Jewish Christianity in The Early Church

JEWISH CHRISTIANITY IN THE EARLY CHURCH
HOW CHRISTIANITY
FORGOT ITS JEWISH ROOTS
by
Kenneth W. Howard
Jewish Christianity
First Edition: March 15, 1993
Second Edition: July 29, 2008
Revised and Updated: November 1, 2009
© 2009 by Kenneth W. Howard (all rights reserved)
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Jewish Christianity
Abstract
This book traces the development of Jewish Christianity from its beginnings in the earliest
Christian communities through its apparent disappearance in the fourth or fifth century. The
author‟s thesis is that within the diversity which characterized the Jewish Christianity of the early
Church, there existed at least one Jewish Christian sect whose theology stood within the
acceptable boundaries of orthodoxy of the greater Church, that this sect existed through at least
the fifth century, at which point it was declared heretical by the Church Fathers and eventually
died out despite the fact that it remained within the bounds of orthodoxy and considered itself a
part of the greater Church. The thesis also suggests that the increasing antipathy of the Church
toward Jewish Christianity was the result of a variety of interrelated influences operating over
several centuries. Some of these influences included the changing demographics of the Church
and the accompanying clash of cultures; the increasing isolation of Jewish Christianity from the
predominantly Gentile Church; power struggles between competing Christian communities in
Palestine, as well as Rome‟s interest in asserting its primacy; theological and pastoral concerns,
which were well-intentioned but which resulted in increasingly narrow views of orthodoxy and
orthopraxis; as well as some outright anti-Jewish feelings.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT iii
I. INTRODUCTION AND THESIS 7

Introduction 7
Thesis 8
Defining Jewish Christianity: A Review of the literature 9
Survey of Sources 11
II. BACKGROUND: ANALYSIS OF BIBLICAL REFERENCES AND EARLY

CHURCH DOCUMENTS 15
Biblical References 15
Primitive Church Documents 17
III. WHO WERE THE JEWISH CHRISTIANS?

EXAMINING THE CANDIDATES PROPOSED BY THE CHURCH FATHERS 21
Corinthians 21
Ebionites 23
Nazarenes 28
Symmachians 37
Elkesaites 38
Summary and Conclusions 40
IV. THEOLOGY OF THE JEWISH CHRISTIANS

ANALYSIS OF THE JEWISH CHRISTIAN GOSPELS 43
The Gospel of the Nazarenes 44
The Gospel of the Ebionites 48
V. CORROBORATING THE CHURCH FATHERS:

ANALYSIS OF ARCHAELOGICAL, TALMUDIC, AND OTHER SOURCES 51
Archaeological Data 51
Talmudic References 54
The Pella Tradition 57
VI. FROM ACCEPTANCE THROUGH AMBIVALENCE TO ANTIPATHY:

THE CHANGING ATTITUDE OF THE CHURCH FATHERS
TOWARDS JEWISH CHRISTIANITY 63
In the Beginning: A Jewish Christian Church 63
Clashing Cultures: The Church in Transition 64
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The First Easter Controversy 66

Jewish Christianity on the Defensive 66
The First Easter Controversy Continued: Anti-Judaism and Politics 67
Irenaeus and the Ebionites: The First Excommunication 70
Nicaea and the Easter Decree: The Axe is Raised 71
Gentile and Jewish Christians in Jerusalem: The Holy City in Schism 74
Epiphanius and the Nazarenes: The Axe Falls on Jewish Christianity 75
Postscript: A Broken Contract 75
VII. CONCLUSIONS 77
BIBLIOGRAPHY 81
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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION AND THESIS
Introduction
The study of Jewish Christianity in the early Church is both intriguing and disheartening. It goes
without saying that all of the first Christians were Jews. Jesus‟ disciples, the Twelve, and the
apostle Paul were all Jews. The Book of the Acts reports that tens of thousands “from the
circumcision” came to believe in Jesus as Messiah.1 None are recorded as ever renouncing their
Judaism. In fact, the controversial issue at the time was quite the opposite. The earliest Church
council was called by the Apostles to determine whether a person could become a follower of
Jesus without first converting to Judaism. Yet by the early part of the second century, if the
reports of the Church Fathers are to be believed, all that remained of Jewish Christianity were
small, isolated pockets of Jewish Christians.2 Some were relatively orthodox in their theology.
Some occupied the fringe of orthodox Christian doctrine. Some were beyond the fringe.
However, orthodox or not, they were held in almost universally low esteem by the larger Church,
judging by the opinions of most of the Patristic writers, which demonstrate an ambivalence at
best. By the end of the fourth or fifth centuries, Jewish Christianity had apparently disappeared,
if the Patristic literature is to be believed: there are no contemporaneous reports on any Jewish
Christian sects after that time.
This work will trace the development of Jewish Christianity from its beginnings in the earliest
Christian communities, through its eventual apparent disappearance. It will attempt to shed light
on several questions: Who were the various groups which composed or which evolved from
Jewish Christianity? What can be said of their origins and development, and what became of
them? What were the natures of the theologies – particularly the Christologies – of these various
1
Acts 21:20; cf. Joseph A. Fitzmyer, “Jewish-Christianity in Acts in the Light of the Qumran Scrolls,” chap. in
Essays on the Semitic Background of the New Testament, (London: Geoffrey Chapman, 1971): 271-304. Fitzmyer
notes that great care must be exercised in the use of the Book of Acts in order to distinguish “Lucan theologoumena”
from the historical information that it also contains. While the Acts account is problematic in establishing specific
events as historic, it tends to be more helpful in establishing the context within which Jewish Christianity arose.
Readers may give more weight to the historical assertions of Acts when they have points of contact other sources,
biblical or non-biblical. For example, Fitzmyer has established a number of points of contact between the Book of
Acts and the Qumran materials.
2
Earnest W. Saunders, “Jewish Christianity and Palestinian Archeology,” Religious Studies Review 9(3) (1983):
201-205; cf. Bellarmino Bagatti, The Church from the Circumcision: History and Archeology of the Judeo-
Christians (Jerusalem: Franciscan Printing Press, 1971); Ignazio Mancini, Archeological Discoveries Relative to the
Judeo-Christians, (Jerusalem: Franciscan Printing Press, 1970); and G. Quispel, “The Discussion of Judaic
Christianity,” Vigiliae Chistianae 22(1968): 81. Bagatti and Mancini believe that the archeological evidence
indicates that Jewish Christianity was much more prevalent in the third and fourth centuries than is apparent from
Patristic sources, and was perhaps the dominant form until the arrival of the Byzantines. Quispel argues that Jewish
Christianity remained alive and active long after the fall of Jerusalem and was instrumental in spreading Christianity
to Mesopotamia and further east, laying the groundwork for Aramaic-speaking, Syrian Christianity.
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groups? How did the attitude of the Church Fathers toward Jewish Christianity change from the
first to the fourth century? And how did their changing attitudes contribute toward the eventual
demise of Jewish Christianity?
These questions are difficult to answer with certainty, because original source materials are
extremely scarce. No original Jewish Christian documents currently exist in complete form. All
that remain are fragments of Jewish Christian documents – a few Gospels and scriptural
commentaries – quoted by various Patristic writers. The only other sources of information on
early Jewish Christianity are the reports of the Patristic writers themselves, the majority of which
are either second-hand or based on tradition. There are also several canonical and apocryphal
documents which are thought to be dependent on earlier Jewish Christian documents or which
display aspects of Jewish Christian theology. Therefore this paper will draw on a variety of
sources including Biblical evidence, fragments of Jewish Christian documents as quoted in
Patristic documents, the comments of the Patristic writers themselves, and certain early Jewish
documents.
Thesis
The author‟s thesis is that within the diversity which characterized the Jewish Christianity of
early Church, there existed at least one Jewish Christian sect whose theology stood within the
acceptable bounds of orthodoxy of the Church, and that this sect existed through at least the
fourth century, at which point it was declared heretical by the Church Fathers and eventually
died out, despite the fact that it remained within the bounds of orthodoxy3 and considered itself a
part of the greater Church. The thesis also suggests that the increasing antipathy of the Church
Fathers toward Jewish Christianity was the result of a variety of interrelated influences operating
over several centuries. Some of these influences included the changing demographics of the
Church and the accompanying clash of cultures; the increasing isolation of Jewish Christianity
from the predominantly Gentile Church, power struggles between competing Christian
communities in Pa1estine, as well as Rome‟s interest in asserting its primacy; theological and
pastoral concerns, which were well-intentioned but which resulted in increasingly narrow views
of orthodoxy and orthopraxis; as well as some outright anti-Jewish feelings.
Care must be taken in applying the term orthodoxy in this context, in order to avoid its
application in an anachronistic manner. For example, it would be inappropriate to apply modern
standards of orthodoxy to the period of the early Church covered by this investigation.
Furthermore, within the period covered by this investigation it would be equally inappropriate to
apply the standards of orthodoxy of a later period to an earlier period (e.g., the more unified
orthodoxy of the fourth century post-Nicaea Church to the diversity of the first century primitive
Church). Therefore, when the term orthodox is applied to a group in this study, it is applied in
3
That is, orthodox in all ways except for its observance of the ceremonial law.
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Jewish Christianity
context; that is, in terms of the acceptable standards of orthodoxy present in the greater Church at
the time (e.g., second century Jewish Christian groups will be evaluated against the standards of
orthodoxy of the second century Church).
Defining Jewish Christianity: A Review of the Literature
A major problem in the study of Jewish Christianity is defining the subject. Some scholars tend
to define Jewish Christianity very broadly, in primarily theological terms. For example, Danielou
speaks of Jewish Christianity as Christianity expressed in the thought forms of Judaism; in other
words, Christian groups whose theology was dependent on the theological concepts and symbols
of Judaism.4 Similarly Longenecker, following Danielou, defines as Jewish-Christian those
Christian communities which existed between 20 C.E. and 135 C.E. and which were located in
Jerusalem or considered Jerusalem to be their mother church.5 Quispel, using a similar broad
definition, classifies the beginnings of Christianity in Syria, Alexandria, and North Africa as
Jewish Christian.6 While such a broad concept of Jewish Christianity has the benefit of
demonstrating the deep roots of Christianity in the theological concepts of Judaism at the time, it
is too broad too permit any meaningful study and inevitably leads to statements such as those by
Klijn that early Christianity was a Jewish Christian phenomenon. 7 While such a statement is
undoubtedly true, it does not limit the field of study in any useful way.
Some scholars continue to use the term “Jewish Christian” in an ethnic sense although not as
frequently as in years past. Defined ethnically, a Jewish Christian is a member of the Christian
community born of Jewish parents. Harnack, for instance, took such an approach. 8 A solely
ethnic perspective, while certainly narrowing the field of study, is overly simplistic. For
example, it would be inappropriate for the proposes of this study to classify as Jewish Christian a
person who had renounced all connections to all aspects of Jewish ceremony and theology.
Schoeps and others define Jewish Christianity in terms of orthodoxy and heresy.9 This involves
taking at face value the categories imposed by the early Christian heresiologists. By this
definition, the Jewish Christians of the earliest Jerusalem church are accepted as orthodox, while
groups which appear on later lists of heresies are a priori considered heretical. Luedemann notes
that while this approach has enjoyed great popularity since the time of Eusebius, it is relatively
4
Jean Danielou, The Development of Christian Doctrine Before the Council of Nicaea, Vol.1, The Theology of
Jewish-Christianity (Chicago: Regnery, 1964), 10.
5
R. N. Longenecker, The Christology of Early Jewish Christianity (London: SCM Press, l970); quoted in G.
Luedemann, Opposition to Paul in Jewish Christianity (Philadelphia: Fortress, l989), 29.
6
Quispel, 81.
7
A. F. J. Klijn, “The Study of Jewish-Christianity,” New Testament 20 (1973/74): 426.
8
Adolf von Harnack, History of Dogma, translated by Neil Buchannan (1958). Quoted in Luedmann, 30.
9
Hans-Joachim Schoeps, Jewish-Christianity: Factional Disputes in the Early Church (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1964),
9-13.
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uncritical and seldom attempts to define the concept of Jewish Christianity in any practical
way.10
Finally, Simon, Luedemann, and others argue that Jewish Christianity should he defined
primarily in a religious sense. In this sense, Jewish Christians are considered to be those
members of the Christian Church with a commitment to the ceremonial law, regardless of their
ethnic origins.11 This approach views Jewish Christianity primarily as an anti-Pauline
movement.12 It includes per se Gentile Christians who were committed to the ceremonial law
and excludes per se those of Jewish background who were not. While this position avoids the
overly broad generalizations of Danielou‟s definition, without the gross oversimplification of a
strictly ethnic approach or the narrowness of the orthodoxy/heresy approach, it too has some
disadvantages. For one thing, Luedemann argues that the Apostle Paul should not be considered
a Jewish Christian because he did not observe the Torah in his associations with Gentiles. Yet
Paul never spoke of himself as a convert from Judaism,13 believed faith in Christ to be the true
successor of the faith of Abraham,14 may have been willing to observe the ceremonial law in his
dealings with Jews,15 and was willing to require Jewish ethics of Gentile converts.16 Therefore, it
would he inappropriate to define Jewish Christianity in a way that would exclude him. In
addition, it is not true that Jewish Christianity was a uniformly anti-Pauline phenomenon, since
(as I will argue below) at least one Jewish Christian group, the Nazarenes, did accept Paul and
10
Luedemann, 30.
11
Marcel Simon, Versus Israel: A Study of the Relations Between Christians and Jews in the Roman Empire, trans.
H. McKeating (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), 265f, 390ff; cf. Luedemann, 30.
12
Ibid, 247f. However, Simon does not claim that Jewish Christianity was univocal in its anti-Paulinism. Rather, the
tenor of each Jewish Christian group‟s anti-Paulinism was dependent on the group‟s attitude toward the Law.
13
Gal l:15ff; cf. Phil. 3:4ff. In Paul‟s own account of his coming to faith in Christ he never calls himself a proselyte
nor does he use the term conversion to describe his experience. Rather, he speaks of his experience as a calling.
Even in his letter to the Philippians, in which he accounts all of his achievements as a devout Jew as loss and
irrelevant to his salvation, he does not renounce his Jewishness or speak of himself as an ex-Jew.
14
Rom 4:1ff; cf. Patrick J. Hartin, “Jewish Christianity: Focus on Antioch in the First Century,” Scriptura 36 (1991):
50.
15
Cor. 9:19ff; cf. Acts 21:23-26; 1 Cor. 11:19ff; Gal. 2; Albrecht Ritschl, The Formation of the Old Catholic Church
(1857), quoted in Luedemann, 12-13. The Acts passage, in which Paul agrees to observe the purification rituals
while in Jerusalem, is historically problematic for the reasons mentioned above. However, in 1 Cor. 9:19ff Paul
proclaims his willingness to be as a Gentile to Gentiles and as a Jew to Jews. While this can be interpreted in other
ways, it does allow the possibility that Paul was willing to observe the law occasionally, as a means to an end:
winning Jews to Christ. Also, in I Cor. 11:19ff Paul seems to have adopted the Jewish Passover ritual as the model
for the Lord‟s Supper. On the basis of Gal. 2 it can be argued that for Paul occasionally to submit to ceremonial law,
after criticizing Peter for his inconsistency in the application of the ceremonial law, would amount to violating his
own principle. However, Ritschl argues that Paul understood the apostolic decree geographically; that is, Churches
outside of Palestine would fall under Paul‟s authority, while those inside would fall under the authority of James and
Peter. If this was the case, then Paul would have been living up to the terms of his agreement and acknowledging the
authority of James and Peter when he submitted to the purification rituals.
16
George P. Carras, “Jewish Ethics arid Gentile Converts: Remarks on 1 Thes. 4:3-8,” chap. in The Thessalonican
Correspondence, ed. Raymond F. Collins (Leuven, Belgium: Leuven University Press, 1990): 306-315.
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his Gentile mission. Finally, this perspective does not adequately represent the variety of
attitudes towards the ceremonial law by those who did observe it: those who practiced it on
certain occasions but not on others; those who observed it to honor the Jewishness of the Lord
Jesus;17 and those who viewed it as essential for salvation.
The effort to formulate a comprehensive but specific definition of Jewish Christianity seeks a
uniformity of theology and practice which did not exist at the time. Modern scholarship has
established that first century Judaism was not a monolithic movement but had a variety of
competing strands of theology and practice. It is naive to assume that the followers of Christ who
emerged from these Jewish strands would not demonstrate a similar diversity. Perhaps a more
pragmatic approach to the definition of Jewish Christianity would be most appropriate. Such an
approach would broadly recognize as Jewish Christian any group of people who considered
themselves to be Jewish and who also considered themselves to be followers of Christ. It would
then organize these groups according to appropriate subcategories: by their attitude toward
ceremonial law, Christology, etc. Such a modified ethnic definition would eliminate from study
those Gentile Christian groups who appropriated Jewish theological concepts or even ceremonial
concepts without identifying themselves as Jewish. It would also eliminate from consideration
those ethnic Jews who renounced all identification with Judaism. For example, groups like the
Nazarenes, who practiced the ceremonial law consistently (not as a legal requirement for
salvation, but to honor the Jewishness of Jesus Christ), would be considered law-observant,
orthodox Jewish Christians. Those like the Apostle Paul, who considered themselves free from
the requirements of the ceremonial law, but did not renounce their identification with Judaism,
would be considered law-free, orthodox Jewish Christians. However, groups like the Ebionites,
whose theology (I will argue below) fell outside the bounds of orthodoxy, would be considered
law-observant, heretical Jewish Christians. And the Elkesaites, who (I will argue below) adopted
some Jewish Christian ideas, but did not acknowledge Jesus as the Messiah and did not consider
themselves a part of the greater Church, would be considered to be a Jewish group, albeit a
syncretistic one; and not Jewish Christian.
Survey of Sources
The definition of the term Jewish Christian has no small impact on the issue of sources. The
modified ethnic definition of Jewish Christianity adopted by this study allows more focused
attention to be given to a more manageable number of sources associated with more closely
related groups than would be possible with Danielou‟s diffusive definition. In addition, sources
for this study are limited, for the most part, to sources which can shed light on specific, identified
Jewish Christian groups. However, some attention will be given to documents which cannot be
attributed to a specific group, but which nonetheless establish important background information
on Jewish Christianity.
17
Origen, in Matth. Comm. Ser. 79 (PD, 131).
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Biblical Sources
The term Jewish Christian is not used in the New Testament. However, the Book of the Acts of
the Apostles does provide some light on the context and origins of Jewish Christianity. The
Bible will be one of the major sources of background data for “Chapter II – Background:
Analysis of the Biblical, Archaeological, and Other Data.”
Jewish Christian Gospels and Related Documents
Jewish Christian groups left little direct literary evidence. What remains are fragments of
documents which are quoted by the Patristic authors. Jewish Christian groups produced several
non-canonical Gospels. Although these have all been referred to by the Patristic authors as the
Gospel according to the Hebrews, these are actually at least two or three different recensions of
the Gospel according to Matthew, each associated by Patristic authors with a different Jewish
Christian group.18 Not only is this evidence fragmentary, but there is also some confusion over
which document fragments should be associated with which group. Therefore, great care must be
taken in using this evidence. The Jewish Christian gospel materials will be the primary focus of
“Chapter V – The Theology of the Jewish Christians: Analysis of the Jewish Christian Gospels.”
In addition to these Gospel fragments, fragments from the Nazarene Commentary on Isaiah19 are
useful in documenting certain aspects of that group‟s theology. The Pseudo Clementine
literatures, specifically the Homilies and Recognitions, are helpful in establishing the theological
concepts of the Ebionites. Information from these sources will be included in “Chapter III – Who
Were the Jewish Christians?” and “Chapter V – Corroborating the Church Fathers.”
Other writings, which cannot be attached to a specific Jewish Christian group but which may be
used to establish characteristics of early Jewish Christianity include the Didache, the Epistle of
Barnabas, the Shepherd of Hermas, and others. Information from these sources will be found in
“Chapter II – Background: Analysis of Biblical References and Early Church Documents.”
Apologetic and Patristic Literature
Most of the information available on early Jewish Christianity comes from the Apologetic and
Patristic literature. For many reasons, great care must be taken in evaluating this information. It
is in no way comprehensive. It is not the direct product of Jewish Christian groups. Many of
these reports are not eyewitness reports but second-hand information. Not least important is the
fact that these are the reports of the winning side, those who in the end declared all Jewish
Christian groups to be heretical, and therefore may be subject to some self justification.
18
P. Vielhauer and O. Strecker, “Jewish-Christian Gospels chap. in New Testament Apocrypha. Vol. 1, Gospels and
Related Writings. ed. W. Schneemelcher (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1991) 134-178.
19
Jerome, in Esaiam in A. F. J. Klijn and G. J. Reinink, Patristic Evidence of Jewish Christian Sects. (Leidon,
Netherlands: Brill), 109, referred to in subsequent notes as PE.
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Nevertheless, they form the largest part of what limited information is available, and so they
must be used. Information from Apologetic and Patristic sources will be found primarily in
“Chapter IV – The Theology of the Jewish Christians: Analysis of the Jewish Christian
Gospels.” Some of the major writers quoted include: Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, Tertullian,
Hippolytus, Pseudo-Tertullian, Eusebius, Epiphanius, Jerome, and Augustine. Secondary studies
which were important in the development of this section include: Klijn‟s and Reinink‟s Patristic
Evidence for Jewish-Christian Sects, Pritz‟s Nazarene Jewish Christianity, Vielhauser and
Strecker‟s “Jewish Christian Gospels,” and Luedemann‟s Opposition to Paul in Jewish
Christianity.20
Jewish Talmudic Literature
A study of Jewish Christianity would not be complete without consulting early Jewish sources
for potential information, though many researchers have neglected to do so. Part of the problem
lies with the difficulty in using Talmudic texts, in any precise manner, for historical evidence. In
the case of Jewish Christianity the references are few: about a dozen Talmudic texts. Primary
sources for this data include Pritz‟s Nazarene Jewish Christianity and Schiffman‟s Who Was a
Jew?21 However, the Talmudic texts do provide some useful corroborative evidence, which is
offered in “Chapter 11 – Background: Analysis of the Biblical, Archeological, and Other Data.”
Archaeological and Historical Sources
Archeological sources provide some useful information about the prevalence and geographic
extent of Jewish Christianity in Palestine and the surrounding areas in the first four centuries –
the time period covered by this study. A primary source for this data will be Mancini‟s work
Archaeological Discoveries Relative to the Judeo-Christians,22 with some supplementary data
from other sources. This data will be covered in “Chapter II – Background: Analysis of Biblical
References and Early Church Documents” and “Chapter V: Corroborating the Church Fathers.”
Chapter V will also draw on historical data from Josephus‟ Jewish Wars.
20
Klijn and Reinink; Raymond A. Pritz, Nazarene Jewish-Christianity: From the End of the New Testament Period
Until Its Disappearance in the Fourth Century (Jerusalem, Israel: Magnes Press, 1983); Vielhauer and Strecker;
Luedemann.
21
Lawrence H. Schiffman, Who Was a Jew? Rabbinic and Halakhic Perspectives on the Jewish Christian Schism.
(Hoboken. NJ: Ktav Publishing House, 1985).
22
Mancini, Archaeology.
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CHAPTER TWO
BACKGROUND:
ANALYSIS OF BIBLICAL REFERENCES AND EARLY CHURCH DOCUMENTS
The Bible, while it provides no information on any specific Jewish Christian groups, does
provide useful background information about the context out of which Jewish Christianity and
the primitive Christian Church emerged. Similarly, analysis of early Church documents can
provide additional useful contextual information.
Biblical References
The Scriptures themselves do not shed much light on the specific subject of Jewish Christianity,
but they do provide valuable background information. The Book of the Acts records that in the
earliest days of the Church, all believers were Jews; that is, they observed the requirements of the
Jewish ceremonial law.23 In fact, until the council at Jerusalem there appeared to be an
assumption that Gentiles wishing to become followers of Jesus would have to agree first to
follow the requirements of the Jewish ceremonial law – in effect, converting to Judaism. The
council determined that Gentiles could become followers of Jesus without first becoming Jews.24
Later, a wide variety of local church communities evolved: some mixed Jew/Gentile, some
almost entirely Gentile, and some composed almost entirely of Jews. Of the Jewish believers,
many appear to have been Law-observant.25
The New Testament records several names given to the early Church: The Way, 26 Nazarenes,27
and Christians.28 In the Acts story, the prosecutor Tertullus accuses Paul of being “a ringleader
of the sect of the Nazarenes.”29 While it is possible that Tertullus could have invented the
Nazarenes for the occasion, this seems unlikely for three reasons. First, Paul does not deny that
such a sect exists.30 Second, the name Nazarene (Heb. Nozri/Norzrim) is used in some Talmudic
23
Acts 2:5ff. One would assume that they did not treat the ceremonial law as essential to salvation.
24
Acts 15:1-35; cf. Gal 2:7ff; Albrecht Ritschl, The Formation of the Old Catholic Church (1857), quoted in
Luedemann, 12-13. As previously noted, Ritschl argues that Paul understood the Apostolic decree geographically;
that is, churches outside of Palestine would fall under Paul‟s authority (and would be free from the requirement to
observe the ceremonial law), while those inside would fall under the authority of James and Peter.
25
Acts 15:1; 21:20; Gal. 2:4; 5:12.
26
Acts 9:2; 18:25,26; 19:9,23; 24:14,22; cf. Joseph A. Fitzmyer, “Jewish-Christianity in Acts in the Light of the
Qumran Scrolls,” chap. in Essays on the Semitic Background of the New Testament (London: Geoffrey Chapman,
1971): 271-304. Fitzmyer notes that the Qumran community also employed the term “The Way” as a name for itself,
so the term may have been familiar to the early Christian community.
27
Acts 24:5.
28
Acts 11:26; cf. Acts 26:28; 1 Pet. 4:16.
29
Acts 24:5; cf. Epiphanius, pan. 29.6.2 (PE, 171).
30
Acts 24:5ff; cf. Epiphanius, pan. 29.6.3-5 (PE, 171).
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Jewish Christianity
literature, in which the incidents described may have happened, as early as 110 C.E.31 Third,
several Patristic writers confirm that both the terms Nazarenes and Christians were early names
applied to the followers of Christ and that they were in use at the same time.32 Even if the
incident described in the Acts story was non-historical, the stay itself makes it clear that the term
Nazarene would have been accepted by the earliest Christians as an appropriate name for
themselves.
If this is true, then it seems quite possible that these three terms may have represented two
branches of the Church as early as 57 C.E. (the approximate date of Paul‟s trial).33 The term
“Nazarene” may have been used at first by opponents of the early Church as a derogatory term
for the Church as a whole (viewed then as a sect of Judaism). Meanwhile, Church members (all
Jewish Christians at that time) may have referred to themselves as “disciples of the Way.”
Similarly, “Christian,” a Greek name, was first used at Antioch, which was probably the first
Gentile mission. It was first used by non-believing Gentiles as a contemptuous term for followers
of Christ. It seems plausible that as the term “Christian” came to be exclusively identified with
Gentile believers, “Nazarene” would have continued to be applied in Palestine as a term for
Jewish believers in Christ.34
It should be noted here that the Book of the Acts reveals Luke‟s tendency to present a picture of
the early Church that minimizes the conflict between Paul and the other Apostles which led to
the Jerusalem Council. Acts tends to portray Paul in a Petrine manner and Peter in a Pauline
manner. Baur argues on this basis that Acts was the product of a Paulinist in Rome who wished
to minimize the differences between Peter and Paul, to defend Paul against the objections of
Jewish Christians, and to make possible a rapprochement between the Paulinist and Jewish-
Christian factions in Rome. He speculates that by the second and third generations, the various
Christian factions in Rome found themselves faced with the need to draw closer together, and
that Acts was an attempt to provide a basis for such a consensus.35
The Gospel according to Matthew provides another view into Jewish Christianity in the early
Church. There are a number of reports from the Church Fathers that the various Jewish Christian
groups used one of several different gospels which were called by the name Gospel According to
the Hebrews, each of which was related in some degree to the canonical Gospel According to
31
b Av. Zar. 16b-17a, Pritz, Nazarene, 96. Pritz dates the terminus ad quem of this text at no later than 130 C.E.,
given the appearance of R. Eliezer b. Hyrkanos, but suggests that the fact that it mentions the arrest of R. Eliezer
which occurs about 109 C.E. means the text may have originated even earlier.
32
Tertullian, adv. Marc. 4.8 (PE, 109); cf. Eusebius, onomas. (PE, 151); Epiphanius, pan. 29.1.3; 6.2ff (PE, 169);
Jerome; de situ 143 (PE, 207).
33
Cf. Pritz, Nazarene, 11ff.
34
Pritz, Nazarene, 14-15.
35
Ferdinand Baur, Paul, the Apostle of Jesus Christ: His Life and Work, His Epistles and His Doctrine, trans. A.
Menzies, quoted in Luedemann, 5-6.
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Jewish Christianity
Matthew.36 The Nazarene Jewish Christians had a gospel, written in Aramaic or Hebrew, which
(as I will demonstrate later) was very close to the canonical Matthew – so close, in fact, that
many researchers believe it originated in the same line of tradition which produced the canonical
version.37 On the other hand, the Ebionite Jewish Christians had a different gospel, written in
Greek, which was related to the canonical Mathew in some respects, but differed greatly in
others, containing some heretical material.38
Most modern commentators agree that the author of the canonical Matthew was a second
generation Jewish Christian writing around 90 C.E. in or near Antioch in Syria. This was a time
following the rabbinic reorientation of Judaism at Yavne, after which Jewish Christians had
either left or were excluded from the synagogues. The author was, in one sense, attempting to
provide his predominantly Jewish Christian community with an alternative to rabbinical
authority by portraying Jesus as the new Moses and the Church as the new Israel.39 Matthew‟s
church appears to be taking a middle ground: positioning itself as both a part of the greater
Church, by opening itself to the Gentile mission,40 while at the same time positioning the Church
as the legitimate heir to and fulfillment of God‟s promises to Israel, by emphasizing the ethical
aspects of Christianity.41 Clearly, Matthew‟s congregation expressed a tension which was
common to early Jewish Christianity: on the one hand, they considered themselves followers of
Christ, on the other hand, they believed that they remained Jews.42
Primitive Church Documents
While the work of Jean Danielou in the area of Jewish Christian theology is open to some
criticism in terns of definition and methodology,43 it does provide some illuminating insights into
the theological paradigms of the primitive Church. Danielou defined Jewish Christianity as
Christian thought expressing itself in forms borrowed from Judaism.44 By examining extant
documents from the primitive Church, he was able to learn much general information about early
Jewish Christian theological concepts. While the limitations of this study do not permit a
36
Vielhauer and Strecker, 134ff. Various authors distinguish either two or three different gospels called by this
name by the Church Fathers.
37
Vielhauer and Strecker, 157ff. Some, pointing to certain Aramaic/Hebraic expressions, take the Nazarene version
to be an earlier, more primitive version of Matthew. Most, pointing to potential textual emendations (e.g., doublings,
etc.) take it to be a later version.
38
Vielhauer and Strecker, 152ff.
39
Matt. 16:17-19; cf. 5:17-20.
40
Matt. 24:14; cf. 28:19.
41
Reginald H. Fuller, “Matthew,” in Harper‟s Bible Commentary, ed. James L Maya (San Francisco: Harper and
Row, 1988), 951.
42
This remains a tension for modern Jewish Christians, who recognize Jesus as Messiah and consider themselves
part of the Church, but do not believe that they have ceased to be Jews.
43
Luedemann, 29.
44
Danielou, 9.
17
Jewish Christianity
complete review of Danielou‟s work, a few of his findings provide useful background
information.
Clearly, Danielou‟s definition of Jewish Christianity would have included the early Christian
community in Jerusalem. Dominated by James, the brother of Jesus, and composed primarily of
ethnic Jews, it was orthodox in its Christian doctrine, but continued to follow a predominantly
Jewish lifestyle. The Jerusalem community held the most prominent position in the primitive
Church until the fall of Jerusalem in 70 C.E., and the expulsion of that community from the city.
Danielou believes that the Jewish Christians encountered in the second century by Justin and
referred to by Patristic authors as the Nazarenes are the descendants of this community.45
However, even as the stature of the predominantly Jewish Jerusalem community diminished and
such predominantly Gentile Christian communities as Rome, Alexandria, and Antioch began to
gain prominence in the late first and early second centuries, Jewish ideas and concepts continued
to have a strong influence on Christian thinking. In fact, Danielou found that the primitive
Church was so extremely dependent on Jewish theological concepts that it is impossible to define
the term Jewish Christian in any way that distinguishes it from the term Christian.46 So while
Christianity had spread across the entire Mediterranean basin by the end of the first century, and
while it was composed primarily of Gentile Christian communities, it was not until later in the
second century that these Gentile Christian communities began to reformulate their inherited
Jewish Christian theology within the Hellenistic paradigms native to their culture. 47 While
Danielou‟s approach may not be useful for focusing study on the doctrines and practices of
specific groups, it is helpful in that it demonstrates that the Christian Church in its earliest form
was a Jewish Christian phenomenon. And even when the Church had become predominantly
ethnically Gentile, it remained theologically Jewish Christian for some time.
It would be incorrect, using either Danielou‟s definition or that offered by this study, to speak of
early Jewish Christianity as a unified movement. The early writers identified a number of
different groups within Jewish Christianity, each with distinctive characteristics, but considered
45
Danielou, 8-9.
46
A. F. J. Klijn, “The study of Jewish-Christianity, New Testament 20 (1973/74): 419-431.
47
Danielou, 9-10. According to Danielou, Christianity remained a “Judaistic religion” through the middle of the
second century. The Church remained “Judaistic” in three ways. First the Church continued to use the Hebrew
Scriptures, which remained an indispensable part of the Christian heritage. Second, the earliest Church borrowed
from the thought forms of the expressions of Judaism which existed at the time (e.g., Pharisaic, Essenism, and
Zealotism) in order to express its theology. Third, the Church remained engaged in continuous and open dispute
with the “rabbinical, legalistic Judaism” which developed after the fall of Jerusalem. Judaism remained an active
influence on Christianity through the fourth century. The Haggadic literature continued to influence Christian
writers. Apologetic and Patristic authors such as Justin, Origen, and Eusebius were in contact with Jews and Jewish
literature: Justin was in contact with Trypho the Jew, Origen consulted Rabbis for exegetical advice; and Eusebius
was strongly influenced by the Haggadic literature. However, these were now minor parts of a whole that had ceased
to have an authentically Jewish character.
18
Jewish Christianity
them all related to some degree.48 It is certainly understandable that Jewish Christianity would
display a wide variety of theology and practice, since the Judaism of the time out of which it
emerged also displayed a wide variety of theology and practice. It must be assumed that Jewish
Christians who emerged from the party of the Pharisees would express their theological ideas in
ways related to the theological paradigms of the Pharisees, whether consistent with or in reaction
to those ideas. Similarly Jewish Christians who emerged from the Essene party would be
expected to show the influence of the theological paradigms of that group. And both of the above
would differ from the theological expressions of Jewish Christians emerging from the Zealot
party. In fact Danielou suggests this is exactly the case.
Thus we find Palestinian Jewish Christians of a somewhat Pharisaic and legalistic

