1 Remote Sensing Techniques for Geomorphoiogists

Charles L. Rosenfeld 1

Introduction

Remote sensing has expanded the horizons of many diverse research disciplines,
and has encouraged interdisciplinary approaches to many problems. Geomorpholo-
gy has consistently benefitted from the improvements in mapping technology, form
analysis and feature discrimination brought about by advances in remote sensing
methodology. Although most geomorphologists are trained in the principles of aeri-
al photo interpretation, and rely heavily on these techniques as supportive tools in
fieldwork, the field as a whole has been slow to adopt more advanced remote sens-
ing approaches. Geomorphologists have employed and adapted the techniques of
aerial photo interpretation for more than forty years. The airborne perspective was
an integral part of the physiographic analyses of Lee (1922), Lobeck (1933), and
Fenneman (1931, 1938). The resource inventory work conducted by government
agencies in the United States, beginning in the 1930's, involved many resource
scientists such as foresters, pedologists, hydrologists and civil engineers with the
techniques oflandform interpretation. The standardized use of 1 : 20,000 scale pan-
chromatic aerial photography in the 23 cm. (9") square format was settled upon as
the optimum, considering the technology and cost-efficiencies of the day, for most
resource inventory purposes. In Europe the work of Troll (1939) and Bobeck (1941)
exhibited the significant role which aerial photography was beginning to play in
academic geomorphology.
During World War II the field of terrain intelligence stressed the employment of
aerial reconnaissance, and enlisted the talents of many of the finest geologists and
physical geographers of the day. This period saw the widespread use of color aerial
photos and the development of color infrared film. Vegetation, climate and soil
characteristics were considered in addition to terrain cues for the determination of
cross-country mobility, engineering site characteristics, and logistical requirements.
Planning for amphibious assaults required that ample consideration be given to
coastal geomorphology and the nearshore process dynamics that could influence
such operations.
Following the war, surplus equipment, and the interpretation skills acquired by
some of the participants, began to drift into the academic environment. The work
performed by Belcher (1946), Frost (1952), Gandillot (1954), and Stone (1951), il-
lustrated to the engineering and earth science community that these techniques
were not merely mapping expedients, but could merit serious consideration as data

1 Department of Geography, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA

Developments and Applications of Geomorphology

Edited by J. E. Costa and P. J. Fleisher
© Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 1984
2 Remote Sensing Techniques for Geomorphologists

resources and field tools. "Leftover" reconnaissance photography was used for pre-
liminary estimates of natural resource potential, and surplus aircraft and camera
systems were employed in systematic photo surveys in other countries, such as
Canada and Australia. Photogeology expanded rapidly, especially in arid regions
like north Africa and the Persian Gulf states, where clear skies and the lack of veg-
etation cover allowed aerial photography to reveal the topography, lithology and
structure in finite detail from scales as small as 1 : 50,000. In the United States
most aerial photography was being flown according to the pre-war 1 : 20,000 pan-
chromatic specifications. While this led to the widespread availability of comparable
aerial photography, the scale somewhat limited the interest, use and imagination of
the average geomorphologist. Kirk Stone (1964), in describing the post-war growth
of geographical remote sensing, states that "wartime training and experience led to
preoccupation with 'how to' rather than 'what for'" in the period from 1945-1960.
Indeed, geomorphology was less concerned with developing new techniques for this
descriptive tool than it was with its emerging concentration on process and form.
With the advent of electro-optical sensors and high-altitude aircraft and satellites
outside the military arena, geologists and geomorphologists began to take notice of
the information provided by imagery outside the conventional range of scales and in
"new" regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. The use of thermal infrared scan-
ners by Lattman (1963), imaging RADAR by MacDonald (1969), and space plat-
forms by Keuttner (1968) paved the way for the present employment of remote
sensing in geomorphology.

The Nature of Remote Sensing

The term remote sensing is restricted to methods that employ electromagnetic ener-
gy as the means to collect information about an object without coming in contact
with that object. The sensor is designed to measure the distribution and strength of
specific forms of electromagnetic energy, such as light, heat, or radiowaves, and is
usually carried in an airborne platform such as an aircraft or satellite. Magnetic and
electrical induction surveys are frequently conducted from aircraft but are con-
sidered geophysical survey instruments, rather than remote sensing.
Electromagnetic energy refers to all energy that moves with the velocity of light
(C = 3 X 10 8 m sec- 1 ) in a harmonic wave pattern. Electromagnetic waves are de-
scribed in terms of their wavelength (A), or cyclic spacing usually measured in mi-
crometers (um = 10-6 m). Electromagnetic waves travel at a uniform velocity (C) in
a vacuum. Another classifying characteristic is frequency (v) expressed in Hertz
(Hz), or "cycles per second". The relationship velocity (C), wavelength (A) and fre-
quency (v) is given by the expression:
C=Av
and is illustrated by the waveform, frequency and wavelength relationships shown
in Table 1. The electromagnetic spectrum is the continuum of energy ranging from
kilometers (m 3 ) to nanometers (m-9 ) in wavelength. The electromagnetic spectrum
is divided into spectral "regions" or bands on the basis of wavelength. The visible
Imaging Sensors 3

region ranges from 0.4 to 0.7 {lm in wavelength. The fundamental basis of remote
sensing is that all matter radiates and reflects a range of electromagnetic energy, of-
ten in unique assemblages called "spectral signatures". These spectral signatures of-
ten indicate information about a specific property of an object. For example, the
peak radiated electromagnetic energy intensity shifts toward progressively shorter
wavelengths as the temperature of the object increases.
Our ability to identify an object, or some of its attributes, depends on our knowl-
edge of how that object interacts with electromagnetic energy in different spectral
regions; generally one of the following interactions will apply:
a) Radiation may be transmitted through a substance.
b) Radiation may be absorbed by a substance.
c) Radiation may be emitted by a substance as a function of its kinetic temperature
and structure.
d) Radiation may be scattered by a substance, and hence be lost to further ab-
sorption or scattering.
e) Radiation may be reflected, namely, returned unchanged from the surface of a
substance, like a mirror.
These interactions are selective with respect to wavelength (see Molecular Ef-
fects, Table 1) and are specific for each form of matter, depending primarily upon its
surface properties and molecular structure. This is the basis of measurement by re-
mote sensing. The earth-atmosphere environment has special characteristics which
influence our selection of spectral regions for remote sensing. Since our eyes detect
reflected light in the visible region, we tend to assume that the atmosphere is trans-
parent to all wavelengths of electromagnetic energy. In fact, our atmosphere selec-
tively scatters and absorbs energy of different wavelengths. Those wavelengths
which are less affected by atmospheric attenuation are referred to as atmospheric
transmission bands, or "windows", and are the spectral regions upon which our sen-
sor designs are based. These "windows" are described in Table 1 under working
range.
Evolution has centered our visual detection region (0.4 to 0.7 {lm) on the spectral
peak oflight reflected from surface objects (0.5 {lm). Similarly, nerve endings in our
skin are receptive to heat in the range of energy radiated from earth objects (peak
emittance =9.7 {lm). It is obviously not mere coincidence that much sensor devel-
opment has concentrated around these regions of the spectrum.

