This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles

for the
Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

Designation: D2435/D2435M − 11

Standard Test Methods for

One-Dimensional Consolidation Properties of Soils Using
Incremental Loading1
This standard is issued under the fixed designation D2435/D2435M; the number immediately following the designation indicates the
year of original adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision. A number in parentheses indicates the year of last
reapproval. A superscript epsilon (´) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.

1. Scope* 1.3 It shall be the responsibility of the agency requesting

1.1 These test methods cover procedures for determining this test to specify the magnitude and sequence of each load
the magnitude and rate of consolidation of soil when it is increment, including the location of a rebound cycle, if
restrained laterally and drained axially while subjected to required, and, for Test Method A, the load increments for
incrementally applied controlled-stress loading. Two alterna- which time-deformation readings are desired. The required
tive procedures are provided as follows: maximum stress level depends on the purpose of the test and
1.1.1 Test Method A—This test method is performed with must be agreed on with the requesting agency. In the absence
constant load increment duration of 24 h, or multiples thereof. of specific instructions, Section 11 provides the default load
Time-deformation readings are required on a minimum of two increment and load duration schedule for a standard test.
load increments. This test method provides only the compres- NOTE 2—Time-deformation readings are required to determine the time
sion curve of the specimen and the results combine both for completion of primary consolidation and for evaluating the coefficient
primary consolidation and secondary compression deforma- of consolidation, cv. Since cv varies with stress level and loading type
tions. (loading or unloading), the load increments with timed readings must be
selected with specific reference to the individual project. Alternatively, the
1.1.2 Test Method B—Time-deformation readings are re- requesting agency may specify Test Method B wherein the time-
quired on all load increments. Successive load increments are deformation readings are taken on all load increments.
applied after 100 % primary consolidation is reached, or at
1.4 These test methods do not address the use of a back
constant time increments as described in Test Method A. This
pressure to saturate the specimen. Equipment is available to
test method provides the compression curve with explicit data
perform consolidation tests using back pressure saturation. The
to account for secondary compression, the coefficient of
addition of back pressure saturation does not constitute non-
consolidation for saturated materials, and the rate of secondary
conformance to these test methods.
compression.
1.5 Units—The values stated in either SI units or inch-
NOTE 1—The determination of the rate and magnitude of consolidation
of soil when it is subjected to controlled-strain loading is covered by Test pound units [given in brackets] are to be regarded separately as
Method D4186. standard. The values stated in each system may not be exact
1.2 These test methods are most commonly performed on equivalents; therefore, each system shall be used independently
saturated intact samples of fine grained soils naturally sedi- of the other. Combining values from the two systems may
mented in water, however, the basic test procedure is result in non-conformance with the standard.
applicable, as well, to specimens of compacted soils and intact 1.5.1 In the engineering profession it is customary practice
samples of soils formed by other processes such as weathering to use, interchangeably, units representing both mass and force,
or chemical alteration. Evaluation techniques specified in these unless dynamic calculations (F = Ma) are involved. This im-
test methods assume the pore space is fully saturated and are plicitly combines two separate systems of units, that is, the
generally applicable to soils naturally sedimented in water. absolute system and the gravimetric system. It is scientifically
Tests performed on other unsaturated materials such as com- undesirable to combine two separate systems within a single
pacted and residual (weathered or chemically altered) soils standard. This test method has been written using SI units;
may require special evaluation techniques. In particular, the however, inch-pound conversions are given in the gravimetric
rate of consolidation (interpretation of the time curves) is only system, where the pound (lbf) represents a unit of force
applicable to fully saturated specimens. (weight). The use of balances or scales recording pounds of
mass (lbm), or the recording of density in lb/ft3 should not be
1
These test methods are under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee D18 on Soil
regarded as nonconformance with this test method.
and Rock.
1.6 Observed and calculated values shall conform to the
Current edition approved May 1, 2011. Published July 2011. Originally approved
in 1965. Last previous edition approved in 2004 as D2435–04. DOI: 10.1520/D2435 guidelines for significant digits and rounding established in
_D2435M-11. Practice D6026, unless superseded by this test method.

*A Summary of Changes section appears at the end of this standard

Copyright © ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959. United States

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 D2435/D2435M − 11
1.6.1 The method used to specify how data are collected, 3.2 Definitions of Terms Specific to This Standard:
calculated, or recorded in this standard is not directly related to 3.2.1 axial deformation (L, L, %, or -), n—the change in
the accuracy to which the data can be applied in design or other axial dimension of the specimen which can be expressed in
uses, or both. How one applies the results obtained using this terms of length, height of specimen, strain or void ratio.
standard is beyond its scope. 3.2.2 estimated preconsolidation stress (F/L2), n—the value
1.7 This standard does not purport to address all of the of the preconsolidation stress determined by the technique
safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the prescribed in these test methods for the purpose of aiding the
responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appro- laboratory in the performance of the test. This estimation
priate safety and health practices and determine the applica- should not be considered equivalent to an engineering inter-
bility of regulatory limitations prior to use. pretation of the test measurements.
3.2.3 load (F), n—in the context of soil testing, the act of
2. Referenced Documents
applying force or deformation to the boundary of a test
2.1 ASTM Standards:2 specimen. In the incremental consolidation test this is generally
D422 Test Method for Particle-Size Analysis of Soils performed using weights on a hanger.
D653 Terminology Relating to Soil, Rock, and Contained
3.2.4 load increment, n—one individual step of the test
Fluids
during which the specimen is under a constant total axial stress.
D854 Test Methods for Specific Gravity of Soil Solids by
Water Pycnometer 3.2.5 load increment duration (T), n—the length of time that
D1587 Practice for Thin-Walled Tube Sampling of Soils for one value of total axial stress is maintained on the specimen.
Geotechnical Purposes 3.2.6 load increment ratio, LIR (-), n—the change (increase
D2216 Test Methods for Laboratory Determination of Water or decrease) in total axial stress to be applied to the specimen
(Moisture) Content of Soil and Rock by Mass in a single step divided by the current total axial stress.
D2487 Practice for Classification of Soils for Engineering 3.2.6.1 Discussion—Load Increment Ratio is historically
Purposes (Unified Soil Classification System) used in consolidation testing to reflect the fact that the test was
D2488 Practice for Description and Identification of Soils performed by adding weights to apply the total axial stress to
(Visual-Manual Procedure) the specimen.
D3550 Practice for Thick Wall, Ring-Lined, Split Barrel, 3.2.7 total axial stress (F/L2), n—the force acting on the
Drive Sampling of Soils specimen divided by the specimen area. Once consolidation is
D3740 Practice for Minimum Requirements for Agencies complete, the effective axial stress is assumed to equal the total
Engaged in Testing and/or Inspection of Soil and Rock as axial stress.
Used in Engineering Design and Construction
3.2.8 total axial stress increment (F/L2), n—the change
D4186 Test Method for One-Dimensional Consolidation
(increase or decrease) in total axial stress applied in one single
Properties of Saturated Cohesive Soils Using Controlled-
step. The change may be an increase or a decrease in stress.
Strain Loading
D4220 Practices for Preserving and Transporting Soil
4. Summary of Test Methods
Samples
D4318 Test Methods for Liquid Limit, Plastic Limit, and 4.1 In these test methods a soil specimen is restrained
Plasticity Index of Soils laterally and loaded axially with total stress increments. Each
D4452 Practice for X-Ray Radiography of Soil Samples stress increment is maintained until excess pore water pres-
D4546 Test Methods for One-Dimensional Swell or Col- sures are essentially dissipated. Pore pressure is assumed to be
lapse of Soils dissipated based on interpretation of the time deformation
D4753 Guide for Evaluating, Selecting, and Specifying Bal- under constant total stress. This interpretation is founded on the
ances and Standard Masses for Use in Soil, Rock, and assumption that the soil is 100% saturated. Measurements are
Construction Materials Testing made of change in the specimen height and these data are used
D6026 Practice for Using Significant Digits in Geotechnical to determine the relationship between the effective axial stress
Data and void ratio or strain. When time deformation readings are
D6027 Practice for Calibrating Linear Displacement Trans- taken throughout an increment, the rate of consolidation is
ducers for Geotechnical Purposes (Withdrawn 2013)3 evaluated with the coefficient of consolidation.

