The Passion Narrative before and after Mark

Adela Yarbro Collins

Yale University

Where should we begin in thinking about the origin of the passion narrative? The
earliest passion narrative was composed to interpret an event, the crucifixion of Jesus.
The death of Jesus was an event that represented the Roman response to the public life of
Jesus. So the place to begin is the perceived character of the public life of Jesus.
Why Was Jesus Executed?
Several recent studies have argued persuasively that the earliest recoverable
traditions about Jesus indicate that he was an apocalyptic or eschatological prophet.1 Why
would the Roman governor execute such a prophet? The execution may have been
prompted simply by the desire to keep order in reaction to the crowds that surrounded
Jesus, especially in Jerusalem at the time of the Passover. The motive may have been
similar to that attributed by Josephus to Antipas, when he executed John the Baptist. As
John Meier has put it, Antipas decided that an ounce of prevention by way of execution
was worth a pound of cure by way of military action.2 The Roman governor Fadus may
have had a similar motivation for sending a cavalry unit to attack Theudas. This man was
a popular prophet who led a crowd to the Jordan, claiming that he could divide the river
to provide them with an easy crossing. They soldiers captured the prophet, cut off his
head, and carried it to Jerusalem.3

Dale C. Allison talks about Jesus eschatological language but labels him a millenarian
prophet in order to approach him in a comparative context using sociological and
anthropological methods; Jesus of Nazareth: Millenarian Prophet (Minneapolis, MN:
Fortress, 1998); Bart D. Ehrman, Jesus: Apocalyptic Prophet of the New Millennium
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1999) 125-39; John P. Meier, A Marginal Jew:
Rethinking the Historical Jesus, vol. 3, Companions and Competitors (New York:
Doubleday, 2001) 622-626.
2
Meier, 3.625.
3
Josephus Ant. 20.97-98;Richard A. Horsley and John S. Hanson, Bandits, Prophets, and
Messiahs: Popular Movements in the Time of Jesus (Seabury/Winston: Minneapolis,

Public perception may not have distinguished sharply between popular prophets
with an eschatological message and messianic pretenders. In both the Antiquities and the
Jewish War, Josephus discusses a certain Egyptian prophet. In the Antiquities he says that
this man brought a crowd to the walls of Jerusalem claiming that, at his command, the
walls of the city would fall down. In the War he says that this Egyptian false prophet
brought about 30,000 people to the Mount of Olives, intending to force an entry into
Jerusalem, overpower the Roman garrison, and become ruler of the citizen body (tou~
dh&mou turannei=n, to rule autocratically or despotically). With this pejorative
language, Josephus may be masking a messianic claim. According to both accounts, the
Roman governor, Felix, sent troops against him. They killed some of his followers and
captured others, but he himself escaped.4
It is generally agreed that Jesus proclaimed the nearness of the kingdom of God
and, at least implicitly, claimed a high degree of authority for himself. These features of
his public life may well have led some people to think that he was the Son of David, the
royal messiah. He need not have raised an army or promised to drive out the Romans to
evoke such ideas. Among those who hoped for the restoration of an autonomous kingdom
of Israel and the Davidic line, the proclamation of the kingdom and the authoritative
stance of Jesus may have been enough to convince them that he was the messiah
designate who would bring in the kingdom soon with the help of divine power.
What Was the Earliest Interpretation of the Death of Jesus?
If such was the case, Marks portrayal of the execution of Jesus as king of the
Jews may be an interpretation of Pilates reason for having Jesus crucified, rather than a
purely inventive retrojection of later belief. Such a scenario would also explain the fact
that the bedrock of Pauls interpretations of the significance of Jesus is the conviction that

1985) 164. Fadus ruled from about 44 to 46 CE. See Emil Schrer, The History of the
Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ (175 B.C.A.D. 135) (rev. ed. Geza Vermes
and Fergus Millar; 3 vols. in 4; Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1973-87) 1.455.
4
Josephus Ant. 20.169-72; Bell. 2.261-63; Horsley and Hanson, 168. Felix ruled from
about 52-60 CE. See Schrer, History, 1.460.

