthesize biomass-based
polymers, depending on the intended use and processes employed. Cellulose and starch are the
most common sources but proteins and fats can be used. Poly lactic acid or polylactide P and
polyhydro yl anoates P have been synthesised in significant volumes and mar eted as being
biodegradable igure . European ommission Wang et al. . The ustification for
these claims will be discussed in later sections. PLA and PHA are both compostable, under industrial
composting conditions Table . but this does not apply to all polymers derived from biomass.
In addition, some caution is needed when considering the biomass feedstock. If this consists of
purposefully grown food crops, then the loss of production for human consumption should be
considered in any Life Cycle Assessment, together with the use of water, fertiliser, biocides and energy
hapter . If use can be made of agricultural waste or the products of composting or anaerobic
digestion, then the environmental credentials of PLA and PHA are easier to defend.
Products manufactured from P and P such as bottles and films may be indistinguishable from
conventional plastics to the naked eye. However, reproducing properties such as vapour permeability
and fle ibility can be more difficult to achieve compared with e uivalent polymers used for similar
applications, such as PET and PS (Karamanlioglu et al. .
75
Biomass derived
Cellulose, starch, food waste
Bio-reactor
Synthetic biopolymers
PLA PHA
Figure 5.4 Simplified schematic of the production of poly(lactic acid) (PLA) and polyhydroxylkanoates
(PHA).
PLA is becoming more popular as a substitute for conventional plastics in the catering sector, where
food waste and used PLA plates, cups and cutlery can be collected and the combined waste sent
for either industrial composting or anaerobic digestion. This approach works best in a controlled
closed loop environment, such as institutional catering in companies and hospitals, to prevent
cross-contamination of PLA/PHA plastics with conventional plastics. This minimises the problem of
compromising the composting/digestion of PLA/PHA by conventional polymers, and the recycling of
conventional polymers by PLA/PHA. The closed loop approach allows the products of composting or
anaerobic digestion to become the feedstoc of the ne t generation of P P hapter . The model
provides a good contrast with conventional plastics used for catering, especially in an institutional
setting ection . . .
ne farmer in Poland came up with a novel solution for dealing with an e cess of post-harvest wheat
bran. He experimented with mixing the bran with PLA to produce cutlery, in the proportion 1:941. The
product has a characteristic colour and texture which makes it easier to distinguish from conventional
plastics, encouraging separation of waste streams. The bran-PLA utensils are designed for industrial
composting. There is scope to copy this model more widely.
5.3.2 PLA production and use
Poly lactic acid is synthesised by polymerisation of lactic acid produced by bacterial fermentation of
sugars derived from a variety of biomass sources. This has allowed the commercial scale production
of PLA, with major producers in the USA, Europe and Japan (Karamanlioglu et al. . P is a bio-
polyester with thermoplastic properties and a wide variety of applications, many of which are similar
to conventional synthetic polymers. The main applications have been for various forms of packaging
(Armentano et al. and in the catering industry igure . as it is safe to use for contact with food
(Auras et al. . more recent development has been the production of P fibres IngeoT .
There has been interest in developing a method for producing lactic acid from methane by
fermentation42. This introduces the potential to close the loop on PLA production by the generation of
methane from the anaerobic digestion of PLA waste.
41 http://biotrem.pl/en/products/cutlery/
42 http://www.natureworksllc.com/News-and-Events/Press-Releases/2016/03-09-16-NatureWorks-Methane-to-Lactic-Acid-
ermentation- ab
76
1%
2%
5%
9%
45%
13%
packaging (incl bottles)

catering
technical materials
consumer goods
agrictulture
25% others
construction
Figure 5.5 Applications of PLA by sector (data from Karamanlioglu et al. 2017)
ome of the advantages and disadvantages of P production and use are presented as a W T
analysis in Table 5.6, taken from De Matos et al. .
Table 5.6 SWOT analysis (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats) of PLA production and use
(based on: De Matos et al.2015).
S1. Applications include disposable packaging W1. Production costs may hinder its use in lower-
and high added-value applications, including value applications.
medical grade W2. Thermal and gas permeability are lower
S2. Can replace several fossil fuel-based compared to fossil fuel-based polymers.
polymers, such as polyethylene terephthalate
PET .
S3. Can be composted in an industrial facility or
decomposed by anaerobic digestion at end-
of-life
. evelopments of new catalysts and melt T1. Limited biomass availability due to
polymerisation processes could reduce competition with other uses
production costs. T2. Relatively high cost of lactic acid may inhibit
. Producing lactic acid from waste residues uptake in lower value applications.
should decrease production costs.
. ince P is produced from a renewable
source, carbon tax systems may increase its
competitiveness against fossil fuel-based
polymers.
5.3.3 PHA production and use
Polyhydro yal anoates P s represent a large group of biogenic polyesters that can be generated by
the bacterial fermentation of sugars or lipids, extracted from a range of biomass sources (Bugnicourt et
al. . They can e hibit thermoplastic or elastomeric properties. Early interest focussed on medical
applications, but this has expanded into the packing industry (Bugnicourt et al. .
ome of the advantages and disadvantages of P production and use are presented as a W T
analysis in Table 5.7, taken from De Matos et al. . Wang et al. noted that P -based
polymers demonstrate a wide variety of properties, but further technical advances will be required
before PHAs can replace conventional polymers in many applications.
77
Table 5.7 SWOT analysis (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats) of PHA production and
use (based on: De Matos et al.2015).
S1. Similar properties to many commonly used W1. PHA production costs are higher than those
fossil fuel-based polymers. of fossil fuel-based polymers.
S2. Suitable for food packaging due to their low
permeability to oxygen, PHA polymers are.
S3. Can be composted in an industrial facility or
decomposed by anaerobic digestion at end-
of-life
. The use of P s has been approved for both T1. Biomass availability for the production of
food contact material and surgical sutures. PHAs due to competition with other uses
. ynthesis of P from products of T2. Cost of raw material.
anaerobic digestion
5.3.4 Behaviour of PLA and PHA in the environment
There is very limited degradation of PLA at ambient temperatures in soil and domestic composting,
although degradation of P composites may be enhanced by the addition of natural fibres such as
abaca (Teramoto et al. and enaf urip et al. . There is some concern that the e tensive
use of P for agricultural films may lead to a build up of P in soils udni and riassoulis
Karamanlioglu et al. . In contrast degradation of P and P does occur under commercial

thermophilic composting - conditions and by anaerobic digestion ucharc y et al. 2016,
Musiol et al. . The few studies conducted to date suggest that degradation of P is very limited
in aquatic systems (Karamanlioglu et al. . ualitative assessment of biodegradable and
compostable properties in presented in Table 5.8.
Table 5.8 Starch-based polymers, biomass source and common uses, together with a qualitative
assessment of worst-case biodegradable and composting properties (based on reported
observations, where available, otherwise estimated): domestic composting C-d, industrial
composting C-i, biodegradable B; degradation rate: high H, medium M or low L; qualitative
sustainability indicator: blue high, medium purple, low red); the degree and rate of decomposition
will depend on the application, for example a bottle vs. thin agricultural film, and the presence of
additional co-polymers such as PCL.
Material Polymer Common Examples of Terrestrial Aquatic

biomass source common uses C-d C-i B B
PHA Polyhydroxyalkanoates Biomass-derived ilms pac aging L H L L
sugars catering products
PLA Polylactic acid Maize, cassava ilms pac aging L H L L
starch hygiene products,
catering products
78
5.4 Case studies

Case study 17 – University of Cambridge catering services
The University of Cambridge’s catering services adopted a zero waste approach to food provision in
2015. They achieved this in partnership with Vegware™, an Edinburgh-based company with operational
bases in the U ustralia New ealand U E and ong ong. egware deals with the manufacture
and marketing of compostable food packaging products, as well as providing training, waste audits and
communications support to help effect change. A variety of materials are used, including paper, cardboard,
TP -bagasse composites and P igures . . . These are disposed of with food waste into a single
receptacle. The mixed waste is sent either for commercial composting or anaerobic digestion.
Figure 5.6 Food packaging made from a combination of compostable materials, including paper,
cardboard, cellophane and TPS-sugarcane bagasse composite; images courtesy of Vegware™.
Figure 5.7 Catering ware made from PLA thermoplastic; images courtesy of Vegware™.
79
Vegware™’s main focus is to assist ‘corporate entities’ to bring about a reduction in the use of
conventional plastics while reducing 2
emissions, raw material use and waste management costs.
Clients include hospitals, large multinational companies, festivals and academic institutions. These are
all places where the provision of food and dealing with the waste takes place within an organisation or
site.
The challenge for the University of Cambridge was not trivial, with seven catering services, 6,500
sales transactions per day and 1,500 departmental events each year. Since adopting the compostable
approach in 2015, each month the University saves 1.5 tonnes of carbon, saves 710 kg of virgin
materials and sends 1.5 tonnes of used packaging for composting.
“The University Catering Service’s commitment to sustainability contributes to

enhancing the staff and student experience, and Vegware is a key part of this. The
consideration of greater sustainability throughout the food chain inside the University
helps encourage positive lifestyle changes outside of it for both students and staff.”
University of Cambridge Catering Manager