Imaging Sensors

An image is any pictorial display of relative energy states (light, heat, radioactivity)
regardless of wavelength region or the sensor used to acquire it. Most images are
displayed on film or cathode-ray tube screen (television), even if they have been ac-
quired by non-photographic sensors, such as thermal infrared scanners or RADAR
receivers. A photograph is an image optically formed by exposure of a film surface
coated with chemicals sensitive to certain bands of electromagnetic radiation. For
purposes of remote sensing only the region of visible light, and its nearest spectral
4 Remote Sensing Techniques for Geomorphologists

Table 1. Remote sensing methods

W"' ~6~
Function

Energy
In e 4 2 -2 -4 -8 -6 -1 0
Electron Volts 10 10 10 1 10 10 10 10 10
I I I I I I I I

Frequency , Hz:
18 ,. 12 10 • 2
10 20 10 10 '8 10 10 10 10 8 10 6 10 10
I I I I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I I I I I
10 •
Wavelength. - 8 -8 -4 -2 2 6 10
om 10 10 10 10 1 10 10 10 8 10

.':',. .. .-
.
Spectral
0: ~;
Region :i';
"
Molecular Effects Nuclear Tra ... loltlon .. [ Ellcllon rranlltlon. jMo lec:u l.r r rlnlltlona i SI)I III O, lenlal lo n:ll

Method Working range Technique

Scintillation counters, 0.03-100 A Measurement of reflected/ emitted

gamma ray spectrometers natural radiation by means of charac-
(geiger counters, etc.) teristic response of detectors
Scanners with filtered photo- 0.1 - 0.4 ,urn Records incident natural radiation by
multipliers; image orthicons and "looking" at elements in sequence;
cameras with filtered infra-red Imaging ultraviolet spectroscopy
film 2900
Photography:
conventional film 0.4-0.7,um Wide band recording on emulsions;
(8 & W, and color) converts small color differences to
larger ones
Infra-red film 0.6-0.9,um Records absorption/reflection pat-
(8 & W, and color) terns on film
Multispectral bands 0.3-0.9,um Narrow band recording on emulsion
Lasers 0.4-0.7,um . Records backscattered radiation on
photographic film and other media
Photometers 0.4-0.7,um Narrow and/or wide band recording
on emulsions and other media
Spectrophotometers In any spectral Narrow and/ or wide band recording
region on film and other media
Thermal Infrared 4.5- 6,um Records emitted thermal radiation by
Solid state detectors in scanners 8 -14,um "Looking" at elements in sequence
and radiometers
Radars:
radio frequency receivers in I mm-0.8 m Records backscattered radiation; vari-
scanners and radiometers mostly ous media used for recording
0.8-5 cm
Electromagnetic pulse sonic waves Measurements of pressure waves re-
techniques (sonar) 0.8-3 X 106 mm flected from terrain or objects (pri-
mary use in water)
Sensor Operation and Characteristics 5

Table 1. (continued)

Method Working range Technique

Geophysical:
Gravimeters Gravity field Measurement of acceleration of
gravity
Magnetometers Magnetic field Measurement of "local" magnetic in-
duction
Seismographs Sound waves Measurement of elastic waves in earth
Electric Logs Electric field Measurement of electric properties of
subsurface geologic formations
Geochemical Chemical reactions Measurement of relative and absolute
abundances of the elements in the
earth

neighbors, the near ultraviolet (UV) and near infrared (IR) regions, are detectable
on photographic film. The photographic regions of the electromagnetic spectrum ex-
tend from 0.24 to 0.92 !-lm, or nearly double the range of the visible region.
Not all wavelengths of electromagnetic energy are as abundant as reflected solar
light or emitted heat in the earth-atmosphere environment. In some spectral regions
an artificial source of energy is directed at an object and detectors monitor the in-
teraction. RADAR directs microwave energy at an object and records the resultant
microwave "echo". Sensor systems which provide their own source of energy are re-
ferred to as "active" systems, as opposed to those "passive" systems which simply
record energy from the environment.

Sensor Operation and Characteristics

Two basic types of sensor operation exist: the framing sensor, which instantaneously
portrays an area upon an image plane, and the scanning sensor which compiles an
image by measuring the electromagnetic characteristics ofa small portion of the sur-
face as the "view" of the detector sweeps over the surface.
The simple camera is possibly the best example of a framing system. The target
area is focused through a lens and displayed on the focal plane (or image plane)
where the photographic film is exposed. The principal point of the image cor-
responds to the optic axis, or light ray perpendicular to the focal plane, which passes
through the center of the lens. When oriented vertically, all objects not immediately
below the camera appear to lean radially outward from the center of the image
(Fig. I). This principle of radial distortion is common to all framing sensors and
forms the geometric basis for stereoscopic viewing, photogrammetric height de-
termination, and planimetric location by radial line triangulation. Television-type
systems focus the image upon a charged target area. The incoming photon energy
causes illuminated portions of the target to discharge, a process analogous to expos-
6 Remote Sensing Techniques for Geomorphologists

Aerial Photographs Scanning Sensors

Photo Scanner Image

prine ipal point

a b
Fig. 1. Comparison of the geometry of a framing sensor (a) with that of a scanning sensor (b)

ing film in a camera. An electron beam then sweeps over the target area converting
the image into a series of electrical signals. The resulting image is geometrically
similar to a photography. However, target surfaces can be designed to respond to a
broader range of wavelengths and the image may be telemetered, or communicated
by radio transmission, a distinct advantage for satellite platforms.
Scanning sensors have a limited field of view which is focused upon a solid-state
detector. This detector, or a rotating mirror which focuses upon the detector, sweeps
across the target surface perpendicular to the line of flight of the sensor platform
(Fig. 1). By carefully coordinating the velocity and field of view of the platform
along the flightline with the sweep rate of the detector along the scan line, an im-
age is generated one line at a time. Any deviation of these parameters will produce
serious distortions of the resultant image. Additionally, since the flightline is equiv-
alent to the principal point of each scanline, all vertical objects appear to lean away
from the flightline trace on the image. While this geometry still permits the stereo-
scopic viewing of side-lapped scanner images, it seriously limits the photogram-
metric utility of these images. The spectral region sensed by a line scanner is de-
termined by the spectral transmission of its optics and filters and the spectral re-
sponse of its detector. Line scanners were originally designed for thermal infrared
imagery, but detectors have been designed to operate in the ultraviolet, visible, and
near infrared regions as well. No single detector can give optimum performance
across a broad spectral range, therefore, several detectors are often incorporated in
one package to provide multispectral imagery. Generally, detectors operating at
wavelengths longer than 3.um are cryogenically cooled. Imaging RADARs and
SONARs, along with LASER scanners are special cases, but share most of the same
principles of operation.
Large-Scale Photographic Techniques 7

