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 Water Reuse for
Irrigation
Agriculture, Landscapes, and Turf Grass

© 2005 by CRC Press

 Water Reuse for
Irrigation
Agriculture, Landscapes, and Turf Grass

Edited by
Valentina Lazarova
Akiça Bahri

CRC PR E S S
Boca Raton London New York Washington, D.C.

© 2005 by CRC Press

 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Water reuse for irrigation: agriculture, landscapes, and turf grass / edited by
Valentina Lazarova, Akiça Bahri
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references.
ISBN 1-56670-649-1 (alk. paper)
1. Irrigation water – Quality. 2. Water reuse. 3. Sewage irrigation – Environmental
aspects. I. Lazarova, Valentine. II. Bahir, Akiça.

S618.45W28 2004
333.910 3–dc22 2004055223

This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted
material is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated. A wide variety of references are
listed. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author
and the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or for the
consequences of their use.
Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means,
electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or by any
information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publisher.
The consent of CRC Press does not extend to copying for general distribution, for promotion, for
creating new works, or for resale. Specific permission must be obtained in writing from CRC Press
for such copying.

Direct all inquiries to CRC Press, 2000 N.W. Corporate Blvd., Boca Raton, Florida 33431.
Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and
are used only for identification and explanation, without intent to infringe.

Visit the CRC Press Web site at www.crcpress.com

ß 2005 by CRC Press

No claim to original U.S. Government works

International Standard Book Number 1-56670-649-1
Library of Congress Card Number 2004055223
Printed in the United States of America 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0
Printed on acid-free paper

© 2005 by CRC Press

About the Authors
Valentina Lazarova graduated with a master’s
degree in Sanitary Engineering from the School
of Civil Engineering of Leningrad. She earned a
Ph.D. degree from the Technical University of
Chemical Engineering of Sofia, Bulgaria, and a
postdoctoral fellowship at the National Institute
of Applied Sciences in Toulouse, France.
She started her professional career as project
manager at the Bulgarian National Institute
Vodokanalproekt and assistant professor at the
Center of Biotechnology of the University of
Sofia. Since 1991 Dr. Lazarova has worked at
the Technical and Research Center (CIRSEE) of Suez Environnement, France,
as project manager and department head for wastewater treatment and reuse.
The main focus of her academic and research activities is global water-cycle
management with special attention to water and wastewater treatment and
water-quality management. Her efforts have focused on the transfer and
application of innovative methods and findings resulting from fundamental
research to industry (wastewater-treatment design and operation). A particular
emphasis of her work has been to develop, promote, and apply an inter-
disciplinary approach to the development of innovative water- and wastewater-
treatment processes and integrated water-management strategies that are more
efficient, economically viable, and technically reliable. She has made major
contributions in the field of advanced biofilm reactors, disinfection, water reuse,
water-quality control, integrated water-resource management, and water reuse.

Akiça Bahri holds agricultural engineer and

doctor-engineer degrees from the National
Polytechnical Institute of Toulouse, France,
and a Ph.D. from the Department of Water
Resources Engineering, Lund University,
Sweden. She works for the National Research
Institute for Agricultural Engineering, Water
and Forestry in her home country of Tunisia.
She has worked in the field of agricultural
use of marginal waters (brackish and waste-
water), sewage sludge, and their impacts on the

© 2005 by CRC Press

vi About the Authors

environment. She is involved in policy and legislative issues regarding water

reuse and land application of sewage sludge. She is in charge of research
management in the field of agricultural water use. Besides being involved in
research and teaching, she has wide-ranging international experience. She is
member of different international scientific committees.