Case Study 18 – PHA-based textiles – Mango Materials

Mango Materials43 is based in an rancisco. The company was incorporated in and has wor ed
since to develop PHA as a price-competitive alternative to conventional fossil fuel-based polymers.
The raw material is methane, obtained from the bacterial degradation of organic waste. A recent
development has been the production of P fibre igure . . s a bio-based polyester it has the
functionality of conventional synthetic polyester fibres but has the significant advantage of being
compostable and will biodegrade in a landfill producing more methane. The company believe that fibres
will break down in wastewater treatment plants, and that they would be digested if consumed by marine
organisms. They are currently conducting experiments under terrestrial and aquatic conditions. If these
claims are substantiated independently this could signal a major breakthrough in textile production.
Figure 5.8 Schematic illustrating the production cycle of PHA-based products, including fibres; images
courtesy of Anne Schauer-Gimenez of Mango Materials
43 http://mangomaterials.com/
80
6. ALTERNATIVE MATERIALS – RE-USABLE OBJECTS
6. Alternative materials – re-usable objects
6.1 Designed for re-use
At one time almost all containers would have been re-used many times, whether made from pottery,
gourds, metal, glass or other materials. This only changed with the introduction of cheap plastic
alternatives. As market demands and societal expectations have changed so the demand for disposable
food and drink containers has grown enormously. With the growing realisation that this pattern of
consumption is unsustainable, and that it creates a substantial waste problem, it is a good time to
reconsider some of the practices we have abandoned, and look for new opportunities to combine these
with modern technologies.
Using re-fillable containers for food and drin fluids is an obvious and practical solution to disposable
vessels. or e ample the demand for single-use PET water bottles could be significantly reduced if
clean drin ing water was made available for individuals and households to fill re-fillable containers. It
has been estimated that on a global basis we use million bottles per minute reenpeace .
or many people disposable bottles are used for convenience not necessity encouraged by heavy
marketing.
Many non-plastic goods can be found an additional use once their primary use is over. This approach
is sometimes referred as ‘up-cycling’. It can be applied to single-use items, such as wooden
chopsticks; fabrics which may be too worn otherwise unwanted; and, ‘waste’ materials from the
manufacturing process. The effect of promoting these approaches, as well as adopting re-usable
products, is to reduce the overall demand on resources, and continue to provide an alternative to the
plastic e uivalent Table . .
Table 6.1 SWOT analysis (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats) of re-usable materials as a
substitute for conventional synthetic polymers.
S1. May be used multiple times W2. Higher weights of glass and metal will
S2. Can substitute for plastic food and drink increase transport costs
containers W3. Limited opportunities for substitution of
S3. Can make use of objects and materials that conventional synthetic polymers
would otherwise classified as waste W .
Initially energy intensive to producee
. ar et potential to e pand e emplified by T1. Limited appeal to wider markets

increasing use of re-fillable metal drin s T2. Higher initial cost inhibits take-up
bottles
81
6.2 Case studies
Rationale for the selection of case studies
The case studies have been selected to provide examples of how disposable packaging can be avoided
altogether or how the life of materials can be extended. Some of the examples are a new variation on
an old theme. thers are e amples of how new technologies can provide novel solutions for dispensing
food and drink, including for people living in poorer communities. There are also two examples of up-
cycling in the catering and fashion industries.
Case study 19 – Metal drinks and food containers
In the 19th and 20th Centuries miners in the United Kingdom typically would carry their lunch
underground in a ‘snap tin’, a metal box, to keep out dust, water and rodents44. They would drink water
from a metal canteen, again to keep the dirt out and provide a safer solution than relying on a glass
bottle, in a rough working environment. As patterns of demand and consumption evolved, and new
materials became available, so began the rise in popularity of the plastic food containers and the
ubiquitous drinks bottle, from the 1960s onwards, often made from PE or PET.
The benefits of returning to re-usable metal bottles and containers are being reconsidered as a partial
solution to the mountain of PET drinks bottles produced annually. Metal drinks containers provide a
long-lasting solution to minimising PET bottle usage. They are also a safer and lighter alternative to
glass bottles when travelling or being used outside the home. Insulated models are available to keep the
contents hot or cold and they can be used to carry advertising messages igure . .
Figure 6.1 Re-useable stainless steel and aluminium bottles and a

re-useable stainless steel mug, promoting the sustainability
message, ©Peter Kershaw
44 http://www.miningheritage.co.uk/snap-tin/
82
The Elephant Box company

Plastic boxes are often used as a convenient and practical way to store food. This can present
disadvantages depending on the type of polymer used and the nature of the food, in terms of staining,
odour retention and durability. Elephant Box is a UK-based company that supplies a variety of storage
solutions made from stainless steel45. They are designed for longevity and for multiple re-use igure
. . This helps to meet possible concerns about the use of resources in manufacture. Elephant o
started by linking with a manufacture in Chennai India and are expanding into China. The company
has a programme to check working practices meet adequate standards and that the operations are
sustainable.
Figure 6.2 A selection of stainless steel re-usable containers and vessels, for food storage
and consumption; images courtesy of Liz from Elephant Box.
Case Study 20 – Liquid dispensing machine for developing economies - Algramo
Algramo is based in Chile and was founded by José

Manuel. A common problem in many lower income
communities is getting access to small quantities of
household liquid products. Such households are unable
to avoid bulk quantities and tend to buy single portions
of liquids in plastic sachets. The same communities
often lack basic solid waste provision with the result
that there is substantial littering. Algramo have designed
a dispensing machine igure . that allows small
quantities of liquids to be purchased at an affordable
price using small re-usable containers, removing the
need for disposable packaging46. Algramo was a winner
Figure 6.3 Dispensing machine for
of the Ellen c rthur oundation Innovation Pri e installation in retail stores,
in the Circular Design Challenge. allowing small quantities of
household products to be
purchased using small re-fillable
45 https://elephantbox.co.uk/ containers; image courtesy
https www.algramo.com re-fillable dispensing machine Algramo.
83
Case Study 21 – Product dispensing systems for developed economies
MIWA
The concept behind MIWA, short for Minimum Waste, was the inspiration of Petr Baca from the
Czech Republic. Starting in 2014, he wanted to create a packaging solution that avoided relying on
limited life packaging, and the need for disposal or recycling. He gathered a team with the necessary
complementary skills to develop the MIWA solution. In essence this utilises re-usable capsules and
in-store modular units, providing effective supply chain and in-store management. The capsules are
used to transport goods from the producer to the wholesaler, and then to individual stores in which
food is delivered to food outlets. Customers can select products using a smart interface and bring their
own containers for filling igure . . Empty capsules are collected and sent to a washing centre then
returned to the producers.
Figure 6.4 The MIWA packaging solution, utilising re-fillable capsules; images courtesy MIWA.
The system is scalable, being adaptable for major supermarkets or individual traders. There are potential
cost savings in using a common packaging size for the producers and customers can purchase precise
uantities reducing the li elihood of waste. IW was a winner of the Ellen c rthur oundation
Innovation Prize, in the Circular Design Challenge, and has an ambition of becoming a global hub for
minimum waste awareness-raising activities.
Direct farm sales of dairy products

The supply of milk to households in many European countries was traditionally done using glass
bottles, particularly for home delivery. This practice has greatly diminished with the advent of PE plastic
containers and changes in retail habits. However, there is a growing market for direct farm sales using
automatic dispensing machines for milk and other dairy products. This has the advantage to the
farmer of providing a better economic return for farm products, in a retail market often dominated by
a handful of major supermarket chains. An advantage to the consumer can be access to a specialised
84
product (e.g. unpasteurised or specialist breed milk,

yoghurt cheese of butter directly from the farm the
sale of which may otherwise be restricted igure . .
The responsibility for sterilising the bottles lies with
the consumer, but this can readily be achieved using a
domestic dishwasher. The bottles can be reused multiple
times, reducing the demand for the PE equivalent. This is
a model that has wider application.
Case study 22 – Chemistry conference,

Japan 2013
Figure 6.5 Milk bottles, filled by an
Conferences can generate a lot of materials that automatic dispensing machine,
used for direct farms sales,
frequently end up being underused or disposed of. There
Suffolk UK ©Peter Kershaw.
has been a growing trend for organisers of meetings and
conferences, especially those with an environmental theme, to adopt more sustainable practices.
The organisers of a major conference of the Japan Society of Environmental Chemistry, which took
place in 2013, wanted to minimise the use of plastic and the generation of plastic waste by the
delegates. In a country where use of plastic food packaging is ubiquitous, this was quite challenging.
The intention to reduce wastage was emphasised in the conference flyer sent out to advertise the event
igure . . The te t is translated as follows
‘Challenges in 2013 conference
1. Minimal plastic wastes