tendency; apocalyplist and messianist groups in Asia Minor with Zealot
characteristics; Christians under Essene influence, responsible at Rome for the
Shepherd of Hermas, and at Edessa for Odes to Solomon and even a rabbinical
type in the Aramaic-speaking churches of eastern Syria.49
It is clear that the diversity within first century Jewish Christianity does, in fact, parallel the
diversity within first century Judaism.
48
Klijn and Reinink, (1973), ix.
49
Danielou, 10; cf. Acts 15:4-5; which refer to believers who were members of the party of the Pharisees.
19
Jewish Christianity
20
Jewish Christianity
CHAPTER THREE
WHO WERE THE JEWISH CHRISTIANS?
EXAMINATION OF THE CANDIDATES SUGGESTED BY THE CHURCH FATHERS
The following chapter will review the different groups identified by the Church Fathers as
Jewish Christian. It will attempt to determine which of these groups are likely actually to have
existed and which fit this study‟s definition of Jewish Christianity. It will also attempt to provide
some insights into the origin, composition, and theologies of those groups.
The Church Fathers identified several groups as being Jewish Christian. Some groups they
merely named. However, as Klijn and Reinink point out, the Church Fathers provide significant
information about five distinct groups: Cerinthians, Ebionites, Nazarenes, Symmachians, and
Elkesaites.50 In evaluating the data provided by the Church Fathers about Jewish Christians, the
reader must bear in mind that in all of these cases the Church Fathers were writing against
Jewish Christianity in order to prove it a heresy and to declare specific Jewish Christian groups
heretical. In some cases, they were justifying the determination made by earlier writers. Other
patristic authors were known to have a tendency to fabricate groups of followers around single
known heretics; invent heresiarchs from group names; or contrive links between groups (e.g. one
descending from another), in order to show a progression of heresy. 51 Therefore the patristic
information must be evaluated closely.
Cerinthians
The Cerinthians are one of several Jewish Christian groups described by the Church Fathers as
heretical. References to the Cerinthians are found in the writings of Irenaeus, Hippolytus,
Pseudo-Tertullian, Eusebius, Epiphanius, and Jerome.
The earliest reference to the Cerinthians is by Irenaeus around 190 C.E. in his work Adversus
Haeresium.52 He refers to a “certain Cerinthus,” a Jewish Christian heretic53 teaching in Asia
Minor, proclaiming that the world was not created by the “supreme God” but by an angel.
Cerinthus claimed that Jesus was not born of a virgin and that he was merely a very righteous
and wise human. Jesus and Christ were two separate entities. Christ was evidently some form of
spiritual entity – descended on Jesus in the form of a dove after baptism. Then Jesus Christ
preached the Father and performed miracles. Christ left Jesus before his passion and death. Then
50
Klijn and Reinink, ix.
51
W. Brandt, Elchasai, ein Religionstifter und sein Werk, quoted in Pritz, Nazarene, 37. Epiphanius was especially
known for this tendency.
52
adv. haer, 1.26.1 (PE, 103).
53
adv. haer, 1.26.1-2 (PE, 103ff). While Irenaeus does not explicitly call Cerinthus a Jewish Christian, he implies
this by discussing him in the context of the Ebionites.
21
Jewish Christianity
God raised Jesus from the dead.54 Later in the same document Irenaeus included Cerinthus
among those who believed that the “Creator” and the “Father” were two separate entities.55
Irenaeus placed Cerinthus as a first century contemporary and acquaintance of the Apostle
John.56 However, Irenaeus never specifically identified the Cerinthians as a Jewish Christian
group.
Hippolytus
Hippolytus (225 C.E.) was the first of the patristic authors to characterize the Cerinthus as a
Jewish Christian.57 However beyond this identification, Hippolytus added little to the
information Irenaeus provided. He merely repeated Irenaeus‟s assertions with some minor
changes apparently designed to identify the Cerinthians more closely with Gnostics.58
Pseudo-Tertullian
Pseudo-Tertullian (ca. 200/250 C.E.) attempted to establish Cerinthus as the predecessor of