© 2005 by CRC Press

Abstract
The purpose of this book is to provide guidelines for the use and management
of recycled water for both landscape and agricultural irrigation. The target
audience is water and wastewater engineers, administrators and planners,
operators, and recycled water users. Multidisciplinary knowledge in this field is
summarized and can be easily used by students and researchers. To bridge
the gaps between fundamental science (biology, agronomy, environmental
engineering, etc.) and relatively uncharted areas of economic, institutional, and
liability issues and facilitate the successful planning and operation of water-
reuse projects for various purposes, these guidelines are intended to provide the
needed information, analysis of the existing practice, and recommendations for
agricultural and landscape irrigation. Emerging issues and concerns are also
covered, such as adverse effects on plants, groundwater, environment, and
public health.

© 2005 by CRC Press

Preface
Growing water scarcity worldwide and stringent water-development regula-
tions to protect the environment are two major challenges facing water
professionals in implementing integrated management of water resources. The
water pollution control efforts in many countries have made treated municipal
and industrial wastewater suitable for economical augmentation of the existing
water supply when compared to increasingly expensive and environmentally
destructive new water resource developments that include dams and reservoirs.
Thus, the beneficial use of treated municipal wastewater is considered as a
competitive and viable water source option. Recycled water makes it possible
to close the water cycle at a point closer to cities and farms by producing water
from municipal wastewater and reducing wastewater discharge into the
environment.
The use of reclaimed water for agriculture is a major water-reuse practice
world wide. For a number of semi-arid regions and islands, water recycling
provides a major portion of the irrigation water. However, despite widespread
irrigation with reclaimed wastewater, water-reuse programs are still faced with
a number of technical, economic, social, regulatory, and institutional
challenges. Some of the water-quality concerns and evaluation of long-term
environmental, agronomic, and health impacts remain unanswered. Further-
more, the economic benefits and financial performance of water reuse in
irrigation are difficult to assess and demonstrate. The economics of water reuse
depends on many local conditions, which are difficult to generalize. Often the
costs and benefits of water reuse need to be compared with the environmental
costs and costs to downstream water users.
The aim of this book is to bridge some of these gaps, providing a synthesis
of comprehensive information generated by recent advances in science and
practices of water reuse for irrigation. It presents guidelines, recommendations,
and codes of best practice from around the world for all types of uses of
recycled water for irrigation. Emerging issues and concerns are also discussed,
such as adverse effects on plants, groundwater, environment, and public
health.
Planning water-reuse projects for irrigation purposes can also be valuable
for planners and local authorities, as it has numerous associated benefits such
as providing reliable, secure, and drought-proof water sources via recycled
water, closing the water cycle at a small and large scale, improving public

© 2005 by CRC Press

x Preface

health and the environment, and contributing to sustainable development in

both rural and densely populated urban regions. This book is the most up-to-
date treatise by experts on irrigation using recycled water produced by
appropriate treatment of urban wastewater.

Valentina Lazarova

Paris, France

© 2005 by CRC Press

Acknowledgments
The publication of this book is a team effort and a number of persons greatly
contributed directly or indirectly to the preparation of this book. A part of this
work was supported by the EC Program Environment and Climate, contract
ENV4-CT98-0790 ‘‘Enhancement of Integrated Water Resource management
with Water Reuse at Catchment Scale’’ (EU project CatchWater). I would like
to thank all participants in the CatchWater consortium and the CEE advisor
officers for their active collaboration. In fact, over the past years substantial
research activities in the field of water were initiated in the context of the
European Union’s environmental research and demonstration programs, with
the goal of understanding the complexity of the problems of the freshwater
environment, providing decision-makers with the appropriate tools to manage
water resources in an integrated way, and supporting the implementation of
related European Union water policies (Water Framework Directive). Within
this context, attention was also given in field studies and modelling activities
aiming to develop socio-technical-economic methodologies for water recla-
mation schemes ensuring public health and environmental protection. Public
acceptance and socio-economic impacts involved with water reuse have been
investigated also with the goal of providing the basis for common principals
and criteria for integrated water management practices with water reuse.
Several other research programs funded by Suez Environnement enabled us to
improve our knowledge about water reuse in the context of different developed
and emerging countries.

