Part 2.

1 Continuous functions and their properties

2.1.1 Definition
Definition 2.1.1 A function f is continuous at a ∈ R if, and only if,
lim f (x) = f (a) ,
x→a

that is
∀ε > 0, ∃δ > 0, ∀x, |x − a| < δ ⇒ |f (x) − f (a)| < ε. (1)
Note
• In the definition of limx→a f (x) we have the assumption that
0 < |x − a| < δ
whereas in (1) we only have
|x − a| < δ.
This is because in the definition of continuity we are assuming that
f (a) exists and, if x = a, then |f (x) − f (a)| < ε is simply 0 < ε which
is trivially true. Thus there is no need to exclude the possibility that
x = a, and so we drop the requirement that 0 < |x − a| .
• f is defined on some neighbourhood of a, including a,
• From a result in section 1.2.2, f is continuous at a iff
lim f (x) = f (a) = lim f (x) .
x→a+ x→a−

From results in Part 1 we have shown that

Example 2.1.2 All polynomials are continuous on R.
Solution is immediate, since we saw in the last Part that limx→a p (x) = p (a)
for all polynomials p at all points a ∈ R. 

Example 2.1.3 By the quotient rule for limits if r (x) = p (x) /q (x) is a
rational function, i.e. a quotient of polynomials, then
limx→a p (x) p (a)
lim r (x) = = = r (a)
x→a limx→a q (x) q (a)
for all a ∈ R for which q (a) 6= 0, i.e. for which r (a) is defined. Thus rational
functions are continuous where they are defined.

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 As a particular example we have (x2 − 1) / (x − 1) is continuous for all
x 6= 1.

Example 2.1.4 Prove that the function f : R → R given by

 2
x −1

 , if x 6= 1,
f (x) = x−1


2 if x = 1,

is continuous at x = 1.

Solution given in lectures.

Example 2.1.5 (Examples Class) Prove that the function g : R → R given

by
 sin π
  
if x 6= 0,
g (x) = x
0 if x = 0,


is not continuous at x = 0.

Definition 2.1.6 A function f is continuous on an open interval (a, b)

if f (x) is defined for, and is continuous at, every x in (a, b), i.e. for all c in
(a, b) we have limx→c f (x) = f (c).
A function f is continuous on a closed interval [a, b] if f (x) is
defined for every x in [a, b], and is continuous at every point in (a, b), i.e.
for all c in (a, b) we have limx→c f (x) = f (c), while limx→a+ f (x) = f (a)
and limx→b− f (x) = f (b).

To prove a given function is continuous on an interval we need verify the

definition of continuity for each point of the interval. More interesting, per-
haps, are examples where continuity fails, and fails “frequently”. A popular
example of such a “pathological” function is the following, first described by
Dirichlet in 1829.

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Example 2.1.7 Define f : R → R, by

1 if x is rational
f (x) =
0 is x is irrational.
Prove that f is nowhere continuous.
Solution Let a ∈ Q be given Assume f is continuous at a.
Choose ε = 1/2 in the definition of continuity to find δ > 0 such that
|x − a| < δ implies |f (x) − f (a)| < 1/2. But a ∈ Q implies f (a) = 1 while
in any interval, such as (a, a + δ) we can find an irrational x0 . Thus
1/2 > |f (x0 ) − f (a)| = |0 − 1| = 1.
Contradiction, so our assumption is false. Thus f is not continuous at a and
thus not continuous on Q.
I leave it to the student to write out the proof for a ∈
/ Q.
Then conclude that f is not continuous on R. 

2.1.2 Rules of Continuity

We start this section with a lemma almost identical to that in section 1.3.
It shows that if f is continuous at a point c and non-zero there then, for x
sufficiently close to c, f (x) is not too large not too small.

Lemma 2.1.8 If f is continuous at c but f (c) 6= 0 then there is a neigh-

bourhood, I say, of c on which
|f (c)| 3 |f (c)|
< |f (x)| < for all x ∈ I.
2 2
In particular, all f (x) , x ∈ I, have the same sign as f (c).

or ( c I)

( )
c I

Proof Virtually identical to that of the Lemma in section 1.3 and it starts
by choosing ε = |f (c)| /2 > 0 in the definition of limx→c f (x) = f (c) to find
δ > 0 such that if |x − c| < δ then |f (x) − f (c)| < |f (c)| /2. I leave the
completion to the Student.