To reduce the generation of plastic wastes during the conference, several attempts will be
introduced. To reduce PET bottles, all the participants will receive metallic bottles for drinks
when they will register. The metallic bottles are pre-rinsed and ready to use. Participants can fill
drinking water (source is groundwater; no endocrine disrupters has been confirmed by Takada’s
laboratory) at water coolers located at several points in the conference venue. In addition,
organizers will supply iced flavored tea with charge at several locations in the venue. (Chair
persons will receive insulated metallic bottles which are special gift from head organizer who
is also organizer of IPW). Name tags are made of cardboard. Bags for set of the abstracts and
the other information documents are paper bags. Drinks and lunches on lunch-on-seminars will
be provided by paper containers. Your understanding and cooperation would be appreciated.’
85
Figure 6.6 Delegates at a conference of the Japan Society of Environmental Chemistry in 2013, with
metal re-fillable water bottles issued at registration to minimise the use of PET bottles; the
text is an extract of the Conference flyer, explaining the aim to minimise plastic waste at the
conference; the single bottle is a newer design with a bamboo lid, shown with a re-fillable
bamboo-handled fountain pen; images courtesy of Hideshige Takada.
To discourage the purchase of bottled drinks in PET bottles, each delegate was issued with a stainless
steel water bottle at registration, and paper and cardboard were used wherever possible.
This is an excellent example of what can be achieved with a combination of determination and
imagination.
Case Study 23 – CupClub re-usable coffee cups
CupClub47 is the inspiration of afia uereshi co-founder of the design studio tudio Tale based in
London and Cape Town. It is intended to reduce the use of disposable coffee cups in the ‘fast food’ and
‘take-away’ markets by offering a ‘cradle-to-cradle’ solution. This is achieved setting up a subscription
service in which more robust reusable cups can be dropped off at any participating outlet igure . .
This will obviate the need for separate collection and re-cycling, a particular problem when dealing with
standard paper cups which have a PE lining, requiring specialist facilities.
Figure 6.7 Re-usable coffee cups connected by smart phone to customers – the model for
CupClub; image courtesy of Safia Queresi (pictured) of CupClub.
47 http://www.cup-club.co.uk/
86
ollowing a successful pilot the scheme is due to be launched in ondon in . ut the intention is
to roll the scheme out to cities worldwide, with Hong Kong and mainland China being seen as a key
market, for example. It is planned to extend the range to include other products used in the ‘take-away’
sector. The team have devised a number of strategies to ensure the scheme can be sustained, including
by keeping track of individual cups, via the ‘internet of things’, setting up a network of checkouts and
drop-off points and rewarding customers, so that they stay part of the system.
Case study 24 – ChopValue - ‘up-cycling’ chopsticks
hop alue was founded in ancouver by eli c . ancouver inhabitants have a great interest in
the cuisine of East Asia, getting through an estimated 100,000 chopsticks in Vancouver’s restaurant
every day. ChopValue have the aim to make better use of this resource. Restaurants participating in
the scheme are provided with bins to dispose of single-use bamboo chopsticks. These are collected
weekly and taken to a manufacturing facility, where they are cleaned and then pressed into sheets using
a water-based, low-emission adhesive. The sheets are then machined into a variety of objects including
coaster sets shelving units he agon tiles and side-tables and finished with a food-grade wa igure
. . combination of manual labour and semi-automated processes minimise energy use.
Figure 6.8 Products made from re-cycled chopsticks, collected, processed and marketed
by ChopValue of Vancouver Canada; images courtesy of Atiya Livingston of
ChopValue.
Canada as a whole imports 5 billion chopsticks a year from China, which is the major producer and
exporter. Use per head is greatest in Japan, with an estimated annual use of 200 pairs of disposable
chopsticks. The efforts of ChopValue are not going to halt this enormous use of resources, but at least
it does add value to an otherwise discarded product, providing useful objects and minimising the use of
other materials including plastics e.g. chopping boards floor coverings .
87
Case study 25 – Sustainable clothing design using natural fabrics
STUDY Design New York: re-using ‘waste’ fabric
Tara St James runs the STUDY fashion design studio in New York. The company has adopted a zero
waste philosophy, following more traditional practices of minimising the waste of fabric when designing
and cutting48. Any waste fabric that is produced is re-purposed and used to manufacture additional
clothes items designed imaginatively for that specific purpose in collaboration with other small
companies in the roo lyn clothing community. or e ample waste fabric from the manufacture of the
Twist Dress is used to produce the Weaving Hand Sweatshirt.
In addition, the purchaser is encouraged to adopt a more

sustainable end-of-life approach. The garment label
reads: ‘End of life – Repair when possible, donate when
no longer loved, recycle if you can’. ther companies are
adopting more sustainable ‘green fashion’ practices49.
or e ample the wedish company Nudie eans offers
a repair service at several of its outlets, to encourage
customers get the most out of their jeans50.
Figure 6.9 Examples of fabrics produced

using sustainable principles
by STUDY Design of New York;
images courtesy of Tara St James
of STUDY Design
48 http://study-ny.com/zero-waste-1
49 http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-41570540
50 https://www.nudiejeans.com/blog/swedish-origins
88
7. PURSUING THE SUSTAINABILITY GOALS - SOCIAL, ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS
7. Pursuing the sustainability goals - social,

economic and environmental considerations
7.1 Agenda 2030
Tackling marine plastics should be seen as part of a wider philosophy of encouraging more sustainable
production and consumption, including discouraging the ‘buy often discard often’ pattern seen in
wealthier societies, where plastic consumption is much higher.
genda and the UN ustainable evelopment oals s provide an over-arching framewor

within which the issues around marine plastic and microplastic pollution should be considered igure
7.1, Sustainable Development Solutions Network 2015, United Nations Environment Programme
. Thirteen targets from five s and were highlighted by United Nations
Environment Programme as being particularly relevant to reducing the inputs and impacts of
waste plastic in the ocean Table . .
If the scope of enquiry is widened, to encompass the promotion of alternatives to the use of
conventional plastics, then additional SDG targets become relevant. SDG targets 1.4, 8.3, 9.3 and 9.4
relate to promoting social and economic resilience through encouraging: self-ownership of land and
natural resources; access to environmentally sound technologies; entrepreneurship; small and medium
si e business development and access to advice and financial support Table . . These are needed
particularly in rural, and sometimes marginalised, communities in developing countries. It will help to
promote the e pansion of promising initiatives some of which were e emplified as case studies in
Chapter 4.
SDG 1 aims to end poverty in all its forms everywhere. This is a highly desirable goal, but there are likely
to be consequences in terms of society’s choices and behaviour in adopting plastics and alternative
materials, which should not be ignored. The use of plastics is positively correlated with GDP and
per capita incomes. If this increased use is not accompanied by improved infrastructure and the
development of more sustainable consumption patterns then the volume of plastics entering
the ocean will continue to increase. Conversely, the provision of safe drinking water as economies
develop will minimise the use of single-use plastic bags and bottles for potable water. Poverty reduction
will minimise the practice of buying small quantities of everyday products, such as cleaning liquids and
powders, in small disposable plastic sachets, and allow greater consumer choice. SDG target 12.5
refers to substantially reducing waste generation. Perhaps one of the most dramatic changes witnessed
in recent years has been the spread of plastic bag bans to reduce the enormous quantities of plastics
waste being generated in many urban areas, most recently in Kenya51. Here the use of traditional
materials and alternative bags made from natural materials is being actively encouraged.
51 https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2017/08/28/plastic-bags-can-now-earn-you-4-years-of-
imprisonment-in-kenya/?utm_term=.991ae5133864
89
Figure 7.1 The 17 UN Sustainable Development Goals
Table 7.1 SDG targets related to reducing marine plastics and encouraging the sustainable development of
alternatives to conventional plastic
Goal 1 – end poverty in all its forms everywhere

• 1.4 By 2030, ensure that all men and women, in particular the poor and the vulnerable, have equal rights
to economic resources, as well as access to basic services, ownership and control over land and other
forms of property inheritance natural resources appropriate new technology and financial services
including microfinance
Goal 6 – ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all
• 6.3 By 2030, the proportion of untreated wastewater should be halved
Goal 8 – promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth and productive employment and
decent work for all
• 8.3 Promote development-oriented policies that support productive activities, decent job creation,
entrepreneurship, creativity and innovation, and encourage the formalization and growth of micro-,
small- and medium-si ed enterprises including through access to financial services
Goal 9 – build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialisation and foster
innovation
• 9.3 Increase the access of small-scale industrial and other enterprises, in particular in developing
countries to financial services including affordable credit and their integration into value chains and
markets
• . y upgrade infrastructure and retrofit industries to ma e them sustainable with increased
resource-use efficiency and greater adoption of clean and environmentally sound technologies and
industrial processes, with all countries taking action in accordance with their respective capabilities
Goal 11 – make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable
• 11.6 By 2030, reduce the adverse per capita environmental impact of cities, including by paying special
attention to air quality and municipal and other waste management
90
Goal 12 – ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns

• 12.1 Implement the 10-year framework of programmes on sustainable consumption and production, all
countries taking action, with developed countries taking the lead, taking into account the development
and capabilities of developing countries
• . y achieve the sustainable management and efficient use of natural resources
• 12.4 By 2020, achieve the environmentally sound management of chemicals and all wastes throughout
their life cycle in accordance with agreed international framewor s and significantly reduce their
release to air, water and soil in order to minimize their adverse impacts on human health and the
environment
• 12.5 By 2030, substantially reduce waste generation through prevention, reduction, recycling and reuse
• 12.b Develop and implement tools to monitor sustainable development impacts for sustainable tourism
that creates jobs and promotes local culture and products
Goal 14 – conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable
development
• . y prevent and significantly reduce marine pollution of all inds in particular from land-
based activities, including marine debris and nutrient pollution
• . y sustainably manage and protect marine and coastal ecosystems to avoid significant
adverse impacts, including by strengthening their resilience, and take action for their restoration in
order to achieve healthy and productive oceans
• . y increase the economic benefits to mall Island developing tates and least developed
countries from the sustainable use of marine resources, including through sustainable management of
fisheries a uaculture and tourism
• .a Increase scientific nowledge develop research capacity and transfer marine technology ta ing
into account the Intergovernmental ceanographic ommission riteria and uidelines on the Transfer
of Marine Technology, in order to improve ocean health and to enhance the contribution of marine
biodiversity to the development of developing countries, in particular small island developing States
and least developed countries
• 14.c Enhance the conservation and sustainable use of oceans and their resources by implementing
international law as reflected in UN which provides the legal framewor for the conservation and
sustainable use of oceans and their resources as recalled in paragraph of The uture We Want
Goal 15 – protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage
forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss
• . Ta e urgent and significant action to reduce the degradation of natural habitats halt the loss of
biodiversity and, by 2020, protect and prevent the extinction of threatened species
7.2 Towards a cradle-to-cradle approach

7.2.1 The principles of green design
The need to promote more sustainable practices is accepted as a given, by a wide cross-section of
society. But tools are needed to convert the concept of sustainability into practical outcomes. Anastas
and immerman introduced the twelve principles of green engineering to provide a framewor
to promote more sustainable engineering design and the approach was furthering expanded to
encompass Cradle-to-Cradle design by McDonough et al. .
The three tenets of the cradle-to-cradle philosophy:

1. Waste equals food
2. Use current solar income
3. Celebrate diversity
(McDonough et al. 2003)
91
Table 7.2 Summary of the Principles of Green Chemistry and Engineering, from Tabone et al. (2010)
12 Principles of Green Chemistry

GC1 Prevention overall
GC2 Atom economy
GC3 Less hazardous chemical synthesis
GC4 Safer solvents and auxiliaries
GC5 Designing safer chemicals
GC6 esign for energy efficiency
GC7 Use of renewable feedstocks
GC8 Reduce derivatives
GC9 Catalysis
GC10 Design for regeneration
GC 11 Real time analysis of pollution prevention
GC12 Inherently safer chemistry for accident prevention
12 Principles of of Green Engineering

Inherent rather than circumstantial
Prevention instead of treatment
Design for separation

Maximise mass, energy, space and time
utput-pulled versus input pushed
Conserve complexity
Durability rather than immortality
Meet need, minimize energy
Minimise material diversity
Integrate local material and energy flows
Design for commercial afterlife
Renewable rather than depleting
12 additional Principles of Green Chemistry

A1 Identify by-product: quantify if possible
A2 Report conversions, selectivities and productivities
A3 Establish a full mass balance for the process
A4 uantify catalyst and solvent losses
A5 Investigate basic thermochemistry to identify
A6 Anticipate other potetial mass and energy transfer
A7 Consult an chemical or process engineer
A8 Consider the effect of the overall process on
A9 Help develop and apply sustainable measures
A 10 Minimise use of utilities and other inputs
A 11 Identify safety and waste minimisation are compatible
A 12 Monitor, report and minimise
92
In addition, principles of green chemistry have been developed and integrated in an overall framework
for sustainable technology development (Table 7.2, Tabone et al. 2010; Mulvihill et al. . The
approach can be applied to a wide range of technological fields including the development of more
sustainable synthetic and semi-synthetic polymers and utilisation of natural resources, covering design,
production, manufacture, use and post-use or end-of-life stages. Work carried out within the frameworks
of the Stockholm and Basel Conventions is very relevant to ensuring the development of materials that
are intrinsically safer to manufacture, use and recycle (United Nations Environment Programme 2002;
a b.
7.2.2 Applying green design in packaging applications
It is clear that pac aging ma es up a significant fraction of plastic-related material that reaches the
ocean through a variety of entry points hapter . It follows that greater emphasis is needed to
minimise the proliferation of excessive packaging, reduce the leakage of waste packaging to the
environment and to examine the potential of less problematic alternative materials. A framework for
guiding the selection of more sustainable packaging design was proposed by Gronman et al.
recognising the environmental, technical, economic and social aspects of the combined product-
pac aging value chain igures . . . This included considering the minimum re uirements for the
product to be packed, the selection of the optimal material combination, potential challenges, detailed
design, comparative LCA of potential alternative packaging combinations and continuing review of the
selected option. The main driver for this study was to minimise food waste, rather than minimise the
generation of packaging waste and its wider impact. However, the approach is valid for the design of
sustainable packaging using non-conventional polymers or natural materials.
A seagull perched on a public garbage bin pulling out litter with its beak
Photo Credit: Shutterstock/ GParker
93
Step 1: Identification of minimum requirements of the
product to be packed
Specification and
ideation phase
Step 2: Choice of the 1st material/material combination
& preliminary design of the package levels
Step 3: Identification of possible threats
Feasibility study
Step 4: Identification and testing of functionality criteria
Step 5: Detailed design of the design
Design phase
Step 6: More detailed LCA for packaging alternatives
Specification Sustainable packaging combination for the product

phase
Follow-up Continuous optimization of the packaging combination
Figure 7.2 Simplified framework to guide design of more sustainable food packaging, adapted from
Gronman et al. 2013.
94
Economic, technical & functional challenges: Informative

opportunities for re-design
Aesthetics
Consumer Wastage
appeal
Packing size Protection Local

variability
Adaptability Shelf life Hygiene Waste costs
Product Ease of use Easy to

Use of space recycle
driven
Easy to
Consumer preference & behaviour empty
Availability
Processing costs
Material costs
Transport costs
Raw
Production Packing of Distribution
materials for Use End of life
of packaging products and sales
packaging
Energy consumption
GHGs GHGs
Water use
Harmful substances
Material efficiency
Waste management & prevention
Biodiversity Spoilage Compostable
Fertiliser Digestible
Biocides Recyclable
Res. Re-usable
depletion
Energy
recovery
Landfill
Environmental challenges Littering
Figure 7.3 Environmental, economic, technical and functional challenges of the packaging value chain,
adapted and further developed from Gronman et al. 2013.
95
everal ma or international companies including ell hapter and Unilever have been able to reduce
the total quantity of packaging used, and the proportion of packaging relying on conventional polymers,
by adopting practices that are compatible with the companies’ overall sustainability goals (United
Nations Environment Programme United Nations Environment Programme ell .
7.3 Life cycle analysis of natural materials and thermoplastics