Ebion. 59However, many argue that this is doubtful, since most early Christian writers suggested
direct linkages between similar heresies, whether or not they had solid evidence of such
linkages.60
Eusebius
Eusebius (ca. 320 C.E.) also gives little new information, except to state that the Cerinthians
existed at the same time as the Ebionites.61
Epiphanius
Epiphanius (ca. 376 C.E.) associates Cerinthus with Judaism, on the basis of his saying that the
law and the prophets were given by angels.62 Klijn and Reinink note that Epiphanius accused
Cerinthus of causing confusion in the Church of Antioch by saying Gentiles should be
circumcised,63 turning the Jews in Jerusalem against Paul,64 and being one of the “pseudo-
apostles” described by Paul.65 Epiphanius reconciled the apparent differences between Judaism
54
adv. haer. 1.26.1 (PE, 103).
55
adv. haer. 3.11.2 (PE, 105). This group would have included Marionettes and Gnostics, among others.
56
adv. haer. 3.3.4 (PE, 105).
57
ref. Prol. 7.7-9 (PE, 111).
58
ref. 733.1-2 (PE, 111-112); 10.21.1-3 (PE, 121).
59
adv. omn. haer. 3 (PE, 123).
60
Pritz, Nazarene, 37.
61
hist. eccl. 3.28.1 (PE, 141).
62
Klijn and Reinink, 9; cf. pan. 28.1.3 (PE, 163).
63
Klijn and Reinink, 9; cf. pan. 28.2.3 (PE, 163); Acts 14:24.
64
Klijn and Reinink, 9; cf. pan. 28.4.1 (PE, 165); Acts 21:28.
65
Klijn and Reinink, 9; cf. pan. 28.4.1-2 (PE, 165); 2 Cor. 11:13.
22
Jewish Christianity
and. Cerinthian Gnosticism by claiming that Cerinthus‟ Gnostic doctrines were a later
development.
Epiphanius noted that like the Ebionites, the Cerinthians used an edited Gospel of Matthew.
However, unlike the Ebionites, who (as I will later show) removed Jesus‟ genealogies, the
Cerinthians did not remove Jesus‟ genealogy because they believed that it proved Jesus was the
son of Joseph and Mary.66 They believed that Christ had not yet been raised but would rise with
the general resurrection.67 In addition, they rejected the authority of the Apostle Paul.68
Apparently Epiphanius had little direct knowledge of the Cerinthians. He appears to have
attached to them a number of heretical ideas, which were prevalent in Asia Minor.69
Jerome
Jerome, writing in the late fourth and early fifth centuries, mentions the Cerinthians briefly,70 but
appears to know nothing beyond an association with Ebion.
Beyond establishing the fact that Cerinthus was a first-century Jewish Christian heretic in Asia
Minor, there seems to be little of historical value for the study of Jewish Christianity in the early
Christian writings. The earliest writers seemed to know of no group by the name, but only
Cerinthus himself. The information describing Cerinthian beliefs is contradictory. Klijn and
Reinink argue that most of the claims advanced by the Church Fathers in regard to the
Corinthians as a group appear to be mere speculations.71
Ebionites
Another group described as Jewish Christian by the Church Fathers was the Ebionites. The
Ebionites are mentioned by the Church Fathers more frequently than any other group. Patristic
information on the Ebionites comes from the following authors: Irenaeus, Tertullian, Hippolytus,
Origen Eusebius, Epiphanius, and Jerome, as well as other, non-contemporary writers.
The first written reports specifically mentioning the sect of Ebionites were written by Irenaeus
(ca. 190 C.E.). Irenaeus compared the Ebionites to the Cerinthians, noting that the Ebionites
differed from the Cerinthians in their view of creation, holding that the world was created by
God, rather, than some secondary demiurge.72 The Ebionites also believed that Jesus was merely
66
Klijn and Reinink, 10; cf. 30.14.2 (PE, 181).
67
pan. 28.6.1 (PE, 165-166).
68
pan. 28.5.3 (PE, 165).
69
Klijn and Reinink, 12.
70
adv. Luc. 23 (PE, 203); epist. 112.13 (PE. 201); in Matth. praef. (PE, 215); de vir. ill. 9 (PE, 211).
71
72
Klijn and Reinink, 19; cf. adv. haer. 1.26.2 (PE, 103-104).
23
Jewish Christianity
the son of Joseph and Mary,73 rather than of the Holy Spirit and Mary. Therefore, Irenaeus
concluded that the Ebionites could not be saved, because (1) they did not believe that God
became man in Jesus Christ and (2) they rejected the virgin birth.74 The Ebionites used only the
Gospel of Matthew.75 They repudiated Paul as an apostate from the Law.76 From Irenaeus‟
comments, it would appear that the Ebionites celebrated the Eucharist with water, rather than
wine.77 Finally, Irenaeus noted that the Ebionites practiced circumcision, persevered in the
customs ground in the Law, and practiced a Jewish way of life, even adoring Jerusalem as if it
were the house of God.78
Tertullian
Tertullian (ca. 200 C.E.) was the first to suggest that a person named Ebion actually existed.79
Tertullian suggested that John 1:14 (“and the Word became flesh and dwelt among us...”) was
written against Ebion.80 Tertullian confirms that the Ebionites believed that Jesus was a mere
man81 and that they rejected Jesus‟ virgin birth,82 as well as his resurrection.83 He also confirms
that they defended circumcision and the Law.84
Hippolytus
Hippolytus (225 C.E.) confined his remarks primarily to Ebionite theology and Christology. He
also considered Ebion to be a real person85 and restated previous writers‟ assertions that
Ebionites believed that the world was made by the true God (as opposed to a lesser demiurge).86
He adds that they believed that they were “justified according to the Law.”87 They believed Jesus
was a man like others, justified by practicing the Law, and was called the Christ because he was
the only human to have ever kept the Law perfectly. If any other had kept the Law perfectly, he
would have been the Christ. Therefore, they believed they also could become Christs.88
73
Klijn and Reinink, 20; cf. adv. haer. 3.21.1 (PE, 107).
74
Klijn and Reinink, 20; cf. adv. haer. 4.33.4 (PE , 107); 5.1.3 (PE, 107).
75
adv. haer. 1.26.2 (PE 105); 3.11.7 (PE, 105f).
76
adv. haer. 1.76.2 (PE, 105); 3.11.7 (PE, 105f).
77
adv. haer. 5.1.3 (PE, 107).
78
adv. haer. 1.26.2 (PE, 105).
79
de praesc. 32.3-5 (PE, 107f); 33.11 (PE, 108).
80
de carne 24 (PE, 111).
81
de carne 14, 18 (PE, 109f); de praesc. 33.11 (PE, 109).
82
de virg. vel. 6.1 (PE, 109).
83
de praesc. 32.3.5 5 (PE, 107f).
84
de praesc. 33.3-5 (PE, 108).
85
ref. 7.35.1-2 (PE, 113).
86
ref. 7.34.1 (PE, 113).
87
ref. 7.34.1 (PE, 113).
88
ref. 7.34.1-2 (PE, 113). Note the similarity to the modern theology of the Church of Latter Day Saints (Mormon).
24
Jewish Christianity
Origen
Origen mentioned the Ebionites in several documents written between 225 and 250 C.E. He
repeated assertions of earlier writers that the Ebionites rejected the virgin birth,89 observed the
Law90 and circumcision,91 and rejected Paul.92
Origen was the first to note that the Ebionites observed Faster on the Jewish Passover as away of
imitating Christ,93 and that they believed that Jesus was sent only to the lost sheep of Israel. 94 He
described a Gospel according to the Hebrews, which was an edited form of the Gospel according
to Matthew, and quotes from it several times in various documents.95 However, it is not clear
whether he was ascribing these texts to the Ebionites or to some other Jewish Christian sect. In
fact, Klijn and Reinink argue that the Gospel according to the Hebrews quoted by Origen should
not be ascribed to the Ebionites, as it contains ideas dissimilar to those of the Ebionites.96
Elsewhere Origen notes that there were “two kinds of Ebionites, some confessing that Jesus was
born of a virgin as we do and others who deny this but say that he was born like other people.”97
I will argue later that one of the “Two kinds of Ebionites” mentioned by Origen are, in fact,
Nazarenes, and that the texts quoted by Origen belong to their version of the Gospel according to
the Hebrews.
In documents written between 321 and 323 C.E., Eusebius provides some additional information
on the Ebionites. According to Eusebius, the Ebionites lived in the village of Chooba (a.k.a.
Kochaba), which was east of the Jordan.98 Like Origen, he also makes reference to two groups of
Ebionites, one heretical and one relatively orthodox. The first group believed that Jesus was a
mere man, born of Joseph and Mary, justified by his observance of the Law.99 They believed that
people could not be saved by faith alone but that salvation required observance of Law.100 They
rejected Paul as an apostate from the Law and did not accept his epistles.101 They used only the
Gospel of the Hebrews and little else.102 They celebrated both the Jewish Sabbath and the Lord‟s
Day.103 According to Eusebius, the other, apparently more orthodox group of Ebionites “avoided
89
in epist. ad Titum 3:11 (PE, 133); hom. in Luc. 17 (PE, 127).
90
in epist. ad Rom. 3.11 (PE, 133); c. Celsum 2.1 (PE, 135); in Matth. 16.12 (PE, 129f).
91
hom. in Gen. 3.5 (PE, 127).
92
hom in Jer. 19.12 (PE, l27); c. Celsum 5.65 (PE, 135).
93
in Matth. Comm. ser. 79 (PE, 1310).
94
De princ. 4.3.8 (PE, 125); cf. Matt. 10:6.
95
in Joh, 2.12 (PE, 127); in Matth. 15.14 (PE, 129); cf. hom. in Jer. 15.4 (PE, 127).
96
97
c. Celsum. 5.61 (PE, 135); cf. 5.65; in.Matth. 16.12 (PE. 131).
98
Onomas. 172.1-3 (PE. 151).
99
hist. eccl. 327.2 (PE, 141).
100
hist. eccl. 327.2 (PE, 141).
101
hist. eccl. 3.27.4 (PE, 141).
102
hist. eccl. 3.27.4 (PE, 141).
103
hist. eccl. 3.27.5 (PE, 141).
25
Jewish Christianity
the absurdity of the former and did not deny that the Lord was born of a virgin and the Holy
Spirit.”104
Eusebius spoke of two gospels used among Jewish Christians. One of these was the
aforementioned Gospel of the Hebrews.105 The other gospel, which he does not name, was
written in Syriac or Aramaic and used among Jews who believed in Christ, but not by any
particular sect.106
Epiphanius (ca. 376 C.E.) provided new information on the origins of the Ebionites. According
to Epiphanius, the Ebionites originated at the time of the destruction of Jerusa1em. 107 “All those
who believed in Christ (Jewish Christians) had generally come...to Pella of the Decapolis” where
they became the Nazarenes (another Jewish Christian group which will be discussed below).
Ebion joined the Nazarenes there but eventually moved to Kochaba. 108 Living in close proximity
to the Nazarenes, the Ebionites had some interaction with them, the extent of which Epiphanius
does riot make clear.109 According to Epiphanius the Ebionites eventually settled in a number of
areas, including Nabataea, Paneas, Moabitis, Kochaba, and Adraa. From there, they eventually
moved to Asia, Rome, and Cyprus.110
As to Ebionite beliefs, Epiphanius repeated earlier writers‟ assertions that the Ebionites used an
edited version of the Gospel according to Matthew which he said they called the Gospel
according to the Hebrews,111 but he provided more information about its contents. The Ebionites
claimed that the Holy Spirit “entered into” Jesus at his baptism, indicating a potentially
adoptionistic belief that Jesus did not become Christ into his baptism.112 Epiphanies noted that
their gospel also omitted the genealogy of Jesus, which Epiphanius interpreted as a rejection of
virgin birth.113
The Ebionites apparently rejected the eating of meat, since their gospel portrayed many major
characters as vegetarians. John the Baptist rejects the eating of meat (e.g., locusts are omitted
from his diet).114 At the Last Supper Jesus wonders if he should eat meat.115 Peter was also
described as a vegetarian.116
104
hist. eccl. 3.27.3 (PE, 141).
105
hist. eccl. 3.25.5 (PE, 139).
106
theo. (PE, 149).
107
pan. 30.2.7-9 (PE, 177).
108
pan. 30.2.7-9 (PE, 177).
109
pan. 30.2.9 (PE, 177).
110
pan. 30.18.1 (PE, 187).
111
pan. 30.3.7 (PE, 179).
112
pan. 30.13.1 (PE, 181). This would not by itself constitute proof of adoptionistic beliefs. However, elsewhere
Epiphanius indicates that the Ebionites believed that Jesus become the Christ through his work.
113
pan. 30.13.6 (PE, 181).
114
pan. 30.14.4 (PE, 181).
26
Jewish Christianity
In addition to the Gospel of the Hebrews, the Ebionites also used other books such as the “so-
called Periodi of Peter, which were written by Clement, but they corrupted the contents leaving
not much that is true.”117 This would indicate some association between the Ebionites and the
writers of the Pseudo-Clementine literature, but the exact relationship is not made clear.118
Epiphanius described Ebionite Christological beliefs as confused,119 in large part because of the
influence of Elxai (the purported leader of the Elkesaites, another group identified as Jewish
Christian by the Church Fathers, to be discussed below).120 Examples of Elxai‟s influence on
Ebionite thinking included the following Christological conceptions:121 (1) Adam was Christ; (2)
Jesus was a man on whom Christ descended and (3) Christ was a spirit, the first creation, the
Lord of the angels, who entered into Adam and into the patriarchs, again assumed the form of
Adam (Jesus) was crucified and returned to heaven.122 It was on the basis of such beliefs as the
above that Epiphanius attempted to link the Ebionites to the Cerinthians. He noted that the
Ebionites forbade the eating of meat.123 He repeated earlier writers‟ contentions that the
Ebionites adhered to Judaism, lived according to the Law, kept the Sabbath, practiced
circumcision,124 and rejected Paul.125
The question must be raised as to the sources of Epiphanius‟ information regarding the
Ebionites. Was it the result of firsthand knowledge of the sect, or did he obtain the information
from other sources? If it was from other sources, were those sources contemporary? The answers
to these questions cannot be established firmly. Many researchers believe that Epiphanius did not
have first hand contact with the Ebionites126 and that most of what he wrote about the Ebionites
he drew from written sources.127 Epiphanius appears to have drawn, in large part on the works of
Irenaeus and Hippolytus,128 dating from about190 C.E. and 225 C.E., respectively.129 Another
was the so-called Gospel of the Ebionites, along with some other Ebionite materials, which may
or may not have been contemporaneous.130 On the other hand, some of Epiphanius‟ material –
information which appears to have been current in the Jewish Christian communities of his day –
115
pan. 30.22.3-5 (PE, 189).
116
pan. 15.1.3 (PE, 183).
117
pan. 30.15.1 (PE, 183).
118
119
pan. 30.3.1 (PE, 177).
120
pan. 30.3.2 (PE, 177).
121
pan. 30.3.5-6 (PE, 178).
122
cf. pan. 30.14.2 (PE, 181); 30.16.3 (PE, 183); 30.18.5 (PE, 187).
123
pan. 30.15.3 (PE, 183).
124
pan. 30.2.2 (PE, 175f).
125
pan. 30.16.8-9 (PE, 185).
126
Klijn and Reinink, 38; Pritz, Nazarene, 30.
127
128
129
Klijn and Reinink, 103, 110.
130
27
Jewish Christianity
appears to have passed to him orally.131 In addition, during portions of his life he was in a
position to come into contact with Jewish Christians and others who might have had first hand
knowledge of Ebionites. Epiphanius was born in Judea, and lived and traveled in the Middle East
for many years, finally moving to Rome in 382 C.E. His native tongue was Syrian, and he also
had some knowledge of Hebrew.132 He spoke of the Ebionites in the present tense, as though
they still existed in his day, making it is possible, though not certain, that they did.
Jerome
Jerome added nothing to what earlier writers stated about the Ebionites. He spoke of them only
in the most general terms and appeared to know no clear distinction between the Ebionites and
the Nazarenes.133
Conclusions
The largely coherent portrait of the Ebionites provided by the Church Fathers establishes the
existence of the Ebionites (and perhaps some related groups) from as early as the middle of the
first century to perhaps as late as the end of the fourth century. They were apparently a law-
observant Jewish Christian group which held heretical Christological beliefs and which rejected
the authority of the Apostle Paul and most of the scriptures. In addition, Epiphanius connects
them with the writers of the Pseudo-Clementines, a connection accepted by most researchers.134
The application of the term Ebionite to all Jewish Christians, as seen in Origen, Eusebius, and
Epiphanius, was typical of the confusion and ambivalence of the orthodox Church regarding
Jewish Christianity and of the previously mentioned tendency of the Church Fathers, especially
Epiphanius, to fabricate links between similar heresies. According to Origen and Eusebius there
were two kinds of Ebionites, one of which apparently was relatively orthodox. I will argue below
that based on their descriptions of the theology and Christology of this second kind of “Ebionite”
Origen and Eusebius may have mistakenly labeled as Ebionite a separate and distinct group of
Jewish Christians known as the Nazarenes.
Nazarenes
The Nazarenes were not named in the Patristic literature until 374 C.E., when Epiphanius
mentioned them in the Ancoratus135 and later (ca. 276 C.E.) described them in the Panarion.
However, although the earlier writers Origen and Eusebius had not mentioned the Nazarenes by
name, they did describe a second kind of “Ebionite” group: a more orthodox group with
131
132
133
epist. 112.13 (PE, 201).
134
Klijn and Reinink, 31f.
135
anacor. 13.3 (PE, 155).
28
Jewish Christianity
Christology and practices close to what Epiphanius attributed to the Nazarenes. Justin Martyr,
writing even earlier, mentions neither Ebionites nor Nazarenes, by name, but does describe two
Jewish Christian factions similar to them.
Justin Martyr
In his Dialogue with Trypho the Jew, written after 150 C.E., Justin refers to Jewish Christians, or
as he calls them, “those who wish to observe such institutions as were given by Moses...along
with their hope in Christ...yet choose to live with the Christians and the faithful.” He allows that
Jewish Christians may practice the ceremonial law without detriment to their salvation as long as
they do not attempt to convince Gentile converts that they must follow the law.136 At the same
time he also condemns those who do not accept Christ‟s divinity.137 Justin‟s use of the present
tense in these comments shows that by the middle of the second century there were still Jewish
Christians of at least two sorts, at least one of which was relatively orthodox by Justin‟s
standards. Clearly, Jewish Christians were active in evangelistic efforts, even among the
Gentiles. Some attempted to persuade Gentiles to keep the Law, while others did not. Also, some
denied the virgin birth of Jesus, while others appeared to vary from orthodoxy only in their
keeping of the Law. For Justin, following the ceremonial law was only a danger if it led a person
to return to normative Judaism and reject Jesus as the Messiah.138 Justin saw following the
Jewish rituals as ineffective, but not sinful or heretical. While acknowledging that some of his
contemporaries condemned such people, Justin holds that “we ought to join ourselves to such,
and associate with them in all things as kinsmen and brethren.”139
Origen
Writing around 250 C.E., Origen observed two different kinds of Ebionites, describing them as
follows:
Let it be admitted, moreover, that there are some [Jews] who accept Jesus, and
who boast on that account of being Christians, and yet would regulate their lives,
like the Jewish multitudes, in accordance with the Jewish Law, – and these are the
twofold sect of the Ebionites, who either acknowledge with us that Jesus was born
of a virgin, or deny this, and maintain that he was begotten like other human.140
Origen‟s description again reveals two types of “Ebionites:” one which denied Jesus‟ divinity;
another which held to the orthodox position regarding Christ‟s divinity. Some suggest that the
later group of Ebionites may not be Ebionites at all but a separate and distinct Jewish Christian
136
Dial. 47.1f, in Pritz, Nazarene, 20.
137
Dial. 48, in Pritz, Nazarene, 20.
138
Dial. 47.4ff, in Pritz, Nazarene, 20.
139
Dial. 47, in Pritz, Nazarene, 20.
140
c. Celsum 5.61 (PE, 135).
29
Jewish Christianity
group called Nazarenes.141 This suggestion is supported by the fact that the beliefs described
above are consistent with those later attributed to the Nazarenes by Epiphanius. In other texts,
Origen seems to be confusing the two groups. Observing that the Ebionites self-described
motivation for observing the Law was to be “imitators of Christ,” he notes that this is
inconsistent with their heretical beliefs.142 In fact, such a motivation would be more consistent
with Nazarene beliefs than with those of the Ebionites.143 In any case, one can see in the above
texts the beginnings of a tendency to lump together arid confuse different Law-observant Jewish
Christian sects under the catch-all term Ebionite, a tendency which would only grow more
pronounced over time.144
Writing in 324, Eusebius again noted two kinds of Ebionites. One group held Christ “to be a
plain and ordinary man who had achieved righteousness merely by the progress of his character
and had been born naturally from Mary and her husband.”145 This group “insisted on the
complete observation of the Law, and did not think that they would be saved by faith in
Christ…”146 The other group “did not deny that the Lord was born of a virgin and the Holy
Spirit.”147
Eusebius was the first to describe the departure of Jewish Christians from Jerusalem to Pella of
Perea (in the area known as the Decapolis), after being warned by a revelation about its coming
destruction.148 Presumably, Eusebius thought this group to be orthodox at the time of their
departure from Jerusalem, since he speaks of them as “people of the Church” of Jerusalem who
“believed in Christ.” In addition, Klijn and Reinink argue that none of the Church Fathers of the
time would have allowed that heretics might receive a revelation from God. 149 Eusebius‟
comments certainly establish that at least two groups of Jewish Christians continued to exist in
his time. If the second of these groups is taken to be the Nazarenes, as the idea suggests, and as
many researchers believe, then Eusebius documents the existence of the Nazarenes into at least
the early fourth century.150
141
142
Origen, in Matth. Comm. Ser 79 (PE, 131).
143
Epiphanius, pan. 29.7.2 (PE, 173); cf. 1 Cor. 11; Eph. 5:1; 1 Thess. 1:6. As described below, Epiphanius noted
that the Nazarenes accepted the letters of the Apostle Paul, while the Ebionites rejected them. Therefore, it seems
unlikely that the Ebionites would have used such a characteristically Pauline phase as “imitators of Christ.” The
most likely explanation is that Origen has confused the two groups and mistakenly attributed this motivation to the
Ebionites.
144
145
hist. eccl. 3.27.2 (PE, 141).
146
hist. eccl. 3.27.2 (PE, 141).
147
hist. eccl. 3.27.3 (PE, 141).
148
hist. eccl. 3.5.3 (PE, 141).
149
150
Pritz, Nazarene, 28; Joseph A. Fitzmyer, “The Qumran Scrolls, the Ebionites and Their Literature,” Theological
Studies 16(3), (1955): 341-342.
30
Jewish Christianity
The first and most extensive description of the Nazarenes by name was written by Epiphanius in
the Panarion (a.k.a. Refutation of All Heresies), which was written about 376 C.E. Epiphanius
gives several pieces of information about a group of people who call themselves the Nazarenes,
although he notes that “all Christians were called Nazarenes once.”151 The Nazarenes existed
from the earliest days of Christianity.152 They had their origin from the Jerusalem congregation
of Jewish disciples which fled to Pella of the Decapolis before 70 C.E., guided by a revelation of
Christ which warned them of its coming siege. (He considered them to be still orthodox at the
time of their departure.153) Some had already left Jerusalem following Jesus‟ Ascension and were
called Iessaeans for a short period of time.154 He also noted that their geographic location in Pella
placed them in close proximity to the Ebionites.155 (This close geographic proximity might
explain why the two groups were frequently confused by Patristic writers.) By the year 129 C.E.,
according to Epiphanius, the Nazarenes (or at least a significant number of them) returned to
Jerusalem, where they “performed great signs,” and because of them others were “prodded” in
their minds and “believed in Christianity.”156 Their evangelistic activities were directed towards
their Jewish brothers and sisters in the synagogues, and this created a great deal of animosity
toward them among the Jewish leadership. Epiphanius noted that they were hated by the Jews
and cursed in the synagogues three times a day.157 By Epiphanius‟ time they had settled in the
areas of Pella, Kochaba, and Coele in Syria.158
Epiphanius attempted to make a connection between the Nazarenes and both the Elkesaites and
the Ebionites. He claimed that the Nazarenes were joined by Elxai and later adopted his book.159
He also claimed that Ebion came out of them.160 These last statements are problematic. There is
considerable doubt among scholars whether an actual person turned Elxai ever existed, or
whether there was only a Book of Elxai (Heb. for “hidden power”) and he was merely a
convenient creation.161 There is near unanimous agreement among scholars that the Christology
of the Nazarenes was so different from that of the Elkesaites that it would have bean unlikely
that the Nazarenes would ever have adopted the Book of Elxai.162 Elkesaite Christology was
151
pan. 29.1.3 (PE, 169).
152
pan. 29.1.1 (PE, 169).
153
pan. 29.7.8 (PE, 173); cf. hist. eccl. 3.5.3 (PE, 139); Klijn and Reinink, 45. As mentioned previously Klijn and
Reinink argue that Epiphanius would not have allowed that heretics would have received a revelation: certainly not a
revelation from Christ.
154
pan. 29.5.4 (PE, 169).
155
pan. 30.2.8 (PE, 177).
156
Weights 14-15, in Craig Koester “The Origin and Significance of the flight to Pella Tradition,” Catholic Bible
Quarterly 51(1989): 93.
157
pan. 29.9.2-3 (PE, 173ff).
158
pan. 29.7.7 (PE, 173).
159
pan. 19.1.4 (PE, 155); 19.4.1. (PE, 161); cf. 53.1.3 (PE, 195).
160
pan. 30.2.1 (PE, 175).
161
162
31
Jewish Christianity
more Pythagorean in nature, including concepts (e.g., reincarnation) foreign to the Nazarenes. 163
Epiphanius was known for his attempts to develop a line of succession from heresy to heresy,
with each outdoing the last. Hence, he may have been trying in this case to lump Jewish
Christian groups together despite the lack of evidence to support such a theory.164
There is also considerable doubt as to the historicity of a person named Ebion.165 Irenaeus, who
was the first to mention the Ebionites, appeared to know only the group name, which is Hebrew
for “poor.”166 On the other hand, even if the person of Ebion may not be historical, it is likely
that the comment that “Ebion came out of them” does reflect an actual event. Pritz argues that at
the time of the Fall of Jerusalem, only one group of Jewish Christians left Jerusalem for Pella:
the group with would eventually be called Nazarenes. In Pella, some time in the second century,
the Nazarenes suffered some schism in their number, probably over Christology, and the group
that would become the Ebionites broke off from the Nazarenes and moved to a nearby village. If
the Ebionites did break off from the Nazarenes and lived in close geographic proximity to them,
this would tend to account for the Church Fathers confusion between the two sects.167
Epiphanius also commented on the beliefs of the Nazarenes. They observed the Law of Moses,
but differed from other Jews in that they accepted Christ.168 They used both the Old Testament
and the New Testament, including the writings of Paul.169 They had a good knowledge of
Hebrew and read the Old Testament and at least one Gospel (Matthew) in Hebrew.170
Apparently, this gospel was a different version than the Gospel according to the Hebrews, which
was used by the Ebionites, in that Epiphanius is unaware of any heretical notions contained in
it.171 They believed in one God, who was the creator of all things, and his son Jesus Christ.172
Epiphanius was uncertain whether the Nazarenes accepted the virgin birth of Jesus, because he
did not know whether their gospel contained Jesus‟ genealogy.173 They did believe in the
resurrection of the dead.174
It is important to ask how much credibility can be given to Epiphanius‟ accounts of the
Nazarenes. Epiphanius was known for constructing links between heretical sects where no such
163
cf. Hippolytus, refut. omn. haer. 9.14.1 (PE, 117).
164
165
166
adv. haer. 1.26.2 (PE, 105); 3.11.7 (PE, 105); 3.21,1 (PE, 107); 4.33.4 (PE, 107); 5.1.3 (PE, 107).
167
168
pan. 29.7.5 (PE, 173).
169
pan. 29.7.2 (PE, 173).
170
pan. 29.7.4 (PE, 173); 29.9.4 (PE, 175).
171
pan. 29.9.4 (PE, 175).
172
pan. 29.7.3-4 (PE, 173).
173
pan. 29.7.6 (PE, 173); cf. 29.9.4 (PE, 175).
174
pan. 29.7.4 (PE, 173).
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Jewish Christianity
links existed.175 Indeed, most of Epiphanius‟ links between Jewish Christian groups have been
discounted above. The proposed split-off of the Ebionites from the Nazarenes appears to be the
only likely historical link. Epiphanius was also known for citing only evidence which supported
his own viewpoints.176 However, in this case, since Epiphanius‟ intentions were to declare the
Nazarenes heretical on the basis of their observance of the ceremonial law, one would have to
give more credence to Epiphanies observations of an otherwise orthodox theology, since such
observations would not tend to advance his case. Finally, most researchers believe that
Epiphanius had little direct contact with the Nazarenes, deriving most of his information from
secondary sources.177 However, at several times in his life Epiphanius was in a position to come
into contact with people who would have been in contact with the Nazarenes, having been born
in Judea and having traveled in the Middle East.178 Indeed, Pritz argues that some of Epiphanius‟
knowledge would have been much more likely to come from Nazarene or Ebionite sources than
from secondary documents within the greater Church.179
Filaster
Filaster was notable more for what he did not say about the Nazarenes than for what he did say.
A contemporary of Epiphanius, he wrote an extensive compendium of heretical groups in about
385 C.E. which conspicuously omitted the Nazarenes.180 This suggests that Filaster did not agree
that the Nazarenes were heretical or else was unaware of them. In either case, it would seem that
up until the time of Epiphanius the Nazarenes were orthodox enough to escape the notice of the
heresiologists and that Epiphanius took it upon himself to include them in his own list of
heresies.181
Jerome
It is possible that Jerome may have at least had contact with individuals who themselves were in
direct contact with the Nazarenes. Writing in 392 C.E., he claimed to have seen and received
permission to make a copy of their Gospel of Matthew, which was written in “Hebrew letters.”182
Elsewhere he called this same text the Gospel according to the Hebrews and noted that it was
written in Syriac (Aramaic).183 However, it is obviously different from the gospel of the same
175
176
177
178
179
180
Pritz, Nazarene, 71; cf. div. haer. liber. 36, 37, 50, 57 (PE, 233). Filaster mentions the Cerinthians, the Ebionites,
and the Symmachians, but not the Nazarenes. Pritz argues that this omission is especially significant in view of the
fact that Filaster was so rigid in his orthodoxy that he condemned even those groups which disagreed with the
church on the fixed positions of the stars in the heavens.
181
182
de vir. ill. 3 (PE, 211).
183
adv. Paleg. 3.2 (PE, 227f).
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Jewish Christianity
name used by the Ebionites, containing none of the heretical ideas of the Ebionite version.184
Klijn and Reinink note that if this was the same gospel to which Hegesipus referred, then the
Nazarenes must have originated among Palestinian Jewish Christians at a very early date.185 If
Jerome‟s claim to have seen and copied the Nazarene Gospel were true, he would have to have
done this during the several years that he resided in the wilderness of Chalcis ad Belum near
Beroea starting around 375 C.E.186 Jerome listed Beroea as a home for some of the Nazarenes,
but noted that they could also be found “in all the synagogues of the East among the Jews.”187
Living near Beroea, Jerome would have been well situated to learn about them by interacting
with those who did have a firsthand knowledge of them.188 Klijn and Reinink note that Jerome
records that he was taught Hebrew by a Jewish Christian during those years in the desert, and it
is possible that this person could have been from Beroea.189 On the other hand, they argue that
Jerome contradicted himself on a major Christological point in two separate descriptions of the
Nazarenes and they suggest that this raises doubts about his claims of personal contact with the
Nazarenes.190 Fritz, while arguing convincingly against Klijn and Reinink‟s contention that the
two texts in question are contradictory, nonetheless agrees with their assertion that he was
unlikely to have had direct personal contact with the Nazarenes.191 Still, the fact that Jerome
writes of the Nazarenes in the present tense and was well placed to interact with those who were
in contact with them indicates that they may well have remained in existence through at least the
end of the fourth century or the beginning of the fifth.192
Commenting on the beliefs of the Nazarenes, Jerome recorded that they used both the Old
Testament and the New Testament, including the writings of Paul.193 They accepted Paul as an
Apostle, as well as his mission to the Gentiles, and did not believe that obedience to the Law was
184
adv. Paleg. 3.2 (PE, 227).
185
186
Pritz, Nazarene, 49; Klijn and Reinink, 47. Pritz argues for a two-year period starting in 375 C.E. Klijn and
Reinink argue for a five-year period starting in 374 C.E.
187
de. vir. ill. 3 (PE, 211).
188
189
Klijn and Reinink, 47; cf. epist. 125.12.1 (PE, 203).
190
Klijn and Reinink, 47; cf. in Matth. 13.53-54 (PE, 217); epist. 112.13 (PE, 201), Klijn and Reinink suggest that in
the first document, written in 398 C.E., Jerome implied that the Nazarenes rejected the virgin birth (“Strange
stupidity of the Nazarenes! They wonder whence wisdom possessed wisdom and power possessed powers, but their
obvious error is that they looked only on the son of the carpenter.”). However, in the second text, written in 404
C.E., Jerome clearly stated that they accepted the virgin birth.
191
Pritz, Nazarene, 54; cf. in Matth. 13.53-54 (PE, 217); epist. 112.13 (PE, 201). Fritz argues that Jerome‟s
comments about the Nazarene error of looking “only at the son of the carpenter” is not a reference to Nazarene
Christology. Rather, he argues that it is Jerome‟s commentary on Matt. 13:53-58 in which Jesus returns to his own
country (Nazareth) and is rejected by the people there. In other words, Jerome is using the term Nazarenes to refer to
the people of the town of Nazareth.
192
193
in Esaiam 9.1 (PE, 223).
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Jewish Christianity
required of them.194 In 404 C.E. he wrote “they believe in Christ, the Son of God, born of Mary
the Virgin, and they say about him that he suffered under Pontius Pilate and rose again” (note the
similarities to the Nicene creedal formulation).195 Discussing their commentary on Isaiah, Jerome
cited “this passage from the Gospel read by the Nazarenes, which was written in the Hebrew
language: „The whole fountain of the Holy Spirit came upon him‟ (Jesus) at his baptism.”196 He
recorded that they observed the Law,197 that they had a gospel in Hebrew,198 and that they
accepted apostolic authority and called their Jewish brethren to “turn to him [Christ] and his
Apostles.”199
Jerome also provided information on the Nazarenes‟ relationship with the developing
communities of Rabbinic Judaism. Citing passages from the Nazarene commentary on Isaiah, he
noted that they were cursed in the synagogues.200 The Nazarenes interpreted Isaiah 29:17-21 as a
prophecy against the Scribes and Pharisees, and accused the Scribes and Pharisees of making
“men sin against the Word of God in order that they should deny the Son of God.”201 On Isaiah
31:6-9, Jerome writes: “The Nazarenes understand this passage in this way: O sons of Israel,
who deny the Son of God with such hurtful resolution.”202 They rejected the authority of
Pharisaic scholars to interpret scripture definitively. 203 They rejected the Mishnah (oral tradition)
as binding on themselves or any Jew.204 Also, on Isaiah 8:14, he notes their condemnation of
Shammai and Hillel, and those who followed after then, including Akiba.205 This indicates
continuing contact between the Nazarenes and the formative communities of Rabbinic Judaism
through at least the middle of the second century.
194
195
epist. 112.13 (PE, 201).
196
in Esaiam 11.1-3 (PE, 223). The precise meaning of the term “fountain” is unclear, but does demonstrate at least
a primitive concept of the Holy Spirit
197
in Esaiam 8.11-15 (PE, 221); in Hiez. 16.16 (PE, 227); in Heir. 3.14-16 (PE, 229).
198
de vir. ill. 3 (PE, 211); in Matth. 12.13 (PE, 217); in Esaiam 11.1-3 (PE, 223); 40.9-11 (PE, 225); prol. 65 (PE,
227); adv. Pelag. 3.2 (PE, 227f); in Hiez. 18:5-9 (PE, 227).
199
in Esaiam 31.6-9 (PE, 223f).
200
epist. 112.13 (PE, 201); in Amos 1.11-12 (PE, 219); in Esaiam 5.18-19 (PE, 221); 49.7 (PE, 225); 52.4-6 (PE,
225); in Heiz. 16.13 (PE, 227).
201
in Esaiam 29.17-21 (PE, 223).
202
in Esaiam 31.6-9 (PE, 223).
203
204
in Esaiam 8.14 (PE, 221), cf. Raymond A. Pritz, “The Jewish Christian Sect of the Nazarenes, and the Mishnah,”
in Proceedings of the Eighth World Congress of Jewish Studies, Division A – The Period of the Bible, Held in
Jerusalem, 16-21 September 1981 (Jerusalem, Israel: Magnes Press, 1981): 125-130.
205
in Esaiam 8.14 (PE, 221); cf. Justin, Apol. 31, quoted in Pritz 59; Eusebius, chron. 283, quoted in Pritz, 59. It
should be noted that it was Rabbi Akiba‟s proclamation of a false Messiah – Simon ben Cosiba (Bar Kochba), which
led to the final split between Jewish Christianity and Rabbinic Judaism.
35
Jewish Christianity
Jerome‟s comments on the Nazarenes described a Jewish Christian group which was apparently
orthodox in their beliefs, yet followed the Law. This group had originated in the first century
Church and was apparently still in existence in Jerome‟s time.
Augustine
While Augustine provided no new information (Augustine appears to have depended entirely
upon Epiphanius), his endorsement of Epiphanius‟ judgment that the Nazarenes were heretical
seemed to have had a major influence on those Church writers which followed him, reflecting
the Nazarenes‟ final rejection by the Church.206 All of Augustine‟s references to the Nazarenes
were negative.207 He never quoted from their gospel and apparently had no personal contact with
them.208 However, it seems clear from the way in which Augustine described the Nazarenes that
he considered them to be a currently existing Jewish Christian group:
“And now, certain heretics exist who call themselves Nazarenes, who, however,
by some people are named Symmachians and who practice the circumcision of
the Jews and the baptism of the Christians...”209
These remarks, recorded by Augustine around 405-406 C.E., establish the likelihood that the
Nazarenes continued in existence into the fifth century.210
Conclusions
The evidence provided by the Church Fathers appears to demonstrate that the Nazarenes, a
Jewish Christian group orthodox in all respects except for their practice of the ceremonial law,
existed as a distinct group from the time of the fall of Jerusalem until the late fourth or early fifth
century. They were descendants of the Jewish Christian church in Jerusalem, which escaped to
Pella after the fall of Jerusalem. They recognized the authority of the Apostle Paul and his
mission to the Gentiles, as well as the authority of the greater Church, of which they considered
themselves a part. They evangelized their Jewish brethren in the synagogues. They accepted the
entirety of the Scriptures, both the Old and New Testaments. They acknowledged that God was
the Creator of all things and that Jesus Christ was the Son of God. They believed in The Holy
Spirit. Epiphanius could find nothing to indicate that they denied Christ‟s virgin birth. They
believed in the resurrection of the dead, as well as Jesus‟ death and resurrection. They did follow
the ceremonial law, but did not believe it was essential for salvation. Rather, their motivation for
206
207
208
209
c. Cres. 1.31.36.
210
Klijn and Reinink, 238; cf. de haer. 9 (PE, 238f). Augustine continued to write about the Nazarenes in the present
tense as late as 428 C.E.
36
Jewish Christianity
following the ceremonial law was to be “imitators of Christ.”211 Up until the time of Epiphanius
they apparently were sufficiently orthodox to escape the attention of the heresiologists.
Apparently, it was solely on the basis of the Nazarenes‟ observance of the Law that Epiphanius
and all those who follow him determined that the Nazarenes were heretical.
Symmachians
There is little information in the Patristic literature about the Symmachians as a Jewish Christian
group or Symmachus as a Jewish Christian. The information which is available is sketchy and
most is inconsistent.
Origen
Origen mentions Symmachus in the context of an examination of variant translations of