Large-Scale Photographic Techniques

The scale of interesting geomorphic phenomena encompasses the fullest range of
dimensions, from continental plates to molecular structures. Therefore, remote sens-
ing capabilities at every scale have application to the field; however, those tech-
niques with the most immediate application are the low cost, large-scale techniques
which can be field implemented by the individual researcher. A light aircraft and
hand-held camera equipment can produce valuable stereo aerial photography if
proper preparation and procedure are exercised. Stereo aerial photos are unexcelled
for the delineation of geometric patterns, and the enhancement of intricate forms.
Both vertical and oblique stereo photos are easily acquired with modern 35 mm and
70 mm cameras. Walsh and Hall (1975) have carefully defined the procedure for ob-
taining oblique stereo aerial photos oflandforms, and suggest:
a) use a 35 mm (preferably motorwind or rapid advance) camera, equipped with a
lens from 28 to 80 mm focal length, skylight (Wratten lAO filter, and shutter
speed of 11500 or 111,000;
b) a high resolution color transparency film (Ektachrome-64, or equivalent), shot at
170 percent of its rated film speed (example: shoot ASA 64 film at ASA lOO);
c) while flying at 200 to 1,500 meters above the surface, with the aircraft speed be-
tween 80 and lOO knots, track the scene in the camera's viewfinder and take suc-
cessive pictures at intervals from % to 4 seconds depending on the object's dis-
tance from the aircraft.
A high-winged aircraft with opening windows is best, although any craft provid-
ing an unobstructed view will suffice. If a helicopter is used, avoid photographing
from a hover, as excessive vibrations often occur. Such photography requires noth-
ing more than a little planning and a steady hand, but can be invaluable in delineat-
ing landform relationships which may not be apparent on the ground or from maps.
One specific application is mapping rill and channel patterns on hillslopes. This
should be done by estimating the average mid-slope gradient of the site, then photo-
graph it with the optic axis perpendicular to the mid-slope inclination, (Fig. 2). For
vertical photographs, the camera may be mounted on the door, a wing strut, or po-
sitioned through an access hole in the cabin floor; the photo interval should be cal-
culated to yield at least a 60 percent overlap of successive frames.
Oblique photos of hillslopes often yield considerably more detail than vertical
photos, and their use in Hortonian analyses of hillslope channel networks is more
representative of actual runoff contributing areas. Crosslighting is one way to ef-
fectively enhance rills and channels, but if slope orientations or solar azimuths won't
cooperate, photo-optical edge-enhancement can be used. In this technique, a
contact film positive is made, then registered to the negative. When this pair is
slightly offset, all tonal changes perpendicular to the offset direction are significantly
enhanced (Fig.2a). This technique has been applied to enhance geologic lin-
eaments, glacial striae, and periglacial patterned ground. However, it must be
cautioned that linear features within 30 degrees of the offset direction are not clearly
delineated, therefore, at least two offset directions should be compared. Scanner
images can only be edge-enhanced by offsets parallel or perpendicular to their scan
lines, or serious image "artifacts" will result.
8 Remote Sensing Techniques for Geomorphologists

Stereo Oblique Aerial Photos

a = mean slope of terrain
a' = tilt of optic axis
all= focal plane tilt

Fig. 2a, b
Large-Scale Photographic Techniques 9

Table 2. Characteristics of photographic systems

Spectral region (A) Film/Filter Applications in

geomorphology

Photographic Ultra- Kodak 2402 Plus-x Low resolution, but capable of detecting
violet (UV) Wratten l8A UV luminescence from carbonate rocks,
(0.35-0.4 ,urn) applications in karst regions
Panchromatic Kodak 4164 Tri-x High resolution, excellent contrast control
(B &W) Wratten 12 or 25 with filters, used for low cost resource
(Visible 0.4-0.7 ,urn) (minus blue) photos, reasonable haze penetration
Color Kodak Ektachrome MS True color for lithologic, soil, and sediment
2448/Wratten lA or 2B interpretation. Easiest to recognize from
(Skylight) field experience
Infrared Kodak Infrared 2424 Excellent delineation of surface water, can
(0.69-0.9,um) Aerographic (Estar be used to trace streams in forested areas,
base) Wratten 89B used to locate spring and seeps, periglacial
fea tures such as frost boils and stone
stripes, and supra glacial streams and
crevasse patterns
Color infrared Kodak Aerochrome Excellent imagery of turbidity in water, soil
(0.58-0.9,um) Infrared 2443 or 3443 moisture variation, vegetation damage as-
Wratten 12 sociated with mass wasting, and aids identi-
fication of carbonates and shales. False col-
or sometimes increases contrast between
lithologies or soils, but is difficult to relate
to actual colors

Another comparable technique, requiring no special darkroom procedures, is

the reverse stereoscopic effect produced when stereo aerial photos are viewed in the
reverse order of their flightline sequence. As seen in Fig. 2 b the relief of the area
appears inverted, although additional interpretation cues such as tone, texture,
shape and associated features are still apparent. The topographic inversion tech-
nique often highlights breaks in slope, terraces, knickpoints or changes in channel
gradient. It is probably that the abnormal appearance of the topography psychologi-
cally heightens the interpreter's attention to form, since the inverted image is
geometrically similar to the normal image.
The measurement of pattern and form components of drainage basin mor-
phometry are better accomplished on large-scale stereo aerial photography than
from map interpretation alone. This is particularly true in non-forested regions
where channel networks are easily depicted on aerial photographs. Leopold et al.
(1964), Schick (1964), Eyles (1966), Selby (1968), and Stagg (1978) have all conclud-
ed that maps seriously underrepresent the complexity of drainage networks. Drain-
age densities of rill networks from aerial photos are often 5 to 6 times that inferred
by contour crenulations. Additionally, first-order streams portrayed by blue lines on