(conventional & biomass-based biopolymers)
7.3.1 Overall considerations for life cycle analysis
ife ycle nalysis can provide a uantitative or semi- uantitative estimate of the re uirements
and impacts of a process or product. Typically this will include considerations of resource use (e.g.
raw materials energy water and potential impacts in the production manufacturing and distribution
phases e.g. gaseous emissions biocides process chemicals . ll s depend on ma ing a number
of assumptions about the factors to be included and their relative importance. Some factors, such
as energy use, are much easier to quantify than others, such as the environmental impact of process
chemicals. Differences in the number of factors included and judgements about their relative
importance can lead to fundamental differences in the LCA outcome of similar processes and products
United Nations Environment Programme . In many cases the is limited to e amining that part
of the value chain from the raw material to factory gate.
Most Life Cycle Analyses do not include the product end-of-life stage
Although an LCA limited to the production phase is more straightforward to perform, it is still subject to
significant variability depending on the assumptions that are made. ometimes the is e tended to
the point of use. But, usually there is very little consideration of the full life cycle of the product, which
should include the post-use or end-of-life stages. This should encompass the social, economic and
environmental impacts of waste production and management, including plastics and microplastics
that enter the ocean, and the role of improved solid waste management. There have been attempts
to encourage greater extended producer responsibility, to force manufacturers to consider the end-of-
life impacts of their products rganisation for Economic o-operation and evelopment
United Nations Environment Programme but it has proved difficult to introduce such changes in
practice.
The European Joint Research Centre have developed a methodology to calculate the Product
Environmental ootprint PE and applied it to assess the environmental sustainability of bio-based
products and their supply chains, using an LCA perspective (De Matos et al. . This was applied to
the three pillars of the bio-economy i food and feed ii bio-based products and iii bioenergy including
biofuels. The second pillar included consideration of the production of lactic acid polylactic acid P
and polyhydro l anoates P . These are discussed in sections . . and . . .
7.3.2 Including use and end-of-life stages
Most LCAs of the production of materials and goods fail to consider the use and post-use or end-of-
life phases. This is understandable because it may be difficult to obtain data of comparable accuracy
for the post-use phase, compared with accounting for factors such as total water and energy use,
gaseous emissions and waste minimisation. ut this will result in a flawed analysis of the whole ife
ycle leading to an underestimate of the whole social economic and environmental costs. or e ample
one of shopping bags concluded that using conventional polyethylene PE was a better
environmental option than using paper or cotton Environment gency . ut this conclusion was
based only on the carbon footprint; it did not consider other factors including the end-of-life impact.
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Those costs that remain largely unaccounted for are often not borne by those benefitting from the
goods or services provided. Badia et al. argued that it is essential to include the specific
application of a biopolymer when considering end-of-life disposal options. This is in order to establish
the optimum balance between the properties of the product during use and the most cost-effective
manner of its disposal or further use. or e ample this could include the beneficial use of waste
promoting more effective waste management, ease of use, public commitment/acceptance, improved
implementation and compliance.
ne of the conse uences in conducting a numerical is that many of the social and environmental
costs are very difficult to monetise and even more so when the e tent of the social or environmental
impact is poorly uantified. Environmental economists have devised methods to try and overcome
some of these difficulties but large uncertainties remain. There are some e ceptions. or e ample
if there is a reduction in the biomass of a particular fish stoc due to ghost fishing by an
estimate can be made of conse uential reduction in fish landings and hence a reduction in the income
of a fishing community. ut the possible impact of the loss of income and potentially the reduction
in protein on the mental and physical health of the community may be very difficult to uantify and
monetise.
In another example, we could perform an LCA on the production and manufacture of a polyethylene
bag and conclude it is a very resource-efficient commodity compared to bags made from cotton
in terms of demands on raw materials, water and energy and greenhouse gas emissions. But, if we
include the end-of-life phase the analysis becomes much more complex. Many marine mammals and
reptiles have been found to contain plastic bags when their gut contents are examined in autopsies,
usually of beached animals ecretariat of the onvention on iological iversity . In the case
of sea turtles some species predate ellyfish and it thought that the turtles mista e a floating plastic
bag for a ellyfish. Unfortunately turtles do not possess a mechanism for regurgitating the bags. There
may be a consensus that allowing sea turtles to be killed by discarded plastic bags is unacceptable.
But, if it is deemed necessary to support this opinion with market-based evidence, then we have to rely
on concepts such as willingness to pay United Nations Environment Programme . This may be
ustified in countries which are relatively wealthy or which have higher environmental awareness but
it can be very hard to transpose these results to other regions, with very different social and economic
priorities.
Somehow we need to devise a more sophisticated approach for calculating the net social, economic
and environmental benefit of following alternative approaches such as might be applied to the choice
between goods made from natural materials, biomass-based biopolymers and synthetic polymers.
ociety is poorly served by a reliance on the current flawed methodologies.
7.3.3 Comparing biomass-based, semi-synthetic and synthetic fibres
everal studies have compared the production of te tiles or other products from natural fibres and
semi-synthetic or synthetic polymers. The results differed markedly due to the choice of assumptions
and approach. ne of the most stri ing e amples of divergent outcomes concerns s of cotton
and viscose rayon manufactured from cellulose. cradle-to-factory-gate analysis by hen et al.
part-funded by the rayon industry concluded that rayon manufactured in Europe had the lowest
environmental impact of the materials included in the analysis, in the order rayon < PET < PP < cotton.
The LCA was based on the demand for energy, land and water, and the global warming potential. It
included several other factors including human toxicity, freshwater eco-toxicity, terrestrial eco-toxicity,
eutrophication potential o one depletion and acidification. The authors concluded that production of
viscose in Asia had a greater impact than the European equivalent, on the basis of the use of pulp and
caustic soda, but was still preferable to cotton. The analysis assumed cotton production was based on
industrialised systems used in the USA and Canada; i.e. ‘organic’ methods were not considered. Perhaps
more importantly, the study ignored the substantial evidence of serious occupational and wider health
impacts of the use of carbon disulphide in the viscose production process, a practice believed to be
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as widespread in Asia today as it used to be in Europe and the USA throughout the 20th Century (Bock
.
In contrast a more comprehensive analysis of a variety of natural and synthetic fibres led to the
conclusion that the production of organic cotton and fla had a much lower impact than viscose uthu
et al. . The authors developed an environmental impact and sustainability model which too
account of both the production and end-of-life phases. The model included a LCA of the production
phase using scores of energy use water consumption and 2
emissions. The additional elements
included were 2
absorption 2
emissions, use of renewable resources, land use, the application of
fertilisers and pesticides and human health impact. The end-of-life phase was represented by scores of
recyclability and biodegradability, based on Horrocks et al. and hen and urns . ll these
factors were used derive an Environmental impact Inde EI igure . and an Ecological ustainability
Inde E I igure . . The E I was calculated by dividing the EI of each fibre by the ma imum EI score.
The analysis will be subject to similar uncertainties as any other LCA, over the selection of variables,
assumptions made, weightings given and scoring systems. However, the Muthu et al. study
represents one of the few attempts to take the end-of-life stage into account, and is particularly relevant
in the present assessment of alternative materials.
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Figure 7.4 Environmental impact Index (EI) scores for a variety of fibres: C – cotton, OC – organic
cotton, F – flax, W – wool, V – viscose, PA-6 polyamide 6, PA-66 - polyamide 66, PES –
polyester, PP – polypropylene, A – acrylic; adapted from Muthu et al. 2012.
The impact of utilising biomass either directly or indirectly to produce te tile fibres can be highly
variable. Dependencies include the types of plants being grown or animal products being used, the
manner of production and the overall sustainability of the process. or e ample bamboo is often
marketed as a having excellent ‘green‘ credentials, due to its rapid growth and lower requirements for
other resources. However, there have been concerns raised about the felling of natural forest to expand
bamboo production in some regions (Vogtlander et al. . The utilisation of fla depends on the
process of retting where leaves are left to soa in water to allow the useful fibres to be separated. The
process can lead to contamination of water supplies if not adequately managed. If this occurred it
would affect the EI score according to the model of Muthu et al. . studillo et al. conducted
an LCA of silk production in India. The authors reported that silk had a higher impact than other natural
fibres due to water fertiliser and energy use. They concluded that the high impact was due partly to
farmers not following recommended procedures, and that there was scope for making improvements.
The main lesson is that all analyses will have large uncertainties and it would be imprudent to adopt
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40
30
20
10
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Figure 7.5 Ecological Sustainability Index (ESI)scores for a variety of fibres: C – cotton, OC – organic
cotton, F – flax. W – wool, V – viscose, PA-6 polyamide 6, PA-66 - polyamide 66, PES –
polyester, PP – polypropylene, A – acrylic; adapted from Muthu et al. 2012.
a single approach on which to base management or consumer decisions as to what constitutes the
‘greenest’ solution.
An initial assessment has been attempted of the characteristics of the main elements of the cradle-to-
factory, manufacture and end-of-life stages for the production of a range of natural, semi-synthetic and
synthetic biomass-based biopolymers Table . . The main application considered was fibre production
but this approach could be extended further, to include additional applications and a wider range of
polymers. ualitative scores of low medium or high were assigned on the basis of either published data
cited in the report or by inference. avourable status was indicated by blue moderate by purple and
unfavourable by red. A number of assumptions were made in assigning scores and these are likely to
mas variations in agricultural practise e.g. intensity of production industrial processes and disposal
options. ower scores for fibre production for TP P and P were assigned on the basis that these
polymers had not been used on a large scale for fibre manufacture at the time of the analysis.
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100
Table 7.3 (a) Qualitative indicators of sustainability for the production of textiles and other products from biomass sources, from harvesting to the manufacturer. Indicators
are based on estimates of the relative environmental and human health impact, for a series of stages or characteristics in the production process, from
sources cited in the text or by inference; where BLUE indicates high, PURPLE indicates medium and RED indicates low sustainability. In addition, the relative
importance or impact of each stage is assigned a value of low (L), medium (M) or high (H). (Cot = cotton, Org = organic, Hem = hemp, Lin = linen, Abac =
abaca, Rami = ramie, Woo = wool, Sta = starch, TPS = thermoplastic starch, CP - composite, Ray = rayon).
Natural Natural by- Semi-synthetic Synthetic

products
Polymer Cot. Org Hem Lin Jute Abac Rami Woo Silk Coir Piña Sta TPS TPS Ray PLA PHA
Cot CP
Sustainability characteristics
Land use M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M
Potential to use waste L L L L L L L L L H H H H H H H H
material
Water use H H L L L H L L H L L M M M M M M
Energy use L L L L L L L L L L L L H H H H H
ertiliser use H L L L L H L L H L H M M M M M M
Biocide use H L L L L L L M M L H M M M L M M
Environmental impact H M L L L L M L M M M M M M M M M
combined
Human health impact M L L L L L L L L L L L L L H L L
verall socio-ecological H L L L L L L L M L M M M M H M M
impact
Table 7.3 (b) Qualitative indicators of sustainability for the production of textiles and other products from biomass sources, during manufacture. Indicators are based on
estimates of the relative environmental and human health impact, for a series of stages or characteristics in the production process, from sources cited in the
text or by inference; where BLUE indicates high, PURPLE indicates medium and RED indicates low sustainability. In addition, the relative importance or impact
of each stage is assigned a value of low (L), medium (M) or high (H). (Cot = cotton, Org = organic, Hem = hemp, Lin = linen, Abac = abaca, Rami = ramie, Woo =
wool, Sta = starch, TPS = thermoplastic starch, CP - composite, Ray = rayon).

products
Polymer Cot. Org Hem Lin Jute Abac Rami Woo Silk Coir Piña Sta TPS TPS Ray PLA PHA
Cot CP
Water use L L L L L L L L L L L L M M M M M
Energy use L L L L L L L L L L L M M M H H H
Chemical processes L L L L L L L L L L L L M M H H H
Waste production L L L L L L L L L L L L L L H L L
Human health impact L L L L L L L L L L L L L L H L L
Environmental health impact L L L L L L L L L L L L L L H L L
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Table 7.3 (c) Qualitative indicators of sustainability for the production of textiles and other products from biomass sources, during use and at the end-of-life. Indicators
are based on estimates of the relative environmental and human health impact, for a series of stages or characteristics in the production process, from
sources cited in the text or by inference; where BLUE indicates high, PURPLE indicates medium and RED indicates low sustainability. In addition, the relative
importance or impact of each stage is assigned a value of low (L), medium (M) or high (H). (Cot = cotton, Org = organic, Hem = hemp, Lin = linen, Abac =
abaca, Rami = ramie, Woo = wool, Sta = starch, TPS = thermoplastic starch, CP - composite, Ray = rayon).

products
Cot. Org Hem Lin Jute Abac Rami Woo Silk Coir Piña Sta TPS TPS Ray PLA PHA
Cot CP
Compostable- d H H H H H H H H H H H H M M L L L
Compostable- i H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
Anaerobic digestion H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
eneration of fibres H H H H H H H H H H M M M M H M M
Entry to ocean via wastewater H H H H H H H H H H M M M M H M M
Biodegradable in sea H H H H H H H H H H H H M M L L L
verall environ. impact in L L L L L L L L L L L L M M M H H
ocean
7.3.4 Comparing PLA and PHA with conventional synthetic polymers
Tabone et al. conducted a comparison of the sustainability of production of P and P with

a range of conventional polymers derived from fossil fuels plus bio-PET. They concluded that there was
an overall reduction in the environmental impact of production by following green design principles
section . . ut the ran ing did not coincide with the reen esign ran ing Table . . ome
of the largest environmental impacts were associated with the production of the biomass for PLA
and P due to land use changes and the application of fertili ers energy use eutrophication and
biocides ecoto icological effects reflected in the low scores. learly these environmental effects
will be influenced by factors such as the degree to which fertili ers and biocides are used e.g. organic
versus non-organic principles the type of biomass used and whether biomass is grown specifically for
polymer production or utilises agricultural waste. Polyolefins such as PP PE and P E are produced
efficiently as direct products from oil refining and attracted the highest scores. The analysis was
limited to the ‘cradle-to-gate’ production phase, and the authors recommended that the use and end-
of-life stages should be included in future studies. This would allow disposal options to be compared,
such as recycling of conventional polymers and the potential use of the products of PLA composting
(Karamanlioglu et al. and anaerobic digestion of P for energy production or as a raw material
for new P production ection . . . The inclusion of this end-of-life option would alter the results
of the LCA in favour of the biomass-based biopolymers. In a related study, Shen et al. compared
PET and PLA bottles and concluded that PET had a lower impact. Again, the analysis was limited to the
‘cradle-to-gate’ production phase, so the results have limited value.
Table 7.4 A comparison of rankings for PLA, PHA and a range of conventional polymers, based of Green
Design and Life Cycle Analysis scores; from Tabone et al. 2010.
Material Green Design LCA Rank