Zachariah 9:9 (Symmachus‟ translation read: “He was poor and sat upon a donkey and the colt of
a she-donkey.”)212 Some suggest that Symmachus‟ choice of words in translating this verse
suggest an Ebionite background. However, Klijn and Reinink consider this a very weak
argument especially since Origen never actually referred to Symmachus as a Jewish Christian.213
Eusebius
Eusebius was the first writer to refer to Symmachus as an Ebionite Jewish Christian.214 He noted
that Symmachus‟ writings were still available at the time he was writing.215 These included
Symmachus‟ translation of the Old Testament which was widely used by the Church Fathers, as
well as a commentary on the Gospel according to Matthew.216
Jerome
Jerome also classified Symmachus as an Ebonite.217 He also agreed with Eusebius that
Symmachus wrote a commentary on the Gospel according to Matthew.218
Ambrosiaster
Ambrosiaster was the first to refer to a group called the Symmachians.219 He suggests that they
are descendents of the Pharisees, who observe the Law but call themselves Christians. Later
211
See footnote 143 in this chapter.
212
in Matth. 16:16 (PE, 131).
213
214
hist. eccl. 6.17 (PE, 147).
215
hist. eccl. 6.17 (PE, 147).
216
hist. eccl. 6.17 (PE, 147); cf. Klijn and Reinink, 53. It is unknown whether this was a complete or partial
commentary.
217
in Hab. 3.10-13 (PE, 209).
218
de vi. ill. 54 (PE, 213).
37
Jewish Christianity
writers also refer to the Symmachians as a group but many of the descriptions of the group are
contradictory.220
Conclusions
There is little that can be made of this data. Apparently, Symmachus did exist and wrote a
widely-used translation of the Old Testament. It seems likely he may have been Jewish Christian,
if not an actual Ebonite. On the other hand, it seems unlikely that a group called the
Symmachians existed, since the earliest Christian writers did not speak of such a group but only
of the individual, Symmachus.221
Elkesaites
The Elkesaites are mentioned only by a few patristic authors. These authors are Hippolytus,
Origen, and Epiphanius.
Hippolytus
Hippolytus (ca. 225 C.E.) was the first to mention the heretic Elxai. His information was given in
several forms: descriptions of the preaching of Alcibiades, a reputed interpreter of Elxai;222
descriptions of the contents of the Book of Elxai and general doctrinal information. From the
preaching of Alcibiades, Hippolytus described some of the beliefs of Elxai‟s followers, the
Elkesaites. There was a special obligation of baptism for those who had misbehaved sexually.223
All believers were required to be circumcised and to live according to the Law.224 Christ was
born and re-born many times in the normal manner before being born of a virgin.225 According
to Hippolytus they also adopted other Pythagorean ideas.226 The Book of Elxai was said to be
inspired by an angel of enormous size, who was the son of God, and a second female angel, who
was the Holy Spirit.227 According to Hippolytus report on the Book of Elxai, the Elkesaites
invoked seven spirits as witnesses during baptismal rites.228 The Elkesaites conducted baptism
219
ad Gal. prol. (PE, 197). Perhaps Symmachus himself emerged from descendents of the Pharisees.
220
221
Klijn and Reinink, 53-54.
222
ref. 9.17.2 (PE, 121).
223
Klijn and Reinink, 57; cf. ref. 9.13,4 (PE, 115).
224
Klijn and Reinink, 57; cf. ref. Prol. 9.4.1 (PE, 113f).
225
Klijn and Reinink, 56; cf. ref. 9.14.1 (PE, 117).
226
Klijn and Reinink, 56; cf. ref. 9.l4.2 (PE, 117).
227
ref. 9.13.2-3 (PE, 115).
228
ref. 9.15.2 (PE, 117).
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Jewish Christianity
but did so in the name of the “most high God.”229 Hippolytus also noted that they kept the
Sabbath.230 Otherwise, the contents of the book were similar to Alcibiades‟ preaching.
Epiphanius
Epiphanius (ca. 376) wrote both of a heretic named Elxai and of his followers the Elkesaites,
According to Epiphanius, Elxai wrote a book, supposedly inspired by divine wisdom and a
prophecy.231 He was of Jewish origin but had not lived according to the Law.232 As to the
Elkesaites as a groups Epiphanius noted (as did Hippolytus) that they venerated seven spirits or
angels, and invoked them as witnesses, especially during baptism.233 They rejected virginity and
chastity, and were obliged to marry.234 During the persecution they were allowed to worship
idols.235 They spoke of Jesus the Great King, though Epiphanius was unsure if they were actually
referring to Jesus Christ.236 They prayed in the direction of Jerusalem. 237 They rejected sacrifices
and fire, but venerated water.238 They believed that Christ and the Holy Spirit were of enormous
size.239 They also maintained that Christ was “created first as Adam, and reappears tine and
again…whenever he wished.”240 Finally, they rejected the eating of meat.241
Conclusions
The Elkesaites are of little importance for the study of Jewish Christianity. Klijn and Reinink
argue that the Book of Elxai was most likely a product of an “apocalyptic-syncretistic,
missionary movement which originated during the Roman invasion of Parthia within a Jewish
community which tried to show its allegiance to the Parthians.”242 This seems likely, since the
Elkesaites used the term Christ (Messiah), without linking it to the person of Jesus, and when
they did speak of Jesus the Great King, it was not clear if they were referring to Jesus Christ.
Therefore, while the Elkesaites could not truly be called Jewish Christians, this does show that
some Jewish Christian ideas were spreading throughout Jewish communities in the region and
229
ref. 9.15.1,3 (PE, 117).
230
ref. 9.16.3 (PE, 119).
231
pan. 19.1.4 (PE, 155).
232
pan. 19.1.5 (PE, I55).
233
pan. 19.1.6 (PE, 157).
234
pan. 19.1.7 (PE, 157).
235
pan. 19.2.1 (PE, 157).
236
pan. 19.3.4 (PE, 157f).
237
pan. 19.3.4 (PE, 157f).
238
pan. 19.3.6-7 (PE, 159); cf. 53.1.7 (PE, 197).
239
pan. 19.4.3-2 (PE, 159); 53.1.5-9 (PE, 197).
240
pan. 53.1.8-9 (PE, 197).
241
pan. 53.1-4 (PE, 195).
242
Klijn and Reinink, 66-67.
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Jewish Christianity
that they were influenced by a Christology similar to that of the Pseudo-Clementines, which
must have existed prior to 200 C.E.243
Summary and Conclusions
This chapter‟s analysis of the comments of the Church Fathers regarding various Jewish
Christian groups has provided additional focus to the investigation of Jewish Christianity in the
early Church. It has eliminated from consideration some of the groups which wore traditionally
but incorrectly classified as Jewish Christian groups. The Cerinthians can be eliminated because
there is little evidence that such a group actually existed, although there is evidence that a Jewish
Christian teacher named Cerinthus did exist. The Symmachians can be eliminated for the same
reason. There was an individual Jewish Christian writer by the name of Symmachus, who may
have been an Ebionite. However, it is unlikely that a group called the Symmachians ever existed.
On the other hand, the Elkesaites did exist as a group, but must be eliminated because they were
not Jewish Christians. Rather they were a Jewish group, influenced by some Jewish Christian
concepts.
Although these individuals and groups must be eliminated from further study as Jewish Christian
groups per se, their inclusion in the patristic record provides some insights into the attitude of the
Church Fathers towards heresy generally and Jewish Christianity specifically. They demonstrate
the tendency of some of the Church Fathers to “strengthen” their case against certain heresies by
creating a following around an individual, where no such following was likely to have existed;244
creating an individual leader for a sect where no such leader was likely to have existed;245 or
creating links between groups, where no such links were likely to have existed.246
The elimination of the above groups leaves two named groups which can be considered Jewish
Christian for the purposes of this study of the Nazarenes and the Ebionites. Both considered
themselves to be Jewish; both considered themselves to be followers of Christ; both were actual
historical groups. The Nazarenes were evidently the older of the two groups, being the direct
descendants of the Jewish Christian community which fled to Pella during the Fall of Jerusalem.
The Nazarenes were apparently orthodox in all ways, except for the fact that they observed the
Law. Their theology was orthodox. Their Christology was orthodox. They accepted all of the
canonical Scriptures as they were known at the time. They considered themselves a part of the
greater Church. They recognized apostolic authority, including that of the Apostle Paul, and
supported the law-free mission to the Gentiles while continuing to evangelize their brothers and
sisters in the synagogues.247 Their existence as a distinct group can be traced from the fall of
243
244
For example, the Cerinthians and the Symmachians were built up around Cerinthus and Symmachus,
respectively.
245
For example, Elxai was created for the Elkesaites. Epiphanius also created Ebion for the Ebionites.
246
e.g., between the Cerinthians and the Ebionites, or between the Elkesaites and the Nazarenes.
247
Perhaps the Nazarenes‟ acceptance of Paul‟s mission to the Gentiles, along with the Nazarenes‟ own evangelistic
40
Jewish Christianity
Jerusalem until the late fourth or early fifth century. No patristic reports after that date describe
them as a contemporary sect. Cut off from the greater Church, they evidently faded from
existence relatively quickly.
The Ebionites, on the other hand, were clearly a heretical group. Although they were a law-
observant Jewish Christian group like the Nazarenes, they differed from them in many
significant respects. They held heretical Christological beliefs (described above) rejected the
authority of the Apostle Paul and his Gentile mission, and rejected most of the apostolic
scriptures. They evidently split off from the Nazarenes some time in the second century, possibly
as a result of disagreements over Christology. Although they parted company with the
Nazarenes, the Ebionites continued to reside in the same general vicinity. Perhaps it was their
common ancestry and close proximity of the Ebionites and Nazarenes that led to the Church
Fathers tendency to confuse the two sects, using the term Ebionite to describe members not only
of the Ebionite sect, but of the Nazarene sect as well, and eventually to use the term Ebionite as a
synonym for Jewish Christianity, which the Church Fathers came to consider heretical. The
reputation of the more orthodox Nazarenes no doubt suffered from this confusion with the
heretical Ebionites. The tendency of the Church Fathers to confuse the Ebionites and the
Nazarenes and to use the term Ebionite as catch-all term for heretical Jewish Christian groups
makes it likely that some groups classified by Patristic authors as Ebionite were in reality other
sects. For example, the groups described as Ebionites by Irenaeus and Origen are thought by
some to be two (or three) different groups, separate from the Ebionites described by
Epiphanius.248 Others, including the author of this study, believe that Irenaeus and Origen, since
they depict two types of “Ebionites” – one heretical and one relatively orthodox – may be
describing the two main rival Jewish-Christian sects, the Ebionites and the Nazarenes
respectively.249
Finally, the patristic descriptions of Jewish Christian sects provide some insight into the diversity
and pervasiveness of Jewish Christianity in Palestine. In addition to the orthodox Nazarenes and
the heretical sect (if not multiple sects) of the Ebionites, there were Gnostic Jewish Christians,
such as Cerinthus. Symmachus, although possibly an Ebionite, may have emerged from
descendants of the Pharisees. The Elkesaites, although not Jewish Christian themselves, appear
to have been influenced by Jewish Christian ideas. Taken together, these groups demonstrate that
Jewish Christianity was a diverse phenomenon with pervasive influence in Palestine in the first
several centuries of the Church‟s existence.
activity among their own brethren, reflects their memory of the agreement reached at the first Council of Jerusalem:
Paul was to evangelize among the Gentiles and the Jerusalem church was to evangelize among the Jews.
248
249
41
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42
Jewish Christianity
CHAPTER FOUR
THEOLOGY OF THE JEWISH CHRISTIANS:
ANALYSIS OF THE JEWISH CHRISTIAN GOSPELS
There are numerous references in the Patristic literature to the existence of Jewish Christian
gospels written in the Hebrew language. There would seem to be no need to doubt that such
gospels existed in some form, since Hebrew-speaking people would naturally wish to have a
gospel in their own language. Unfortunately, none are extant today. All that remains are
fragments contained in other, mainly patristic, sources. The oldest testimony we have to the
existence of such a document comes from Papias via Eusebius. Papias (c. 60-130 C.E.) refers to
a collection of the sayings of Jesus, made by Matthew in the Hebrew language, and he recalls a
specific story about the woman accused of many sins.250 Eusebius also reports that Hegesippus
was aware of such a gospel.251 Clement of Alexandria, writing in 202 or 215 C.E., is the first
writer to call this gospel the Gospel according to the Hebrews.252 Following Clement in this is
Origen.253 Eusebius also mentions the gospel by name, but it is uncertain whether he actually saw
it Epiphanius mentions the name of the gospel once.254 Didymus the Blind also mentions the
gospel only once.255 Jerome is the only Latin author to have claimed to have actually seen the
gospel (in the library of Caesarea), and he mentions it several times.256
Several conclusions may be drawn from this evidence. First, the fact that it is mentioned by
Papias places the existence of a gospel in the Hebrew language as early as the late first century.
Second, the fact that it was not cited by a specific name until the third century would seem to
indicate that it was not named until relatively late.257 Third, the specific name given, Gospel
according to the Hebrews, would seem to indicate that its name was given by those patristic
authors who referred to it, rather than by its author or by its direct Jewish Christian readers.
Fourth, by the time the name Gospel according to the Hebrews appeared as a specific reference
the patristic authors appear to have lost direct contact with Jewish Christians. This can be seen in
250
Eusebius, hist. eccl. 3.39.16-17 (PE, 143).
251
Eusebius, hist. eccl. 4.22.8 (PE, 145).
252
strom, 2.9.45.5 (PE, 111). It is unclear whether Clement actually saw the gospel, although his references to it read
as though he did.
253
in John 2.12 (PE, 127); in Matth. 15.14 (PE, 129).
254
pan. 30.3.7 (PE, 179).
255
comm. in Ps. (PE, 199).
256
de vir. ill. 2 (PE, 20fl); de vir. ill. 3 (PE, 211); in Mic. 7.6 (PE, 209); in Matth. 12.13. (PE, 217).
257
Up to the time that the Jewish and Gentile churches began to disassociate from each other, and especially after
the Church Fathers began to label Jewish Christians as heretics generally, it seems likely that this Hebrew-language
gospel would have been viewed simply us one of many existing versions of the Gospel According to Matthew, After
that time there would have been a strong impetus to identify the gospel as belonging to a specific group. Of course,
it is possible that some of the writers were simply unaware of the name, but this scenario unlikely for the reasons
given in point four below.
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Jewish Christianity
the fact that they lumped together all Jewish Christian groups under the term Ebionite. It can also
be seen in the fact that the Church Fathers appeared to make no distinction between the versions
of the gospel used by the various Jewish Christian groups, when in fact there were at least two: a
Gospel according to the Hebrews used by the Nazarenes (henceforth referenced as the Gospel of
the Nazarenes) and a Gospel according to the Hebrews used by the Ebionites (henceforth
referenced as the Gospel of the Ebionites).258 There may also have been a version of the Gospel
according to the Hebrews used by the Jewish Christians in Egypt, though the evidence for this is
less convincing.259
The Gospel of the Nazarenes
The text fragments of the Gospel of the Nazarenes demonstrate a close relationship with and a
dependence upon the Gospel according to Matthew. It has been described as a “targum-like
rendering of the canonical Matthew.”260 Therefore, its terminus a quo is the late first century
(after the writing of Matthew) and its terminus a quem is around 180 C.E. (when it was first
mentioned by Hegesippus). Vielhauer and Strecker argue for a date of origin in the early first
century. The fact that the Nazarene version of this gospel was originally written in Aramaic
(Syriac) suggests that it may well have originated in the area of Beroea (Aleppo) in Coelesyria,
as indicated by Epiphanius and Jerome.261
There are a number of gospel fragments which have been attributed to the Gospel of the
Nazarenes. However; for purposes of analyzing the theology and Christology of the Nazarene
sect this analysis will be limited to those fragments (1) which are quoted by Jerome (since he
was the only author to claim firsthand knowledge of the text), (2) which clearly apply to the
Nazarenes, and (3) which provide some insight into the beliefs of the sect.
Applying these limitations to the available texts yields five fragments for consideration:
1. According to the Gospel written in Hebrew speech, which the Nazarenes read,
“the whole fount of the Holy Spirit shall descend upon him…” Further in the
Gospel which we have just mentioned we find the following written:
And it shall come to pass when the Lord was come up out of the water, the
whole fount of the Holy Spirit descended upon him and rested on him and said to
258
Pritz, Nazarene, 87; Vielhauer and Strecker, 135-136. Vielhauer and Strecker report that those with less
confidence in Jerome suggest that there may have been at least three versions: the two listed above and a third which
they call simply the Gospel of the Hebrews.
259
Pritz, Nazarene, 87; William Schneemelcher, “The Gospel of the Egyptians,” chap. in New Testament
Apocrypha. Vol. I, Gospels and Related Writings. ed. W. Schneemelcher (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1991), 214-215.
Pritz believes that the Egyptians may have adapted their gospel from the Ebionite version. However, Schneemelcher
reports that the Gospel of the Egyptians bears little resemblance to the canonical gospels and that some authorities
believe that it was the gospel of the Gentile church in Egypt, although it does show some Jewish Christian influence.
260
Vielhauer and Strecker, 159.
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Jewish Christianity
him: “My Son, in all the prophets was I waiting for thee that thou shouldest come
and I might rest in thee. For thou art my rest; thou art my first-begotten Son that
reignest for ever.”262
2. But in that Gospel written according to the Hebrews, which is read by the
Nazoraeans [Nazarenes], the Lord says; “A moment ago my mother, the Holy
Spirit, took me up.” Nobody, however; should be scandalized because of this,
because the Spirit is used in the feminine gender with the Hebrews while our
[Latin] language takes it in the masculine gender and in Greek the neuter.263
3. The Gospel called according to the Hebrews which was recently translated by me
into Greek and Latin, which Origen frequently used, records after the resurrection
of the Savior:
And when the Lord had given the linen cloth to the servant of the priest,
he went to James and appeared to him. For James had sworn that he would not
eat bread from that hour in which he had drunk from the cup of the Lord until he
should see him risen from among them that sleep. And shortly thereafter the Lord
said: “Take a table and bread!” And immediately it is added: he took bread,
blessed it and brake it and gave it to James the Just and said to him: “My brother,
eat thy bread, for the Son of Man is risen from among them that sleep.”264
4. For since the apostles [sic] believed him to be a spirit according to the Gospel
which is of the Hebrews and is read by the Nazarenes, a demon without a body,
he said to them...[the rest of the text is missing]265
5. From the Gospel according to the Hebrews. In the Gospel according to the
Hebrews which was written in the Chaldaic and Syriac language but with Hebrew
letters, and is used up to the present day by the Nazoraeans [Nazarenes], I mean
that according to the Apostles, or, as many maintain, according to Matthew,
which Gospel is also available in the Library of Caesarea, the story runs: sees the
mother of the Lord and his brothers said to him: “John the Baptist baptizes for the
remission of sins, let us go to be baptized by him.” He [Jesus] said to them
however: “What did I sin that I should go and be baptized by him? Unless perhaps
261
262
Jerome, in Esaiam 11.2, quoted in Vielhauer arid Strecker, 177; Pritz, Nazarene, 88; cf. Matt. 3:16 cf. Heb. 1:5ff;
5:5f; Isa. l1:2; 61:1; Psa. 132:14; Vielhauer and Strecker, 135-136. Vielhauer and Strecker note that those who
suggest a third Gospel of the Hebrews place this text there.
263
Jerome, in Esaiam 40.9-11 (PE, 225).
264
Jerome, de vir. ill. 2, quoted in Vielhauer and Strecker, 178; Pritz, Nazarene, 88; cf. 1 Cor. 15:7; 11:23f;
Vielhauer and Strecker, 135-136. Vielhauer and Strecker note that those who suggest a third Gospel of the Hebrews
place this text there.
265
Jerome in Esaiam prol. 65 (PE, 227). Jerome compares this to Luke 24:38f.
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Jewish Christianity
that which I said in ignorance”. And in the same volume: “If your brother,” he
said, “sinned to you with a word and makes amends, accept him seven times a
day.” Simon his disciple said to him: “Seven times a day?” The Lord answered
and said to him: “And I say to you until seventy times seven. For even among the
prophets after they were anointed with the Holy Spirit there were words of sin.”266
In analyzing the first text, it is clear that the account of Jesus‟ baptism taken by Jerome from the
Gospel of the Nazarenes is somewhat different from the one taken by Epiphanius from the
Gospel of the Ebionites (see below).267 The Nazarene baptism text has the Holy Spirit “descend”
and “rest upon” Jesus, while the Ebionite baptism texts have the Holy Spirit “enter” Jesus. The
Ebionite texts deny that Jesus was begotten of God the Father, while the Nazarene text supports a
Christology of Jesus‟ sonship to God the Father consistent with that attributed to the Nazarenes
in other places.268 Because of Epiphanius‟ attestation that the Nazarenes accepted the virgin birth
and the likelihood that the Nazarene gospel included a genealogy and the infancy narrative like
that found in the canonical Gospel of Matthew, it seems unlikely that this text indicates an
adoptionistic perspective. However, even if it did, this would not have been heretical by second
century standards. Interestingly, Pritz has suggested that the Nazarene Gospel‟s emphasis on
sonship and the culmination of prophecy in the Messiah bears a strong resemblance to the
Christology of the canonical Epistle to the Hebrews.269 This similarity suggests at least a
possible connection between the writer of that document and the community which produced the
Gospel of the Nazarenes. It would certainly seem to indicate that the canonical Epistle to the
Hebrews is of Jewish Christian origin.
From the second text, it should be noted that while the pneumatology represented is rather
unsophisticated, it is no more primitive than that in evidence in the canonical gospels and is
certainly not heretical. The reference to the Holy Spirit as Jesus‟ mother is intriguing (especially
to modern, feminist theologians), but again is certainly not heretical, as even Jerome insists. This
text is consistent with the account given elsewhere by Jerome. A similar account was given
earlier in the writings of Origen, but Origen‟s account lacked Jerome‟s explanation of the
Nazarene reference to the Holy Spirit as Christ‟s mother. This would appear to strengthen the
assumption that Jerome had firsthand knowledge of the Hebrew-language text while Origen
probably did not.270 At the very least, the second text reflects the fact that Jerome‟s Hebrew was
probably much better than Origen‟s, supporting Jerome‟s claim to have received extensive
instruction in Hebrew from a Hebrew-speaking Jewish Christian.
266
Jerome, adv. Pelag. 3.2 (PE, 227); cf. Matt. 18:21f; Luke 17:4; James 3:2.
267
Epiphanius, pan. 30.13.6-8 (PE, 179f).
268
Epiphanius, pan. 29.7.3 (PE, 173); Jerome, in Esaiam 31.6-9 (PE, 223f).
269
Pritz, Nazarene, 89; cf. Heb. 1:5ff; 5:5f.
270
Jerome variously describes the gospel as written in either Hebrew letters or Syriac (Aramaic). Given the reported
location of the sect in Beroea, Aramaic seems the most likely possibility. This paper refers to this gospel as a
“Hebrew-language” text in order to allow for both possibilities.
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Jewish Christianity
The third passage demonstrates a Nazarene belief in the resurrection of Christ, expanding on
Epiphanius‟ earlier statement that the Nazarenes believed in the resurrection of the dead. 271 It is
also worthy of note that the passage recounts that Jesus‟ first post-resurrection on appearance
was to James. While this appears out of sequence with the canonical gospels, a post-resurrection
appearance to James is supported by Paul in his first letter to the Corinthians272 and is consistent
with what is known front Epiphanius about the respect given to James by the Nazarenes.273
The fourth text, though attributed by Jerome to the Nazarenes, is argued by Pritz, Lightfoot,
Vielhauer, and other authorities to have been attributed to the sect in error.274 The Latin word
incorporale (bodiless) comes from the Greek asomaton and therefore cannot have come from a
Hebrew-language text.275 Jerome may have taken it from Eusebius or Origen, who also quoted it,
but were unlikely to have been in contact with a Hebrew-language copy.276 In fact, Origen
actually attributes the text to a different document altogether: the Doctrina Petri.277 In any case,
this further underscores the likelihood tint Jerome was dealing with a Hebrew-language version
of the Gospel of the Nazarenes (albeit an incomplete one), while Eusebius and Origen were
quoting from a Greek translation. Therefore this text must be excluded from consideration as part
of the Gospel of the Nazarenes.
The fifth text implies that the Nazarenes acknowledged the authority of the prophets. This sets
the Nazarenes apart from the Ebionites, who rejected the authority of the prophets.278 The fifth
text makes note of Jesus‟ awareness of his own sinlessness as compared to the prophets. One
author even suggests that it may mean that they believed that Jesus had an awareness of his own
divinity.279 This is a very different Christology than the type of progressively increasing
righteousness attributed to Jesus by the Ebionites.280 While affirming Jesus‟ sinlessness, this text
also affirms the possibility that he might be ignorant in some things. These paradoxical concepts
find their counterparts in the canonical gospels of Luke and Mark, 281 and would seem to indicate
that the Nazarenes, like the rest of the early Church, were wrestling with the concept of the dual
nature of Christ.
271
Pritz, Nazarene, 91; cf. pan. 29.7.3 (PE, 173).
272
Pritz, Nazarene, 91; cf. 1 Cor. 13:7.
273
Pritz, Nazarene, 91; cf. pan. 29.4.3 (PE, 169).
274
Pritz, Nazarene, 91f; cf. J. P. Lightfoot, The Apostolic Fathers (New York: Olms, 1973): 2.2.292; 296f.
275
276
Eusebius, hist. eccl. 3.36.11 (PE, 143); Origen, de princ. 1 praef. 8 (PE, 125).
277
de princ. 1 praef. 8 (PE, 125). This text is more closely associated with the Ebionites.
278
Pritz, Nazarene, 93; cf. pan. 30.18.4-5 (PE, 187); pan. 29.7.2 (PE, 173).
279
J. T. Dodd, The Gospel According to the Hebrews (London: Search, 1933), 34, quoted in Pritz, Nazarene, 93.
280
Hippolytus, ref. 7.34.1f (PE, 111f); Eusebius, hist. eccl. 3.27.2 (PE, 141); pan. 30.35ff (PE, 179).
281
Pritz, Nazarene, 93; cf. Luke 2:52; Mark 12:32. Both of these texts demonstrate the limited nature of Jesus‟
knowledge.
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Jewish Christianity
The Gospel of the Ebionites
The fragments from the Gospel of the Ebionites suggest that it is synoptic in character,
dependent on the gospels of Mark and Luke, as well as Matthew. Therefore, its terminus a quo is
the late first century (after the writing of the synoptic gospels) and its terminus ad quem is
around 175 C.E. (when it was first mentioned by Irenaeus). Vielhauer and Strecker argue for a
date of origin in the first half of the second century, probably later than the origin of the Gospel
of the Nazarenes. It was originally written in Greek. Its place of origin is uncertain, but it is
possible that it was written in the Transjordan area where the Ebionites made their home and
where Epiphanius could have seen and copied from it.282
There are a number of gospel fragments which have been attributed to the Gospel of the
Ebionites, However for purposes of analyzing the theology and Christology of the Ebionite sect,
this analysis will be limited to those fragments quoted by Epiphanius (who claims to have seen
the text and copied from it) which provide some insight into the beliefs of the sect.
Applying these limitations to the available texts yields five fragments for consideration:
1. And the beginning of their Gospel runs:

It came to pass in the days of Herod the king of Jude <when Caiaphas was
high priest> that there came <one>, John <by name,> and baptized with the
baptism of repentance in the river Jordan. It was said of him that he was of the
lineage of Aaron the priest, a son of Zacharias and Elizabeth; and all went out to
him.283
2. And after much has been recorded it proceeds:

When the people were baptized Jesus also came and was baptized by John.
And as he came up from the water, the heavens were opened and he saw the Holy
Spirit in the form of a dove that descended and entered into him. And a voice
sounded from heaven that said: “Thou art my beloved Son; in thee I am well
pleased.” And again: “I have this day begotten thee.” And immediately a great
light shone round about the place. When John saw this, it saith, he saith unto him:
Who art thou, Lord? And again a voice from heaven (rang out) to him:
“this is my beloved Son in whom I am well pleased.” And then, it saith, John fell
down before him and said: “I beseech thee, Lord, baptize thou me.” But he
282
283
Epiphanius, pan. 30.13.6, quoted in Vielhauer and Strecker, 169; cf. Luke 1:5-18; 3:2f; Mark 1:4f; Matt. 3:5. The
text is likely a composite of two variant fragments of the same passage. The brackets would indicate where one of
the texts contains words not found in the other.
48
Jewish Christianity
prevented him and said: “Suffer it; for thus it is fitting that everything should be
fulfilled.”284
3. They say that he [Christ] was not begotten of God the Father, but created as one
of the archangels…that he rules over the angels and all the creatures of the
Almighty, and that he came and declared, as their Gospel, which is called
[according to Matthew? according to the Hebrews?], reports:
I am come to do away with sacrifices, and if ye cease not from sacrificing,
the wrath of God will not cease from you.285
4. And
It came to pass that John was baptizing; and there went out to him
Pharisees and were baptized and all Jerusalem. And John had a garment of
camel‟s hair and a leathern girdle about his loins, and his food, as it saith, was
wild honey, he ate of which was that of manna, as a cake dipped in oil.
Thus they were resolved to pervert the word of truth into a lie and put a
cake in the place of locusts.286
5. But they abandon the proper sequence of the words and pervert the saying, as it is
plain from all the readings attached and have let the disciples say:
Where wilt thou that we prepare the Passover? and him to answer to that:
Do I desire with desire at this Passover to eat flesh with you?287
From the first text, it must be noted that the Ebionites omit the nativity story (Matt. 1-2) from
their gospel. The Ebionites evidently denied the virgin birth. Jesus was considered God‟s son not
because he was divinely begotten, but because the Holy Spirit entered him at the time of his
baptism by John, as mentioned in the second text. Taken together with the third text‟s emphasis
on Jesus‟ not being begotten from the father, the entry of the Holy Spirit described in the second
text would seem to be different from the “descent” described in the canonical gospels,288
probably denoting some form of adoptionism or Gnosticism. It is also somewhat different from
the text in the Gospel of the Nazarenes, which has the Holy Spirit “descend” and “rest upon”
Jesus. The third text would seem to indicate that the Ebionites regarded Jesus as some sort of
intermediate type of being, neither human nor divine.
284
Epiphanius, pan. 30.13.7f, quoted in Vielhauer and Strecker, 169; cf. Luke 3:21, 23; Matt. 3:13, 16, 17, 14f;
Mark 1:9, 11; Psa. 2:7.
285
Epiphanius, pan. 30.16.4f, quoted in Vielhauer and Strecker, 170; cf. Matt. 5:17f; John 3:36b.
286
Epiphanius, pan. 30.13.41, quoted in Vielhauer and Strecker, 169; cf. Matt. 3:1, 7, 5, 4; Mark 1:14, 5, 6; Exod.
16:31; Num. 11:8.
287
Epiphanius, pan. 30.22.4, quoted in Vielhauer and Strecker, 170; cf. Matt 26:17ff. par.; Luke 22:15.
288
Matt. 3:16; Mark 1:10; Luke 3:22.
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Jewish Christianity
The fourth text demonstrates the peculiar dietary rules of the sect. The omission of locusts from
John‟s diet would support their vegetarian beliefs, though it should be note that in Aramaic the
term “locust” is a colloquialism for carob root. Their beliefs regarding the renunciation of meat
are further supported by Jesus‟ rejecting of eating of flesh with his disciples on the Passover.
From the limited number of fragments available, it is clear that there was nothing in the extant
fragments from the Gospel of the Nazarenes which was heretical in nature. These fragments
show that the Nazarenes affirmed Jesus‟ resurrection from the dead. They appear to demonstrate
a primitive, but not heretical doctrine of the Holy Spirit; certainly not heretical in the second
century, when the text was written. They seem to point to an understanding of the dual nature of
Jesus, possibly including his own awareness of his divinity and humanity.
On the other hand, the extant fragments from the Gospel of the Ebionites demonstrate that their
beliefs and Christology are distinct from those of the Nazarenes and clearly heretical. They
demonstrate that the Ebionites rejected the virgin birth. They suggest an adoptionistic or Gnostic
view of Jesus‟ divine sonship and relationship to the Holy Spirit. They imply a Christology in
which Jesus is an intermediate creature, neither human nor divine. Finally, they illustrate the
unique dietary rules of the sect.
Analyses of the fragmentary remains of the gospels produced by the Jewish Christians only serve
to underscore the conclusions of the previous chapter. Of the five groups identified by the
Church Fathers as Jewish Christians, only two met the definition of Jewish Christianity proposed
by this study. These two groups were the Ebionites and the Nazarenes. Analysis of the Gospel of
the Ebionites confirms that their Christology was heretical, as the Church Fathers testified.
However, as far as can be discerned from the fragments of the Gospel of the Nazarenes, there
was nothing about their theology which lay outside the bounds of orthodoxy at the time the
gospel was originally written.
50
Jewish Christianity
CHAPTER FIVE
CORROBORATING THE CHURCH FATHERS:
ANALYSIS OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL, TALMUDIC, AND OTHER SOURCES
A significant problem in the study of Jewish Christianity is how much reliability to ascribe to the
major source of information on specific Jewish Christian groups: the testimony of the Church
Fathers. What we have in the patristic data is information on Jewish Christian groups which has
been preserved by their adversaries: those who proclaimed the groups to be heretical. At the very
least this raises the possibility that the patristic authors might slant the data to support their own
pre-existing opinons. Therefore, corroborative data from other source is desirable. This chapter
will attempt to corroborate the information provided by the Church Fathers using data from non-
Patristic sources. These sources include archaeological data, Jewish Talmudic sources, and other
historical sources.
Archaeological Data
The nature of the available archaeological data related to Jewish Christianity is such that,
although it appears to be relatively plentiful, it cannot be used to shed light on the theology or
practices of any specific Jewish Christian group. For example, most of the archaeological
evidence is in the found of graffiti on ossuaries and on the walls of tombs, grottos, and ruins. The
evidence consists mostly of symbols, names, and other information that strongly suggest that
some member of a Jewish Christian group inhabited the site, but which do not permit
identification of the specific group. However, the archaeological evidence can provide some
important corroborative information. The archaeological data is also useful in establishing the
geographic and historical extent of Jewish Christianity.
Bagatti, Mancini, and others argue that evidence of Jewish Christianity has been noted at more
than forty sites throughout the area which constituted ancient Palestine. These sites included
Jerusalem, Bethany, Bethphage, Bethlehem, Talpiot (between Jerusalem and Bethlehem),
Amwas (a possible Emmaus road site), Tiberias, Caesarea, and wadi Murahba‟at in Judea;
Nazareth, Kaukab (near Nazareth), K‟far Nahum (Capernaum), Sephoris, Bainah, K‟far Semai
and Saknin289 (near Sephoris), Beth ha-Shitta (near Beth Shean), and Khirbet Kilkish in Galilee
and Samaria; Pella; Allepo (ancient Beroea) and other sites in Syria; and elsewhere.290 The
limitations of this study do not permit a comprehensive analysis of the available archaeological
289
Cf. Baghatti, 95ff. Saknin may recall the name of K‟far Sechania, birthplace of the min Jacob referred to in some
Talmudic texts.
290
Baghatti, 4; Danielou, “Review” 143-145; Saunders, 204; cf. Mancini. Evidence has also been found in Jordan,
Sinai, and as far away as Rome.
51
Jewish Christianity
data. However, a review of the data from several selected sites can add useful collaborative data
to that available from the Patristic sources.
Jerusalem
In Jerusalem, at the Church of the Resurrection (a.k.a. Church of the Holy Sepulchre) excavators
in 1971 broke through a wall under the eastern end of the building and discovered a small room
containing a pre-Constantinian (perhaps as early as the first past of the second century C.E.) red
and black drawing of a small sailing vessel with the inscription “DOMINE IVIMUS” (Latin for
“Lord, we went”). Some have speculated that this represents the return to Jerusalem of the
Jewish Christian congregation which fled during the Fall of Jerusalem. Others speculate that it
represents an early Gentile Christian pilgrimage.291
At Bat‟n el-Hawa (Mount of Scandal) in Jerusalem, a local Arab found thirty ossuaries dating
from the first and second centuries C.E. in a room carved from the rook. Archaeologist C.
Clermont Ganneau, who studied the ossuaries, concluded that they covered several generations,
that they belonged to one family, and that some of the members whose remains were busied
there were Jewish Christians. He gave several reasons for his conclusion: (1) some of the
ossuaries were marked with Christian-sounding proper names (e.g., Kyrikos); (2) some of the
ossuaries were marked with a variety of Christian symbols (e.g., an “X” before the name “Jesus”
spelled in Greek); (3) one ossuary was marked with a finely-chiseled cross under the name
“Jude.”292 Eleazar Sukenik, professor of archaeology at Hebrew University, discovered similar
evidence at Talpiot, on the Jerusalem-Bethlehem road. Among the ossuaries there, he found two
which were inscribed in Greek with the name “Jesus,” followed by the words iou (the beginning
of the word Ioudah or “Jude”) and alot (an exclamation of grief).293 Similarly, at the so-called
Tombs of Sanhedra the Israeli scholar Julius Jotham-Rothschild discovered, among a series of
kokhim (i.e., small, oven-shaped graves carved into rock), three kokhim which were marked with
crosses.294 These sites demonstrate the early presence of Jewish Christians in Jerusalem, as well
as a continuing contact between Jews and Jewish Christians. They also support Schiffman‟s
claim that Jewish Christians, though considered heretical by their fellow Jews, were not
considered non-Jews, and were not denied their basic right to rest among their ancestors.295
291
E. M. Meyers, “Early Judaism and Christianity in the Light of Archaeology” Biblical Archaeology, 51(2) (1988):
77.
292
C. Clermont-Ganneau, Archaeological Researches in Palestine During the Years (1989), 381-412; in Mancini,
14-15.
293
Eleazar L. Sukenik, “The Earliest Records of Christianity,” American Journal of Archaeology 51(1947): 351-
365; in Mancini, 19-20.
294
Julius Jotham-Rothschild, “The Tombs of Sanhedra,” Palestine Exploration Quarterly 84 (1952): 23-38; 86
(1954): 16-22; in Mancini, 27-28.
295
Schiffman, 6ff; cf. Mancini. 28.
52
Jewish Christianity
The Judaean Desert
At Murabba‟at, J. T. Milik discovered a letter by Simeon Bar Kokhba which apparently