3. Terminology 5. Significance and Use

3.1 For definitions of technical terms used in these test 5.1 The data from the consolidation test are used to estimate
methods, see Terminology D653. the magnitude and rate of both differential and total settlement
of a structure or earthfill. Estimates of this type are of key
2
importance in the design of engineered structures and the
For referenced ASTM standards, visit the ASTM website, www.astm.org, or
contact ASTM Customer Service at [email protected]. For Annual Book of ASTM evaluation of their performance.
Standards volume information, refer to the standard’s Document Summary page on
5.2 The test results can be greatly affected by sample
the ASTM website.
3
The last approved version of this historical standard is referenced on disturbance. Careful selection and preparation of test speci-
www.astm.org. mens is required to reduce the potential of disturbance effects.

2
 D2435/D2435M − 11
NOTE 3—Notwithstanding the statement on precision and bias con- other than conventional consolidation theory. Alternatively, the
tained in this standard, the precision of this test method is dependent on test may be performed using an apparatus equipped to saturate
the competence of the personnel performing the test and suitability of the
equipment and facilities used. Agencies that meet the criteria of Practice
the specimen.
D3740 generally are considered capable of competent and objective 5.7 These test methods use conventional consolidation
testing. Users of this test method are cautioned that compliance with theory based on Terzaghi’s consolidation equation to compute
Practice D3740 does not assure reliable testing. Reliable testing depends
on many factors, and Practice D3740 provides a means of evaluation some
the coefficient of consolidation, cv. The analysis is based upon
of these factors. the following assumptions:
5.7.1 The soil is saturated and has homogeneous properties;
5.3 Consolidation test results are dependent on the magni- 5.7.2 The flow of pore water is in the vertical direction;
tude of the load increments. Traditionally, the axial stress is 5.7.3 The compressibility of soil particles and pore water is
doubled for each increment resulting in a load increment ratio negligible compared to the compressibility of the soil skeleton;
of 1. For intact samples, this loading procedure has provided 5.7.4 The stress-strain relationship is linear over the load
data from which estimates of the preconsolidation stress, using increment;
established interpretation techniques, compare favorably with 5.7.5 The ratio of soil permeability to soil compressibility is
field observations. Other loading schedules may be used to constant over the load increment; and
model particular field conditions or meet special requirements. 5.7.6 Darcy’s law for flow through porous media applies.
For example, it may be desirable to inundate and load the
specimen in accordance with the wetting or loading pattern 6. Apparatus
expected in the field in order to best evaluate the response.
Load increment ratios of less than 1 may be desirable for soils 6.1 Load Device—A suitable device for applying axial loads
that are highly sensitive or whose response is highly dependent or total stresses to the specimen. The device shall be capable of
on strain rate. maintaining the specified loads for long periods of time with a
precision of 6 0.5 % of the applied load and shall permit quick
5.4 The interpretation method specified by these test meth- application of a given load increment without significant
ods to estimate the preconsolidation stress provides a simple impact. Load application should be completed in a time
technique to verify that one set of time readings are taken after corresponding to 0.01 times t100 or less.
the preconsolidation stress and that the specimen is loaded to a
NOTE 4—As an example, for soils where primary consolidation is
sufficiently high stress level. Several other evaluation tech-
completed in 3 min, the applied load should be stable in less than 2 s.
niques exist and may yield different estimates of the precon-
solidation stress. Alternative techniques to estimate the precon- 6.2 Consolidometer—A device to hold the specimen in a
solidation stress may be used when agreed to by the requesting ring that is either fixed to the base or floating (supported by
agency and still be in conformance with these test methods. friction on the periphery of specimen) with porous disks on
each face of the specimen. The inside diameter of the ring shall
5.5 Consolidation test results are dependent upon the dura- be fabricated to a tolerance of at least 0.1 % of the diameter.
tion of each load increment. Traditionally, the load duration is The consolidometer shall also provide a means of submerging
the same for each increment and equal to 24 h. For some soils, the specimen in water, for transmitting the concentric axial
the rate of consolidation is such that complete consolidation load to the porous disks, and for measuring the axial deforma-
(dissipation of excess pore pressure) will require more than 24 tion of specimen.
h. The apparatus in general use does not have provisions for 6.2.1 Minimum Specimen Diameter—The minimum speci-
formal verification of pore pressure dissipation. It is necessary men diameter or inside diameter of the specimen ring shall be
to use an interpretation technique which indirectly determines 50 mm [2.0 in.].
that consolidation is essentially complete. These test methods 6.2.2 Minimum Specimen Height—The minimum initial
specify procedures for two techniques (Method A and Method specimen height shall be 12 mm [0.5 in.], but shall be not less
B), however alternative techniques may be used when agreed than ten times the maximum particle diameter.
to by the requesting agency and still be in conformance with 6.2.3 Minimum Specimen Diameter-to-Height Ratio—The
these test methods. minimum specimen diameter-to-height ratio shall be 2.5.
5.6 The apparatus in general use for these test methods do NOTE 5—The use of greater diameter-to-height ratios is recommended.
not have provisions for verification of saturation. Most intact To minimize the effects of friction between the periphery of the specimen
samples taken from below the water table will be saturated. and the inside of the ring, a diameter-to-height ratio greater than four is
preferable.
However, the time rate of deformation is very sensitive to
degree of saturation and caution must be exercised regarding 6.2.4 Specimen Ring Rigidity—The ring shall be stiff
estimates for duration of settlements when partially saturated enough to prevent significant lateral deformation of the speci-
conditions prevail. Inundation of the test specimen does not men throughout the test. The rigidity of the ring shall be such
significantly change the degree of saturation of the test that, under hydrostatic stress conditions in the specimen, the
specimen but rather provides boundary water to eliminate change in diameter of the ring will not exceed 0.04 % of the
negative pore pressure associated with sampling and prevents diameter under the greatest load applied.
evaporation during the test. The extent to which partial NOTE 6—For example, a ring thickness (for metallic rings) of 3.2 mm
saturation influences the test results may be a part of the test [1⁄8 in.] will be adequate for stresses up to 6000 kPa [900 lbf/in2] for a
evaluation and may include application of theoretical models specimen diameter of 63.5 mm [2.5 in.].