Rank
P NatureWor s 1 6
P utili ing stover 2 4
P general 2 8
P general 4 9
HDPE 5 2
PET 6 10
LDPE 7 3
Bi-PET 8 12
PP 9 1
Polystyrene 10 5
PVC 11 7
PC 12 11
7.3.5 Food packaging - balancing the social, economic and environmental goals
Packaging can play a critical role in maintaining the condition of food and food products and minimising
waste in the production transport storage retail and post-purchase stages. ood production has
very significant environmental impacts in terms of land use change loss of biodiversity increased
greenhouse gas emissions, use of fertilisers and resultant eutrophication, and the use of biocides.
Therefore minimising post-harvest food losses can have a substantial environmental benefit
rolleaud Williams and Wi str m . Williams and Wi str m conducted an of
food production and food pac aging and argued that the environmental benefit of using pac aging
to minimise waste had a greater advantage than the impact of producing the packaging. The study
was conducted in a European conte t and this was reflected in the selection of foodstuffs used in
the analysis beef cheese mil bread and tomato etchup and some of the assumptions about the
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consumer phase use of car for transport access to fridge for storage . The e tent to which the findings
apply to other environmental and social settings is unclear.
The elements included in the LCA were:
• Agricultural production
• Industrial food processing
• Production of packaging and packaging material
• Transport in the agriculture, industry, retail and consumer phases
• Retail and consumer phases
The main environmental considerations included can be summarised as:
• Energy use - 2
emissions dependent on energy generation mix
• aseous emissions from agricultural production pac aging transport acidification greenhouse
gases
• Eutrophication from agricultural production
• ood waste e.g. 2
and methane production in landfill and home compost increase energy use
for wastewater treatment
All these factors can be expected to vary with: environmental setting; types of biomass being grown;
degree of intensification of agricultural production and degree of sophistication and industrialisation

of food production, storage and transport. The authors reported that the relative importance of the
environmental impact of the packaging depended on the environmental impact of the agricultural
production of the goods being pac aged. or meat and cheese the environmental impact of the
pac aging was much less than that of production. or tomato etchup the relative impact of the
pac aging was much higher. It is not clear whether the loss of production of 2
and methane, which
occurs under normal non-farmed conditions, was factored into the analysis, when considering the
contribution of landfill and composting. ut the study did not include the impact of pac aging
waste on the environment, in common with most LCA studies.
If the methane produced under composting or anaerobic digestion is captured than this can be used
as a source of bio-energy (Rostkowski et al. and also for production of new compounds. This will
alter the results of the and allows the development of a closed loop system section . .
7.4 Alternative materials and the circular economy
7.4.1 Opportunities for shifting the balance in packaging
The wider adoption of alternatives to conventional polymers provides an opportunity for re-assessing
the linear production-use-disposal model beyond the familiar Reduce, Re-use, and Recycle 3 Rs mantra.
Adding natural materials and biomass-based bio-polymers, such as PLA, PHA and starch blends, opens
up new opportunities in developing closed loop and more sustainable and circular production, use and
re-use patterns igure . . The promotion of a composting or anaerobic digestion stage should allow
a much greater proportion of plastic waste, especially food-contaminated waste, being diverted from
landfill.
Most natural materials can be composted under domestic composting conditions, meaning they are
amenable to small-scale re-utilisation for soil conditioning in remote or poor communities.
The wider availability of scale-able industrial composting would allow much greater uptake of biomass-
based plastics accompanied by greater utilisation of food waste and lower demand for landfill.
Anaerobic digestion provides an alternative approach. Advantages include being able to generate
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Biomass-based Fossil fuel-based
Natural Starch Compostable

PLA, PHA Conventional plastics
materials blends plastics
Domestic Industrial Anaerobic Energy

Re-use Recycling
composting composting digestion recovery
Figure 7.6 Simplified schematic of end-of-life options for biomass-based materials and fossil fuel-based
synthetic polymers (original by P J Kershaw).
energy from the waste product methane . In addition compostable fossil fuel based polymers can be
accommodated by either industrial composting or anaerobic digestion. However, digesters require a
regular supply of waste material of similar uality in order to wor efficiently combined with a relatively
high skill level. This, and the high start-up costs may limit its application. A closed-loop system for food
waste and food pac aging is illustrated in igure . .
It is important to note that there are two key caveats to promoting the use of PLA, PHA and starch-blend
products more widely i they have to be e cluded from the recycling stream to avoid compromising the
uality of re-cycled conventional polymers and ii P and P will behave li e conventional polymers
in the aquatic environment, and contribute to an increase in ocean plastics if not disposed of correctly.
sun Biomass
biomass
compost/ non-food
food bio-polymers
digestion biomass
combined food
waste packaging
Figure 7.7 Simplified schematic of a closed-loop system for food waste and food packaging, based on
the exclusive use of: compostable synthesised bio-polymers, such as PLA, PHA and starch
blends, and other compostable materials (original by P.J. Kershaw).
The widespread adoption of PLA and PHA food packaging will only be sustainable
in closed-loop systems, with ready access to industrial composting or anaerobic
digestion facilities. This must be considered a pre-requisite, to separate PLA and PHA
from the circular production model of conventional polymers.
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There is also evidence that the use of P in certain applications such as mulching films may be
leading to a build-up of PLA in the terrestrial environment (Karamanioglu et al. . learly the
introduction of PLA and PHA food packaging in itself will not reduce the quantities of food packaging
prevalent in the marine environment. But, it does present an opportunity to simplify waste management
of a significant proportion of this waste category if introduced in appropriate circumstances. Provision
of industrial composting and/or anaerobic digestion facilities is a pre-requisite before PLA and PHA are
introduced into the retail sector. They are not suitable for uncontrolled retail use typified by the casual
‘fast-food’ sector.
7.4.2 Fibre production
Te tile production has been transformed by the introduction of synthetic and semi-synthetic fibres.
What has become apparent in the past decade is that textiles represent a very substantial source
of micro-fibres to the ocean introduced largely in wastewater. n addition input results from the
widespread use of fibres in shipping fisheries and a uaculture for ropes and nets. ibres of synthetic
polymers will persist in the ocean, as made clear in Chapter 3.
It appears unlikely that the present demand for textiles will decrease unless there is a change in the
production model. Niinim i and assi have suggested that there is the potential to promote
more sustainable use of textiles in the clothing sector, adopting the principles of ‘slow fashion’, with
greater attention being paid to longevity, repair and reducing textile waste. However, it is not clear
whether this philosophy can ma e a significant difference outside niche mar ets in wealthier societies.
Tangled mess of nets and ropes washed up on the Oregon beach