..
Fig. 2. Geometry of an oblique stereo aerial photograph, with examples of photo-optical en-
hancements. a positive-negative offset edge enhancement, and b reverse stereoscopic effect.
Both a and b should be viewed with a pocket stereoscope
10 Remote Sensing Techniques for Geomorphologists

topographic maps are generally fourth to fifth (Strahler) order channels. Drainage
divides are also more accurately mapped from stereo images depicting actual form,
rather than contours which may be generalized or omit significant detail between
contour intervals.
The spectral range of photochemical films is nearly twice that of the visible spec-
trum, extending from the photo UV (0.24 lim) to the outer limits of the near IR
(1.1 lim). However, most specialty films outside the visible spectrum require special
lens materials, filters, and exposure techniques, usually restricted to controlled
laboratory conditions. Field applications in geomorphology are possible if allow-
ances are made for the critical exposure latitudes of these films. Selected films with
specific applications in geomorphic research are presented in Table 2 along with
their filter and exposure requirements.
Of special interest are the color infrared films (such as Ektachrome IE) which
have good haze penetration characteristics and emphasize vigorous vegetation
growth in bright red tones. This film has been used to locate hydrologic, glacial,
periglacial, and eolian features in agricultural areas where crop vigor expresses vari-
ations in soil texture, nutrients or moisture stress. Experience suggests that aerial
photography with this film is best accomplished with high, thin overcast sky con-
ditions at film speeds of ASA 150 to 200.

Thermal Infrared Imagery

Thermal infrared images depict the pattern of heat emitted or reflected by target
materials. The radiant heat emitted by an object is determined by the absolute
(kinetic) temperature of the material, and its emissivity, which is a measure of an
object's ability to radiate and absorb thermal energy.
The thermal characteristics of surficial earth materials yield information not de-
tectable in other regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. Thermal contrasts may
serve as indirect indicators of density, moisture content, or heat capacity of surficial
materials. Additionally, thermal imagery may be used to directly measure heat
radiating from volcanic or geothermal phenomena or the relative temperature dif-
ferences of water, ice, or rock masses. However, the use of thermal sensors for such
purposes requires extensive ground verification and specialized techniques for
mission planning, interpretation, and mapping.
Tone on thermal imagery is related to an object's radiant temperature. The ap-
parent temperature characteristics emitted by an object are a function of its absolute
temperature and emissivity. The lighter tones on thermal images are indicators of
higher radiometric temperatures. However, some "hot" objects may appear cool as
a result of having surfaces oflow emissivity. A hot stove vent made of polished alu-
minum is a good example of an object which produces a deceptively "cool" image.
Fortunately, most surface materials of direct concern to geomorphologists have high
emissivities (approaching 1.0) as shown in Table 3.
The acquisition of thermal infrared imagery must be carefully planned to take
advantage of solar induced diurnal temperature flux and the thermal characteristics
of the target objects. Table 4 illustrates a hypothetical field situation where the radi-
Thermal Infrared Imagery 11

Table 3. Characteristics of thermal infrared systems

Spectral Regions (A) Applications to Geomorphology

Middle infrared (O.9-1.4llm) Peak reflectance of natural vegetation, glacial tills

(Photo-cathode systems, and charged and moraines
coupled devices)
Thermal infrared Lava flows, domes and fissures, pyroclastic flows,
Electro-optical scanner, cryogenically and superheated fumaroles
cooled detector) l.2-3/-lm
3-S /-lm Geothermal areas, hot springs, steam vents, daytime
albedo for thermal inertia models
8-14/-lm (-50°C to 50°C) Soil moisture, periglacial phenomena, glacial cre-
vasses, caves, turbidity currents, night radiance for
thermal inertia models

ant temperature of an object varies diurnally. Maximum discrimination of objects is

possible on thermal imagery only when the target objects radiate temperature at
levels different from their surroundings, thus providing a detectable thermal con-
trast. "Crossover periods" at dawn and dusk minimize solar-induced temperature
contrasts, but do not effect geothermal or volcanic thermal sources. Thermal inertia
studies, which measure heat capacity and estimate material density, usually com-
pare peak solar heating values with pre-dawn imagery. The table below the graph
brackets those solar time periods frequently employed for thermal sensing of
geomorphic phenomena. The type and quality of landform information portrayed
on thermal infrared images varies greatly depending upon the time of day and at-
mospheric moisture conditions. Clouds, fog, dust and high levels of specific hu-
midity in the atmosphere emit radiant energy from water droplets and thus attenu-
ate or "fog" the resulting image in the 8-14.um region. Similarly, these conditions
provide absorption bands which limit the utility of the shorter wavelength at-
mospheric "windows" as well.
Figure 3 illustrates the thermal characteristics, or "signatures", of earth materials
as seen on daytime stereo-thermal infrared scanner images. This imagery was ac-
quired over part of the large debris avalanche caused by the 1980 eruption ofMt. St.
Helens, Washington. Cool surface water (a) appears dark, while hot pyroclastic
flows (b) appear brighter.
Thermal imagery acquired shortly after sunset tends to illustrate differences in
the heat capacities of materials (i.e. their ability to store heat). This is especially im-
portant in lithologic and hydrologic mapping where the solar heat retention proper-
ties of materials varies greatly. Water has the highest heat capacity of all common
surface materials, and therefore is easily detected in post-sunset imagery. Drainage
patterns and soil moisture patterns related to soil texture variations were identified
by Cantrell (1964) on thermal infrared imagery, and similar techniques have been
employed in the verification of the "variable source" concept of runoff generation
on hillslopes, the identification of tidal inundation and mixing in estuaries, and lo-
cating moisture concentrations around faults, joints and other lineaments (Sabins
1967; Van Lopik 1968; Hodler 1977).
12 Remote Sensing Techniques for Geomorphologists

Table 4. Diurnal flux of radiant temperature values for common earth materials

Max .~ T Night Max. ~T Day

...::J
Q,)

...
- "
III
voegetadi~ 0 - 0 - ..0 '~-.-o
Q,)
a. ._._- ,-,-- '- ' ..::::,;,:':'
"' - .. ,_ .. . -.Y!!l.t .Ml.!! - "" ' - ""
E

-
Q,) _ __
roQ..k _ _ _ - - -
I-

C
dr
III
Crossover PeriOds min . thermal contrast
ice
"0
• _, A • • _ • _ _ • •• _ • _ _ _ • _ • _ . _ • _ • _ • _ . _, ___ • _ • _ . _ . _ . __ _ _ _ • _ • _. _ . _. _ _ _