he is the Christ, that is, the Messiah.5 Thus the idea that Jesus was the Davidic Messiah
may have been current during his lifetime. In that case, the visions of the risen Jesus
would have provided confirmation of his Messiahship rather than constituting the
beginning point of such a belief.6
These appearances would also have provided the occasion for a reinterpretation of
the Davidic Messiah in heavenly terms. In other words Jesus, the hoped for royal
messiah, was indeed crucified but then vindicated and exalted. The Son of David is also
the heavenly Son of Man prophesied by Daniel. As Paul implies in 1 Corinthians 15,
Jesus began to reign at the time of his resurrection, and the consummation will come
when he has put all his enemies under his feet.7
I do not intend to minimize the extent to which the crucifixion of Jesus was
experienced as an apparent disconfirmation of his Messiahship by those who hoped that
he would play such a role. Most of them probably gave up the idea, just as the supporters
of Simon, son of Giora, concluded that he was not the Messiah after all, when the
Romans won the war and took him to Rome to be humiliated in the Flavian triumph.
Some of the disciples of Jesus, however, did not give up the idea of the Messiahship of
Jesus.
The Earliest Passion Narrative
This line of interpretation has an enormous impact on how one reconstructs and
interprets the earliest passion narrative. In my view, this narrative included allusions to
the psalms of individual lament.8 Bultmann argued that the earliest passion narrative was

Adela Yarbro Collins and John J. Collins, King and Messiah as Son of God (Grand
Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2008) 101-22.
6
Contra Philipp Vielhauer, Gottesreich und Menschensohn in der Verkndigung Jesu,
in idem, Aufstze zum Neuen Testament (Theologische Bcherei 31; Munich: Kaiser,
1965) 92-140.
7
1 Cor 15:20-25.
8
The source of Mark 14:34a alluded to Pss 41-42 LXX (42-43 MT and English); see
Adela Yarbro Collins, Mark: A Commentary (Hermeneia; Minneapolis, MN: Fortress,
2007) 676. The source of Mark 15:24 alluded to Ps 21:19 LXX (22:18); Yarbro Collins,

a historical report and that any passage alluding to Scripture is a secondary expansion.9 If,
however, as seems likely, the earliest narrative was designed to overcome the apparently
disconfirming impact of the crucifixion, allusions to Scripture would have played a role
from the beginning. In other words, messianic exegesis of the psalms of individual
lament is an early phenomenon. There is thus no need to posit an interpretation of these
psalms based on an alleged concept of the suffering just one.10
There is no consensus about the extent of the pre-Markan passion narrative and its
social setting. In 1 Cor 11:23-25, Paul describes actions and words of Jesus performed
and spoken on the night on which he was handed over. Ellen Aitken infers that this
account already belonged to an existing narrative of Jesus passion at the time Paul
wrote.11 If this passage were part of an early, written, passion narrative, its inclusion
would support the hypothesis of a cultic setting for such a narrative, for example, a
weekly celebration of the Lords Supper.12
I doubt, however, that the tradition about the sayings over the bread and the cup
was part of the earliest, pre-Markan passion narrative. Ludger Schenke has made a
Mark, 745. The source of Mark 15:29-32 alluded to Ps 21:8-9 (22:7-8); Yarbro Collins,
Mark, 749.
9
Rudolf Bultmann, The History of the Synoptic Tradition (trans. John Marsh from the 2nd
German ed. 1931; New York: Harper & Row, 1963; rev. ed. 1968) 273, 275-79, 281;
Yarbro Collins, Mark, 621, 732. Karl Ludwig Schmidt and Martin Dibelius also took this
position; for discussion see Ellen Bradshaw Aitken, Jesus Death in Early Christian
Memory: The Poetics of the Passion (NTOA 53; Gttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht;
Fribourg: Academic Press, 2004) 12.
10
Donald Juel, Messianic Exegesis: Christological Interpretation of the Old Testament in
Early Christianity (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1988); Stephen P. Ahearne-Kroll, The Psalms
of Lament in Marks Passion: Jesus Davidic Suffering (SNTSMS 142; Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 2007).
11
Ellen Bradshaw Aitken, ta_ drw&mena kai\ ta_ lego&mena: The
Eucharistic Memory of Jesus Words in First Corinthians, HTR 90:4 (1997) 359-70, here
368. See also eadem, Jesus Death, 50.
12
Aitken argues that the formation of a narrative of Jesus death took place in relation to
the communitys practice of renewing the covenant (Eucharistic Memory, 369). In
another context she relates this making or reaffirming of a covenant with the cultic
narrative expressed in a hymn, taking Plinys account of a meeting before dawn on a
fixed day as a starting point (Jesus Death, 165-66).