Photo Credit: Shutterstock/ Jennifer Bosvert
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8. FUTURE TRENDS AND OPPORTUNITIES
8. Future trends and opportunities
8.1 Future trends in fibre production
8.1.1 Empowering impoverished or rural communities
n analysis of the potential for growth of natural fibre production entitled Unloc ing the ommercial
Potential of Natural ibres was published in ood and gricultural rganisation of the United
Nations . This focussed on sisal and the scope for the further development of composites using
natural fibres. The report concluded that sisal production had declined over the preceding years
principally due to competition from PP and other synthetic fibres but that there was great scope for
reversing this trend.
The authors pointed out that sisal production held advantages for rural communities in low-income
countries. everal sisal-producing countries are classified as east eveloped ountries where average
annual per capita gross income U . isal can survive arid conditions in which other crops
may fail, providing a reliable income source in times of drought. Declining production due to the loss
of traditional markets, such as the production of twine, has had an adverse impact on export earnings.
Thus, attention to halting the decline in traditional markets and expanding into new markets, as a partial
replacement for conventional plastic fibres will bring about multiple benefits and help meet several
targets.
The degree to which smallholders can benefit more from interaction with the supply chain is considered
to depend on several factors including how well it reflects economic priorities social structures and
gender dynamics illard . In may communities women are better placed to bring nowledge
about natural resource use into the decision making process, simply because they are usually more
involved in subsistence agriculture and utilising natural resources such as water and firewood WW
. In addition there is scope to reduce barriers to accessing credit facilities which would help micro
and small businesses (Gichuki et al. .
8.1.2 Making better use of waste
In terms of technical development there is a need to develop materials that are carbon-neutral over the
whole production cycle. Greater use can be made of the waste products of horticultural and agricultural
production to reduce potential conflicts with food production. overnments need to e amine the
conse uences of giving subsidies to certain sectors to ensure that the perceived benefit social
economic environmental or political is balanced against the actual cost especially of environmental
damage. or e ample subsidising mai e production as a raw material for bio-fuels or biomass-based
polymers makes little environmental sense if accompanied by excessive use of water, fertiliser and
biocides. There may be a social and economic benefit to the farming community and a conse uential
political benefit but the overall cost from environmental degradation may be far greater if ade uately
uantified.
The absence of the end-of-life phase in most LCA analyses undermines the conclusions that can be
drawn from these studies. In particular it is li ely to imply a greater benefit to adopting conventional
plastics than either natural materials or biomass-based biopolymers. There is a clear need for
environmental economists to work with agronomists, material scientists, environmental scientists and
others, to devise more realistic and reliable techniques for whole life cycle analysis assessment. This
should include consideration of the use of waste materials for manufacturing new products, as well as
the benefits of adopting a networ of commercial composting and anaerobic digestion facilities.
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8.1.3 Novel technologies in materials science – giving nature a helping hand
A series of technological innovations and advances in knowledge have occurred in recent years in the
fields of chemical engineering biological molecular and materials sciences. These were not intended
necessarily for application in the field of developing alternatives to conventional plastics although the
development of P P and fibre composites have all benefitted from these advances. ut a number
of novel applications have been developed precisely due to the application of these advanced ‘disruptive’
technologies.
Synthetic leather
Leather from animal skins consists of collagen. The New York-base Modern Meadows has shown it
is possible to grow collagen fibres in the laboratory and synthesise leather52. They have succeeded
in scaling up the process for commercial production. This will allow those who are unwilling to wear
leather derived from animals to buy goods such as shoes or bags made from synthesised leather,
instead of relying on conventional plastics.
Synthetic silk
Silk obtained from commercial silk moth farming has a relatively high environmental impact, on the
basis of an LCA analysis that included water, energy and fertiliser use (Astudillo et al. . olt
Threads53, a company based in California, has developed a technology that allows the production of silk
protein fibroin using a genetically modified yeast strain. This allows the production of large uantities
of fibroin by fermentation using water and sugar. ibres are produced by wet spinning allowing the
manufacture of silk textiles – no silk moths are harmed in the process.
8.2 Scope for developing the case studies
The examples of alternatives to conventional plastics provided in Chapters 4, 5 and 6 have clear
application within the circumstances in which they have been developed. But the more interesting
question is to what extent can these examples be scaled up or transferred to other regions with differing
social cultural economic and environmental circumstances. Providing a definitive answer to this
question is well beyond the scope of this report, but some key features of each of the potential solutions
have been summarised in three tables corresponding to hapters and Table . . . . The
table provides a qualitative assessment of the degree of technical complexity involved, the start-up
costs, whether the solution is suitable for tropical/sub-tropical or temperate regions, the scope for
scaling-up and a summary of advantages and disadvantages. The main conclusion is that there are very
many opportunities to extend, adapt or otherwise promote all these solutions, provided proper account
is taken of the social and economic circumstances and there is involvement of all parties who may be
e pected to benefit or otherwise affected by the proposed solution.
52 http://www.modernmeadow.com/our-technology/
53 https://boltthreads.com/about-us/
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Table 8.1 Qualitative assessment of the technical complexity, start-up costs, regional relevance (TR - tropical/sub-tropical, TE – temperate), possibility to scale up,
advantages and disadvantages of solution involving natural materials: L- low, M – medium, H- high; blue - most favourable, red - least favourable.
Solutions involving natural materials – Chapter 4

Examples Technical Start-up Climatic Possible to Advantages Disadvantages
complexity cost region scale up
L M H L M H TR TE L M H
Paper & card L M L M Y Y H Widely available Production can lead to
Readily compostable environmental degradation
Protective packing based on M L M Y Y H Can use a wide variety of agricultural & other Not water resistant
fungal mycelium organic wasteReadily compostable
Personal care products based L L Y Y M Will degrade in the environment Limited market access
on natural materials (e.g.
wood and bristle
Products made from sisal, L L Y Y Provides empowerment in impoverished rural Possible over-exploitation of
jute, sea grass and other communities resources
natural fibres Limited market access
Bamboo straws L L Y N M Provides empowerment in impoverished rural Limited market access
communities
Plates & bowls from leaves L L Y N M Provides empowerment in impoverished rural Limited market access
communities
Can utilise agricultural waste
b ects from peel L L Y Y L Can utilise waste from commercial operations Limited applications
Piñatex™ ‘leather’ M Y N L Can utilise waste from commercial operations Limited applications
Products made from water L L Y N M Helps to control invasive species Limited market access
hyacinth
Compostable coffee cups M Y Y H Elegant solution to major problem with existing Dependent on acceptance by
disposable coffee cups established market
Edible plates and cutlery from L L Y Y M Solution to littering from ‘fast-food’ outlets Limited market access
cereals
Edible packaging from M H Y Y M Solution to littering from ‘fast-food’ outlets Limited market access
seaweed
Non-edible products from L M L Y Y M Uses of widespread renewable resource Limited applications &
seaweed market access
109
110
advantages and disadvantages, of solutions involving biomass-based, compostable, synthetic biopolymers: L- low, M – medium, H- high; blue - most
favourable, red - least favourable.
Solutions involving biomass-based, compostable, synthetic biopolymers – Chapter 5

Thermoplastic starch TP M M M M Y Y H Uses renewable stable cereal crops such as Potential competition for
packaging cassava and maize food crops, leading to price
TPS bags can be used for food waste in industrial increases & food insecurity
composters Time-dependent degradation
in ocean
Limited applications
compared with conventional
synthetic polymers
Starch-based bio-composite M M Y Y H Increased range of applications over pure TPS Composites need to be
packaging an use agricultural waste as fibre source compostable to avoid
separation and recycling
Time-dependent degradation
in ocean
Inferior to conventional
synthetic polymers for some
food applications
PLA-based catering products H H Y Y M PLA plates & utensils can be included with food Requires establishing a
waste for industrial composting or anaerobic closed-loop system to keep
digestion separate from conventional
Lactic acid can be produced from organic waste plastics
Does not degrade in the
ocean
High production costs
PHA-based packaging & H H Y Y M PHA packaging can be included with food waste for High production costs
textiles industrial composting or anaerobic digestion
PHA can be synthesised from waste-generated
methane
advantages and disadvantages, of solutions involving re-usable materials: L- low, M – medium, H- high; blue - most favourable, red - least favourable.
Solutions involving re-usable materials – Chapter 6

Metal dinks and food M M Y Y M H Robust, lightweight and hygienic solution to Initial high cost
containers protecting foodstuffs and transporting fluids Requires availability of safe
drin ing water for re-filling
Liquid dispensing machine M Y Y M Allows dispensing of small volumes of household Initial cost
for cleaning products – cleaning materials into re-usable containers Need to enrol support
developing economies Eliminates use of small disposable sachets of existing retailers and
customers
ood dispensing machine H H Y Y M Allows dispensing of variable volumes of foodstuffs Initial high cost
developing economies into re-usable containers Need to enrol producers,
Reduces need for disposable packaging wholesalers, retailers and
customers
Re-usable coffee cup M M Y Y M Eliminates need for disposable coffee cups Need to enrol retailers,
up lub Eliminates need to carry a personal cup corporate chains and
customers
Relies on the acceptance &
availability of the ‘internet of
things’
imited to relatively affluent
urban areas
Up-cycling chopsticks L L Y Y M Makes use of a waste product Need to enrol restaurant
Manufacture value added products outlets
Sustainable clothing design L M L M Y Y M Encourages efficient use of fabrics Need to enrol producers,
Encourages repair and longevity designers, retailers and
customers
111
8.3 The role of the Clean Seas Campaign
The Clean Seas Campaign54 was initiated by the United Nations Environment Programme in ebruary
2017. The self-declared aim of the campaign is to:
‘……… address the root-cause of marine litter by targeting the production and
consumption of non-recoverable and single-use plastic. To do this effectively, we need
citizens to be aware, engaged and active in addressing the problem in their own lives
and beyond.’
It is intended that the campaign should connect individuals, civil society, governments and industry to:
‘… transform habits, practices, standards and policies …..’
orty three had formerly oined the campaign by arch out of a total of total of pledges
from individuals companies N s and governments. The campaign contributes to the goals of the
Global Partnership on Marine Litter55, an open-ended voluntary partnership for international agencies,
N s business governments P and local authorities with UN Environment acting as the

Secretariat. The GPML provides an on-line platform for the collection and distribution of news and other
information56.
Although the Clean Seas remit does not cover alternative materials per se there are obvious connections
between reducing consumption of non-essential single-use plastic and promoting the use of alternative
materials. It is anticipated that both the Clean Seas and GPML initiatives will be used to disseminate the
results of this report and encourage greater uptake of the solutions presented in it.
8.4 Encouraging the appropriate response
Reducing the quantities of plastics and microplastics reaching the ocean is a complex and multi-
faceted problem, but it is tractable compared with several other global environmental issues, such
as ocean acidification and climate change. There is no one simple solution but rather a whole series
of incremental steps are necessary, taking account of the technical, social and economic needs and
circumstances of different countries and regions.
or e ample a mobile phone app. has been created57 to encourage greater upta e of re-fillable bottles
in the UK, by indicating the location of retail outlets and water fountains in public buildings and spaces.
This is a model that will work in well-organised societies in which the availability of potable water is
not questioned. However, in very many societies this is not the case. If people are to be weaned off
disposable plastic bottles and bags, as their only reliable source of clean drinking water, then provision
must be made for public clean water to be supplied. ne e cellent e ample is the placing of water T s
in some of the poorest parts of Nairob58, in a public-private partnership, monitored via the ‘cloud’. This is
a solution that has wide application.
54 http://cleanseas.org/
55 https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/partnership/?p=7471
56 http://marinelitternetwork.com/
http refill.org.u
http www.grundfos.com cases find-case water-atms-offer-low-priced-water-to-nairobis-poorest-residents.html
112
Political support for a more sustainable approach to our use of resources is essential. That support
is growing, as evidenced by the adoption of the SDG targets, recognition within the UNEA process,
Regional Seas Action Plans and G7 and G20 Marine Litter Action Plans. These developments are to
be welcomed but they are not sufficient in themselves to bring about the re uired changes. There is
an important role for private sector to recognise the need to change and seize the opportunities this
provides. There is a responsibility for corporations to implement more sustainable business practices
and incorporate sustainability in their business models. There is an opportunity to tap the resources
and resourcefulness of local communities to sustainably develop local economies and achieve greater
resilience and autonomy, in particular by utilising available plant and animal resources.
Almost all commercial and industrial sectors, together with public sector organisations and civil society,
use conventional plastics. We all have a role to play in exploring opportunities for reducing conventional
plastic use and replacing them with alternative materials or biomass-based biopolymers. There is a
need for innovation and entrepreneurship. This could be encouraged by competition59.
All human activity has an impact on the planet. We have to be careful that a mission to reduce one type
of impact, in this case ocean plastics, does not result in the unintended consequence of increasing
another (e.g. increasing use of water, fertiliser and biocides for increased production of non-organic
cotton . The advantage of adopting an incremental response is that it is possible to ma e mista es and
learn from them, an essential element of adaptive management.
UN Environment Innovation hallenge http www.unep.org newscentre global-innovation-challenge-opens-students-fight-