III
a: Dawn Crossover Sunset Crossover

20 24 4 8 12 16 20
Midnight Solar time Noon

inertia -c a pa c it y Inertia
I , lithologic Mapping

density moisture - texture

Soils

,
snow density , Ice & Snow Cover ,
glacial crevasses ,
spr,ings,soil saturation drainage patterns
, J Hydrology , I

siinkholes,cave Openingr Karst

estuaries Coastal tide lines,currents

Processes I I

Imagery acquired immediately before sunrise minimizes the effects of solar heat-
ing and thus are best for detecting internal heat from volcanic features (McLerran
1967; Rosenfeld and Schlicker 1975) and geothermal phenomena (Friedman 1968;
Rosenfeld and Hodler 1977). Pre-dawn imagery has also been used for lithologic
mapping where relief has caused excessive solar heating contrasts between north
and south facing slopes. Daytime thermal imagery often has better detail but must
be carefully filtered to eliminate reflected solar radiation. When the tones on a ther-
mal image are correlated to specific radiant temperatures, contrasts between the day
and night temperature of objects may be used to estimate the response to tempera-
 ;:l
<>
S
e:..
S
;:;'>
~
;:;
0.-

S
~
(JQ

Fig. 3. A daytime stereopair of thermal infrared scanner images showing part of the debris avalanche triggered by the 1980 eruption of Mount
St. Helens, Washington. Cooler surface water (a) appears dark, while hot pyroclastic materials (b) appear brighter. Stereo thermal scanner imagery is ~

rare
14 Remote Sensing Techniques for Geomorphologists

ture change, or thermal inertia, of various materials. Materials having high thermal
inertia exhibit more uniform temperature characteristics day and night then those
with lower thermal inertia. Watson (1975) and Janza (1975) have shown that ther-
mal inertia is highly correlated to material density, and that it can be quantitatively
determined from thermal infrared imagery.
When planning the acquisition time for thermal infrared imagery, the diurnal
fluctuation of radiant temperatures of target phenomena should be taken into
consideration. Diurnal temperature variation may be measured using portable
radiation thermometers, such as the Barnes PRT-5, Derringer Teletemp, or
Omegascope. Contact thermometers or thermistors may be substituted if allowances
for emissivity of the target objects are made. The resulting diurnal temperature
curves may be used to identify the timing of overflights, temperature range of re-
quired sensors, and thermal sensing strategies that may be applied for various
phenomena. Table 4 is a representation of typical diurnal temperature flux values
for common earth materials of interest to geomorphologists. The table further iden-
tifies typical time periods used for the acquisition of thermal infrared imagery in
previous geomorphic studies. Note that the temperature "crossover" periods are
most often avoided for these purposes, whereas these periods are ideal for thermal
observations of geothermal or volcanic phenomena.
Table 5 lists the emissivity values of common earth materials at 20°C, which is
ideal for thermal sensing in the 8-14 {lm atmospheric window.
The utility of thermal infrared imagery in geomorphology is probably best il-
lustrated by way of examples. The studies selected for presentation here represent
various aspects of geomorphic research interests and approaches, and are by no
means exhaustive.
Figure 4 shows a thermal infrared image acquired at 0330 hours with an
8-14 {lm scanner as part of a geothermal survey of southcentral Oregon (Rosenfeld
1976). The image clearly shows a thermal spring (bright anomaly) located at the
apex of an alluvial fan, which radiates outward from a faultscarp ridge. In addition
to the geothermal source, the distributary pattern of active channels and moisture
within the fan deposits is portrayed. Additionally, the contour-like tonal bands ad-
jacent to the upper portion of the fan are related to the sorting of lacustrine sedi-

Table 5. Emissivities of common surficial earth materials at

20°C (293 ° K) in the 8-14/im wavelength region

Material Emissivity, e

Water, pure 0.98

Dolomite 0.96
Ice (-10 0c) 0.96
Soil, wet 0.95
Basalt 0.93
Soil, dry 0.92
Sand, coarse 0.92
Silica sandstone 0.91
Snow (-10 0c) 0.90
Thermal Infrared Imagery 15

d
Fig. 4. A nighttime thermal scanner image (8-l4Ilm) of the Abert Basin, Oregon (courtesy
Oregon Army National Guard). The geothermal spring (a) shows as a bright anomaly, while
the distributary channels of an alluvial fan (b) are clearly shown. Pluvial lake strandlines (c)
are imaged due to the moisture-holding characteristics of the sorted sediments. The present
playa is seen at (d) while its recent maximum extent may be inferred from the surrounding
darker tone

ments at various lake elevations by a Pleistocene pluvial lake. A present-day playa is

seen in the lower right of the image, with its recent maximum extent illustrated by
the darker surrounding tones. The temperature of the hot spring was 31°C, while
the air temperature was 4°C.
Figure 5 a is an aerial photo of soil mounds and patterned ground forms com-
mon to basalt plateaus in many regions of the world. Their origin has attracted
many hypotheses since LeConte (1877), and more than a score of theories may be
found in the literature (Johnson, 1982). One of the aspects that has eluded many re-
searchers is the movement of near-surface water in the intricate network of soil
mounds and stone stripes. The nighttime thermal image (Fig. 5 b) shows the concen-
trations of through-flow and soil moisture, with water being concentrated in the in-
ter-mound stone circles and stripes. This image was acquired by an 8-14.um ther-
mal scanner shortly after spring snowmelt, when groundwater recharge is at its
peak. While not conclusive, this image favors hypotheses which stress piping and
through-flow as mechanisms for the removal of fines .
16 Remote Sensing Techniques for Geomorphologists

Fig. Sa. Aerial photograph of soil mounds, stone garlands and strips on the UmatiIla Plateau,
Oregon

In the aqueous environment the absence of reflected solar energy is crucial, as it

masks important radiant emittance from the water surface. Figure 6 illustrates the
complex dynamics of estuary hydrology. Waters warmed by the sun in the "biologi-
cal sponge" of the tidal marsh are drained into the estuary at low tide, carrying a
rich supply of nutrients onto the mudflats through a complex array of distributary
channels. Note that colder freshwater from small upland streams follows along well
defined channels in the shallow water before plunging beneath the warmer brackish
water due to density differences.
Rinker (1975) has shown that thermal imagery is valuable in detecting the pat-
tern of glacial crevasses beneath a surface snow cover. Figure 7 shows a thermal im-
age (8-14 .urn) acquired over a glacier near Thule, Greenland, where the pattern of
crevasses show as warm anomalies due to the contrast of thermal enertia between
the air trapped in the crevasses and the denser ice, both beneath snowcover.
High temperature phenomena have also been studied using thermal infrared
imagery. When pyroclastic flows streamed downslope from the crater of Mount St.
Thermal Infrared Imagery 17

Fig.5b. Night thermal infrared imagery showing the concentration of soil moisture and
through-flow in the inter-mound areas