persuasive case for the conclusion that Mark composed 14:1-31 by combining brief
traditional units.13 It is only with the story in Gethsemane that one can begin to discern a
coherent narrative source as the basis of Marks passion narrative. Thus, the tradition
about the last supper was probably not part of the source Mark used in constructing his
passion narrative. Rather, at the time Paul and Mark wrote, it still belonged to oral
tradition.
The command, Do this in remembrance of me, found in 1 Corinthians and
Luke, links the tradition about the last supper directly to the cultic practice of the Lords
Supper.14 This command is lacking in Mark and Matthew.15 The most likely hypothesis is
that Mark omitted the command in adapting the last supper tradition to a narrative context
in which the sayings about the bread and the cup serve to interpret the death of Jesus
beforehand. Less likely is the argument that the version of Paul represents a re-oralization
of a part of an early, written passion narrative.16
Marks Expansion of the Passion Narrative
As suggested already, Mark elaborated the depiction of Jesus as the crucified Messiah expressed
in the source he used in constructing his own passion narrative. Developing the distress of Jesus in
Gethsemane, evoked by allusion to Psalms 42-43 in his source, Mark has Jesus speak the language of
another psalm of individual lament, Psalm 22, in his last words, My God, my God, why have you forsaken
17

me? Mark thus portrayed Jesus as a suffering Messiah who shared the weakness and fear of most
ordinary human beings in the face of death.

13

Ludger Schenke, Studien zur Passionsgeschichte des Markus: Tradition und Redaktion
in Markus 14, 1-42 (FB 4; Wrzburg: Echter Verlag; Stuttgart: Katholisches Bibelwerk,
1971); Yarbro Collins, Mark, 621-22.
14
The command occurs twice in 1 Cor 11:24-25, once in relation to the bread and once to
the cup; it occurs only in relation to the bread in Luke 22:19.
15
Mark 14:22-25; Matt 26:26-29. The Johannine Jesus commands the disciples to follow
his example by washing one anothers feet (John 13:14-15). It is unlikely that such
washing was part of any cultic ritual, such as the Lords Supper.
16
Thus the portrayal of Jesus as the initiator of the reenactment of the cult legend pointed
out by Aitken (Eucharistic Memory, 369) belongs not to the narrative version of the
tradition but to the oral version. Luke seems to combine the two.
17
Mark 15:34. Marks source had already alluded to Psalm 22 (21 LXX) twice; see note
8 above.

18

Another elaboration is the attempt by a bystander to give Jesus sour wine to drink. This gesture
evokes another psalm of individual lament, in which the speaker complains, And they gave me gall for
19

food, and for my thirst they gave me sour wine to drink. The audience of Mark would understand that
sour wine is not a fit drink for Jesus, the king of the Jews, that is, the Messiah. Jesus shares in the
20

humiliation of David, the traditional author of the psalms, who challenges God to deliver him.

The most dramatic change Mark made with regard to his source was to add the saying of the
21

centurion to the climactic rending of the veil. In the source Jesus is vindicated by the mysterious
theophany expressed in the account of the rending of the veil of the temple. The splitting of the veil also
22

suggests the ascent of Jesus to heaven and the access to God that the death of Jesus makes possible. In its
new context as part of Mark as a whole, the rending of the veil creates a contrast with the splitting of the
heavens at the baptism of Jesus. At the baptism God is present and reveals Godself in speech. At the cross,
however, God is absent and does not speak. The tearing of the veil is thus an ironic theophany. The death of
Jesus on the cross is accompanied by a real but ambiguous and mysterious theophany, which suggests that
23

the will of God is fulfilled in the apparently shameful death of Jesus on the cross. The saying of the
centurion is the climax of Marks theme of Jesus as the Son of God. Here that Sonship is linked with his
suffering on the cross. Mark thus continues, in an ironic and powerful way, the passion apologetic of his
source: the crucifixion of Jesus verifies rather than falsifies the affirmation that Jesus is the Messiah, the
Son of God.