threatened Galilean Jewish-Christians with imprisonment if they did not aid in his rebellion. If
Milik was correct in his interpretation that the intended recipients of the letter were in fact Jewish
Christians, then this letter provides important information about their situation during the Second
Jewish Revolt. Evidently, they took a non-combatant stance, which could have been based either
on Jesus teachings or in reaction to R. Akiva‟s proclamation of Bar Kokhba as Messiah. The
letter also suggests that this stance led to further enmity between Jews and Jewish Christians.296
Galilee
In Capernaum on the northwest shore of the Sea of Galilee, next to the octagonal Byzantine
Church of St. Peter at Capernaum, lie the remains of a Jewish Christian house church which
dates back to the first century C.E. The church has been expanded several times from the original
structure, which local tradition holds was Peter‟s house. Next to these ruins are the remains of a
series of Jewish synagogues dating from, the first to the fifth centuries. Also nearby are the ruins
of Gentile Christian sites. By following the strata and the structures researchers have determined
that Jewish Christians occupied the site from the first through the seventh centuries C.E. This site
is also important in that it demonstrates a prolonged period of contact between Jews and Jewish
Christians, as well as between Jewish and Gentile Christians.297 In Nazareth, at the Shrine of the
Annunciation to Mary, excavations have discovered Jewish Christian graffiti dating prior to the
Council of Ephesus (431 C.E.), and other graffiti and monuments which they believe establish
beyond doubt that the shrine was occupied by Jewish Christians through the end of the fifth
century.298 In nearby Beth ha-Shitta, Aharoni and Avi-Yonah found a building with a mosaic
floor, the letters and symbols in which established it to be of Jewish Christian origin. They
estimate that the mosaic dates back to 614 C.E., establishing a Jewish Christian presence in the
area through the end of the seventh century.299
Syria and Transjordan
In Tafas, in Syria, researchers found the remains of a building which included several
inscriptions including the following: “James and Samuel and Clematios, their father, built this
synagogue.” Taking into account the place of discovery and other inscriptions (e.g., crosses,
sacred letters, references to angels, and various symbols), the researchers concluded that this had
been a Jewish Christian synagogue.300 Similar inscriptions, mostly of a funerary nature, have
296
J. T. Milik, “Une lettre de Semeon Bar Kokeba,” Revue Biblique 60 (1953): 276-294; in Mancini, 38-40.
297
Meyer, 76-77; cf. Mancini, 100-103; 177.
298
Mancini, 68ff.
299
Y. Aharoni, “Excavations at Beth-Hashitta,” Bulletin of the Israeli Exploration Society 18 (1954), 209-215; in
Mancini, 83-85.
300
J. B. Frey, Corpus Inscription Judicarium 861; in Mancini, 44.
53
Jewish Christianity
been found in the Kerak district of Transjordan.301 Because Tafas is very near the site of ancient
Kochaba and not far from Pella, which lies in the Kerak district, these sites corroborate several
aspects of Epiphanius‟ testimony regarding the Nazarenes and the Ebionites. These sites tend to
support his claim that the Nazarenes settled in the area of Pella after the fall of Jerusalem and
that the Ebionites split off from them and moved on to settle at Kochaba, as well as his claim that
the Ebionites worshiped in synagogues rather than churches.302
Conclusions
The archaeological data tends to provide some support for the assertions of the Church Fathers
regarding Jewish Christianity. Specifically, they lend some support to the tradition of the Jewish
Christian flight to Pella and claims that Pella and Kochaba were centers, respectively, for
Nazarene and Ebionite activity.
On the other hand, the archaeological data tends to demonstrate that Jewish Christianity may
have been far more prevalent over a longer period of time than would seem to be indicated by the
patristic literature.303 While some of the data are controversial,304 if Bagatti‟s and Mancini‟s
interpretations of the archaeological evidence are accepted, clearly the practice of Jewish
Christianity was at one time quite extensive not only in Palestine but in the surrounding areas. In
addition, archaeological evidence tends to rebut the argument that Jewish Christianity died out
quickly after either 70 C.E. or 135 C.E. According to Mancini and others, there is evidence of
active Jewish Christianity, especially in the hill country of Palestine, through the fourth century,
followed by a state of decline for another century or two.305 It is clear that at one time Jewish
Christianity was the dominant expression of the Christian Church in Palestine. The
archaeological data opens the question of how long it remained so. Some have suggested that it
was the dominant church in the area until the time of Constantine and the arrival of Byzantine
Christians. Since many of the Jewish Christian sites stand in close proximity to Gentile Christian
sites, the archaeological evidence appears to document a struggle for dominance between the
native Jewish Christian community and the incoming Gentile Christian authorities, with Gentile
and Jewish Christian churches existing side by side in the same towns dating from the fourth
301
Reginetta Canova, Iscrizioni e monumenti procristiani nel paese di Moab (Citta del Vaticano, (1954); in Mancini,
45.
302
Epiphanius, pan. 29.7.8 (PE, 173); 30.2.8 (PE, 175); cf. Eusebius, hist. eccl. 3.5.3 (PE, 139).
303
Although the patristic authors do not state this explicitly, from reading the patristic information on Jewish
Christianity, one gets the impression that by the middle of the second century Jewish Christianity was limited to a
few fringe groups and that it died out by the end of the fourth century.
304
Saunders, 204. Saunders faults Mancini for the sometimes uncritical way in which he reports the data. The data at
some of the sites is open to varying interpretations as to whether it was left by Jewish Christians, “Judaizing”
Gentile Christians, or nonnative Jews. However, the preponderance of evidence in most cases points to Jewish
Christianity.
305
Mancini, 176-177.
54
Jewish Christianity
century.306 It is the opinion of Mancini and others that it was not until the arrival of the
Byzantines that Jewish Christians were finally outnumbered, divided, and marginalized, and
began to slip away into heretical sects.307
Talmudic References
Little attention has been given to Jewish sources in the study of Jewish Christianity. The
Talmudic references to Jewish Christianity are limited but do provide helpful background data.
First, the data from Jewish sources would tend to support Epiphanius‟ claim that the earliest
Jewish Christians in Palestine were called Nazarenes. There are at least a dozen Talmudic texts
which use the term Nazarene(s) to describe either Jesus (Yeshu ha-Nozri) and/or his followers
(ha-Nozrim).308 Researchers agree that the events referred to by the earliest text occurred no later
than 130 C.E. However, some evidence exists which could place these events in this text as early
as 90 C.E.309 The text describes a person named Jacob from the town of K‟far Sechania in
Galilee who was a follower of Jesus the Nazarene; and who engaged synagogue Jews in
discussions about Jesus.310 It is reasonable to assume from his name and locality that he was a
Jew. It is also reasonable to assume that, since the text states that Jacob was as an old man at the
time of these incidents, he may well have been born prior to 70 C.E. Therefore, it would not be
unreasonable to assume that the name Nazarene was the name used prior 70 C.E. by Jews to
describe Jewish Christians. (By the middle of the third century, Jews appear to have begun using
the term to describe Christians generally, an understandable transfer, as Christianity became
increasingly Gentile.311) Similarly, since this text also shows a Nazarene presence in Galilee at
the beginning of the second century, it demonstrates a continuity of Nazarene Jewish Christianity
after the destruction of the temple in 70 C.E.312 Another early passage describes the cursing of
K‟far Sechania because it did not mourn for Jerusalem.313 This is likely a memory of the split
which occurred between Jews and Jewish Christians at the time of the destruction of
Jerusalem.314 The Pharisees went west and at Yavne began a consolidation of Judaism which
306
Mancini, 177.
307
Saunders, 204; cf. Baghatti; Mancini.
308
Sanh. 107b, (twice); 43a (four times); Sota 47a; Av. Zar. 16b-17a (twice); Taanit 27b; quoted in Pritz, Nazarene,
95. Pritz does not provide the full citations.
309
Pritz, Nazarene, 96f; Lawrence H. Schiffman, Who Was a Jew? Rabbinic and Halakhic Perspectives on Jewish
Christian Schism (Hoboken. NJ: Ktav Publishing House; 1985): 70; cf. B. Av. Zar. 16b-l7a, quoted in Pritz,
Nazarene, 96; T. Hullin 2:22-23, quoted in Schiffman, 69f. The dating is based on the appearance of R. Eliezer b.
Hyrkanos in the text. However, Pritz argues that the text is evocative of Roman persecution of Christians and may
therefore be placed around 109 C.E.
310
B Av. Zar. 16b-17a, quoted in Pritz, Nazarene, 96; T. Hullin 2:22-23, quoted in Schiffman, 69f. See earlier notes
for information on the dating of this text
311
B. Taanit 27b; cf. Pritz, Nazarene, 98-99.
312
cf. B. Gittin 57a, quoted in Pritz, Nazarene, 99-100.
313
B. Gittin 57, quoted in Pritz, Nazarene, 99-100. The village was considered to have become spiritually meshamud
(Heb. for apostate/traitorous).
314
Pritz, Nazarene, 101. Perhaps the Nazarene Jews, in light of Jesus‟ prophecy regarding the destruction of the
55
Jewish Christianity
eventually became Rabbinical Judaism. After the crisis of 70 C.E., the diversity of first-century
Judaism, which had included not only Pharisees, Sadducees, Essenes, Zealots, and no doubt
others, as well as Nazarene Jewish Christians, was no longer deemed acceptable. The Nazarenes,
as well as others, were quickly excluded. The Nazarenes went east and, rejecting the
consolidation begun at Yavne, engaged in evangelism among their Jewish brothers and sisters in
the synagogues.315
Along similar lines, there is evidence that the birkat ha-minim (a curse against apostates in the
twelfth Benediction of the shemoneh-esreh prayer in the daily aimidah) arose in response to the
evangelistic activities of Nazarene Jewish Christians such as the min Jacob of K‟far Sechania.
Most scholars now believe that the birkat ha-minim was composed sometime between 80 C.E.
and 95 C.E.316 Examination of fragments of the shemoneh-esreh prayer found at the Cairo
Geniza excavation in Egypt has demonstrated that the earliest versions of the twelfth Benediction
included the words: “may the nozrim [Nazarenes] and the minim [sectarians] perish in a
moment.”317 Based on this and other information, Pritz, Schiffman, and others argue that the
birkat ha-minim was originally developed in response to the Nazarene Jewish Christians.318
Along similar lines, it is instructive to note that the term minim, although in use before the origin
of Jewish Christianity, had always referred to Jews who see themselves as Jews, but who were
excluded by the rabbis.319 They were not considered non-Jews, but rather apostate Jews, in the
hope that they might someday return to the truth and be readmitted to the community.320
The Talmudic sources provide corroboration for several Patristic claims. They tend to reinforce
Epiphanius‟ claim that the term Nazarene was used to describe Jewish Christians generally in the
Temple, would not have taken its destruction quite as hard as their non-Nazarene brothers and sisters. Perhaps they
even used Jesus‟ prediction of the destruction of the Temple as evangelistic evidence. Certainly, later Gentiles saw it
this way: not only as a confirmation of Jesus prophecy but as punishment of the Jews for the crucifixion of Jesus.
315
316
B. Brach. 28b, quoted in Pritz, Nazarene, 104. B. Brach 25b records the following: “Said R. Gamaliel to the
Sages: „Can anyone among you frame a benediction relating to the minim?‟ Samuel the Lesser arose and composed
it.” Pritz notes that the elevation of Gamaliel to nasi and the death of Shmuel ha-qatan are known to have occurred
between the above dates, leading most scholars to agree on the date of this passage.
317
Soloman Schecter, “Geniza Specimens,” Jewish Quarterly Review 10 (1897/8): 654-659; J. Mann “Geniza
Fragments of the Palestinian Order of Service,” Hebrew Union College Annual 2 (1925), 306; cf. Pritz, Nazarene,
104; Meyers, 70.
318
Pritz, Nazarene, 104; Schiffman, 61.
319
Finkelstein, Louis. “The Development of the Amidah.” Jewish Quarterly Review 16 (1925-1926): 156.
320
Schiffman, 61. Schiffman notes: “It cannot be overemphasized that while the benediction against the minim
sought to exclude Jewish Christians from active participation in the synagogue service, it in no way implied
expulsion from the Jewish people. In fact, heresy, no matter how great, was ever seen as cutting the heretic‟s tie to
Judaism. Not even outright apostasy could overpower the balakhic criteria for Jewish identification. Indeed,
regardless of the transgressions of a Jew, he was a Jew under any and all circumstances, even though his rights
within halakah might be limited as a result of his actions.” The classification of Jewish Christians as non-Jews is a
relatively modem phenomenon.
56
Jewish Christianity
first century. They also generally support his arguments about the location of the Nazarene sect,
as well as Jerome‟s contention that the Nazarenes were in continued contact with and actively
involved in evangelism among their Jewish brothers and sisters in the synagogues. Finally, they
support Patristic claims that the Nazarenes were cursed in the synagogues by their Jewish
brethren.
The Pella Tradition
The Church Fathers Eusebius and Epiphanius both describe what has come to be called the Pella
Tradition. Eusebius mentions it once. Epiphanius mentions it three times in two different
documents.321 The core of the Pella Tradition has three parts: (1) the miraculous escape of the
Jewish Christian Community from Jerusalem; (2) their relocation to Pella in the Transjordan; and
(3) the subsequent fall of Jerusalem.322 Epiphanius adds their eventual return to Jerusalem prior
to 129 C.E.
Recently, some authorities have challenged the authenticity of the Pella tradition. Luedemann
offers several arguments against the tradition primarily on the basis of literary criticism. First, he
suggests that the sources of the tradition have a relatively late date of origin, dating back only to
the second century. Second, he asserts that the sources for the tradition all originate from the
vicinity of Pella. Third, he argues that there are few sources, limited to the writings of the Church
Fathers, and some of them depend upon others (e.g., he argues that Epiphanius depends on
Eusebius). Fourth, he contends that the tradition conflicts with assertions of second-century
sources that a Jewish-Christian congregation continued in Jerusalem after 70 C.E. Therefore,
Luedemann argues, the tradition probably was fabricated in the second century by the Jewish
Christian community in Pella to legitimize themselves based on apostolic authority.323
Brandon takes a more historical approach in his argument against the Pella tradition. First, he
argues that one would have expected that if the Jerusalem congregation had survived and some
bad returned to Jerusalem, the Jerusalem church would not have lost the preeminent authority
which it hold prior to 70 C.E. Second, he contends Pella would not have been a safe haven for
Jewish Christians, since Jewish Zealots had razed the town in 66 C.E., likely arousing the
inhabitants‟ animosity toward Jews of any stripe.324 Third, it suggests that it would have been
extremely difficult to leave Jerusalem, which was being guarded by Zealots on the inside and
surrounded by Roman siege lines on the outside.325
321
Eusebius, hist. eccl. 3.5.3 (PE, 139); Epiphanius, pan. 29.7.7-8 (PE, 173); 30.2.7 (PE, 177); Weights 15, quoted
in Craig Koester, “The Origin and Significance of the Flight to Pella Tradition,” The Catholic Bible Quarterly
51(1989): 93.
322
Koester, 91.
323
Luedemann. 200-210; cf. Koester, 105.
324
Josephus, War 2.457-460.
325
Raymond Pritz, “On Brandon‟s Rejection of the Pella Tradition,” Immanuel 13 (1981): 39-43.
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Jewish Christianity
The case for the historicity and orthodoxy of the Nazarenes does not directly depend on the
historicity of the Pella tradition. However, since most of the explicit information concerning the
Nazarenes comes from Epiphanius, any data which corroborates Epiphanius‟ claims about the
Nazarenes is helpful in establishing his credibility.
Koester has responded convincingly to Luedemann‟s argument, using several independent

sources to establish the historicity of the Pella tradition.326 First, there appears to be at least one
first-century source which supports the tradition, the New Testament evidence being stronger
than Luedemann allows. The Gospel according to Luke (21:20-22) appears to make implicit
reference to all three elements of the tradition:
20 “Then you see Jerusalem surrounded by armies, then know that its
desolation has come near.
21 Then those in Judea must flee to the mountains and those inside the city
must leave it, and those out in the country must not enter it,
22 for those are days of vengeance as a fulfillment of all that is written.”
If this assumption is true, then Luke‟s comment in verse 20 about Jerusalem being “surrounded
by armies” would refer to the fall of Jerusalem. Verse 21 would refer to the escape of
Jerusalem‟s Jewish Christian community. Verse 21 would also refer to the relocation of the
community to safety in the mountains. While Luke did not make explicit reference to Pella as the
relocation site, it is worth noting that Pella is located in the foothills of the Transjordan
highlands, consistent with Luke‟s account.327 While this does not prove that the tradition was
known in the first century, it does at least suggest it, making a first century date possible.
Second, Koester contends that in addition to Luke‟s account, there are independent attestations
of the tradition from several sources, not all from the Pella region. The Syriac version of the
Pseudo-Clementine Recognitions dating from the mid-second century also provides a strong
implicit reference to the tradition. This document referred to (1) a war which would occur after
the “coming of the true prophet,” during which unbelievers would be destroyed and expelled
from their places of sacrifice;328 (2) the redemption (and return) of those who “kept the law
without sacrifices;”329 and (3) their relocation to a “secure place of the land” so “that they might
survive and be preserved.”330 Koester argues that the references to war and destruction
correspond to the Pella traditions references to the fall of Jerusalem. The redemption of those
who “kept the law without sacrifice” parallels the tradition‟s flight of the Jewish Christian
community from the city. Finally, he suggests that the “secure place of land” was an implicit
326
Koester, 90-106.
327
Koester, 103f.
328
Recog. 137.19-47; cf. 2.39.3l-42; quoted in Koester, 98-99.
329
Recog. 1.37.36-37; quoted in Koester, 99.
330
Recog. 1.37.14-15; quoted in Koester, 98.
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Jewish Christianity
reference to the relocation to Pella.331 Koester argues that Eusebius learned of the tradition from
a source other than the Pseudo-Clementine Recognitions, since Eusebius made explicit reference
to Pella, while the Recognitions did not. Koester suggests that Eusebius‟ source was probably
Ariston of Pella. Epiphanius discussion of the tradition, Koester contends, can be demonstrated
to be independent of both Recognitions and Eusebius. Textual analyses of the passages show few
similarities and significant differences, and Epiphanius‟ description lacks the theological shaping
of either the Recognitions or the Eusebius account. Therefore, one cannot assume that
Epiphanius drew from a Pella source for his discussion of the Pella tradition.332
Third, there are a number of reasonable explanations why the Pella tradition is not clearly
attested in early Christian writings. None of the extant texts suggests that any of the Apostles
went to Pella. This would have removed any special status from those who went and returned
from Pella, since early Christian writers were more concerned with tracking the movements of
Apostles than those of individual congregations.333 Also, the Nazarenes‟ observance of the
ceremonial law (not to mention the heretical theology of the Ebionites) increasingly isolated
them from the greater Church.334 The story of the founding of a congregation which the greater
Church increasingly viewed as heretical would not have been a matter of general interest to
Christians.335
Finally, the traditions of a continuing Christian presence in Jerusalem after 70 C.E. do not
necessarily conflict with the Pella tradition. The tradition‟s claim that the entire community left
may be an overstatement or perhaps a large number from the community returned relatively
quickly after the fall of Jerusalem. On the basis of these arguments, Koester concludes that the
most likely explanation of the Pella tradition is that it is the memory of actual first century
events.
Responding to Brandon‟s objections, Pritz offers the following arguments in support of the Pella
Tradition. First, Brandon‟s argument against the tradition rests in part on the assumption that the
survival of the Jerusalem congregation would have ensured its continued preeminent position of
authority in the greater Church. However, Brandon overlooks the fact that in the primitive
Church authority rested not on place, but on relationship to Jesus, For example, James was not
the final authority because he was the bishop of Jerusalem; rather he was chosen bishop of
Jerusalem because of the authority he held by true of the fact that he was the brother of Jesus.
Brandon‟s argument for place-oriented authority looks for an anachronism: a concept of
“apostolic succession” that did not become a working reality until at least a century later.336
331
Koester, 101-103.
332
Koester, 105.
333
Koester, 105.
334
cf. pan. 29.7.5-7; Recog. 143.2; quoted in Koester, 106.
335
Koester, 106
336
Pritz, “Pella,” 40-41. Also, as noted above, early Christian writers were more concerned with tracking the
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Jewish Christianity
Second, Brandon‟s argument against the Pella tradition rests on the assumption that the town
would not have been a safe refuge for any Jews, even Jewish Christians, due to the fact that it
had been sacked – along with several other Syrian towns – by Jewish Zealots during the war.
However, Josephus‟ Jewish Wars provides evidence which refutes this assumption and provides
support for the notion of Pella as a city of refuge for Jewish Christians. Josephus noted that the
local Jewish population of several of the cities stood alongside their Gentile neighbors,
attempting to repel the attacking Zealots.337 He also recorded that the inhabitants of one of the
cities had protected and supported their Jewish neighbors.338 So it is by no means certain that the
Jewish Christian refugees from Jerusalem would have been denied refuge by the inhabitants of
Pella. Furthermore, Pritz suggests that it was likely that Pella contained a large community of
Greek Christians, who would have been much more likely to have provided refuge for the Jewish
Christian refugees than would a community composed entirety of non-Christian Gentiles.339
Finally, Brandon‟s argument against the Pella tradition rests on the assumption that it would
have been impossible for the Jerusalem congregation to escape the city while it was under siege.
On the contrary, Josephus provides confirmation of a number of such large escapes taking place
right up until the end of the siege. Many of the leaders of the city escaped in 66 C.E.340 Four
separate escapes occurred during the winter of 67-62 C.E. (before Pesach),341 one of which
included 2,000 people.342 Another four escapes occurred in 70 C.E.,343 one of which included the
chief priests and the aristocracy.344 Not until the Temple was burned did Titus forbid further
desertions,345 yet even after this decree 40,000 inhabitants of Jerusalem turned themselves in to
the Romans and were allowed to go free.346 On the basis of the above arguments and the
evidence from Josephus, Pritz argues that first-century Jewish Christians did, in fact, escape
Jerusalem and flee to Pella.
Conclusions
Although the Pella tradition has been the subject of some criticism of late, its historicity appears
to be strengthened by data from several sources. These sources include the Gospel according to
movements of Apostles than those of individual congregations.