The guidance of Prof. Takashi Asano, Jim Crook and Bahman Sheikh were
decisive for the elaboration of a comprehensive and homogenous guideline
book on irrigation with recycled water.

The active support of my family and especially my daughter Raya was precious
to me and helped to overcome all technical, social and psychological constraints.

Alexander Franchet and Michel Hurtrez provided essential help for the
improvement of the book’s illustrations.
Valentina Lazarova

© 2005 by CRC Press

Contributors
A number of North American, Central American, European, and Mediterranean
experts were involved in the preparation of different chapters, as well as in the
reviewing and revising of other chapters. The active participation of all
contributors was critical for the quality of the manuscript:

 Takashi Asano, Consultant, retired from University of California at Davis,

Davis, California, United States
 Akiça Bahri, National Research Institute for Agricultural Engineering,
Water, and Forestry, Ariana, Tunisia
 Herman Bouwer, Consultant, retired from U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Phoenix, Arizona, United States
 James Crook, Consultant, Norwell, Massachusetts, United States
 Paul Jeffrey, Cranfield University, Bedford, United Kingdom
 Blanca Jiménez Cisneros, National Autonomous University of Me´xico,
Mexico, D.F., Me´xico
 Xavier Millet, Consorci de la Costa Brava, Girona, Spain
 Joe Morris, Cranfield University, Bedford, United Kingdom
 Ioannis Papadopoulos, Agricultural Research Institute, Nicosia, Cyprus
 Eric Rosenblum, South Bay Water Recycling Environmental Services
Department, San Jose, California, United States
 Lluis Sala, Consorci de la Costa Brava, Girona, Spain
 Bahman Sheikh, Consultant, San Francisco, California, United States
 Sean Tyrrel, Cranfield University, Bedford, United Kingdom

© 2005 by CRC Press

Contents

1. CHALLENGES OF SUSTAINABLE IRRIGATION WITH

RECYCLED WATER
Valentina Lazarova and Takashi Asano

1.1 Managing water security by water reuse .................................. 1

1.2 Objectives and contents of this volume.................................... 4
1.3 Role of water reuse for irrigation .......................................... 6
1.4 Benefits and constraints of irrigation with recycled water ............. 8
1.5 Specifics of water reuse planning ........................................... 11
1.6 International experience with irrigation using recycled water.......... 14
1.6.1 Water reuse in Europe, the Mediterranean region,
and the Middle East ................................................. 18
1.6.2 Water reuse in the United States .................................. 20
1.6.3 Water reuse in Central and South America ..................... 26
1.6.4 Water reuse in Asia and Oceania ................................. 26
1.7 Management actions for improvement of irrigation with
recycled water .................................................................. 28
References ............................................................................ 29

2. WATER QUALITY CONSIDERATIONS

Valentina Lazarova, Herman Bouwer, and Akiça Bahri

2.1 Introduction .................................................................... 31

2.2 Parameters with health significance ........................................ 36
2.2.1 Chemicals ............................................................. 36
2.2.2 Pathogens ............................................................. 40
2.3 Parameters with agronomic significance................................... 45
2.3.1 Salinity ................................................................. 45
2.3.2 Toxic ions ............................................................. 46
2.3.3 Sodium adsorption ratio ............................................ 48
2.3.4 Trace elements ........................................................ 49
2.3.5 pH ...................................................................... 53
2.3.6 Bicarbonate and carbonate ......................................... 53

© 2005 by CRC Press

xvi Contents

2.3.7 Nutrients .............................................................. 54

2.3.8 Free chlorine .......................................................... 55
2.4 Sampling and monitoring strategies ........................................ 55
References ............................................................................ 58

3. INTERNATIONAL HEALTH GUIDELINES AND REGULATIONS

James Crook and Valentina Lazarova

3.1 WHO guidelines for irrigation .............................................. 64

3.2 USEPA guidelines for water reuse ......................................... 66
3.3 California water recycling criteria .......................................... 66
3.4 Other water reuse regulations ............................................... 73
3.5 Standards for urban uses of recycled water and
landscape irrigation ........................................................... 76
3.6 Standard enforcement and perspectives ................................... 79
References ............................................................................ 80