The Relation of Mark and John

I will forgo discussion of Matthew and Luke since the majority of New Testament
scholars agree that the two evangelists in question used Marks passion narrative as a
source.24 No consensus has emerged, however, on the issue of the relationship between
the passion narratives of Mark and John. My position is that the author of John knew
Mark but did not use that Gospel as a literary source. The similarities between the two
passion narratives can be explained by the hypothesis that Marks written text became
18

Mark 15:36.
Ps 68:22 LXX (69:21).
20
Yarbro Collins, Mark, 759; Ahearne-Kroll, Psalms of Lament, 212.
21
Mark 15:38-39.
22
Yarbro Collins, Mark, 626-27, 760-61.
23
Ibid., 763-64.
24
Ulrich Luz, Matthew 21-28: A Commentary (Hermeneia; Minneapolis, MN: Fortress)
301. Franois Bovon leaves open the possibility that Luke used Mark and a competing
account; Luke 1: A Commentary on the Gospel of Luke 1:1-9:50 (Hermeneia;
Minneapolis, MN: Fortress, 2002) 7. Calvin K. Katter has argued that Luke had no source
but Mark for 22:14-38 in Luke 22:14-38: A Farewell Address (Ph.d. diss., University
of Chicago, 1993).
19

oral and was known to John in that form.25 Ernst Haenchen concluded that John may
have used a source in composing his passion narrative, but the part played by the
evangelist may be estimated rather highly.26
The Gospel of Peter
In the first edition of his Introduction to the New Testament, Helmut Koester took
the position that there was certainly a written form of the Passion Narrative at an early
date. He believed that Mark and John used it independently and thought it possible that
the apocryphal Gospel of Peter employed a very similar source. The latter hypothesis
would best explain the agreements of these three Gospels in the sequence of events in the
passion and their use of passages from the Jewish scriptures in their narratives.27 He
suggests that circles under the authority of Peter produced this early passion narrative.28
John Dominic Crossan devoted a book-length study to the relationship of the
Gospel of Peter to the canonical Gospels.29 He posited three major stages in the
composition of the present Gospel of Peter.30 The first and earliest stage is what he calls
the Cross Gospel.31 This work is equivalent to the early passion narrative that Koester
argues was written under the authority of Peter. The second stage involves the use of this
source by all four canonical Gospels.32 Mark used this source alone in composing his
passion narrative. Matthew and Luke used both this source and Mark in writing theirs.
John used the early passion narrative along with the other three canonical Gospels. The
third and final stage involves the expansion of the Cross Gospel into the present Gospel
25

Yarbro Collins, Mark, 625.

Ernst Haenchen, John 1: A Commentary on the Gospel of John Chapters 1-6
(Hermeneia; Philadelphia: Fortress, 1984) 78.
27
Helmut Koester, Introduction to the New Testament, vol. 2, History and Literature of
Early Christianity (New York: de Gruyter, 1982; German ed. 1980) 49, 163.
28
Ibid., 183.
29
John Dominic Crossan, The Cross That Spoke: The Origins of the Passion Narrative
(San Francisco, CA: Harper & Row, 1988).
30
Ibid., xiii-xiv.
31
Ibid., 16: Gospel of Peter 1:1-2 and 2:5b-6:22 (crucifixion and deposition); 7:25 and
8:28-9:34 (tomb and guards); 9:35-10:42 and 11:45-49 (resurrection and confession).
32
Ibid., 17-20.
26

of Peter. This expansion involved the addition of passages from the canonical Gospels33
and editorial links between the latter and the original parts of the Cross Gospel.34
In his work on Ancient Christian Gospels, Koester assessed Crossans book and
elaborated his own views on the relationship between the Gospel of Peter and the
canonical Gospels.35 He found three major problems with Crossans thesis. The most
telling is the third: the account of the passion of Jesus is early because of the similarities
among the five Gospels. Except for the story of the empty tomb, however, the various
accounts of appearances of the risen Jesus cannot derive from a single source, due to the
major differences among them.36 Koester himself maintained that the earliest stage and,
at the same time, the best example of the allegorical interpretation of Scripture used in
creating the earliest passion narrative
is preserved in the Epistle of Barnabas.37 The Gospel of Peter reveals a very close
relationship especially to the exegetical/scapegoat tradition, often closer than that of the
canonical parallels.38 He concluded, the Gospel of Peter has preserved the most
original narrative version of the tradition of scriptural interpretation. In this instance, a
dependence of the Gospel of Peter upon any of the canonical Gospels is excluded. It is
unlikely that such a dependence exists with respect to any other features of the passion
narrative of this gospel.39
In the second edition of his Introduction, Koester refined and supplemented but continued to
affirm the views expressed in the first edition on the relationship of the Gospel of Peter to the early, written
passion narrative and to the canonical Gospels. The basis of the Gospel of Peter is an older text, the story of
33