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 D2435/D2435M − 11
6.2.5 Specimen Ring Material—The ring shall be made of a sharp edge, a highly polished surface and be coated with a
material that is noncorrosive in relation to the soil or pore fluid. low-friction material. Alternatively, a turntable or trimming
The inner surface shall be highly polished or shall be coated lathe may be used. The cutting tool must be properly aligned to
with a low-friction material. Silicone grease or molybdenum form a specimen of the same diameter as that of the ring.
disulfide is recommended; polytetrafluoroethylene is recom- 6.6 Deformation Indicator—To measure the axial deforma-
mended for nonsandy soils. tion of the specimen with a resolution of 0.0025 mm [0.0001
6.3 Porous Disks—The porous disks shall be of silicon in.] or better. Practice D6027 provides details on the evaluation
carbide, aluminum oxide, or other material of similar stiffness of displacement transducers.
that is not corroded by the specimen or pore fluid. The disks
6.7 Recess Spacer Plate—A plate usually of acrylic with a
shall be fine enough that the soil will not penetrate into their
flat raised circular surface that fits inside the specimen ring and
pores, but have sufficient hydraulic conductivity so as not to
used to depress the top surface of the specimen about 2 mm
impede the flow of water from the specimen. Exact criteria
[0.08 in] into the ring. A second plate that produces about twice
have not been established but the disk thickness and hydraulic
the recess will be required when using a floating ring. The
conductivity should result in an impedance factor of at least
spacer plate(s) is not required if the consolidometer provides a
100.
means to center the porous disks.
NOTE 7—The impedance factor is defined as the ratio of the hydraulic
conductivity of the stones times the drainage thickness of the soil to the 6.8 Balances—The balance(s) shall be suitable for deter-
hydraulic conductivity of the soil times the thickness of the stone. Bishop mining the mass of the specimen plus the containment ring and
and Gibson (1963) provides further information on the calculation and for making the water content measurements. The balance(s)
importance of the impedance factor. shall be selected as discussed in Specification D4753. The
6.3.1 Diameter—The diameter of the top disk shall be 0.2 to mass of specimens shall be determined to at least four
0.5 mm [0.01 to 0.02 in.] less than the inside diameter of the significant digits.
ring. If a floating ring is used, the bottom disk shall meet the 6.9 Drying Oven—in accordance with Method D2216.
same requirement as the top disk.
6.10 Water Content Containers—in accordance with
NOTE 8—The use of tapered disks is recommended to prevent the disk Method D2216.
from binding with the inside of the ring. The surface matching l, the larger
diameter should be in contact with the soil or filter screen. 6.11 Environment—Unless otherwise specified by the re-
6.3.2 Thickness—Thickness of the disks shall be sufficient questing agency, the standard test temperature shall be in the
to prevent breaking. The top disk shall be loaded through a range of 22 6 5 °C. In addition, the temperature of the
corrosion-resistant plate of sufficient rigidity to prevent break- consolidometer, test specimen, and submersion reservoir shall
age of the disk. not vary more than 6 2 °C throughout the duration of the test.
6.3.3 Maintenance—The disks shall be clean and free from Normally, this is accomplished by performing the test in a
cracks, chips, and nonuniformities. New porous disks should room with a relatively constant temperature. If such a room is
be boiled for at least 10 minutes and left in the water to cool to not available, the apparatus shall be placed in an insulated
ambient temperature before use. Immediately after each use, chamber or other device that maintains the temperature within
clean the porous disks with a nonabrasive brush and boil or the tolerance specified above. The apparatus should be located
sonicate to remove clay particles that may reduce their perme- in an area that does not have direct exposure to sunlight.
ability. 6.12 Test Water—Water is necessary to saturate the porous
NOTE 9—It is recommended that porous disks be stored in clean test stones and fill the submersion reservoir. Ideally, this water
water between tests. Each drying cycle has the potential to draw particles
into the pores of the stone causing a progressive reduction in hydraulic would be similar in composition to the specimen pore fluid.
conductivity. When performing tests that require dry stones during the Options include extracted pore water from the field, potable tap
setup procedure, the stones can be blotted dry just prior to the test. water, demineralized water, or saline water. The requesting
6.4 Filter Screen—To prevent intrusion of material into the agency should specify the water option. In the absence of a
pores of the porous disk, a filter screen may be placed between specification, the test should be performed with potable tap
the porous disk and the specimen. The screen must be included water.
when evaluating the impedance factor. Monofilament-nylon 6.13 Miscellaneous Equipment—Including timing device
filter screen or hardened, low ash, grade 54 filter paper may be with 1 s readability, spatulas, knives, and wire saws, used in
used for the filter screen material. preparing the specimen.
NOTE 10—Filters should be cut to approximately the same dimension as
the cross section of the test specimen. When following the wet setup
procedure, soak the filter paper, if used, in a container of water to allow it 7. Sampling
to equilibrate before testing. 7.1 Collection—Practices D1587 and D3550 cover proce-
6.5 Specimen Trimming Device—A trimming turntable or a dures and apparatus that may be used to obtain intact samples
cylindrical cutting ring may be used for trimming the sample generally satisfactory for testing. Specimens may also be
down to the inside diameter of the consolidometer ring with trimmed from large intact block samples which have been
minimal disturbance. A cutter having the same inside diameter fabricated and sealed in the field. Finally, remolded specimens
(or up to 0.05 mm larger) as the specimen ring shall attach to may be prepared from bulk samples to density and moisture
or be integral with the specimen ring. The cutter shall have a conditions stipulated by the agency requesting the test.