Helens on July 22, 1980 a thermal scanner in the 3-5.um region was used to image
the heat distribution on the resultant blocky pumice surface (Rosenfeld and Cooke
1982). Figure 8 shows one such image acquired at 2345 hours, from 1,000 m alti-
tude, some 3 to 7 hours after the deposition of the flows. The fluid nature of these
flows is evident from the swirl patterns, despite the fact they are composed of large
pumice blocks from 0.02 to 2 meters in diameter. One thermistor probe measure-
ment shortly after deposition indicated temperatures in excess of 800°C on the in-
terior of the flows (R. Hoblitt pers. comm.).
Sometimes the object of interest is so hot that a high temperature thermal de-
tector (1-3.um) must be used, and the contrast to background objects so great
that little additional detail is imaged by the scanner. In Fig. 9 a a pair of stereo aerial
photographs of a growing lava dome in the crater of Mount St. Helens is illustrated.
Figure 9b is a high temperature (>300°C) thermal scanner image acquired that
same night. These images provide complementary information concerning the size,
texture and temperature of the extruded materials (Rosenfeld and Cooke 1982). Of
particular interest are the radial fractures surrounding the dome, the temperature
contrasts between separate lobes of the dome, and the pyroclastic flow material on
the crater floor.
18 Remote Sensing Techniques for Geomorphologists

Fig.6. An 8-14/lm thermal scanner image showing an ebbing tide in Netarts Bay, Oregon
(courtesy U.S. Environmental Protection Agency)
Small Scale Imagery and Regional Geomorphology 19

Fig.7. A thermal infrared scanner image (1-6Ilm) of the ice cap area of northwest Greenland.
The light toned vertical line running through the image is a vehicle trail. The light streams that
trend diagonally across the image are crevasses. Winds from the upper left form 'wind streaks'
on the leeward side of vehicles near the lower center of the image (courtesy J. Rinker, U.S.
Army Engineer Topographic Laboratory)

Small Scale Imagery and Regional Geomorphology

Often the regional aspects of geomorphology are overlooked by researchers who

tend to focus on more localized phenomena, but regional geomorphology provides a
great deal more than the initial phase of reconnaissance geology. With the advent of
high altitude camera platforms and resource-oriented imaging satellites came a
broader appreciation of regional geomorphology in the fields of environmental ge-
ology, geotechnical engineering, and resource exploration. The first photographs
from manned orbital flights, and especially the Skylab experiments of 1973 created
significant interest in regional studies among earth scientists. Large-scale geomor-
phic features could be examined in their regional context. The use of orbital photo-
graphs to study the sand seas of the world by McKee et al. (1977) and the regional
geomorphology of the channeled scab lands of Washington by Baker and Num-
medal (1978) which employed high altitude U-2 photos and LANDSAT images, are
excellent examples of remote sensing applications to geomorphic problems of re-
gional extent.
In remote areas, where vegetation and/or cloud cover have precluded accurate
topographic mapping, the atmospheric penetration capability of active microwave
sensors has proven invaluable. In a classic study by MacDonald (1969), side-looking
airborne radar (SLAR) imagery of the Darien province of Panama was analyzed
from several look-directions for the detection of geologic features under a variety of
terrain conditions. This study proved the value of SLAR as a tool in mapping faults,
joint patterns, and drainage networks.
This study demonstrated that SLAR imagery facilitates physiographic differen-
tiation and geologic mapping on a regional scale, and identified RADAR as the only
20 Remote Sensing Techniques for Geomorphologists

Fig. 8. Thermal infrared line scan-

ner image of a fresh pyroclastic
flow on the north flank of Mount
St. Helens, Washington acquired
at 23.45 hours on July 22, 1980
(courtesy Oregon Army National
Guard)
Small Scale Imagery and Regional Geomorphology 21

Fig.9. a Aerial stereopair of a new lava dome forming in the crater of Mount St. Helens,
Washington, April I, 1981. b Thermal infrared scanner image (l-3.um, showing areas of the
lava dome and crater > 300 °C (courtesy Oregon Army National Guard)

practical technique for such mapping in the wet tropics where traditional methods
fail. Several other large-scale mapping projects in Brazil, Indonesia, New Guinea
and Australia have confirmed the merits of detailed geomorphic interpretations of
RADAR imagery for geologic, hydrologic and resource evaluation purposes (see
Fig. 10).
22 Remote Sensing Techniques for Geomorphologists

Fig. 10. Geomorphic expressions of drain-

age texture, stream networks, geologic
structure and material density are vividly
portrayed in this X-band SLAR image of a
portion of the Cretaceous Chico formation
in the northern California coastal moun-
tains. This image was acquired through a
dense cloud cover (courtesy Oregon Army
National Guard)
Small Scale Imagery and Regional Geomorphology 23

Table 6. RADAR bands, wavelengths, and frequencies

Wavelength (cm) = 30,000/frequency (mHz)

RADAR Band wavelength Frequency, mHz

P 77 -136 cm 220- 390

VHF 30 -100 cm 300- 1,000
L 15 - 30cm 1,000- 2,000
S 7.5 - 15 cm 2,000- 4,000
C 3.75- 7.5 cm 4,000- 8,000
X 2.40- 3.75 cm 8,000-12,500
K 1.18- 1.67 cm 18,000-20,500
Ka 0.75- 1.18 cm 26,500-40,000

Several studies are of particular interest to geomorphologists: Lewis (1971) used

radar-derived drainage texture and slope intervals to quantitatively substantiate
geomorphic regions: McCoy (1969) found most imaging RADAR systems capable
of providing drainage network and basin morphometry information. Karst topogra-
phy, volcanic cones, lava flows, alluvial, coastal and glacial terraces, and alluvial
fans are among specific landforms which have been studied with RADAR imagery
(Dellwig et al. 1975).
Several characteristics distinguish RADAR from other electromagnetic sensors.
Since coherent sources of microwave energy are rare in earth's geophysical en-
vironment, RADAR (an acronym for Radio Detection And Ranging) supplies its
own source of illumination-radio waves. RADAR return is the amount and arrival
pattern of that portion of the transmitted microwave energy that is reflected back to
the receiver (see Table 6). One significant difference between visible light and
microwave energy is wave length. Visible light ranges from 0.4-0.7 X 10-6 m, while
microwaves extend from 0.75 X 10-2 m, to 1010 m in length. The RADAR image'S
signature is determined by the following:
1. RADAR System Properties
a) Depression Angle
b) Wavelength/Frequency
c) Polarization
2. Terrain Properties
a) Complex dielectric constant
b) Surface roughness
Surface objects appear smooth if their surface irregularities are less than the
Rayleigh scatter criterion allowing most incident microwaves to specularly reflect.
Thus, if a surface with 10 cm irregularities were imaged on L-band (..1.=25 cm)
RADAR it would appear "smooth", but if illuminated by X-band (A = 3 cm)
RADAR the same surface would appear "rough" due to backscattering of the short-
er wavelength. Table 7 lists the roughness criteria normally used and their values for
commonly employed SLAR bands.
The complex dielectric constant of an object effects microwaves in two ways.
First it alters the reflectivity of the surface. In the microwave region, the dielectric
24 Remote Sensing Techniques for Geomorphologists