337
Pritz, “Pella,” 41-42; cf. War. 2:466-468; quoted in Flavius Josephus, The Works of Josephus, translated by
William Wiston (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1987): 627.
338
Pritz, “Pella,” 41-42; cf. War. 2.450; quoted in Josephus, 628.
339
Pritz, “Pella,” 42.
340
Pritz, “Pella,” 43; cf. War. 2.538, quoted in Josephus, 631; 2.556, quoted in Josephus, 633.
341
Pritz, “Pella,” 43; cf. War. 4.353, quoted in Josephus, 681; 4.377ff, quoted in Josephus, 682; 4,397, quoted in
Josephus, 683; 4.410, quoted in Josephus, 681.
342
Pritz, “Pella,” 43; cf. War. 4.353, quoted in Josephus, 681.
343
Pritz, “Pella,” 43; cf. War. 5.4201ff, quoted in Josephus, 718f; 5.446-450, quoted in Josephus, 720; 5.551ff,
quoted in Josephus, 720; 6.113-115, quoted in Josephus, 732f.
344
Pritz, “Pella,” 43; cf. War. 6.113-I 15, quoted in Josephus, 732f.
345
Pritz, “Pella,” 43; cf. War. 6.352, quoted in Josephus, 745.
346
Pritz, “Pella,” 43; cf. War. 6.383-386, quoted in Josephus, 747.
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Luke, the Pseudo-Clementine Recognitions, Josephus‟ Jewish Wars, and the likely non-Patristic
sources of Eusebius and Epiphanius.
This chapter has succeeded in corroborating the Church Fathers on several points. The
archaeological data tends to support the Patristic evidence that the Nazarenes and the Ebionites
existed through the fourth century. The testimony of the Church Fathers regarding the location of
the Nazarenes and Ebionites in the area around Pella and Kochaba receives support from the
archaeological data, the Talmudic data, and the Pseudo-Clementine Recognitions. Similarly, the
tradition of the flight of the Jewish Christian community from Jerusalem to Pella receives
support from the archaeological data, the Pseudo-Clementine Recognitions, and from Josephus‟
Jewish Wars. The Talmudic sources also provide corroboration for several other claims,
including Epiphanius‟ contention that the term “Nazarene” was used to describe Jewish
Christians generally in the first century; Jerome‟s assertion that the Nazarenes were in continued
contact with and actively involved in evangelism among synagogue Jews; and claims that the
Nazarenes were cursed in the synagogues. All of these factors tend to lend credibility to the
testimonies of the Church Fathers, particularly Epiphanius and Jerome, about the Nazarenes.
On the other band, the archaeological data suggests that Jewish Christianity was far more
prevalent over a longer period of time than the Church Fathers seem to allow. Despite the
controversial nature of some of the archaeological data, it is clear that Jewish Christianity was at
one time the dominant expression of the Christian Church in Palestine, remaining so until
perhaps the time of Constantine and the arrival of Byzantine Christians. The archaeological data
suggests that Jewish Christianity was active through the fourth century, then fell into period of
decline, but may have hung onto existence for at least another century before fading out of
existence. Therefore, while the archaeological data tends to dispute the Church Fathers on this
point, it does support the thesis that Jewish Christian groups were in existence through at least
the fourth century.
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62
Jewish Christianity
CHAPTER SIX:
FROM ACCEPTANCE THROUGH AMBIVALENCE TO ANTIPATHY:
THE CHANGING ATIITUDE OF THE CHURCH FATHERS
TOWARDS JEWISH CHRISTIANITY
It is clear that the Church‟s attitude towards Jewish Christianity changed significantly over the
first four centuries. The attitudes of the first century Apostles were generally tolerant of Jewish
Christianity, taking it to be acceptable, if not normative. The second century was a time of
transformation in which Jewish Christianity rapidly became the exception rather than the rule,
considered a valid, if archaic, expression of Christianity. However, by the time of the third and
fourth century, the Church Fathers appear to view any expression of Jewish Christianity,
regardless of the theology behind it, as heretical. This change in attitude represented a massive
reversal of opinion. It evolved over several centuries, shaped by a variety of complex and
interconnected forces. This chapter will attempt to describe both the outward content of the
change and the forces that shaped it. In view of the paucity of sources, such a general history of
the changing attitude of the Church Fathers toward Jewish Christianity can only be sketchy and
provisional at best. Nonetheless, even such a provisional history may he helpful in understanding
how the Church could have moved from an exclusively Jewish Christian institution to an
institution that excluded Jewish Christians.
In the Beginning: A Jewish Christian Church
It is clear that at its beginning the Church was a Jewish Christian phenomenon: all of its
members were Jews. That the controversy dealt with by the First Church Council at Jerusalem
was whether a person could become a follower of Jesus without first effectively converting to
Judaism (i.e., without observing the ceremonial law) indicates that the majority opinion in the
earliest Church was that Jewish Christianity was the norm and that an exception was being made
for Gentile Christians. That the Apostles wore generally supportive of Jewish Christianity should
not come as a surprise, as they were themselves Jewish Christians. Jewish Christianity was the
conservative practice in the earliest Church. Paul‟s idea – that the Gentiles not be required to
observe the ceremonial law – was a liberal, if not radical, concept. However, the Apostles
evidently found Paul‟s arguments persuasive and agreed that the requirements of the Law would
not be laid upon Gentile Christians.347 It is important to note that the Jerusalem Decree
represented a compromise which went deeper than merely dividing up the evangelistic work
between Paul and the “pillar Apostles.” The agreement not only committed the Jewish Christian
347
Acts 15:4-30; cf. Gal. 2:4, 11-12.
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Church in Jerusalem to respect Paul‟s law-free mission to the Gentiles; it also committed Paul
and his Gentile churches to respect the right of the Jewish Christian church to observe the
ceremonial law.348
Even Paul‟s attitude towards Judaism and Jewish Christianity may have been more open than is
popularly believed. In none of Paul‟s letters does he ever describe himself as a convert from
Judaism.349 Rather, it appears that Paul believed faith in Christ to be the true successor of the
faith of Abraham.350 It can be argued from Paul‟s own statements that he may have been willing
to observe the ceremonial law in his dealings with Jews, if by such means he might win them to
Christ.351 Furthermore, it appears that Paul was willing to require that Gentile converts observe
Jewish ethics.352 Paul does not object to Jewish Christians, but to “Judaizers” (those who
attempted to persuade Gentile Christians that the observance of the ceremonial law was
necessary for salvation). He did not appear to object to Jewish Christians engaging in ritual
practice, as long as they did not believe that it was necessary for their own salvation or anyone
else‟s.353 It is also instructive on this point that in Paul‟s letter to the Romans he struggles
mightily with and yet is unable to resolve the problem of what will become of the majority of his
Jewish brothers and sisters who have not accepted Jesus as the Messiah. While he recognizes that
Jesus is the name by which people are saved, he also recognizes that God‟s promises of salvation
to the Jewish people cannot be broken. So he continues to try to persuade them, but leaves their
ultimate fate to God.354
Clashing Cultures: The Church in Transition
Even as early as the latter half of the first century, forces were coming into play that pushed the
Church away from its acceptance of Jewish Christianity as a normative expression of
Christianity. The influence of culture permeated the issue from beginning to end. It is clear that a
348
Craig C. Hill, Hellenists and Hebrews: Reassessing Division within the Earliest Church (Minneapolis: Fortress
Press, 1992): 146-l47.
349
Gal 1:15ff; cf. Phil. 3:4ff. In Paul‟s own account of his coming to faith in Christ, he never calls himself a
proselyte nor does he use the term conversion to describe his experience. Rather, he speaks of his experience as a
calling. Even in his letter to the Philippians, in which he accounts all of his achievements as a devout Jew as loss and
irrelevant to his salvation, he does not renounce his Jewishness or speak of himself as an ex-Jew.
350
Rom 4:1ff; cf. Patrick J. Hartin, “Jewish Christianity: Focus on Antioch in the First Century,” Scriptura 36
(1991): 50.
351
1 Cor. 9:19ff; cf. Acts 21:23-26. The Acts passage, in which Paul agrees to observe the purification rituals while
in Jerusalem, is historically problematic. However, in 1 Cor. 9:19ff Paul proclaims his willingness to be as a Gentile
to Gentiles and as a Jew to Jews. While open to various interpretations, this does allow the possibility that Paul was
willing to observe the law occasionally, as a means to and end: winning Jews to Christ. (See Chapter I, note 15 for a
more complete discussion of this issue.)
352
Carras, “Jewish Ethics,” 306-315.
353
Rom. 14:5f; cf. Roger T. Beckwith. “The Origin of the Festivals Easter and Whitsun,” Studia Liturgica 13(1979):
7-8. Beckwith argues that Paul allowed Jewish Christians to observe Jewish festivals privately.
354
Rom. 9-11.
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large part of the conflict between the greater Church and Jewish Christianity was a conflict
between two cultures: Hellenist and Hebrew.355 Clearly, the changing ethnographic balance of
the Church had a significant impact on this issue. The earliest Church was almost exclusively
composed of Jewish Christians. Christians of Gentile origin were few in number. From the
account in the Book of the Acts of the First Jerusalem Council, it is clear that Paul‟s Hellenistic
Christian churches were in the minority, struggling to maintain the position that they need not
become Jews in order to become Christians. It is clear from the response of the Apostles that
their disposition of the controversy is in the nature of a compromise, with the majority (the
Jewish Christian church of Jerusalem) granting the minority (Paul‟s Hellenistic churches) an
exception from the norm.356 However, by the end of the first century the ethnic composition of
the Church had undergone a massive reversal, becoming predominantly Gentile. A variety of
external conditions worked to the advantage of the Gentile Churches and to the disadvantage of
the Jewish Christians. The two Jewish wars, the destruction of Jerusalem, and the exodus of
much of the Jewish Christian community from Jerusalem along with their Jewish brothers and
sisters, as well as their expulsion from Rome, preoccupied Jewish Christianity at a critical time,
suppressing their development even as the Gentile church flourished. Even so, the Jewish
Christian church of Jerusalem had maintained relatively undisputed authority among Christians
in Palestine until 135 C.E.357
At that time, a majority of the Jewish Christian community, along with its leaders, left Jerusalem
along with their Jewish brothers and sisters under the expulsion order of Hadrian. After 135 C.E.,
the church in Jerusalem quickly became a predominantly Gentile Church, with a Hellenistic
hierarchy and bishop. From that time onward, the leadership of the Jerusalem church was in the
hands of Gentile and mostly non-native bishops. The loss of the See of Jerusalem at this critical
lime no doubt had significant negative influence on the ability of the Jewish Christians to project
their authority.358 A great number of those Jewish Christians who had left Jerusalem under
Hadrian‟s expulsion order evidently returned again very quickly.359 However, they were now out
of power and in the minority. Coincident with the shift in demographics, the fortunes of the two
ethnic groups within the Church had reversed. By the time of Justin in the middle of the second
century, it is clear that the Hellenistic position, once a tolerated minority view, would become the
355
Hill, 103ff. However it must also be noted that this distinction is often overemphasized – by the first century
many Jews, especially of the Diaspora, had already become significantly “Hellenized,” though still Law-observant.
356
Acts 15:4-30.
357
Eusebius, hist. eccl. 5.12.1-2. Eusebius enumerates the “bishops of the circumcision” as follows: “The first was
James, called the brother of the Lord; after him came Simeon; the third was Justus; the fourth Zaccheus; the fifth
Tobias; the sixth Benjamin; the seventh John; the eighth Matthias; the ninth Philip; the tenth Seneca; the eleventh
Joseph and the fifteenth and last Jude.”
358
Cf. Eusebius, hist. eccl. 4.6.4.
359
Cf. Epiphanius, pan. 29.7.7. (PE, 173). Although a majority of the community fled to Pella of the Decapolis
during the war of 70 C.E., they quickly returned. Evidently, however, the entire community did not return as
indicated by the continued presence of Jewish Christians in the area of Pella until at least the end of the fourth
century.
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dominant one.360 It would now be the Jewish Christian churches which would have to defend the
position that they need not become Gentiles in order to remain Christians. It seems an
unfortunate fact of human nature that the majority generally assumes that its positions and
practices are normative and correct, and tends to impose them on the minority.
The First Easter Controversy
One source of conflict between the Gentile and Jewish Christians in Palestine was the date of the
celebration of Easter. Prior to 135 C.E., the predominantly Jewish Christian church in Palestine,
along with most of the churches of Asia Minor, celebrated Easter on the 14th day of Nisan
(therefore, they were called Quartodecimans). Although they celebrated the Christian Pascha on
the same day as the Jews celebrated Pesach (Passover), they did not celebrate it in exactly the
same way. They read the biblical Passover stories, but interpreted then in a Christian light. While
the Jews awaited the arrival of the Messiah, the Jewish Christians awaited his return. In place of
the traditional Passover meal, they fasted until the early morning, when they would break the fast
with a Eucharist. The fast was both a commemoration of the death of Jesus as the true paschal
lamb and a vicarious fast on behalf of the Jews who put him to death.361
Around 135 C.E., the Gentile leadership of the Jerusalem church decided to shift the celebration
of Easter to the Sunday after the 14th of Nisan. Wilson argues that this was, at least in part, a
deliberate move to dissociate Christianity from Judaism, a move colored with anti-Jewish
altitudes. Disputes over the date of Easter would continue to erupt over the next several centuries
and anti-Jewish attitudes would continue to be one of the many forces at work in these
controversies.362
Jewish Christianity on the Defensive
By the time of Justin Martyr in the mid-second century, it is apparent that another shift has
occurred. In his Dialogue with Trypho the Jew, written after 155 C.E., Justin refers to Jewish
Christians, or, as he describes them, those who wish to observe such institutions as were given
by Moses…along with their hope in Christ…yet choose to live with the Christians and the
faithful. He makes the case that the ceremonial law has become impracticabe, at least in part, due
to the destruction of the temple, and that it is of no importance. However, he admits that Jews
who follow Christ may choose to observe such rituals without detriment to their own salvation as
long as they do not impose them upon Gentile Christians by representing them as necessary for
salvation.363 Justin even goes so far as to say that even if a Gentile convert were, at the
360
Dial. 47.4
361
Eusebius, hist. eccl. 5.24.24 14-16; Epiphanius, pan. 70.9-10; Didascalia 21; cf. S. G. Wilson, “Passover, Easter,
and Anti-Judaism,” chap. in To See Ourselves as Others See Us”: Christians Jews, “Others” in Late Antiquity, ed.
Jacob Neusner and Ernest S. Frerichs (Chico, CA: Scholars Press, 1955): 340.
362
Eusebius, hist. eccl. 4-6.4; Epiphanius, pan. 70.9-10; cf. Wilson, 340f.
363
Dial. 47.1-3, quoted in Pritz, Nazarene, 19f; cf. Acts 15:1-24. Note the similarities to the Jerusalem formula of
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instigation of a Jewish Christian, to submit to the ceremonial law, the convert would still be
saved.364 Following the ceremonial law was only dangerous if it led a person to return to
normative Judaism and to reject Jesus as the Messiah.365 Justin saw following the Jewish rituals
as perhaps ineffective, but certainly not sinful or heretical. It was Justin‟s belief that the Church
should join itself with Jewish Christians “and associate with them in all things as kinsmen and
brethren.”366
Yet it is clear that by Justin‟s time things have changed. While Justin‟s position would have been
close to the conservative point of view in the first century, by the middle of the second century it
had become a liberal point of view. In fact, Justin acknowledges that there are increasing
numbers of Christians who are less tolerant than he is on the issue of Jewish ritual, who refuse to
speak to Jewish-Christians, and who deny that they have any hope of salvation.367 While in the
first century it was the Hellenistic Christians who had, with some difficulty, gained acceptance
from the Jewish Christian majority of a law-free Christianity for Gentiles, it was now Jewish
Christians who were struggling for acceptance, and perhaps even survival. In retrospect, it is
clear that in Justin‟s day the Church reached a turning point in its attitude toward Jewish
Christianity. Although Jewish Christianity was still within the greater Church, it is clear that a
shift in attitude had begun which would eventually result in the complete excommunication of
Jewish Christianity.
The Easter Controversy Continued: Anti-Judaism and Politics
Issues surrounding the celebration of Easter continued to be a source of controversy beyond

Justin‟s day. Around 167 C.E. Bishop Melito of Sardis composed an Easter homily.368 Melito‟s
Homily is illustrative of the attitudes which colored the relationship between the Gentile and
Jewish churches. Although Melito may have been a Quartodeciman himself, he appeared to be
under heavy pressure to distinguish the Christian and Jewish festivals.369 In his reply, he does so
in several ways. In the first part of the Homily, he makes extreme supercessionary claims,
appropriating not only the Passover but all of Israel‟s traditions to the Church and denying them
to Israel.370 All of the possessions of Israel – the People, the Law, the Holy City, the Temple, and
the previous century.

364
Dial. 47.4, quoted in Pritz, Nazarene, 19f.
365
Dial. 47.4ff, quoted in Fritz, Nazarene, 19f.
366
Dial. 47, quoted in Pritz, Nazarene, 19f.
367
Dial. 47.4, quoted in Pritz, Nazarene, 19f.
368
Melito, Homily on the Passion, quoted in Wilson, “Passover, Easter, and Anti-Judaism,” 343-347. Melito‟s
Homily is the earliest known Easter homily. (Hereafter, quotes from Wilson‟s text shall be referred to by the initials
PEAJ.)
369
Eusebius, hist. eccl. 5.24.2-6; cf. Wilson, 350.
370
Hom. 1.224-244; 2.255-279 (PEAJ, 344); cf. Wilson, 345f.
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the Covenant – now belonged to the Church.371 With the appearance of the “reality” (Christ), the
“model” (Israel) is “useless…abolished…worthless…made void.”372 Judaism is now defunct.
The second part of the Homily dealt with the Fall and its effects: sin and death. The third part
dealt with Christ‟s death.373 However, although some of the text deals with the benefits of
Christ‟s death in overcoming sin and death,374 the majority of the text is an emotional indictment
of Israel for the crime of deicide: the killing of their God.375
An unprecedented murder has occurred in the middle of Jerusalem,

in the city of the law,
in the city of the Hebrews,
in the city of the prophets,
in the city accounted just.376
He who hung the earth is hanging;