Ibid., 20: Gospel of Peter 6:23-24 (Joseph and burial); 12:50-13:57 (women and
youth); 14:60 . . . (Disciples and [?] Apparition).
34
Ibid., 21: Gospel of Peter 2:3-5a (request for burial); 7:26-27 and 14:58-59 (action of
disciples); 11:43-44 (arrival of youth). See also the Appendix of Crossans book, which
includes a translation of the whole work with stage one in ordinary text, stage two in
italics, and stage three underlined (409-13).
35
Helmut Koester, Ancient Christian Gospels: Their History and Development
(Philadelphia: Trinity Press International; London: SCM, 1990) 216-30.
36
Ibid., 219-20.
37
Ibid., 224.
38
Ibid., 225-26.
39
Ibid., 230.

the passion, death, and resurrection of Jesus first written down under Peters authority. This older text was
not dependent on the canonical Gospels.

40

In the first volume of his magisterial study of the historical Jesus, John P. Meier
concluded that Crossans study, although impressive, fails to meet his own criterion that
the simplest theory that explains the most data is to be preferred.41 In contrast to
Crossans baroque construct, Lon Vaganay and Jerry McCant have demonstrated
simply and clearly that the Gospel of Peter is a second century pastiche of traditions
from the canonical Gospels recycled through the memory and lively imagination of
Christians who have heard the Gospels read and preached upon many a time.42
As noted already, Koester argues that the use of Scripture in speaking about the
suffering of Jesus in the Epistle of Barnabas reflects the earliest stage of the process by
which Scripture was used to tell the story of the passion. This judgment seems to me to
be rather subjective. It could well be that the hermeneutic of Barnabas belongs to the
early second century. In that case little evidence remains for dating the base-text of the
Gospel of Peter to the first century.
With regard to Crossans thesis, without repeating the detailed analyses of
Vaganay and McCant, I would like to point out some features of the allegedly early
material that suggest dependence on the Synoptic Gospels. The narrative involves both
Pilate and Herod as having authority over Jesus.43 This dual portrayal of authority is
unique to Luke.44 It seems likely that it was deliberately taken over from Luke. In Mark,
Matthew, and John, the soldiers in the service of Pilate mock Jesus as the king of the

40

Helmut Koester, Introduction to the New Testament, vol. 2, History of Literature of

Early Christianity (2nd ed.; New York/Berlin: de Gruyter, 2000) 5, 7, 49, 166-68, 189.
41
John P. Meier, A Marginal Jew, vol. 1, The Roots of the Problem and the Person (New
York: Doubleday, 1991) 116.
42
Ibid., 117-118.
43
See the translation of the Gospel of Peter (the Akhmim fragment) by Christian Maurer
in Wilhelm Schneemelcher, ed., New Testament Apocrypha (2 vols; rev. ed.; trans. R.
McL. Wilson; Cambridge, UK: James Clarke; Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox,
1991-1992; German ed. 1989-1990) 1.223-27: 1.1-2.5 on p. 223.
44
Joseph A. Fitzmyer, S.J., The Gospel according to Luke (X-XXIV) (Anchor Bible 28A;
Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1985) 1478.

Jews.45 In the Gospel of Peter, the people mock him as King of Israel and Son of
God.46 These epithets apparently fit the ideas of the second century author and audience
of the Gospel of Peter better than the historically more accurate King of the Jews.
Similarly, in the Gospel of Peter the writing placed on the cross reads, This is the King
of Israel, rather than the king of the Jews, the reading of all four canonical Gospels.47
These seem to be deliberate changes, not independent differences.
One of the more striking differences between Mark and Matthew, on the one
hand, and the Gospel of Peter, on the other, concerns the last words of Jesus. According
to the two canonical Gospels, he cries out, My God, my God, why have you forsaken
me?48 In the Gospel of Peter, he says, My power, O power, you have forsaken me!
The text goes on to say, And having said this he was taken up.49 This passage is more
similar to the late second or early third century Acts of John than to Mark and Matthew.50
According to that work, John saw Jesus suffer but fled to a cave on the Mount of Olives
and wept. While Jesus was hanging on the cross, the Lord stood in the middle of the cave
and shone light upon John and said, John, for the people below in Jerusalem I am being
crucified and pierced with lances and reeds and given vinegar and gall to drink. But to
you I am speaking, and listen to what I speak.51
The Lord then shows John a Cross of Light and explains, it is the delimitation of
all things and the strong uplifting of what is firmly fixed out of what is unstable, and the
harmony of wisdom.52 He also says, This Cross then, which has made all things stable
through the Logos and separated off what is transitory and inferior, and then has poured
45