Table 7. Values in cm of surface roughness (h) for RADAR bands at a depression angle (y)
of 45 degrees

Roughness Rayleigh Band

Criterion Ka(A=0.86 cm) X(A=3cm) (,1.=25 cm)

A
Smooth h< 0.05 cm O.l7cm 1.41 cm
25 sin y
Intermediate 0.05-0.28 0.17-0.96 1.41-8.04
A
Rough h> 0.28 0.96 8.04
4.4 sin y

constant of most dry earth materials ranges from 3 to 8 but increases with moisture
content. The dielectric constant for water is 80. Since the depth of microwave pen-
etration varies inversely with the dielectric constant, this favors reflection.
Secondly, the dielectric constant is related to the density and conductivity of the
material. The range of dielectric constant values for rock materials is not sufficient
to permit lithologic identification solely on this basis.
In an effort to convey the imagery characteristics resulting from SLAR geometry
and microwave effects on target objects, Fig. 11 diagrammatically illustrates the po-
sition of the aircraft and a cross-section of the terrain along a raster line. Since the
image is produced by recording the returned microwave echos through time, no
imagery is recorded until the first signal returns from the terrain immediately be-
neath the aircraft. This lag period produces a loss of terrain data known as the alti-
tude hole, followed by a narrow band of severely compressed terrain. RADAR
shadows are produced whenever the microwaves illuminating the surface are
blocked by higher terrain or slopes steeper than the incidence angle. As distance
from the trackline increases, the incidence angle decreases and the shadows
lengthen. Tonal variations within the image are most often due to the density,
roughness and dielectric constants of surface objects. Water (Fig. 11, area A) has a
very high dielectric conductivity and generally absorbs microwave energy incident
upon it. Variations in surface roughness often delineate forest crown cover from ad-
jacent cleared land (Fig. 11, area B), and density contrasts, such as between mud-
flow deposits and lava flows (Fig. 11, area C), become apparent. The landform inter-
pretation of similar features is shown in Table 8.
Commercial RADAR imagery has been available for almost 20 years, beginning
with efforts by the Westinghouse Electric Co. (K-band SAR) and followed by com-
mercial adaptations of military equipment by Goodyear Electronic Mapping Ser-
vices (GEMS) (X-band SAR) and Motorola Aerial Remote Sensing (MARS) (X-
band SLAR). The first non-military orbiting RADAR platform was launched by the
National Aeronautical and Space Administration (NASA) aboard the SEASAT
Satellite (L-band SAR) in 1978. Other NASA efforts have included the RB-57F high
altitude (X-band SAR), Convair 990 (L-band SAR) and Space Shuttle SIR-A (L-
band SAR) experiments. While these sources have collected extensive imagery ar-
chives, truly global coverage awaits the nonmilitary data acquisition from NASA's
proposed RADARSATor Japan's ERS-l, sometime in the early 1990's.
Small Scale Imagery and Regional Geomorphology 25

Look Direction

Depression Angle
RADAR Shadow

Fig. 11. A west-looking X-band SLAR image of Mount St. Helens, Washington acquired short-
ly after the initial report of renewed volcanic activity on March 27, 1980. The new explosion
craters appear as dark spots near the mountain's summit (courtesy Oregon Army National
Guard)

SLAR systems, such as the Motorola ANI APS-94, are capable of discriminating
objects in motion on the terrain surface by comparing successive returns. Stationary
objects produce similar or "in phase" returns, while "out of phase" signals indicate
object motion and are separately portrayed on a moving target image (Rosenfeld
and Kimerling 1977). Figure 12 shows Mount St. Helens during the peak of its main
eruption on May 18, 1980. The fixed target image may be compared to Fig. 11 to see
some of the impacts of the eruption. This X-band (A = 3 cm) SLAR successfully pen-
etrated the dense ash plume and outlined the summit crater, located the eruptive
vents and located the massive debris avalanche caused by the explosive removal of
the north side of the volcano (Rosenfeld 1980; Rosenfeld and Cooke 1982). Simul-
26 Remote Sensing Techniques for Geomorphologists

Table 8. Identification of geomorphic features using imaging RADAR sensors

Feature Sensor, (band) Interpretation techniques

Drainage networks SLAR, SAR (X) Low depression angles may accentuate
channels in low relief terrain
Glacial structure SLAR(X, L) Tone denotes density and free water
content, edge enhancement shows cre-
vasse alignment
Pediments, alluvial fans SAR(K, X) Tone varies with texture of surface
materials
Ocean wave refraction SLAR, SAR (X, L) Moving target SLAR for breakers
Geologic lineaments SLAR(X) Contrast two perpendicular look direc-
tions
Lava flows, mudflows SLAR(X) Moving target mode
SAR(K, X) Surface texture shown by cross polariza-
tion

taneously, the moving target image recorded active mudflows, the high density ash
plume, and a nuee ardent.
High-resolution Synthetic Aperature RADAR's (SAR) were also used to image
this spectacular geologic event. An X-Band SAR from the acquired stereo-RADAR
image is shown in Fig. 13. Note that the vertical exaggeration of the relief dimin-
ishes along the look-direction. The texture of the debris is considerably enhanced (as
contrasted to its X-band SLAR counterpart Fig. 12). A long-wavelength (,1= 25 cm)
L-band SAR image of the mountain (Fig. 14) yields less detail as a result of coarse
resolution, but is indicative of the imagery available from orbiting SAR sensors,
such as SEASAT and SIR-A.
SLAR imagery has great potential as a tool in glacial geomorphology. Figure 15
is an X-band SLAR image which covers over 1,000 km 2 of the lower Malaspina Gla-
cier in southeast Alaska. The convoluted medial moraines are visible, as are the pro-
glacial lakes, vegetated beach ridges and terminal moraines and braided outwash
channels. While these features are also seen on conventional aerial photos or
LANDSAT images, the dark pattern in the center of the ice mass is not. It results
from ablation of the surface snow cover and is imaged due to variations in the di-
electric properties of the melting snow and ice. This information may be used in
glacial hydrology, mass balance, and dynamics research.
Coastal geomorphologists are interested in near-shore wave refraction patterns,
however, aerial photography has limited coverage and must be carefully balanced
with solar reflectance to enhance wave patterns. Low-altitude SLAR imagery has
the ability to acquire wave refraction information day or night, in almost any
weather, by collecting RADAR returns from depression angles of less than 10°
(Rosenfeld 1979). Figure 16 shows an X-band SLAR image of the mouth of the
Columbia River and the discharge plume entering the Pacific Ocean, with high in-
tensity returns (brightest areas) indicate breaking waves. This image was acquired
during a severe spring storm.
 en
3~
==
w
~