4. CODE OF PRACTICES FOR HEALTH PROTECTION

Valentina Lazarova and Akiça Bahri

4.1 Introduction .................................................................... 83

4.2 Specific wastewater treatment for reuse purposes ....................... 86
4.2.1 Typical schemes used for production of
recycled water for irrigation ........................................ 87
4.2.2 Main disinfection processes used in water
reuse systems.......................................................... 89
4.2.3 Requirements for recycled water storage and
distribution ............................................................ 92
4.2.4 Requirements for reliability of operation of
water reuse systems .................................................. 93
4.3 Control of recycled water application ..................................... 94
4.4 Restrictions on crops and public access ................................... 96
4.5 Human exposure control..................................................... 98
References .......................................................................... 101

5. CODE OF SUCCESSFUL AGRONOMIC PRACTICES

Valentina Lazarova, Ioannis Papadopoulos, and Akiça Bahri

5.1 Amount of water used for irrigation ..................................... 104

5.2 General water quality guidelines for maximum
crop production ............................................................. 105

© 2005 by CRC Press

Contents xvii

5.3 Choice of management strategy of irrigation with

recycled water ................................................................ 106
5.4 Selection of irrigation method ............................................ 108
5.4.1 Criteria for selection of an appropriate
irrigation method ................................................... 108
5.4.2 Comparison of irrigation methods ............................... 113
5.4.3 Final considerations for the choice of
irrigation method ................................................... 122
5.5 Crop selection and management .......................................... 123
5.5.1 Code of practices to overcome salinity hazards................ 123
5.5.2 Code of practices to overcome boron,
sodium and chloride toxicity ...................................... 135
5.5.3 Code of practices to overcome trace
elements toxicity..................................................... 137
5.6 Code of management practices of water application .................. 142
5.6.1 Leaching and drainage ............................................. 142
5.6.2 Using other water supplies ........................................ 145
5.6.3 Adjusting fertilizer applications................................... 145
5.6.4 Management of soil structure ..................................... 146
5.6.5 Management of clogging in sprinkler and
drip irrigation systems.............................................. 147
5.6.6 Management of storage systems .................................. 148
References .......................................................................... 149

6. CODES OF PRACTICES FOR LANDSCAPE AND GOLF

COURSE IRRIGATION
Bahman Sheikh

6.1 Benefits of and constraints on the use of recycled water

for landscape irrigation .................................................... 152
6.2 Effects of recycled water on turfgrass ................................... 153
6.3 Best practices for golf course irrigation ................................. 153
6.4 Prevention of adverse effects of recycled water on turfgrass ......... 156
6.5 Management of adverse effect of water reuse on soils ................ 157
6.6 Recommendations to avoid adverse effects of water reuse on
groundwater.................................................................. 157
6.7 Economic and financial aspects of landscape irrigation .............. 158
6.8 Customer acceptance of recycled water for irrigation of
landscaping and golf courses .............................................. 160
References .......................................................................... 161