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 D2435/D2435M − 11
7.2 Transport—Intact samples intended for testing in accor- plus any other apparatus components that rest on the specimen
dance with this test method shall be preserved, handled, and and are not counterbalanced by the load frame, Ma.
transported in accordance with the practices for Group C and D 8.3 Apparatus Constants—The following measurements
samples in Practices D4220. Bulk samples for remolded must be made on an annual schedule or after replacement or
specimens should be handled and transported in accordance alteration.
with the practice for Group B samples. 8.3.1 Determine the height of the ring, Hr, to the nearest
7.3 Storage—Storage of sealed samples should be such that 0.01 mm [0.0005 in], the diameter of the ring, Dr, to the nearest
no moisture is lost during storage, that is, no evidence of partial 0.01 mm [0.0005 in], and the mass of the ring, Mr, to the
drying of the ends of the samples or shrinkage. Time of storage nearest 0.01 gm.
should be minimized, particularly when the soil or soil mois- 8.3.2 Determine the thickness of the filter screen, Hfs, to the
ture is expected to react with the sample tubes. nearest 0.01 mm [0.0005 in].
8.3.3 Determine the thickness of the step in the recess
7.4 Disturbance—The quality of consolidation test results spacer(s), Hrs, to the nearest 0.01 mm [0.0005 in].
diminishes greatly with sample disturbance. No sampling
procedure can ensure completely undisturbed samples. 9. Specimen Preparation
Therefore, careful examination of the sample is essential in 9.1 Reduce as much as practical any disturbance of the soil
selection of specimens for testing. or changes in moisture and density during specimen prepara-
tion. Avoid vibration, distortion, and compression.
NOTE 11—Examination for sample disturbance, stones, or other
inclusions, and selection of specimen location is greatly facilitated by 9.2 Prepare test specimens in an environment where soil
x-ray radiography of the samples (see Methods D4452). moisture change during preparation is minimized.
NOTE 12—A high humidity environment is often used for this purpose.
8. Calibration
9.3 Trim the specimen and insert it into the consolidation
8.1 Apparatus Deformation—The measured axial deforma- ring. The specimen must fit tightly in the ring without any
tions shall be corrected for apparatus compressibility whenever perimeter gaps. When specimens come from intact soil col-
the equipment deformation exceeds 0.1 % of the initial speci- lected using sample tubes, the inside diameter of the tube shall
men height or when using paper filter screens. If the correction be at least 5 mm [0.25 in.] greater than the inside diameter of
is warranted at any point during the test, then a correction the consolidation ring, except as noted in 9.4 and 9.5. It is
should be applied using the calibration data to all measure- recommended that either a trimming turntable or cylindrical
ments throughout the test. cutting ring be used to cut the soil to the proper diameter. When
8.1.1 Assemble the consolidometer with a copper, using a trimming turntable, make a complete perimeter cut,
aluminum, or hard steel disk of approximately the same height reducing the specimen diameter to the inside diameter of the
as the test specimen and at least 1 mm [0.04 in.] smaller in consolidation ring. Carefully insert the specimen into the
diameter than the ring, but no more than 5 mm smaller in consolidation ring, by the width of the cut, with a minimum of
diameter than the ring, in place of the specimen. Moisten the force. Repeat until the specimen protrudes from the bottom of
porous disks. If paper filter screens are to be used (see 6.3), the ring. When using a cylindrical cutting ring, trim the soil to
they should be moistened and sufficient time (a minimum of 2 a gentle taper in front of the cutting edge. After the taper is
min.) allowed for the moisture to be squeezed from them formed, advance the cutter a small distance to form the final
during each increment of the calibration process. diameter. Repeat the process until the specimen protrudes from
8.1.2 Load and unload the consolidometer as in the test and the ring.
measure the deformation for each load applied. When using 9.4 Fibrous soils, such as peat, and those soils that are easily
paper filter screens, it is imperative that calibration be per- damaged by trimming, may be transferred directly from the
formed following the exact loading and unloading schedule to sampling tube to the ring, provided that the ring has the same
be used in the test. This is due to the inelastic deformation or slightly smaller inside diameter as the sample tube.
characteristics of filter paper. Recalibration should be done on
9.5 Specimens obtained using a ring-lined sampler may be
an annual basis, or after replacement and reassembly of
used without prior trimming, provided they comply with the
apparatus components.
requirements of Practice D3550 and the rigidity requirement of
8.1.3 At each load applied, plot or tabulate the apparatus 6.2.4.
deformations (corrections) to be applied to the measured
deformation of the test specimen. The metal disk will also 9.6 Trim the specimen flush with the plane ends of the ring.
deform; however, modification of the apparatus deformation For soft to medium soils, a wire saw should be used for
due to this deformation will be negligible for all but extremely trimming the top and bottom of the specimen to minimize
large stress levels. If necessary, the compression of the metal smearing. A straightedge with a sharp cutting edge may be used
disk can be computed and added to the corrections. for the final trim after the excess soil has first been removed
with a wire saw. For stiff soils, a sharpened straightedge alone
8.1.4 When using nylon filter screens it may be possible to
should be used for trimming the top and bottom. If a small
represent the corrections with a mathematical equation.
particle is encountered in any surface being trimmed, it should
8.2 Miscellaneous Loading Elements—Determine the cu- be removed and the resulting void filled with soil from the
mulative mass (to the nearest 0.001 kg) of the top porous disk trimmings.

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 D2435/D2435M − 11
NOTE 13—If large particles are found in the material during trimming should be performed on material from the test specimen as
or in the specimen after testing, include in the report this visual obtained in 11.6, plus representative trimmings collected in
observation or the results of a particle size analysis in accordance with
Method D422 (except the minimum sample size requirement shall be
9.11.
waived). 10.2 Specific Gravity—The specific gravity shall be deter-
9.6.1 Unless the consolidometer provides a means to center mined in accordance with Test Method D854 on material from
the porous disks, the specimen must be recessed slightly below the sample as specified in 10.1. The specific gravity from
the top of the ring and also the bottom of the ring when using another sample judged to be similar to that of the test specimen
a floating ring geometry. This is to facilitate centering of the may be used for calculation in 12.2.4 whenever an accurate
top (and bottom) porous disk. After trimming the top surface void ratio is not needed.
flush with the ring cover the specimen surface with the filter 10.3 Atterberg Limits—The liquid limit, plastic limit and
screen and then use the recess spacer to partially extrude the plasticity index shall be determined in accordance with Test
specimen from the bottom of the ring. Trim the bottom surface Method D4318 using material from the sample as specified in
flush with the bottom of the ring. If using a floating ring 10.1. Determination of the Atterberg limits are necessary for
configuration, cover the surface with the second filter screen proper material classification but are not a requirement of this
and use the recess space with the smaller dimension to push the test method.
specimen back into the ring.
NOTE 14—If, at any stage of the test, the specimen swells beyond its
10.4 Particle Size Distribution—The particle size distribu-
initial height, the requirement of lateral restraint of the soil dictates the use tion shall be determined in accordance with Method D422
of a recessed specimen or the use of a specimen ring equipped with an (except the minimum sample size requirement shall be waived)
extension collar of the same inner diameter as the specimen ring. At no on a portion of the test specimen as obtained in 11.6. A particle
time during the test should the specimen extend beyond the specimen ring size analysis may be helpful when visual inspection indicates
or extension collar.
that the specimen contains a substantial fraction of coarse
9.7 Determine the initial wet mass of the specimen, MTo, to grained material but is not a requirement of this test method.
the nearest 0.01 g, in the consolidation ring by measuring the
mass of the ring with specimen and subtracting the tare mass of 11. Procedure
the ring, Mr.
11.1 Preparation of the porous disks and other apparatus
9.8 Determine the initial height of the specimen, Ho, to the will depend on the material being tested. The consolidometer
nearest 0.01 mm [0.001 in.] using one of the following must be assembled in such a manner as to prevent a change in
techniques. water content or swelling of the specimen. Dry porous disks
9.8.1 Take the average of at least four evenly spaced and filters must be used with dry, highly expansive soils and
measurements over the top (and bottom) surface(s) of the may be used for all other soils. Damp disks may be used for
specimen using a dial comparator or other suitable measuring partially saturated soils. Saturated disks may be used only
device. Subtract the thickness of the filter screens when when the specimen is saturated and known to have a low
appropriate. affinity for water. The disks should be prepared using the test
9.8.2 Calculate the height based on the thickness of the water. Assemble the ring with specimen, porous disks, filter
specimen ring, Hr, minus the thickness of the recess spacer(s), screens (when needed) in the consolidometer. If the specimen
Hrs and the filter screen(s), Hfs, as appropriate. will not be inundated shortly after application of the seating
9.9 Compute the initial volume of the specimen, Vo, to the load (see 11.2), enclose the consolidometer in a loose fitting
nearest 0.01 cm3 [0.01 in.3] from the diameter of the ring and plastic or rubber membrane to prevent change in specimen
the initial specimen height. volume due to evaporation.
9.10 If sufficient material is available, obtain at least two NOTE 15—In order to meet the stated objectives of this test method, the
natural water content determinations of the soil in accordance specimen must not be allowed to swell in excess of its initial height prior
to being loaded beyond its preconsolidation stress. Detailed procedures for
with Method D2216 from material trimmed adjacent to the test the determination of one-dimensional swell or settlement potential of
specimen. cohesive soils is covered by Test Method D4546.
9.11 When index properties are specified by the requesting 11.2 Place the consolidometer in the loading device and
agency, store the remaining trimmings taken from around the apply a seating load that results in a total axial stress of about
specimen and determined to be similar material in a sealed 5 kPa [100 lbf/ft2]. Immediately after application of the seating
container for determination as described in Section 10. load, adjust the deformation indicator and record the initial
deformation reading, do. If necessary, add additional load to
10. Soil Index Property Determinations keep the specimen from swelling. Conversely, if it is antici-
10.1 The determination of index properties is an important pated that a total axial stress of 5 kPa [100 lbf/ft2] will cause
adjunct to but not a requirement of the consolidation test. These significant consolidation of the specimen, reduce the seating
determinations when specified by the requesting agency shall load to produce a total axial stress of about 3 kPa [50 lbf/ft2] or
be made on the most representative material possible. When less. If necessary, allow time for the consolidometer tempera-
testing uniform materials, all index tests may be performed on ture to reach the test temperature range (6 2 °C).
adjacent trimmings collected in 9.11. When samples are 11.3 If the test is performed on an intact specimen that was
heterogeneous or trimmings are in short supply, index tests either saturated under field conditions or obtained below the