3
 Given functions continuous at c ∈ R we know, in particular, that the
limits of the functions exist at c. This means that we can simply apply the
limit rules of section 1.3. In this way we get

Theorem 2.1.9 (i) Suppose that both f and g are continuous at c ∈ R.

Then
Sum Rule:
f + g is continuous at c,
Product Rule:
f g is continuous at c,
Quotient Rule:
f
is continuous at c, provided g (c) 6= 0.
g
(ii) Suppose that both f and g are continuous on an interval, then f + g,
f − g, f g and f /g are continuous on the interval with the proviso that in the
quotient, g is non-zero on the interval.

Proof Not given in this course but virtually identical to that of the similar
Theorem in section 1.3. 

Note f (x) is continuous at x = c

iff limx→c f (x) = f (c)
iff ∀ε > 0, ∃δ > 0, ∀x, |x − c| < δ ⇒ |f (x) − f (c)| < ε.
Writing y = x − c this becomes

∀ε > 0, ∃δ > 0, ∀y, |y − 0| < δ ⇒ |f (c + y) − f (c)| < ε,

which is the definition of f (c + y) being continuous at y = 0. That is, on

relabelling y as x, f (x) is continuous at x = c if, and only if, f (x + c) is
continuous at 0.

Recall that we have shown

lim sin θ = 0 = sin 0

θ→0

and
lim cos θ = 1 = cos 0,
θ→0

hence sin θ and cos θ are continuous at 0.

4
Example 2.1.10 Assume the addition formula for sine, namely
sin(α + β) = sin α cos β + sin β cos α.
Prove that sin θ is continuous on R.

Solution in lectures.

Recall that we have shown limx→0 ex = 1 = e0 and so ex is continuous at

x = 0.

Example 2.1.11 For the exponential function defined by a power series in

course MATH10242, assume that eα+β = eα eβ for all real numbers α and β.
Prove that ex is continuous on R.

Solution in lectures.

Theorem 2.1.12 Composite Rule for functions. If limx→a g (x) exists

and f is continuous at this value, then
 
lim f (g (x)) = f lim g (x) . (2)
x→a x→a

Proof Let L = limx→a g (x). Let ε > 0 be given. Since f is continuous at L

there exists δ 1 > 0 such that,
|y − L| < δ 1 ⇒ |f (y) − f (L)| < ε. (3)
We know that limx→a g (x) = L means that
“∀ε > 0, ∃δ > 0 such that something holds” .
TRICK Choose ε = δ 1 in the definition of limx→a g (x) = L to find δ 2 > 0
such that
0 < |x − a| < δ 2 ⇒ |g (x) − L| < δ 1 . (4)
Combine (3) and (4) (using g (x) in place of y in (3)) to get
0 < |x − a| < δ 2 ⇒ |g (x) − L| < δ 1
⇒ |f (g (x)) − f (L)| < ε.
Thus we have verified the definition that
 
lim f (g (x)) = f (L) = f lim g (x) .
x→a x→a

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Note If we assume further that g is continuous at a then limx→a g (x) = g (a)
and so (2) can be written as limx→a f (g (x)) = f (g (a)), i.e. limx→a f ◦g (x) =
f ◦ g (a). Hence

Theorem 2.1.13 Composite Rule for Continuous functions. If g is

continuous at c ∈ R and f is continuous at g (c) then f ◦ g is continuous at
c.

Example 2.1.14 (Examples Class) Show that

π 
sin
x
is continuous on R \ {0}.

6
Appendix

1. From a geometric point of view, a function is continuous on an interval

if you can “draw it’s graph without lifting your pencil from the paper”.
For, if you have to lift your pencil from the graph there has to be
“jump” in the graph. At that point the function is not continuous (the
limits of the function as you approach the jump from the right and
from the left, if they exist, will be different).