© 2005 by CRC Press

xviii Contents

7. WASTEWATER TREATMENT FOR WATER

RECYCLING
Valentina Lazarova

7.1 Introduction .................................................................. 164

7.1.1 Choice of appropriate treatment ................................. 166
7.1.2 Main treatment processes used for wastewater
treatment ............................................................. 166
7.1.3 Influence of sewer configuration on
water quality ......................................................... 168
7.2 Physicochemical treatment of wastewater ............................... 168
7.2.1 Screening ............................................................. 168
7.2.2 Primary sedimentation ............................................. 171
7.2.3 Coagulation/flocculation ........................................... 171
7.2.4 Flotation.............................................................. 172
7.3 Biological wastewater treatment processes .............................. 173
7.3.1 Activated sludge ..................................................... 173
7.3.2 Trickling filters ...................................................... 174
7.3.3 Rotating biological contactors .................................... 176
7.4 Advanced biofilm technologies ........................................... 176
7.5 Nonconventional natural systems ........................................ 178
7.5.1 Lagooning ............................................................ 178
7.5.2 Wetlands.............................................................. 183
7.5.3 Infiltration-percolation ............................................. 184
7.5.4 Soil-aquifer treatment .............................................. 186
7.6 Advanced tertiary treatment and disinfection .......................... 188
7.6.1 Tertiary filtration ................................................... 189
7.6.2 Chlorination ......................................................... 194
7.6.3 Chlorine dioxide..................................................... 198
7.6.4 UV disinfection...................................................... 198
7.6.5 Ozonation ............................................................ 208
7.6.6 Membrane filtration ................................................ 215
7.6.7 Membranes bioreactors ............................................ 216
7.7 Storage and distribution of recycled water.............................. 219
7.7.1 Short-term storage .................................................. 220
7.7.2 Long-term storage .................................................. 220
7.7.3 Management of recycled water storage reservoirs ............. 224
7.7.4 Control of water quality in distribution systems............... 225
7.8 Criteria for selection of appropriate polishing process
before irrigation ............................................................. 226
7.8.1 Cost of additional treatment and reuse ......................... 226
7.8.2 Main criteria for selection of disinfection
process ................................................................ 228
References .......................................................................... 231

© 2005 by CRC Press

Contents xix

8. ADVERSE EFFECTS OF SEWAGE IRRIGATION ON PLANTS,

CROPS, SOIL, AND GROUNDWATER
Herman Bouwer

8.1 Toward a healthy environment and sustainable development ....... 236

8.2 Compounds with potential adverse effects on recycled
water for irrigation.......................................................... 237
8.3 Behavior of some compounds during irrigation with
sewage effluent............................................................... 238
8.3.1 Salt and water relations in irrigation soils ...................... 239
8.3.2 Behavior and potential adverse effects of nutrients in
irrigation soils ....................................................... 244
8.3.3 Effects of disinfection by-products on groundwater .......... 247
8.3.4 Effects of pharmaceuticals and other organic
contaminants......................................................... 248
8.4 Salt and groundwater water-table management for
sustainable irrigation ....................................................... 253
8.4.1 Salt loadings ......................................................... 254
8.4.2 Salt tolerance of plants............................................. 255
8.4.3 Management of salty water ....................................... 256
8.4.4 Future aspects for salinity management in
south-central Arizona .............................................. 259
References .......................................................................... 260

9. ECONOMICS OF WATER RECYCLING FOR IRRIGATION

Joe Morris, Valentina Lazarova, and Sean Tyrrel

9.1 General principles.......................................................... 266

9.2 Financial analysis .......................................................... 266
9.3 Economic analysis ......................................................... 267
9.4 Benefits of recycled water for irrigation ............................... 267
9.5 Factors influencing irrigation benefits.................................. 268
9.6 Components of recycling systems for irrigation ...................... 269
9.7 Irrigation water supply options.......................................... 269
9.8 Water-recycling options................................................... 271
9.9 Costs of water-recycling options ........................................ 272
9.10 Prices for recycled water .................................................. 275
9.11 Function of water prices.................................................. 275
9.12 Criteria for setting prices for recycled water .......................... 277
9.13 Pricing instruments ........................................................ 278
9.14 Examples of recycled water prices ...................................... 279
9.15 Conclusions ................................................................. 282
References .......................................................................... 282

© 2005 by CRC Press

xx Contents

10. COMMUNITY AND INSTITUTIONAL ENGAGEMENT IN

AGRICULTURAL WATER REUSE PROJECTS
Paul Jeffrey

10.1 Introduction ............................................................... 285

10.2 Public perceptions of water reuse for agricultural production .... 289
10.3 Institutional barriers ..................................................... 292
10.4 Models for participative planning ..................................... 298
10.5 Participative planning processes for water-reuse projects .......... 301
References .......................................................................... 305