6
 D2435/D2435M − 11
water table, inundate with the test water shortly after applica- less than 0.7 and load increments very close to the preconsolidation stress
tion of the seating load. As inundation and specimen wetting may preclude evaluation for the coefficient of consolidation, cv, and the
end-of-primary consolidation as discussed in Section 12.
occur, quickly increase the load as required to prevent swell-
ing. Record the applied load required to prevent swelling and 11.5 Before each load increment is applied, record the
the resulting deformation reading. If specimen inundation is to height or change in height, df , of the specimen. Two alternative
be delayed to simulate specific conditions, then inundation procedures are available that specify the time sequence of
must occur at a total axial stress that is sufficiently large to readings during the load increment and the required minimum
prevent swell. In such cases, apply the required load and load increment duration. Longer durations are often required
inundate the specimen. Take deformation readings during the during specific load increments to define the slope of the
inundation period as specified in 11.5. In such cases, note in the characteristic straight line secondary compression portion of
test report the total axial stress at inundation and the resulting the axial deformation versus log of time graph. For such
axial deformation. increments, sufficient readings should be taken near the end of
NOTE 16—Inundation is necessary to eliminate the air water interface at
the load increment to define this straight line portion. It is not
the soil boundary which can cause negative pore pressures to exist in the necessary to increase the duration of other load increments
pore space. Inundation will not significantly increase the degree of during the test.
saturation of the test specimen and should not be used as the basis to claim 11.5.1 Test Method A—The standard load increment dura-
a specimen is fully saturated.
tion shall be approximately 24 h. For at least two load
11.4 The specimen is to be subjected to load increments of increments, including at least one load increment after the
constant total axial stress. The duration of each load increment preconsolidation stress has been exceeded, record the axial
shall conform to guidelines specified in 11.5. The specific deformation, d, at time intervals of approximately 0.1, 0.25,
loading schedule will depend on the purpose of the test, but 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 8, 15 and 30 min, and 1, 2, 4, 8 and 24 h (or 0.09,
should conform to the following guidelines. 0.25, 0.49, 1, 4, 9 min etc. if using 12.5.2 to present
11.4.1 The standard loading schedule shall consist of a load time-deformation data), measured from the time of each load
increment ratio (LIR) of one which is obtained by approxi- increment application. Take sufficient readings near the end of
mately doubling the total axial stress on the soil to obtain the load increment duration to verify the completion of primary
values of about 12, 25, 50, 100, 200, etc. kPa [250, 500, 1000, consolidation. For some soils, a period of more than 24 h may
2000, 4000, etc. lbf/ft 2]. be required to reach the end-of-primary consolidation (as
11.4.2 If the slope and the shape of the virgin compression determined in 12.5.1.1 or 12.5.2.3). In such cases, load
curve or determination of the preconsolidation stress is increment durations greater than 24 h are required. The load
required, the maximum total axial stress shall be sufficiently increment duration for these tests is usually taken at some
high to provide either a) three points which define a straight multiple of 24 h and should be the standard duration for all load
line when plotted in log stress space, b) three points which increments of the test. The decision to use a load increment
define a concave up curve when plotted in log stress space or duration greater than 24 h is usually based on experience with
c) a stress level which is eight times the estimated preconsoli- particular types of soils. If, however, there is a question as to
dation stress. In other circumstances, the maximum total axial whether a 24 h period is adequate, a record of axial deforma-
stress should be agreed on with the requesting agency. tion with time should be made for the initial load increments in
11.4.3 The standard unloading (or rebound) schedule should order to verify the adequacy of a 24 h period. Load increment
be selected by approximately halving the total axial stress on durations other than 24 h shall be noted in the report. For load
the soil (that is, use the same stress levels as 11.4.1, but in increments where time versus deformation data are not
reverse order). However, if desired, each successive stress level required, leave the load on the specimen for about the same
can be only one-fourth as large as the preceding stress level, length of time as when time versus deformation readings are
that is, skip every other stress level. taken.
11.4.4 In the case of overconsolidated clays, a better evalu- 11.5.2 Test Method B—For each increment, record the axial
ation of recompression parameters may be obtained by impos- deformation, d, at time intervals of approximately 0.1, 0.25,
ing an unload-reload cycle once the preconsolidation stress has 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 8, 15, 30 min, and 1, 2, 4, 8 and 24 h (or 0.09, 0.25,
been exceeded. Specification of the stress level and the 0.49, 1, 4, 9, min, etc. if using 12.5.2 to present time
magnitude of an unload-reload cycle is the option of the agency deformation data), measured from the time of each load
requesting the test (see 1.3), however, unloading shall always increment application. The standard load increment duration
include at least two decrements of total axial stress. shall exceed the time required for completion of primary
11.4.5 An alternative loading, unloading, or reloading consolidation as determined by 12.5.1.1, 12.5.2.3, or a criterion
schedule may be employed that reproduces the construction set by the requesting agency. For any load increment where it
stress changes or allows better definition of some part of the is impossible to verify the end of primary consolidation (for
stress-strain (compression) curve, or aids in interpreting the example, low LIR, high overconsolidation during recompres-
field behavior of the soil, or is specified by the requesting sion increments, or rapid consolidation), the load increment
agency. duration shall be constant and exceed the time required for
NOTE 17—Small increments may be desirable on highly compressible primary consolidation of an increment applied after the pre-
soils or when it is desirable to determine the preconsolidation stress with consolidation stress and along the virgin compression curve.
more precision. It should be cautioned, however, that load increment ratios Where secondary compression must be evaluated, increase the