2. Example 2.1.15 Show that the function g : R → R given by

( π 
sin if x 6= 0,
g (x) = x
0 if x = 0,

is not continuous at x = 0.
Solution Assume that g is continuous at x = 0. Then
π 
lim sin = g (0) = 0.
x→0 x

In particular this means the limit exists. Yet from Part 1 we know
that limx→0 sin (π/x) does not exist. This contradiction means our
assumption is false and so f is not continuous at 0. 

Note that there is no value for g (0) that would make the function
continuous at x = 0.

3. Example 2.1.16 Show that in any interval (a, b) we can find a rational
number and we can find an irrational number.
Solution Let ` = b − a be the length of the interval. Choose n ∈ N so
large that 2−n < `. Assume for the sake of a contradiction that for no
m ∈ N do we have m/2n ∈ (a, b). This means there exists p ∈ N for
which
p p+1
n
≤a<b≤ n .
2 2
Then
p+1 p 1
` = b − a ≤ n − n = n < `.
2 2 2
This is our contraction, and so our assumption is false, i.e. the rational
number r = m/2n lies in (a, b) for some m ∈ N.

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 √ √

To find an irrational number do the above for the interval a/ 2, b/ 2
√
to find a rational r0 in this interval. You can then check that r0 2 is
an irrational number lying in (a, b) . 

4. Example 2.1.17 If

1 if x is rational
f (x) =
0 is x is irrational.
and a ∈
/ Q show that f is not continuous at a.
Solution Assume f is continuous at a. Choose ε = 1/2 in the def-
inition of continuity to find δ > 0 such that |x − a| < δ implies
|f (x) − f (a)| < 1/2. But a ∈ / Q implies f (a) = 0 while in any in-
terval, such as (a, a + δ) we can find a rational x0 for which f (x0 ) = 1.
Thus
1/2 > |f (x0 ) − f (a)| = |1 − 0| = 1.
Contradiction, so our assumption is false. Thus f is not continuous at
a. 

5. Example 2.1.18 Show that if f is continuous at c but f (c) 6= 0 then

there is a neighbourhood, I say, of c on which
|f (c)| 3 |f (c)|
< |f (x)| <
2 2
for all x ∈ I.
Proof Choose ε = |f (c)| /2 > 0 in the definition of f being continuous
at c to find δ > 0 such that if |x − c| < δ (which is the same as
x ∈ I = (c − δ, c + δ)) then |f (x) − f (c)| < |f (c)| /2. Use the triangle
inequality in two ways. The first
|f (x)| = |f (x) − f (c) + f (c)| ≤ |f (x) − f (c)| + |f (c)|
by triangle inequality,
< 3 |f (c)| /2.
Secondly
|f (x)| = |f (c) + f (x) − f (c)| ≥ |f (c)| − |f (x) − f (c)|
by triangle inequality, |a − b| ≥ |a| − |b| ,
> |f (c)| /2.

8
 

6. Assume that f and g are continuous at a ∈ R. This means that

limx→a f (x) = f (a) and limx→a g (x) = g (a). The Rules for limits
justify

lim (f + g) (x) = lim (f (x) + g (x)) from definition of f + g,

x→a x→a

= lim f (x) + lim g (x) from sum rule for limits,

x→a x→a

= f (a) + g (a) = (f + g) (a) .

Thus we have derived the sum rule for continuous functions. I leave it
to students to derive the other two rules for continuous functions.

7. The Composite Rule for continuous functions is a special case of the

Composite Rule for limits. In particular, f being continuous at g (a)
means that limy→g(a) f (y) exists. Hence two of the conditions of the
Composite rule for limits are satisfied. The third necessary condition
was an “or” statement. One of the parts of this “or” statement, namely
limy→g(a) f (y) = f (g (a)) , holds since f is continuous at g (a). Hence
all the conditions of the Composite Rule for limits are satisfied and so
the first part of the theorem of Composition of continuous functions
follows.

In lectures I gave a direct proof.

8. Example 2.1.19 Show that sin (π/x) is continuous on R \ {0}.

Proof Let c ∈ R \ {0} be given. Let g (x) = π/x which we know is
continuous on R\{0} and thus at c. Let f (x) = sin x which we know is
continuous on R and thus at π/c = g (c). Therefore by the Composite
Rule for continuous functions we deduce that f ◦ g (x) = f (g (x)) =
sin (π/x) is continuous at c and thus on R \ {0}.