<>
S
~
(JQ
('D

~
~
::s
0-

~
(JQ
o·
::s
e.
o
('D
o
3
.8::s-
o
0"
~

Fig. 12. An east-looking SLAR image of Mount St. Helens, Washington during the May IS, 19S0 eruption, illustrating the simultaneous acquisition of
N
information on both fixed and moving targets (Rosenfeld, 19S0) -...)
28 Remote Sensing Techniques for Geomorphologists

Fig. 13. An X-band Synthetic Aperature RADAR (SAR) stereo

pair of the area west of Mount St. Helens, Washington, acquired
by NASA's experimental RB-57F aircraft in July of 1980 (cour-
tesy Johnson Space Center)

Fig. 14: An L-band (25 cm) SAR image of the areas around ..
Mount St. Helens, Washington as acquired in August 1980 by
NASA's experimental Convair 880 aircraft (courtesy Jet Propul-
sion Lab)
Small Scale Imagery and Regional Geomorphology 29

Fig. 15. An X-band (3 cm) SLAR mosaic of the lower Malaspina Glacier, Alaska. This image
shows convoluted moraine structures near the terminus, as well as the meltwater saturation
zones on the surface of the glacier (courtesy U.S. Army Electronic Proving Grounds)
30 Remote Sensing Techniques for Geomorphologists

Fig. 16. Nearshore wave refraction as imaged by an X-band (3 cm) SLAR at the mouth of the
Columbia River. The river's discharge plume, as well as the breakers in the shoaling zone are
clearly visible (courtesy U.S. Army, Corps of Engineers)
Multi-Spectral Small Scale Imagery 31

Multi-Spectral Small Scale Imagery

The IS-day repetitive coverage afforded since 1972 by the LANDSAT series (for-
merly ERTS) satellites has provided an abundance of earth resources data and ap-
plications, for which an immense and impressive literature exists. Of particular val-
ue are the Multi-Spectral Scanner (MSS) images and digital tapes. These products
may be combined to form MSS color composites, or may be photo-optically or digi-
tally enhanced to provide a variety of specialized views. Provided no special pro-
cessing requirements are necessary, the image products available through the Earth
Resources Observation Satellite (EROS) Data Center at Sioux Falls, S.D. are usually
the most cost efficient. Both single-band and color composite images are available,
and coverage scenes for most areas have been computer enhanced. Table 9 lists
some geomorphic features along with the band(s) frequently employed in their in-
terpretation. The comments column lists a few special characteristics for selection.
Many of these characteristics may be seen in Figure 17 A-D.
The ability to combine several single-band LANDSAT images into a multiband
composite may be accomplished by overlaying color Diazo (or Colorkey) positives
of separate bands, or by projecting positive transparencies simultaneously through
colored filters, such as with additive color viewers. Optical edge enhancements with
bands 6 and 7 are especially useful for structural lineament, drainage network, or
texture analysis. Image density may be photographically enhanced using poly-
contrast filters, Agfa-contour film, or electro-optical density slicers, where colors are
assigned to selected shades of gray.

Table 9. Geomorphic features and LANDSAT MSS bands used for their interpretation

Feature MSS Band(s) Comments

Drainage networks 7 Water appears black

Turbidity in water 5,6 Good contrast
Coastal features 5, 6, 7 Low sun angle
Sand dune (draas) 5,6 Low sun angle
Snowline 4, 5 Spring and fall
Glacial landforms 6, 5 Summer and low sun
Vegetation patterns 4, 5, 7 Color composite
Alluvial fans 5/6
Pediments, arid 4/5 Contrast stretched
Lineaments 6,7, 5 Low sun angle
Landslides 7,6 Only large features
Deltas 5,6

Band Wavelength (urn) Color

4 0.5-0.6 Green
5 0.6-0.7 Red
6 0.7-0.8 Infrared
7 0.8-1.1 Infrared
32 Remote Sensing Techniques for Geomorphologists

MSS Band 4 (0.5-0.6 urn) MSS Band 5 (0.6-0.7 urn)

MSS Band 6 (0.7-0.8 urn) MSS Band 7 (0.8-1.1 urn)

Fig. 17 A-H. LANDSAT Multispectral Scanner Imagery (MSS)

Numerous digital enhancement and interpretation systems have been construct-

ed to employ LANDSAT digital data. Most of these systems are capable of statisti-
cally evaluating the reflectance values comprising each scene, mathematically com-
bining or ratioing two or more bands of the same scene, and performing both in-
terpreter-supervised and unsupervised classifications of the resulting products.
Examples of such systems include General Electric's GE Image 100, Purdue Uni-
versity'S LARSYS, and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory's VICARIIBIS system, to
mention just a few.
LANDSAT images are especially useful when combined with other large scale
imagery or maps. A rectifying enlarger, Zoom Transfer-Scope, or Stereo-facet plot-
ter are useful in optically super-imposing LANDSAT images over high altitude
photos, RADAR mosaics or maps for simultaneous viewing and mapping purposes.
Multi-Spectral Small Scale Imagery 33

X- Band SLAR (Oregon Anny National Guard) Canputer Generated Image (Defense Mapping Agency)

U.S.G.S. Shaded Relief Map High Altitude Photography (NASA)

Fig. 17E-H

Figure 17 is a comparison of various types of large-scale imagery which may be

useful in regional geomorphic analyses. Figure 17 A-D show the four bands of
LANDSAT MSS imagery of part of the Cascade Mountains east ofPuget Sound. Im-
age E is part of an X-band SLAR mosaic of the area, F is a computer-generated
shaded-relief impression artistically derived from U.S.G.S. topographic maps. Im-
age H has been taken from a mosaic of high altitude photographs. While each image
varies in detail and character, no one image satisfies all of the imagery needs of the
geomorphologist. However, the geomorphologist with a keen sense of field ob-
servation, and an awareness of the properties of various forms of remote sensing,
can make good use of the potential varieties of sensors and images presently avail-
able, and potentially available in the future.
As with most specialized applications the researcher must know a great deal
more about geomorphology than remote sensing. It is hoped that this chapter has
introduced some of the key concepts and principles of remote sensing to those prac-
titioners who will most benefit from this rapidly improving observation tool.
34 Remote Sensing Techniques for Geomorphologists

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