7
 D2435/D2435M − 11
load increment duration as necessary to define the rate of 12.2.1 Obtain the dry mass of the total specimen by direct
secondary compression. measurement or for the case where part of the specimen is used
NOTE 18—The suggested time intervals for recording the axial defor-
for index testing, calculate the dry mass as follows:
mation are for typical soils and load increments. It is often desirable to M Tf
change the reading frequency to improve interpretation of the data. More Md 5 (1)
11w f p
rapid consolidation will require more frequent readings. For most soils,
primary consolidation during the first load decrements will be complete in where:
less time (typically one-tenth) than would be required for a load increment
along the virgin compression curve. However, at very low stresses the Md = dry mass of total specimen, g (nearest 0.01),
rebound time can be longer. MTf = moist mass of total specimen after test, g (nearest
11.6 To minimize swell during disassembly, rebound the 0.01), and
specimen back to the seating load (corresponding to a total wfp = water content wedge of specimen taken after test, in
axial stress of about 5 kPa). Once the change in axial decimal form (nearest 0.0001).
deformation has reduced to less than 0.2 % per hour (usually 12.2.2 Calculate the initial and final water content of the
overnight), record the end-of-test axial deformation, det and specimen, in percent, as follows:
remove the consolidometer from the load frame quickly after
M To 2 M d
releasing the final small seating load on the specimen. Remove initial water content:w 0 5 3 100 (2)
Md
the specimen and the ring from the consolidometer and wipe
any free water from the ring and specimen. M Tf 2 M d
final water content:w f 5 3 100 (3)
Md
11.7 Measure the height of the specimen Het, to the nearest
0.01 mm [0.001 in.] by taking the average of at least four where:
evenly spaced measurements over the top and bottom surfaces wo = initial water content, % (nearest 0.01),
of the specimen using a dial comparator or other suitable wf = final water content, % (nearest 0.01),
measuring device. Md = dry mass of specimen, g, and
11.8 Determine the final total mass of the specimen, MTf to MTo = moist mass of specimen before test, g.
the nearest 0.01 g, by measuring the soil plus the ring and 12.2.3 Calculate the initial dry density of the specimen as
subtracting the tare mass of the ring. follows:
11.9 The most accurate determination of the specimen dry Md
mass and water content is found by drying the entire specimen ρd 5 (4)
Vo
at the end of the test in accordance with Method D2216. If the
soil sample is homogeneous and sufficient trimmings are where:
available for the specified index testing (see 9.11), then ρd = dry density of specimen, g/cm3 (nearest 0.001), and
determine the final water content, wf, and dry mass of solids, Vo = initial volume of specimen, cm3 (nearest 0.01).
Md, using the entire specimen. If the soil is heterogeneous or 12.2.4 Compute the volume of solids as follows:
more material is required for the specified index testing, then
Md
determine the final water content, wfp, using a small wedge Vs 5 (5)
Gρ w
shaped section of the specimen. The remaining undried mate-
rial should be used for the specified index testing. where:
12. Calculation Vs = Volume of solids, cm3 (nearest 0.01)
G = specific gravity of the solids (nearest 0.001), and
12.1 Calculations as shown are based on the use of SI units. ρw = density of water filling the pore space, (nearest 0.0001)
Other units are permissible, provided the appropriate conver- g/cm3.
sion factors are used to maintain consistency of units through- NOTE 19—Water density depends on salt concentration and tempera-
out the calculations. See 1.5.1 for additional comments on the ture. Appropriate values should be obtained from standard tables.
use of inch-pound units.
12.2.5 Since the cross-sectional area of the specimen is
12.1.1 Equations and graphs are illustrated using a single
constant throughout the test, it is convenient for subsequent
and dimensionally consistent set of units. Each equation makes
calculations to introduce the term “equivalent height of solids,”
use of the most convenient unit (for example, percent or
defined as follows:
decimal, s or min, kg or g) for each variable in the calculation.
The multiplier unit conversion factors are not provided in the Vs
Hs 5 (6)
equations for simplicity and may be required to provide A
dimensional consistency between equations. Other units may where:
be used and still be in conformance with these test methods.
Hs = height of solids, cm (nearest 0.001), and
12.1.2 Variables used in the equations are specified with a
A = specimen area, cm2.
maximum resolution. When working in different units it will be
necessary to compute comparable values to achieve the same 12.2.6 Calculate initial and final void ratio as follows:
number of significant digits. Ho 2 Hs
initial void ratio:e o 5 (7)
12.2 Specimen Physical Properties : Hs

8
 D2435/D2435M − 11
Hf 2 Hs where:
final void ratio:e f 5 (8)
Hs σa = axial total stress in kPa (nearest 1),
where: P = applied force in N (nearest 1),
Ma = mass of apparatus resting on specimen, kg (nearest
eo = initial void ratio, (nearest 0.01), 0.01)
ef = final void ratio (nearest 0.01), A = specimen area, cm2, (nearest 0.01), and
Ho = initial specimen height, cm, and g = acceleration due to gravity, 9.81 m/s2.
Hf = final specimen height, cm.
12.2.7 Calculate the initial and final degree of saturation, in 12.5 Time-Deformation Properties—From those load incre-
percent, as follows: ments where time-deformation readings are obtained, two
alternative procedures (see 12.5.1 or 12.5.2) are provided to
M To 2 M d present the data, determine the end-of-primary consolidation
initial degree of saturation:S o 5 3 100 (9)
Aρ w ~ H o 2 H s ! and compute the rate of consolidation. Alternative techniques
M Tf 2 M d may be used when agreed to by the requesting agency and still
final degree of saturation:S f 5 3 100 (10) be in conformance with these test methods. The deformation
Aρ w ~ H f 2 H s !
readings may be presented as measured deformation, specimen
where: height, or axial strain (see 12.6). The following text and figures
S o = initial degree of saturation, % (nearest 0.1), and are presented in terms of axial strain. The bold letters in
Sf = final degree of saturation, % (nearest 0.1). parentheses within the following text are linked to the associ-
12.3 Deformation Calculations: ated figures.
12.3.1 For each deformation reading, calculate the change 12.5.1 Alternative Interpretation Procedure 1—Referring to
in specimen height, in cm, as follows: Fig. 1, plot the axial strain, ε, versus the log time (typically in
∆H 5 d 2 d o 2 d a (11) minutes) for each applicable load increment.
12.5.1.1 Draw a straight line through the points representing
where:
the late time readings which exhibit a straight line trend and
∆H = Change in specimen height, cm, (nearest 0.00025), constant slope (C). Draw a second straight line tangent to the
d = deformation reading at various times in test, cm steepest part of the axial strain-log time curve (D). The
(nearest 0.00025), intersection of these two lines represents the axial strain (E),
do = initial deformation reading, cm (nearest 0.00025), and ε100, and time (F), t100, corresponding to 100 % primary
da = apparatus deformation correction, cm (nearest
consolidation. Compression in excess of the above estimated
0.00025).
100 % primary consolidation is defined as secondary compres-
NOTE 20—Refer to 8.1 for apparatus compressibility correction require-
ments. sion.
12.3.2 Represent each deformation measurement in at least 12.5.1.2 Find the axial strain representing 0 % primary
one of the following forms. consolidation (K) by selecting any two points that have a time
ratio of 1 to 4 (points G and H in this example). The axial
12.3.2.1 The change in specimen height as computed in
strain increment at the larger of the two times should be greater
12.3.1.
than 1⁄4, but less than 1⁄2 of the total axial strain increment for
12.3.2.2 Calculate the specimen height, in cm, as follows:
the load increment. The axial strain corresponding to 0 %
H 5 H o 2 ∆H (12) primary consolidation is equal to the axial strain at the smaller
12.3.2.3 Calculate the void ratio as follows: time, less the difference in axial strain (I = J) between the two
selected points.
H 2 Hs
e5 (13) 12.5.1.3 The axial strain (L), ε50, corresponding to 50 %
Hs
primary consolidation is equal to the average of the axial
12.3.2.4 Calculate the axial strain, in percent, as follows: strains corresponding to the 0 and 100 %. The time (M), t50,
∆H
required for 50 % consolidation may be found graphically from
ε5
H0
3 100 (14) the axial strain-log time curve by observing the time that
corresponds to 50 % of the primary consolidation on the curve.
12.3.2.5 Calculate the final height differential as follows: 12.5.2 Alternative Interpretation Procedure 2—Referring to
H d 5 H f 2 H et (15) Fig. 2, plot the axial strain, ε, versus the square root of time
(typically in minutes) for each applicable load increment.
where:
12.5.2.1 Draw a straight line through the points representing
Hd = final height differential, cm, (nearest 0.001),
the early time readings that exhibit a straight line trend (A).
Hf = computed final height using det, cm (nearest 0.001),
Extrapolate the line back to t = 0 and obtain the axial strain
and
Het = measured final height, cm (nearest 0.001). ordinate representing 0 % primary consolidation (B).
12.5.2.2 Draw a second straight line through the 0 %
12.4 Compute the axial total stress, in kPa, as follows: ordinate so that the abscissa of this line (C) is 1.15 times the
σa 5 S P1M a g
A D
3 10 (16)
abscissa of the first straight line through the data. The inter-
section of this second line with the axial strain-square root of

9
 D2435/D2435M − 11

NOTE 1—Strain scale omitted intentionally to make plot generic.