marine-plastic
113
9. Conclusions and recommendations
9.1 Conclusions
Occurrence of plastics in the marine environment:
1. Plastics used for packaging and other single-use applications are ubiquitous in the marine
environment and often are the dominant category in surveys of identifiable ob ects.
. icroplastic fibres of synthetic and semi-synthetic polymers have been found in deep ocean
sediments arctic sea ice and a wide variety of marine organisms including in commercial fish and
shellfish.
. The widespread distribution of single-use plastics and microplastic fibres in the ocean provides
the ustification for focusing on these applications when assessing whether there are options for
utilising alternative natural materials, or less problematic synthetic polymers.
Utilisation of alternative materials:
4. It is neither possible nor desirable to remove all plastics from society, but alternatives can have a
significant role in reducing our dependence.
5. The use of alternatives must be part of a broader strategy towards more sustainable production
patterns, particularly for packaging and other single-use items, including the principles of redesign,
reduce, reduce and facilitating recycling.
6. It is critical to balance the aim of reducing plastic packaging waste with reducing food waste.
7. The purposeful agricultural production of biomass to supply the biopolymer industry has to be
balanced against the need to support food production and preserve biodiversity.
8. There is scope to increase the use of agricultural and horticultural waste as a source of natural
fibres and as a raw material for biopolymer production.
9. An increasing number of packaging solutions using alternative materials are being developed and
bought to market.
10. There remains an issue of scaling up some potential solutions to support a mass market; factors
such as raw materials supply availability of appropriate s ills access to financing infrastructure and
the degree of technological development will be key, especially in developing economies.
11. Biomass-based biopolymers such as PLA, PHA and TPS show great potential, especially for
packaging and other single use, provided they are used in closed loop-systems. Their promotion as
a greener alternative is un ustified in the absence of the effective provision of industrial composting
or anaerobic digestion facilities; i.e. they are not suitable for dispensing ‘fast food’ in uncontrolled
public spaces.
12. The increasing use of PLA, PHA and TPS and similar biopolymers will not reduce per se the amount
of plastic waste reaching the ocean or ending up in landfill. In addition there is a ris that such
polymers will contaminate recycling waste streams
13. The utilisation of natural materials, either directly or as a biomass source, is dependent on prices in
the agricultural and horticultural sectors. These can be highly variable and unpredictable. Building in
fle ibility in the selection of different materials is an advantage.
14. Many countries have started to introduce restrictions on the availability of thin walled plastic
bags, commonly used for carrying shopping. This creates an incentive to promote the use of bags
constructed from natural materials, designed for multiple uses.
114
9. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Life Cycle Analysis (LCA):
15. Currently most LCAs that attempt to compare the sustainability of different types of polymer are
incomplete, as they do not deal adequately with the end-of-life phase of the production cycle.
. The social economic and environmental impacts of the end-of-life phase are often difficult to
quantify, and improved methods are needed, guided by appropriate expertise in all facets of the end-
of-life phase.
17. Agricultural production often involves the use of water for irrigation and may involve the intensive
application of artificial fertilisers and biocides. This may result in unwelcome environmental and
social impacts. These elements must be included in an LCA.
18. A more sophisticated approach is required for calculating the net social, economic and
environmental benefit of following alternative approaches such as might be applied to the choice
between goods made from natural materials, biomass-based biopolymers and synthetic polymers.
This should include consideration of human health aspects in the production and manufacturing
stage.
Encouraging change:
. ocussing on related goals and targets e.g. and will help to achieve
SDG 14.1
20. Moving towards more closed-loop, carbon-neutral production cycles, including the use of industrial
composting and anaerobic digestion will demonstrate the beneficial use of waste and should
promote more effective waste management, ease of use, public commitment/acceptance,
improved implementation and compliance. Natural alternatives to conventional plastics, and the use
of biomass-based biopolymers, have an important role to play in such systems.
21. Governments have a moral responsibility to examine the consequences of supporting certain
sectors to ensure that the perceived benefit social economic environmental or political is
balanced against the actual cost, especially of environmental damage.
22. Recognising that all elements of society have a role to play in exploring opportunities for reducing
conventional plastic use and replacing with alternative materials or biomass-based biopolymers.
There is a need for innovation and entrepreneurship, which could be encouraged by competition.
23. Empowering women, who often make the bulk of domestic spending decisions, will have a
disproportionately beneficial effect in changing consumption behaviours and reducing unnecessary
use of conventional plastics.
24. Encouraging the Parties to the Stockholm and Basel Conventions to implement the recommended
guidelines on the import e port recycling and disposal of goods and materials containing P Ps.
9.2 Recommendations
. Promote the findings and recommendations resulting from the ear of the ibre initiative.
2. Support sustainable development in rural communities to make better use of natural resources.
. Promote the greater utilisation of agricultural and horticultural waste as a source of natural fibres
and biomass for the production of biopolymers.
. Encourage a collaborative and mutually beneficial approach towards meeting target .
particularly taking account of SDGs 1, 6, 8, 9, 11, 12 and 15.
. Promote more gender-specific research on the impacts of plastics on human health and the
environment.
6. Encourage further research into the use agricultural and horticultural waste for novel purposes.
7. Promote clear labelling of materials suitable for industrial compositing and discourage use of the
term biodegradable without further clarification of the conditions under which biodegradation will
occur.
. Encourage the further development of national and international standards definitions and
standards i.e. EN T I . covering composting anaerobic digestion and biodegradation in
a variety of terrestrial and aquatic environments.
115
9. Support additional research into the behaviour, fate and effects of natural materials, semi-synthetic
polymers and biomass-based biopolymers in the natural environment, including associated
chemicals.
10. Support awareness-raising campaigns on the impacts of plastics on society and the environment,
the potential of alternative materials and the role of women in bringing about change.
11. Require the public and private sector to fully cost the social and environmental impacts of their
current business models.
12. Encourage policy implementation of the Precautionary Approach and Polluter Pays Principle, to
promote the use of more sustainable products and practices.
13. Ensure products are adequately labelled so that users and consumers are provided with clear,
comprehensible and accurate information of which to base purchase decisions.
Marine plastic debris on a beach in Malta

Photo Credit: Alain Bachellier
116
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Exploring the potential for

adopting alternative materials

ISBN No: 978-92-807-3703-5

Published by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), May 2018

Author: Peter Kershaw, Independent consultant – Marine Environmental Protection Norfolk, UK

Environmental Technology entre apan ngeline ampou UN Environment- cience ivision .

Production team: inita hah UN N P atherine imeu UN N P

Project manager: oana rofi cience ivision

Organisations and miscellaneous terms

Naturally-occurring polymers and materials

Synthetic and semi-synthetic polymers and associated chemicals

2. Our relationship with plastic 19

3. Marine plastics and microplastics – the main culprits 39

4. Alternative materials - natural polymers/ materials 47

5. Alternative materials - biomass-based compostable bio-polymers 69

6. Alternative materials – re-usable objects 81

7. Pursuing the sustainability goals - social, economic and environmental considerations 89

8. Future trends and opportunities 107

9. Conclusions and recommendations 114

Table 1.1 Presentation of a SWOT analysis ........................................................................................................... 17

1.1 Marine litter as a global issue

1.2 The Response

1.3 Purpose and content of the report

Table 1.1 Presentation of a SWOT analysis

UN Environment launch of the Clean Seas campaign in Bali, Indonesia.

2. Our relationship with plastic

2.1 Criteria for adopting plastics

1. Improved human health – medical applications

. evelopment of new polymers and T1. Continuing accumulation of plastics and

whether it is to clean or to provide sparkle3. year ©Peter Kershaw

Is the adoption of plastics for this application:

2.2 Conventional plastics

2.2.1 Synthetic thermoplastic and thermoset polymers

Fossil fuel derived Biomass derived

PE PP PS PVC PET PU SBR epoxy

Polymer Typical applications

Polyurethane PUR Building insulation, insulation for fridges/freezers, foam

2.2.2 Synthetic fibres

Polymer Typical applications

2.2.3 Human health aspects

Polymer Monomer(s) Hazard level Hazard score

Additive Function Effect Listing under

hexabromobiphenyl educe flammability Endocrine disruptor Elimination

Female workers in the automotive plastics industry in Canada have a three-fold

2.2.4 Degradation of synthetic polymers in the environment

Table 2.6 Definitions of degradation, biodegradation and compostable

industrial composter standards apply

2.3 Semi-synthetic biomass-based fibres and films

2.3.1 Materials, biomass sources and uses

Rayon Cellulose acetate cellophane

Viscose Acetate Cellophane™

Product Common biomass Chemical process Uses

2.3.2 Human health aspects

Material Polymer Terrestrial Aquatic

sources of chemical contamination:

Polymer Typical applications Potential for secondary microplastic

2.5 The plastics economy

Recycling can also lead to unintended consequences.

ome polymers such as EP are inherently difficult