Mark 15:18; Matt 27:29; John 19:3. In Luke it is only the men in the service of the
chief priests, the officers of the temple police, and the elders who mock Jesus, and they
mock him as a prophet, not a king (Luke 22:52, 63-65).
46
Gospel of Peter 2.5-3.9; Maurer, 223.
47
Mark 15:26; Matt 27:37; Luke 23:38; John 19:19; Gospel of Peter 4.11; Maurer, 223.
48
Mark 15:34; Matt 27:46.
49
Gospel of Peter 5.19; Maurer, 224.
50
On the date of the Acts of John, see Knut Schferdiek, The Acts of John, in
Schneemelcher, New Testament Apocrypha, 2.152-209: 166-67.
51
Acts of John 97; Schferdiek, 184.
52
Acts of John 98; Schferdiek, 185.

itself (?) into everything, is not that wooden Cross [that] you will see when you go down
from here; nor am I the (man) who is on the [c]ross. He says further, So then I have
suffered none of those things [that] they will say of me.53 Some such philosophical or
theological speculation provides a likely context for the brief passage in the Gospel of
Peter about Jesus last words and also for the portrayal of the cross that follows the three
men coming out of the sepulcher and speaks.54
These observations lead our attention to the most striking difference between the
canonical Gospels and the Gospel of Peter. All the canonical Gospels narrate the
discovery of the empty tomb. Matthew, Luke, and John narrate, in addition, appearances
of the risen Jesus. The Gospel of Peter is unique in that it narrates the actual resurrection
itself. There is a loud voice in heaven, the heavens open, and two men, that is, angels,
come down from there in a great brightness and draw nigh to the sepulchre.55 The stone
rolls away of itself, and the two men enter the tomb. Then three men come out of the
tomb, the two angels and the rising Jesus, two of them sustaining the other, and a cross
following them. The heads of the angels reach to heaven, and the head of the rising
Jesus is even higher than the heavens. A voice out of the heavens asks, [Have you]
preached to them that sleep? The cross answers affirmatively.56
The narration of the resurrection itself seems to be a legendary development of
the accounts of the discovery of the empty tomb in the Gospels. The question Have you
preached to them that sleep? seems to presuppose the legend of Christs descent into
hell.57 The texts that attest this legend, however, focus on the defeat of Satan and Hades
and the resurrection of the righteous dead. According to the Greek version of the legend,

53

Acts of John 99, 101; Schferdiek, 185.

Gospel of Peter 10.35-42; Maurer, 224-25.
55
On the use of terms like men for angels, see Yarbro Collins, Mark, 795.
56
Gospel of Peter 10.35-42; Maurer, 224-25.
57
See Felix Scheidweiler and A. de Santos Otero, The Gospel of Nicodemus, Acts of
Pilate, and Christs Descent into Hell, in Schneemelcher, New Testament Apocrypha,
1.501-36, especially 521-30.
54

it is John the Baptist who preaches to the dead.58 So this aspect of the Gospel of Peter
may be a related, legendary elaboration of the statement in 1 Peter that Christ, after he
was made alive in the spirit, went and made a proclamation to the spirits in prison.59
Conclusion
Helmut Koester is certainly right that whatever was written down by early
Christians was still part of the realm of oral communication in preaching, instruction,
and common celebration. When such writings were read aloud they became, in a sense,
oral literature.60 The social setting of the earliest passion narrative may have been
cultic. I am now inclined to conclude, however, that it was written primarily as a basis for
preaching and teaching. If its purpose was to persuade, to make the case that Jesus was
the Messiah in spite of his crucifixion, it was probably addressed to outsiders and
wavering insiders. Settings of proclamation and instruction would fit this purpose well.
The authors of the canonical Gospels continued this literary activity in adapting
the traditional passion narrative to their own multiple and various rhetorical purposes.
Mark adapted and expanded the earliest written account in writing his Gospel. The work
of Matthew and Luke was also, in large part, a matter of literary adaptation. The author of
the Gospel of John probably made use of the passion narrative of Mark in its role as part
of early Christian oral literature. The author of the Gospel of Peter probably knew all four
of the canonical Gospels, perhaps primarily in their re-oralized forms.

58

Scheidweiler and de Santos Otero, 522.

1 Peter 3:18-19; a connection between these two texts is suggested by Maurer, 227, n.
32.
60
Koester, Introduction, vol. 2 (2nd ed.), 2.
59