FIG. 1 Time-Deformation Curve Using Log Time Method

time data curve gives the axial strain, ε90, (D), and time, t90, where:
(E), corresponding to 90 % primary consolidation. cv = coefficient of consolidation, cm2/s (3 significant
12.5.2.3 The axial strain at 100 % consolidation (F) is 1⁄9 digits),
more than the difference in axial strain between 0 and 90 % T = a dimensionless time factor: for method 12.5.1 use
consolidation. The time of primary consolidation (G), t100, may 50 % consolidation with T = T50 = 0.197, for
be taken at the intersection of the axial strain-square root of method 12.5.2 use 90 % consolidation with T
time curve and this axial strain ordinate. The axial strain (H), = T90 = 0.848,
ε50, corresponding to 50 % consolidation is equal to the axial t = time corresponding to the particular degree of
strain at 5⁄9 of the difference between 0 and 90 % consolidation. consolidation, s; for method 12.5.1 use t = t50, for
The time for 50 % consolidation (I), t50, corresponds to the method 12.5.2 use t = t90, and
intersection of axial strain-square root time curve and the 50 % HD 50 = length of the drainage path at 50 % consolidation,
strain ordinate. cm, for double-sided drainage HD 50 is half the
12.5.3 Compute the coefficient of consolidation for each specimen height at the appropriate increment and for
applicable load increment using the following equation and one-sided drainage HD50 is the full specimen height.
values appropriate to the chosen method of interpretation:
12.6 Load-Deformation Properties :
THD2 50
cv 5 (17)
t

10
 D2435/D2435M − 11

NOTE 1—Strain scale omitted intentionally to make plot generic.

FIG. 2 Time-Deformation Curve Using Square Root of Time FIG. 3 Evaluation for Preconsolidation Stress From Casagrande
Method Method

12.6.1 Tabulate the deformation or change in deformation, ing the test. For this reason further evaluation of the test is not
df , readings corresponding to the end of each increment and, if mandatory. Many recognized methods of evaluation are de-
using Test Method B, corresponding to the end-of-primary scribed in the literature. Some of these are discussed in the
consolidation, d100. Refs. (1-9).4
12.6.2 Plot the deformation results (Fig. 3 is in terms of
strain) corresponding to the end of each increment and, if using 13. Report: Test Data Sheet(s)/Form(s)
Test Method B, corresponding to the end-of-primary consoli- 13.1 The methodology used to specify how data are re-
dation versus the stress on a log scale. corded on the data sheet(s)/form(s), as given below, is covered
NOTE 21—In some cases, it may be preferable to present the load- in 1.6 and Practice D6026.
deformation curve in arithmetic scale. 13.2 Record as a minimum the following general informa-
12.6.3 Referring to Fig. 3, determine the value of the tion (data):
preconsolidation stress using the following procedure. 13.2.1 Project name and location, boring number, sample
number, and depth.
NOTE 22—Any other recognized method of estimating preconsolidation
stress (see references) may also be used, provided the method is identified 13.2.2 Test number, starting date, apparatus, and technician.
in the report. 13.2.3 Description and classification of the soil in accor-
12.6.3.1 Draw a smooth curve through the measurements. dance with Practice D2488 or Test Method D2487 when
Atterberg limit data are available. Specific gravity of solids,
12.6.3.2 Estimate the point of maximum curvature on the
Atterberg limits and grain size distribution shall also be
compression curve (B).
12.6.3.3 Draw the tangent to the compression curve at this reported when available plus the source of such information if
point (C), and a horizontal line through the point (D), both other than measurements obtained on test specimen. Also note
occurrence and approximate size of isolated large particles.
extended towards increasing values on the abscissa.
13.2.4 Soil Condition:
12.6.3.4 Draw the line bisecting the angle between these
13.2.4.1 Average water content of trimmings when
lines (E).
available,
12.6.3.5 Extend the tangent to the steep, linear portion of the
13.2.4.2 Initial and final water content of specimen,
compression curve (virgin compression branch) (F) upwards to
13.2.4.3 Initial dry density of specimen,
intersection with the bisector line (E). The stress (G) (abscissa)
corresponding to this point of intersection is the estimated 13.2.4.4 Initial and final void ratio of specimen,
preconsolidation stress.
12.6.4 Complete evaluation often includes consideration of 4
The boldface numbers in parentheses refer to a list of references at the end of
information not generally available to the laboratory perform- the text.

11
 D2435/D2435M − 11
13.2.4.5 Initial and final degree of saturation of specimen, ments (see Fig. 4). Alternatively, a graph of coefficient of
13.2.4.6 Final differential height, and consolidation or log of coefficient of consolidation versus log
13.2.4.7 Estimated preconsolidation stress. of average axial stress may be used. If time rate readings were
13.2.5 Test Procedure: obtained for only two load increments, simply tabulate the
13.2.5.1 Preparation procedure used relative to trimming; values of cvversus the average axial stress for the increment.
state whether the specimen was trimmed using a trimming NOTE 23—The average stress between two load increments is chosen
turntable, trimmed using a cutting shoe, or tested directly in a because it is a convenient coordinate for plotting the result. Unless the rate
ring from a ring lined sampler. of pore pressure dissipation is measured, it is not possible to determine the
13.2.5.2 Condition of test (natural moisture or inundated, actual effective stress at the time of 50 % consolidation. Furthermore,
some ambiguity may arise in cases where the test has been carried through
stress at inundation, test water). one or more intermediate load-rebound cycles.
13.2.5.3 Method of testing (A or B).
13.2.5.4 Interpretation procedure (1 or 2 or both) used to 14. Precision and Bias
compute coefficient of consolidation. 14.1 Statement of Precision—Due to the nature of the soil
13.2.5.5 Listing of loading increments, and load increment materials tested by this test method it is either not feasible or
duration, if differing from 24 h; end of increment deformation too costly at this time to produce multiple specimens which
results and, for Test Method B, end-of-primary deformation have uniform physical properties. Any variation observed in
results and coefficient of consolidation (see Table 1). the data is just as likely to be due to specimen variation as to
13.2.5.6 All departures from the procedure outlined, includ- operator or laboratory testing variation. Subcommittee D18.05
ing special loading sequences. welcomes proposals that would allow for development of a
13.2.6 Graphical Presentations: valid precision statement.
13.2.6.1 Graph of deformation versus log time (see Fig. 1) 14.2 Statement of Bias—There is no acceptable reference
or square root of time (see Fig. 2) for those load increments value for this test method, therefore, bias cannot be deter-
where time rate readings were taken. mined.
13.2.6.2 Graph of void ratio versus axial stress (on a log
scale) curve or percent compression versus axial stress (on a 15. Keywords
log scale) curve (see Fig. 3). 15.1 compressibility; compression curves; consolidation;
13.2.6.3 In cases where time rate of deformation readings consolidation coefficient; consolidation test; consolidometer;
have been taken for several load increments, prepare a graph of preconsolidation pressure; preconsolidation stress; primary
the log of coefficient of consolidation versus average void ratio consolidation; rebound; secondary compression; settlement;
or average percent compression for the respective load incre- swelling