he who fixed the heavens has been fixed;
he who fastened the universe has been fastened to a tree;
he Sovereign has boon insulted;
the God has been murdered;
the King of Israel has been put to death by an Israelite right hand.377
Melito accused all of Israel, making no distinction between leader and people, between
Palestinian and diaspora Jews, between past and present Jews. He accused them not merely of
blindness, but of malevolence: rejecting Jesus precisely because he was just and
compassionate,378 and joyfully celebrating the Passover while he died.379 In rejecting Christ, they
rejected God, their election as the people of God, and their salvation. In doing so they earned
God‟s rejection, and the punishment of bitterness and death.380 The guilt of the Jews is
intensified further by the absence of any mention of Pilate and the Romans in connection with
Christ‟s death.
In Melito‟s thinking the very existence of Jews was an implicit challenge to Christianity‟s
appropriation of the traditions of Israel. Affirmation of Christian belief meant the denial of the
371
Hom. 2.280-300 (PEAJ, 345); cf. Wilson, 345f.
372
Hom. 1.224-244; 2.255-279 (PEAJ, 344); cf. Wilson, 345f.
373
Wilson, 346.
374
Hom. 2.763-804 (PEAJ, 346); cf. Wilson, 346ff.
375
Hom. 2.551-762 (PEAJ, 346); cf. Wilson 346ff. Wilson notes that this homily has earned Melito the title “The
First Poet of Deicide.”
376
Hom. 2.693-697 (PEAJ. 347); cf. Wilson, 348.
377
Hom. 2.711-716 (PEAJ, 347); cf. Wilson, 348.
378
Hom. 2.505f, 545f (PEAJ, 348); cf. cf. Wilson, 348.
379
Hom. 2.566f (PEAJ, 348); cf. Wilson, 348.
380
Hom. 2.680f; 744f (PEAJ, 348); cf. Wilson, 348.
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equivalent Jewish belief.381 The fact that he traveled to Palestine for consultation on the Hebrew
Bible, rather than consulting members of the sizeable Jewish population on Sardis underscores
his antipathy toward Judaism.382 If some members of his congregation were abandoning
Christianity in favor of Judaism, as some early documents suggest, this would have only
intensified the threat he felt from Judaism.383 This powerful current of anti-Judaism, even as
expressed by a Quartodeciman such as Melito, goes a long way toward explaining the growing
antipathy of the Gentile Church toward Jewish Christians, who claimed to follow Christ but who
observed the Law. In many ways, the existence of Jewish Christians would have been even more
abhorrent to supersessionist thinkers than the existence of synagogue Jews, since their very
existence as Christians who remain Jews (rather than giving up their Jewishness) would negate
his supercessionary theology.
By the end of the second century, there is evidence of open dispute between the Hellenistic
church authorities in Jerusalem, under Bishop Narcissus and his successor, Bishop Alexander,
and the Jewish Christians.384 Again, the controversy was over the dating of Easter. Despite the
earlier introduction of the practice of celebrating Easter on the Sunday after the 14th of Nisan, the
Gentile and Jewish churches in Palestine continued to celebrate Easter on two different dates.
The churches associated with Rome observed it on a Sunday (calculated independently of the
14th of Nisan). The Jewish Christian churches along with most of the other churches of Asia
Minor (which were Gentile Christian congregations) still observed it on the 14th of Nisan.385
The diversity of dates for the celebration of Easter created a good deal of confusion among the
churches. The confusion was even most pronounced in those areas, such as Palestine, which at
the same time contained different churches associated with both traditions. In 196 C.E. Bishop
Victor of Rome, perceiving such public disagreement as unseemly, moved to enforce
uniformity.386 A move towards uniformity was not in itself undesirable to the parties involved.
However, the way in which he moved to achieve that goal suggests ulterior motives. He ordered
that regional synods be held at which a unified date for the celebration of Easter would be
promulgated. The Palestinian synod was held at Caesarea. Only Gentile bishops associated with
Rome were in attendance. Whether the Jewish Christian bishops were purposely omitted or
381
Wilson, 349.
382
Eusebius, hist. eccl. 4.26.14 (PEAJ, 351); cf. Wilson 351.
383
Ignatius, phil. 6.1 (PEAJ, 351); cf. Wilson 351.
384
Eusebius, hist. eccl. 5.23.5; 5.24.2-6; quoted in Bagatti, 80.
385
Wilson, 339; Bagatti, 80; Beckwith, 1ff. Both sides of the dispute had good reasons for their traditions. The
Roman churches preferred Sunday because that was the day on which Christ‟s Resurrection occurred. The Jewish
Christians and other Quartodecimans preferred the 14th of Nisan because, according to the Gospel of John, that was
the date on which the paschal lamb was sacrificed and when Christ‟s Crucifixion occurred. The actual origins of
Easter are shrouded in obscurity. The Jewish Christian practice of Quartodecimanism was probably the more ancient
of the Iwo, depending on the apostolic authority of John for us origin.
386
C. J. Hefele, A History of the Councils of the Church, Vol. 1, To AD 325 (Edinburgh, T. & T. Clark, 1871): 80ff;
cf. Wilson, 343.
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chose not to attend cannot be determined from available evidence. What is known is that Jewish
Christian opinions on the subject were not heard. Not surprisingly, the Palestinian synod decided
upon the Western usage. Understandably, the attempts of Bishop Narcissus and his successor
Bishop Alexander, to implement this change met with considerable resistance from Jewish
Christians.387 Clement of Alexandria records that Alexander had to appeal to him for assistance
in defending the change.388 Eventually, the issue was dropped without resolution. From his heavy
handed attempt to promulgate the Roman usage, it would appear that Victor‟s motives may have
included the assertion of the primacy of Rome.389 From the exclusion of Jewish Christian
representatives from the synod it would appear to represent at least a power struggle between the
Gentile and Jewish Christian communities, and perhaps an expression of the anti-Judaistic
sentiment which was continuing to grow within the Gentile church.390
Irenaeus and the Ebionites: The First Excommunications
By the beginning of the third century the excommunication of Jewish Christianity had begun in
fact. Writing around the same time as the synod of Caesarea was dealing with the dispute over
the date of Easter, Irenaeus began the process of excommunicating the Jewish Christians by
declaring the Ebionites to be heretical, although not on the basis of the practice of the Law.
Rather, Irenaeus judged them on the basis of their theology to have rejected God by their own
beliefs: “not receiving God so as to have union with him.”391
Irenaeus was no doubt correct in placing the Ebionites outside the Church. Their theology was
heretical, they rejected apostolic authority, and they rejected large portions of the scripture. But
the excommunication of the Ebionites was problematic for a different reason. By the middle of
the third century, there is evidence of a growing tendency on the part of the Church Fathers to
confuse the various Jewish Christian groups and lump them together under the name Ebionite,
regardless of their actual doctrines.392 This tendency was no doubt a result of the continually
decreasing contact between the Gentile and Jewish churches, as the geographic center of
authority shifted away from Jerusalem. It seems inevitable that the increasing distance (both
geographic and social) between the Gentile Church Fathers and Jewish Christianity would
increase the likelihood that the Church Fathers might misunderstand Jewish Christian practices
and beliefs. This unfortunate trend would continue into the next century and beyond. 393 Only
three of the Church Fathers (Origen, Epiphanius, and Jerome) actually wrote from Palestine, and
387
Bagatti, 80f; Wilson 339f.
388
See Bagatti, 10.
389
Wilson, 343.
390
Wilson, 343.
391
adv. haer. 5.1.3 (PE, 107); cf. 4.33.4 (PE, 107).
392
Origen, c. Celsum 5.61 (PE, 135); cf. 5.65; in Matth. 16.12 (PE, 131).
393
Eusebius, Onomas. 172.1-3 (PE, 151).
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even they appeared to have had little social contact with the Jewish Christian groups of which
they wrote.
Nicaea and the Easter Decree: The Axe is Raised
In the third and fourth centuries there is evidence of continuing disputes over Easter and
increasing hostility towards those who, like the Jewish Christians, combined Jewish and
Christian practices.394 Earlier in the life of the Church, while the Church was still immersed in
the battle with paganism and still faced persecution under the Roman Empire, there appeared to
be a far greater tolerance for diversity.395 By the beginning of the fourth century, the Church no
longer under persecution and having won its battle with paganism (or at least achieved a
beachhead), was freed to focus on its own organization. There was a strong desire to reorganize
the Church in the interests of promoting visible unity. The leaders of the greater Church, by and
large, had come to view Jewish practices and traditions as one of the major causes of division in
the Church.
The Council of Nicaea, held in 325 C.E., is perhaps most widely known for its denunciation of
Arianism. Less widely known, but of pivotal significance to the fate of Jewish Christianity, are
its actions concerning the date of the celebration of Easter. There was no detailed record made of
the actual debates on this subject. However, the decree of the Council on the subject, along with
Emperor Constantine‟s accompanying letter, shed some light on the attitudes behind the
decision. Excerpts from both the decree of the Council of Nicaea and Emperor Constantine‟s
letter follow in order.
From the decree:
All the brethren who are in the East who formerly celebrated Easter with the Jews
who from ancient times have celebrated the feast at the same time as the Romans,
with us and with all those who from ancient times have celebrated the feast at the
same time as us.396
From Constantine‟s letter
When the question relative to the sacred festival of Easter arose, it was universally
thought that it would be convenient that all should keep it on one day; for what
could be more beautiful and desirable than to see this festival, through which we
394
Wilson, 341, Bagatti, 86f.
395
Witness Justin Martyr‟s tolerant attitudes towards Jewish Christians and the attempts of Apologists generally to
define and defend Christianity in terms understandable to those of other points of view. On the other hand, it could
be argued that this may not reflect tolerance so much as necessity.
396
Nicaea, Canon 20; Wilson, 341; cf. Norman P. Tanner, ed., Decrees of the Ecumenical Councils. Vol. 1, Nicaea I
to Lateran V (Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 1990): 19.
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receive the hope of immortality, celebrated by all in one accord, and in the same
manner? It was declared to be particularly unworthy for this, the holiest of all
festivals, to follow the custom (the calculation) of the Jews, who had soiled their
hands with the most fearful of crimes, and whose minds were blinded. In rejecting
their custom, we may transmit to our descendants the legitimate mode of
celebrating Easter, which we have observed from the time of the Savior‟s Passion
to the present day (according to the day of the week). We ought not therefore to
have anything in common with the Jews, for the Savior has shown us another
way: our worship follows a more legitimate and more convenient course (the
order of the days of the week); and consequently, in unanimously adopting this
mode, we desire dearest brethren to separate ourselves from the detestable
company of the Jews, for it is truly shameful for us to hear them boast that
without their direction they could not keep this feast?...How, then, could we
follow these Jews, who are most certainly blinded by error?...But even if this were
not so, it would still be your duty not to tarnish your soul by communications with
such wicked people (the Jews). Besides, consider well, that in such an important
matter, and on a subject of such great solemnity, there ought not to be any
division. Our Savior has left us only one festal day of our redemption, that is to
say, of His holy passion, and He desired (to establish) only one Catholic Church.
Think, then, how unseemly it is, that on the same day some should be fasting,
while others are seated at the banquet; and that after Easter, some should be
rejoicing at feasts, while others are still observing a strict fast. For this reason,
Divine Providence wills that this custom should be rectified and regulated in a
uniform way; and everyone, I hope will agree upon this point. As, on the one
hand, it is our duty not to have anything in common with the murderers of our
Lord, and as, on the other, the custom now followed by the Churches of the West,
of the South, and of the North, and by some of the East, is the most acceptable, it
has appeared good to all…You should consider not only that the number of
churches in these provinces make a majority, but also that it is right to demand
what reason approves, and that we should have nothing in common with the
Jews.397
The Quartodeciman practice of celebrating Easter on the 14th of Nisan was now banned. Only the
Roman practice of the Sunday celebration of Easter was to be allowed. Taken together, the
decree and the accompanying letter illustrate the complex motives behind the decision: from
well-intentioned theological and pastoral considerations to political considerations, to outright
anti-Jewish altitudes.398 On the one hand, they illustrate a desire to overcome confusion and
397
Eusebius, vita Const. 3.18-20, quoted in Hefele, Vol. 1, and 323f.
398
Cf. Chrysostom, Jud. 2-3; chron. pasch. 6-7 (PEAJ, 342); Aphrahat, Dem. 3, 12 (PEAJ, 342); Wilson, 342.
Wilson argues that the attitudes expressed in the Nicene decree and the accompanying letter from Constantine were
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disunity, these are valid concerns, especially when they concern the primary festal day of the
Church. Secondly, they demonstrate that the supercessionary theology expressed by Melito of
Sardis was still current at the time of Nicaea. If such a theology is accepted (if Christ fulfills,
supersedes, and nullifies Israel), then it would be unacceptable for the Church to be in the
position of having the date of its most holy day set by the leaders of the Jews, putting
Christianity in a position of dependence relative to Judaism.399
On the other hand, these documents demonstrate that strong anti-Jewish altitudes lay behind the
decision. Constantine repeatedly argued that the Church should have nothing to do with the Jews,
whom he variously accused of being sinful, criminal, blind, detestable; and wicked. Furthermore,
he repeats Melito of Sardis‟ charges of deicide, accusing the Jews of being the “murderers of our
Lord.”400 That Constantine also had the political motive to unify the Roman Empire through the
use of common religious practices goes without saying.
The argument can be made that this decision expressed an antipathy to Jewish Christianity that
was perhaps even stronger than that held against the synagogue Jews. Jacob Neusner argues that
by the fourth century the confrontation between Christianity and Judaism had ceased to be a
direct discussion. Rather, each used the other for polemical purposes, framing their respective
discussions in terms irrelevant to the other party. Neusner argues that the debate at Nicaea was
not framed in terms with which synagogue Jews would have been familiar.401 Rather, it was
aimed at those within the Church, like the Jewish Christians, who tried to hold onto the traditions
of both Judaism and Christianity. Evidence that the decision was aimed against the Jewish
Christianity can also be seen in the records of who attended the council. Simply stated, the
Jewish Christians were not invited. Of the 318 fathers at the Council of Nicaea, 402 only 18 were
from Palestine and these were Gentile bishops representing only the coastal cities.403 No Jewish
typical of the attitudes surrounding the Easter controversies, running from supersessionist theologies, through denial
of the legality of the Jewish Passover, to outright vilification.”
399
Wilken, Robert L. “The Restoration of Israel in Biblical Prophecy: Christian and Jewish Responses in the Early
Byzantine Period,” chap. in “To See Ourselves as Others See Us:” Christians, Jews, “Others” in Late Antiquity, ed.
Jacob Neusner and Ernest S. Frerichs (Chico, CA: Scholars Press, 1985): 466f. Wilken notes that this was a
common idea in the theology of the time, expressed by Theodoret, Jerome, and others. In fairness, it should also be
noted that anti-Judaism in early Christianity did not spring up in a vacuum. Christian anti-Judaism arose, at least in
part, as a defensive response to active criticism of the Church among the Jews.
400
Eusebius, vita Const. 3.18-20, quoted in Hefele, Vol. 1, 324.
401
Jacob Neusner, Judaism and Christianity in the Age of Constantine: History, Messiah, Israel, and the Initial
Confrontation (Chicago: University of Chicago Press: 1987): 143; cf. Gerald Bonnet; Review of Judaism and
Christianity in the Age of Constantine: History, Messiah, Israel, and the Initial Confrontation, by Jacob Neusner, in
Theology 92 (January, 1989): 54-56.
402
Norman P. Tanner, ed., Decrees of the Ecumenical Councils. Vol. 1, Nicaea I to Lateran V (Washington, DC:
Georgetown University Press, 1990): 1. Tanner notes that 318 is the traditional figure given by Hilary of Poitiers.
Others recorded figures ranging from 250 to more than 300.
403
Bagatti, 86f.
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Jewish Christianity
Christians were in attendance, even though Jewish Christian bishops were still in existence at the
time.404
The decree of Nicaea notwithstanding, the Quartodeciman practice did not immediately cease
even in the Gentile churches. Bagatti argues that the Jewish Christians would have resisted this
decision vehemently, not only because of the way it was accomplished, but because they
believed that the 14th of Nisan date was fixed by the Lord.405 Therefore, when the Church
Fathers reunited 16 years later for the Synod of Antioch, they decreed in their first canon that
those who continued to follow the Jewish Christian practice would face excommunication:
All those who do not observe the decision respecting the holy festival of Easter
made by the holy and great Synod of Nicaea, assembled in the presence of the
most pious Emperor Constantine, are to be excommunicated and cut off from the
Church if they continue obstinate in rejecting the legal rule.406
With this decree the axe that would eventually cut off Jewish Christianity from the Church was
poised to fall.
Gentile and Jewish Christians in Jerusalem: the Holy City in Schism
Meanwhile, in Jerusalem, the Gentile and Jewish Christian communities appear to have totally
separated from each other, with the Gentile bishops installed at the Holy Sepulchre and the
Jewish Christians occupying the Cenacle at Zion,407 and an us/them attitude in evidence between
them. Bagatti gives a number of examples as evidence of the schism, a few of which are offered
below. Eusebius spoke of the Christians at Mt. Zion, who “reserve the throne of James” (i.e., the
bishopric of James) calling them “those brothers.”408 Jerome discussed the pretended discovery
of the body of James on the east side of the Kidron valley and claimed it was “found by one of
ours” (a member of the Gentile Christian church, as opposed to a member of the Jewish Christian
church).409 Bagatti suggests that the case for Jewish Christians in residence at Zion is
strengthened by the fact that Epiphanius omitted the Cenacle at Zion from his otherwise
complete list of the Holy Sites of the Passion, even though the site is associated with the
institution of the Eucharist.410 Similarly, Gregory of Nyssa excluded Zion from his lists of the
404
Bagatti, 87.
405
Bagatti, 87.
406
Antioch, Canon I quoted in Hefele, Vol. 1; cf. Bagatti, 87.
407
The Cenacle at Zion is the traditional site of the last supper.
408
Eusebius, hist. eccl. 7.19, quoted in Bagatti, 10.
409
Jerome, quoted in Bagatti, 10 (complete reference not given).
410
anac. 40. Also, in the Panarion, Epiphanius notes that “once the hill of Zion, now lowered, was once more
eminent than the Place [Calvary].” Bagatti assumes that this is because it is occupied by Jewish Christians, of whom
Epiphanius disapproves.
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Holy Sites in Jerusalem. Gregory also noted that certain Jewish Christians in Jerusalem refused
to accept him as a true Christian.411 Clearly, Jerusalem had become a city in schism.
Epiphanius and the Nazarenes: The Axe Falls on Jewish Christianity
By the end of the fourth century, it was no longer acceptable for Jewish Christians to practice
any aspects of the ceremonial law, even if they were in all other ways orthodox in belief. By this
time, it had become part of the program of the heresiologists to classify Jewish Christian groups
as heretical on the basis of orthopraxis, irrespective of orthodoxy (though the two issues are to
some degree related). It was at this time that Epiphanius singled out as heretics the Nazarene,
who up to that point apparently had been sufficiently orthodox in their theology to escape the
attention of the heresiologists. From all available evidence, it appears that Epiphanius‟ decision
was based solely on the fact that the Nazarenes practiced the Jewish ceremonial law. By
Epiphanius‟ own account the Nazarenes were in all other ways within the bounds of orthodoxy
as he knew it.412 If the Council of Nicaea had signed the death warrant for Jewish Christianity,
then Epiphanius was the executioner. The Nazarenes were perhaps the last “orthodox” Jewish
Christian sect in existence. With Epiphanius‟ declaration of heresy against the Nazarenes (ca.
376 C.E.), and Augustine‟s subsequent endorsement (ca. 400 C.E.), the excommunication of
Jewish Christianity from the greater Church was complete.413 Cut off from communion with the
Church of which they considered themselves a part, even the orthodox Nazarene Jewish
Christians eventually faded from existence.
Postscript: A Broken Contract
The end of this history points back to its beginning. It can be argued that the excommunication of
the Nazarenes amounted to a breach of the compromise agreement between Paul and the “pillar
Apostles” represented by the Jerusalem Decree. In that compromise the Jewish Christian church
in Jerusalem agreed to respect Paul‟s law-free mission to the Gentiles. Similarly, Paul and the
Gentile churches agreed to respect the right of Jewish Christian churches to practice the
ceremonial law. The Nazarenes were the descendants of the Jewish Christian church of
Jerusalem. They considered themselves a part of the greater Church. They respected apostolic
authority. They acknowledged the authority of Paul, his letters, and law-free Gentile mission.
Yet they reserved to themselves the right to practice the ceremonial law, not for purposes of
salvation, but to be imitators of their Lord and Savior, Jesus Christ.414 It clearly can be argued
411
Gregory of Nyssa, quoted in Bagatti, 11 (complete reference not given).
412
pan. 29 (PE, 169-175). Epiphanius could find no heretical doctrines among the beliefs of the Nazarenes. He
recognized then, as the direct descendants of the original Jerusalem congregation. He acknowledged the fact that
they considered themselves a part of the greater church. In addition, they did not view the ceremonial law as
essential for salvation and did not require it of Gentile converts.
413
Epiphanius, pan. 29.7.1 (PE, 173); Augustine, de bapt. 7.1.1 (PE, 237).
414
Epiphanius, pan. 29.7.2 (PE, 173); cf. 1 Cor. 11; Eph. 5:1; 1 Thess. 1:6. As previously described, Epiphanius
noted that the Nazarenes accepted the letters of the Apostle Paul, while the Ebionites rejected them. Therefore, it
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that while the Nazarene Jewish Christians yet honored the decree, it was broken by the larger
Church.
The history of the relationship between the Gentile Christian church and Jewish Christians was
long and complex. Many factors wove themselves together over several centuries, pushing the
two communities apart. Two Jewish wars and the expulsion of Jews and Jewish Christians, from
Jerusalem began the separation of the communities. The return of the Jewish Christians to find
that a Gentile Christian hierarchy had been established in Jerusalem and that “foreign” practices
of Easter celebration had been established created tension between the communities. Increasing
distance and lack of interaction between the communities resulted in confusion and
misunderstanding in the Gentile church regarding the theology and practices of Jewish
Christians. Well-intentioned theological and pastoral concerns, combined with growing anti-
Jewish attitudes and Rome‟s interests in asserting its primacy, especially around the issue of the
timing of the Easter celebration, increasingly drove the Gentile church toward a final break with
Jewish Christianity. In the end, when the Gentile Christian church excommunicated the last
remaining orthodox Jewish Christian group, it only reflected the near complete schism which had
already come to exist between them.
seems unlikely that the Ebionites would have used such a characteristically Pauline phase as “imitators of Christ.”
The most likely explanation is that Origen has confused the two groups and mistakenly attributed this motivation to
the Ebionites.
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CHAPTER SEVEN
CONCLUSIONS
It was the author‟s thesis that within the diversity which characterized the Jewish Christianity a
the early Church, there existed at least one Jewish Christian sect whose theology stood within the
acceptable boundaries of orthodoxy of the greater Church, and that this sect existed through at
least the fourth century, at which point it was declared heretical by the Church Fathers and
eventually died out, despite the fact that it remained within the bounds of orthodoxy415 and
considered itself a part of the greater Church. This thesis has been borne out by the results of this
study. Though there appears to have been at least one heretical Jewish Christian sect (i.e., the
Ebionites),416 there also appears to have been at least one group whose theology was essentially
orthodox. The Nazarenes were that group. Writing in the later part of the fourth century,
Epiphanius could find nothing about their theology or Christology that violated the standards of
orthodoxy of his time. The Nazarene doctrine of God was fundamentally Trinitarian417 and they
appear to have essentially grasped the dual nature of Jesus Christ.418 Patristic evidence also
indicates that the Nazarenes accepted the authority of the Apostle Paul, his Gentile mission, his
epistles, and the entirely of the Scriptures as they existed at the time. They also appear to have
considered themselves a part of the greater Church, acknowledging both Apostolic authority419
and the Church‟s evangelistic mission.420 Furthermore, although they practiced the ceremonial
law, they did not consider it essential for salvation, nor did they require it of Gentile converts.
415
That is, orthodox in all ways except for its observance of the ceremonial law.
416
For the reasons listed in Chapter One, it is impossible to determine the precise number of heretical Jewish
Christian sects. Although the Ebionite sect was described by the Church Fathers as a single heretical Jewish
Christian sect, it is likely that it represented at least two or three related groups, at least one of which may not have
been heretical.
417
The Nazarene doctrine of the Holy Spirit, though it may have been somewhat primitive and underdeveloped, was
not heretical. Even the greater Church‟s doctrine of the Holy Spirit took significantly longer than the other doctrines
to develop not reaching its final form until the fourth or fifth century. That the Nazarene doctrine of the Holy Spirit
might have been somewhat primitive compared to that of the greater Church would not be unexpected. The
increasing isolation of the Nazarenes would have cut then off from the deliberations and decisions of the greater
Church on this issue, accounting for the retarded development of this doctrine among the Nazarenes.
418
Fragments from the Nazarene gospel which refer to the baptism of Jesus show Jesus affirming both sinlessness
and limited foreknowledge. Epiphanius noted that he was unable to determine whether or not the Nazarenes‟ gospel
included the infancy narratives (unlike the Ebionites, who were known to have excised them to eliminate possible
references to the divine nature of Jesus Christ). However, earlier authors, not mentioning the Nazarenes by name
but most likely describing them, affirmed that their gospel did include the infancy narratives.
419
As opposed to the Ebionites, who by various accounts rejected the writings of Paul, various portions of Scripture,
and the authority of the Apostolic Church.
420
The Jewish Talmudic evidence supports the patristic evidence on this point preserving the memory of Nazarene
Jewish Christians evangelizing their brothers and sisters in the Synagogues.
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Rather, they practiced the law to be “imitators of Christ”421 Apparently, it was solely on the basis
of their practice (e.g., observance of the ceremonial law) that Epiphanius and those who came
after him declared the Nazarenes to be heretical. Although Epiphanius did not clearly state his
reasons for declaring the Nazarenes heretical, he probably did so on the basis that their continued
practice of Jewish traditions violated the decrees of the Council of Nicaea (325 C.E.) and the
Synod of Antioch (341 C.E.) and, as such, were grounds for excommunication.422
As described by Epiphanius, the Nazarenes appeared to be perhaps the sole representative of

theological orthodoxy among the Jewish Christian groups in Palestine at the time, at least of
those groups known to exist. The archaeological evidence, however, as interpreted by Bagatti
and Mancini, appears to present a different picture. Based on the prevalence of Jewish Christian
symbols at a wide variety of sites (e.g. Jerusalem, Bethlehem, Nazareth and the hill country of
Galilee, the Transjordan, and other areas), Bagatti and Mancini suggest that Jewish Christian
groups were far more prevalent than the patristic sources allow. In fact, they suggest that Jewish
Christianity may have been dominant in Palestine until the arrival of the Byzantines.
This discrepancy cannot be entirely resolved on the basis of existing evidence. But it is possible
to speculate. On the one hand, it is entirely possible that Jewish Christians may have been
present in larger numbers than the patristic evidence would seem to indicate. Certainly, the
increasing social distance and power struggles between Gentile and Jewish Christian churches in
Palestine (as well as between Christianity and Judaism generally) would account for some under-
representation by the Church Fathers. Furthermore, once the Church Fathers had declared Jewish
Christianity heretical, it would have suited their purposes to portray Jewish Christian groups in
such a way as to minimize their prevalence and to portray them as a fringe group.
On the other hand, there are some difficulties in accepting the data of Bagatti and Mancini. The
archeological evidence is such that it cannot be used to shed any light on the composition or the
theology of any Jewish Christian group.423 In some of the sites it is equally possible that the
Jewish-Christian symbols could have been made either by bona fide Jewish Christians or Gentile
Christians with a preoccupation with Jewish observance (e.g., Judaizing Christians).424
Furthermore, it is impossible to make any judgments from the archaeological data as to the
relative orthodoxy of any specific groups. The resolution of this controversy must await future
421
Origen, in Matth. Comm. Ser 79 (PE, 131).
422
Antioch, Canon 1, quoted in Hefele; Vol. 1; cf. Bagatti, 87.
423
Most of the evidence is in the form of Christian and Jewish Christian symbols engraved on tombs, ossuariums,
and laniella, or graffiti left on the walls or door lintels of buildings. It is not possible to make definitive
identifications of specific groups from such data, although some speculations can be made, based upon the
proximity of the sites to the reported
424
However, in many cases the nature of the sites makes it highly unlikely that the graffiti were left by Gentile
Christians. For example, Christian symbols left on Jewish family tombs or ossuariums would more likely have been
the work of Jewish Christians than Judaizing Gentile Christians.
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Jewish Christianity
discoveries, if any. However, there is sufficient evidence to presume that Jewish Christian groups
may indeed have been more prevalent than the Patristic sources indicate.
The author further proposed that the increasing antipathy of the Church Fathers toward Jewish-
Christianity was the result of a variety of complex and interrelated influences operating over
several centuries. This assertion also appears to be supported by the evidence. While any
historical description of the development and interrelationship of the forces which shaped the
attitudes of the greater Church toward Jewish Christianity can only be sketchy and provisional at
best, at least some of the influences can be identified. These included the changing demographics
of the Church and the accompanying clash of cultures, the increasing isolation of Jewish
Christianity from the predominantly Gentile church; power struggles between competing
Christian communities in Palestine, as well as Rome‟s interest in asserting its primacy;
theological and pastoral concerns, which were well-intentioned but which resulted in
increasingly narrow views of orthodoxy and orthopraxis; and some outright anti-Jewish feelings.
The case of the Nazarenes seems extremely unfortunate and provides a cautionary note for the
Church. Orthodox in their theology and considering themselves a part of the Apostolic Church,
yet wanting to retain their Jewish identity, they were marginalized and eventually
excommunicated by the greater Church, not because of their theology but because of their ritual
practices. The greater Church had become so isolated from Jewish Christianity that it focused on
their ceremonial practices, while either misinterpreting or ignoring the motives behind those
practices. It is a dramatic turnabout. Gentile Christianity itself had once been a misunderstood
minority, appealing to the predominately Jewish Christian Church authorities at that time for
acceptance of its position that it should be free from the requirements of the ceremonial law.
Now the tables were turned. Now it was the Gentile Christians who were dominant and the
Jewish Christians were on the fringe and in need of understanding. Only this time there was to be
no spirit of compromise. It seems an especially poignant tragedy that Law-free Gentile
Christianity should itself eventually exclude from the Church the descendants of the very same
Jewish Christian authorities that granted them that freedom. The disappearance of “orthodox”
Jewish Christianity from the Church was not only a tragedy for then but for the Church as a
whole, because with their disappearance the Church lost a vital connection with and source of
understanding of its ancient Jewish roots.
The excommunication of Jewish Christianity by the fourth century Church raises important
questions for the Church today. What is our understanding of the Christian faith? Is it
fundamentally a relationship with Christ or a set of beliefs and practices? What is our
understanding of orthodoxy and orthopraxis, and in what ways do we define ourselves as a
Christian community? Do we define ourselves inclusively or exclusively? How do we respond to
diversity in the Church? Will we view it as a threat or a blessing? How will we resolve our
differences? By dialogue or by excommunication? These are questions that the fourth century
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Church had to ask and answer. How they did so affected the nature of the Church for centuries to
come. Our own answers to these questions are of no less significance today.
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What is the thesis of the book?

What is the thesis of the book?

What are some of the influences that led to the increasing antipathy of the Church towards Jewish Christianity?

What are some of the influences that led to the increasing antipathy of the Church towards Jewish Christianity?

JEWISH CHRISTIANITY IN THE EARLY CHURCH

First Edition: March 15, 1993

Second Edition: July 29, 2008

Revised and Updated: November 1, 2009

© 2009 by Kenneth W. Howard (all rights reserved)

I. INTRODUCTION AND THESIS 7

II. BACKGROUND: ANALYSIS OF BIBLICAL REFERENCES AND EARLY

III. WHO WERE THE JEWISH CHRISTIANS?

IV. THEOLOGY OF THE JEWISH CHRISTIANS

V. CORROBORATING THE CHURCH FATHERS:

VI. FROM ACCEPTANCE THROUGH AMBIVALENCE TO ANTIPATHY:

The First Easter Controversy 66

INTRODUCTION AND THESIS

Defining Jewish Christianity: A Review of the Literature

Jewish Christian Gospels and Related Documents

Apologetic and Patristic Literature

Jewish Talmudic Literature

Archaeological and Historical Sources

ANALYSIS OF BIBLICAL REFERENCES AND EARLY CHURCH DOCUMENTS

Primitive Church Documents

Thus we find Palestinian Jewish Christians of a somewhat Pharisaic and legalistic

WHO WERE THE JEWISH CHRISTIANS?

EXAMINATION OF THE CANDIDATES SUGGESTED BY THE CHURCH FATHERS

Pseudo-Tertullian (ca. 200/250 C.E.) attempted to establish Cerinthus as the predecessor of

Origen mentions Symmachus in the context of an examination of variant translations of

Summary and Conclusions

THEOLOGY OF THE JEWISH CHRISTIANS:

ANALYSIS OF THE JEWISH CHRISTIAN GOSPELS

The Gospel of the Nazarenes

The Gospel of the Ebionites

1. And the beginning of their Gospel runs:

2. And after much has been recorded it proceeds:

Summary and Conclusions

CORROBORATING THE CHURCH FATHERS:

ANALYSIS OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL, TALMUDIC, AND OTHER SOURCES

The Judaean Desert

At Murabba‟at, J. T. Milik discovered a letter by Simeon Bar Kokhba which apparently

Syria and Transjordan

The Pella Tradition

Koester has responded convincingly to Luedemann‟s argument, using several independent

movements of Apostles than those of individual congregations.

Summary and Conclusions

FROM ACCEPTANCE THROUGH AMBIVALENCE TO ANTIPATHY:

THE CHANGING ATIITUDE OF THE CHURCH FATHERS

TOWARDS JEWISH CHRISTIANITY

In the Beginning: A Jewish Christian Church

Clashing Cultures: The Church in Transition

The First Easter Controversy

Jewish Christianity on the Defensive

The Easter Controversy Continued: Anti-Judaism and Politics

Issues surrounding the celebration of Easter continued to be a source of controversy beyond

the previous century.

An unprecedented murder has occurred in the middle of Jerusalem,

He who hung the earth is hanging;

Irenaeus and the Ebionites: The First Excommunications