11. INSTITUTIONAL ISSUES OF IRRIGATION WITH

RECYCLED WATER
Eric Rosenblum
11.1 Introduction ............................................................... 310
11.2 Ownership of water, wastewater, and recycled water .............. 311
11.2.1 Water rights ...................................................... 311
11.2.2 Water use limits ................................................. 316
11.2.3 Rights to recycled water ....................................... 318
11.3 Wastewater regulations .................................................. 319
11.3.1 Effluent regulations ............................................. 320
11.3.2 Pretreatment to protect recycled water quality ............. 322
11.4 Planning and implementation issues .................................. 324
11.4.1 Land use planning .............................................. 324
11.4.2 Environmental regulations ..................................... 326
11.4.3 Construction issues ............................................. 328
11.4.4 Wholesaler/retailer issues ...................................... 329
11.4.5 Customer agreements ........................................... 332
11.5 Program management ................................................... 333
11.5.1 Integrated planning ............................................. 333
11.5.2 Matrix analysis of institutional issues ....................... 333
11.5.3 Summary of institutional guidelines.......................... 337
References .......................................................................... 339

12. CASE STUDIES OF IRRIGATION WITH RECYCLED WATER

12.1 EL MEZQUITAL, MEXICO: THE LARGEST IRRIGATION

DISTRICT USING WASTEWATER
Blanca Jimenez
12.1.1 General description ............................................. 345
12.1.2 Wastewater quality.............................................. 347

© 2005 by CRC Press

Contents xxi

12.1.3 Effects of wastewater reuse on agriculture

and health ........................................................ 348
12.1.4 Mexican legislation for agricultural irrigation .............. 348
12.1.5 Helminthiasis .................................................... 349
12.1.6 Removal of helminth eggs ..................................... 351
12.1.7 Filtration step.................................................... 352
12.1.8 Bacteria removal ................................................ 353
12.1.9 Sludge treatment and disposal ................................ 355
12.1.10 Costs of recycled water......................................... 355
12.1.11 Unplanned aquifer recharge by irrigation
with wastewater ................................................. 356
References .......................................................................... 361

12.2 WATER REUSE FOR GOLF COURSE IRRIGATION IN COSTA BRAVA, SPAIN
Lluı́s Sala and Xavier Millet

12.2.1 History ............................................................ 363

12.2.2 Tips for adequate recycled water management
in golf course irrigation ........................................ 364
12.2.3 Electrical conductivity (EC) ................................... 364
12.2.4 Nutrients.......................................................... 365
12.2.5 Maturation pond design and management.................. 368
12.2.6 Conclusions ...................................................... 372
References .......................................................................... 373

12.3 MONTEREY COUNTY WATER RECYCLING PROJECTS: A CASE STUDY IN

IRRIGATION WATER SUPPLY FOR FOOD CROP IRRIGATION
Bahman Sheikh

12.3.1 History and motivation ........................................ 374

12.3.2 Project overview ................................................. 374
12.3.3 Public perception ................................................ 377
12.3.4 Current project status and operation ........................ 378
12.3.5 Conclusions, lessons learned and recommendations....... 378
References .......................................................................... 379

13. CONCLUSIONS AND SUMMARY OF PRACTICES FOR

IRRIGATION WITH RECYCLED WATER
Valentina Lazarova

13.1 Assessment of the feasibility of using recycled water

for irrigation ............................................................... 383
13.2 Good agronomic practices for irrigation with recycled water ..... 383

© 2005 by CRC Press

 xxii Contents

13.3 Negative impacts of irrigation water on plants and

main corrective actions .................................................. 388
13.4 Management practices and corrective actions for improvement
of the operation of water-reuse treatment schemes ................. 388
13.5 Successful participation programmes improved
public acceptance ......................................................... 389
13.6 Successful initiatives to address legal and institutional issues ..... 390

© 2005 by CRC Press

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