12
 TABLE 1 Example of a Consolidation Test Summary
Load Incr. Axial Corrected Specimen Axial Void Corrected Specimen Axial Void Time Coef. of Time Coef. of
Stress Deformation Height Strain Ratio Deformation Height Strain Ratio t50 Consolidation t90 Consolidation
σa ∆H (mm) H (mm) εa e (--) ∆H50 H50 εa,50 e50 (sec) cv (sec) cv
(kPa) (%) (mm) (mm) (%) (--) (mm2/sec) (mm2 /sec)
seating seating 0.0000 19.0500 0.00 1.231 Log Time Method Root Time Method
1 5 0.0288 19.0212 0.15 1.228
2 10 0.0557 18.9943 0.29 1.225
3 20 0.1133 18.9367 0.59 1.218
4 40 0.2139 18.8361 1.12 1.206 0.2696 18.7804 1.42 1.200 52 3.34E-01 10 3.34E-01

13
5 80 0.3867 18.6633 2.03 1.186 0.5355 18.5145 2.81 1.169 144 1.17E-01 30 1.17E-01
6 160 0.8560 18.1940 4.49 1.131 1.5439 17.5061 8.10 1.050 516 2.93E-02 102 2.93E-02
7 320 2.3496 16.7004 12.33 0.956 2.8317 16.2183 14.86 0.900 282 4.59E-02 53 4.59E-02
8 640 3.4392 15.6108 18.05 0.828 3.8223 15.2277 20.06 0.784 156 7.32E-02 31 7.32E-02
9 1280 4.3440 14.7060 22.80 0.722
10 320 4.2553 14.7947 22.34 0.733
11 80 3.9300 15.1200 20.63 0.771
D2435/D2435M − 11

12 20 3.5131 15.5369 18.44 0.820

13 5 3.0981 15.9519 16.26 0.868
 D2435/D2435M − 11

FIG. 4 Example of Consolidation Test Summary Plots

REFERENCES

(1) Casagrande, A., “The Determination of the Pre-Consolidation Load (6) Winterkorn, H. F. and Fang, H. Y. eds. Foundation Engineering
and its Practical Significance,” Proceedings 1st ICSMFE, III, 1936, p. Handbook, Chapter 4, Von Nostrand Reinhold Co, New York, NY,
60. 1975 .
(2) Taylor, D. W., Fundamentals of Soil Mechanics, John Wiley and Sons, (7) Holtz, R. D. and Kovacs, W. D. An Introduction to Geotechnical
New York, NY, 1948. Engineering, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1981.
(3) Burmeister, D. M. “The Application of Controlled Test Methods in (8) Yong, R. N. and Townsend, F. C. Eds.“ Consolidation of Soils: Testing
Consolidation Testing,” ASTM STP 126, p. 83, ASTM 1951 . and Evaluation,” ASTM STP 892, ASTM, 1986.
(4) Schmertmann, J. H. “The Undisturbed Consolidation Behavior of (9) Bishop A.W. and Gibson, R.E., “The Influence of the Provisions for
Clay” Trans. ASCE, 120, pp. 1201 through 1233, 1955. Boundary Drainage on Strength and Consolidation Characteristics of
(5) Leonards, G. A. “Engineering Properties of Soils,” Chapter 2 in
Soils Measured in the Triaxial Apparatus,” Laboratory Shear Testing
Foundation Engineering by Leonards, G. A., ed. McGraw-Hill, New
of Soils, ASTM STP No 361, pp. 273 -328, ASTM 1963.
York, NY, 1962.

SUMMARY OF CHANGES

Committee D18 has identified the location of selected changes to these test methods since the last issue,
D2435–04, that may impact the use of these test methods. (Approved May 1, 2011)

(1) Throughout Standard extensive edits for clarification. (20) Section 6.2.4 change specimen ring specification.
(2) Renumbered Notes. (21) Add Note 6.
(3) Sections 1.1.1 and 1.1.2 added clarification to each method. (22) Section 6.3 change porous disk specification.
(4) Section 1.2 and beyond change undisturbed to intact. (23) Change note 7.
(5) Section 1.2 added saturation and last sentence. (24) Change note 8.
(6) Section 1.3 specify default test conditions. (25) Change note 9.
(7) Added Section 1.4 on saturation. (26) Add Section 6.4, Note 10, and Section 6.7.
(8) Section 1.5 change unit specification. (27) Section 6.8 change balance specification.
(9) Section 2.1 add reference to D 4753 and D 6027. (28) Section 6.11 change environment specification.
(10) Section 3.2 add definitions of terms specific to standard. (29) Add Section 6.12 on test water specification.
(11) Section 3.2 added all definitions in this section. (30) Add Section 6.13.
(12) Section 4.1 and beyond change method to methods. (31) Section 7 insert subsection titles.
(13) Section 4.1 added discussion relative to saturation. (32) Section 8.1 change specification of apparatus deformation.
(14) Section 5.4 and 5.5 changed wording relative to requesting (33) Section 8.2 and 8.3 new sections.
agency. (34) Add Note 13.
(15) Section 5.6 added clarification on inundation. (35) Add Section 9.6.1 on providing recess of specimen into
(16) Section 6.1 move note 4 information in standard. ring.
(17) Section 6.2 and beyond put dual units in brackets. (36) Section 9.7 add tolerance on mass measurement
(18) Section 6.2 and beyond use axial deformation as height (37) Restructured Section 9.8.
measurement. (38) Section 11.2 add temperature requirement.
(19) Section 6.2 change in ring specification. (39) Add Note 16.

14
 D2435/D2435M − 11
(40) Section 11.4 change specifications and restructure subsec- (55) Added Note 19.
tions. (56) Section 12.3 changed title.
(41) Section 11.4.2 change maximum stress specification. (57) Added Section 12.3.1 and 12.3.2 and removed old Section
(42) Section 11.4.4 add option to load schedule. 12.4.
(43) Section 11.5.2 add clarification. (58) Added Section 12.3.2.5 with new calculation.
(44) Section 11.6 change specification. (59) Added Note 20.
(45) Section 11.7 add section with new requirement. (60) Section 12.5 examples use strain to represent axial
(46) Section 11.8 add specification. deformation.
(47) Added Section 12.1.1 and Section 12.1.2 for guidance on (61) Section 12.5 separated into two alternative interpretation
equations. procedures.
(48) Section 12.2 changed title. (62) Section 12.5.1 and 12.5.2 added letters to better link to
(49) Section 12 added definition of all terms in appropriate
figures
subsections.
(63) Section 12.6.2 added title.
(50) Section 12 added maximum resolution values to terms
(64) Added Section 13.2.2.
were appropriate.
(51) Section 12 changed example units to one option using SI (65) Section 13.2.4 changed requirements.
system. (66) Section 13.2.4.6 new requirement.
(52) Rearranged several of the subsections with in Section 12. (67) Renamed Figure 1 to Table 1 and replaced it with a new
(53) Eliminated old Section 12.2.4 relative to dry unit weight. table.
(54) Section 12.2.4 increased significant digits of water den- (68) New Log Time and Square Root of Time Figures.
sity.

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