Hand Book of Photography

HANDBOOK OF PHOTOGRAPHY
HANDBOOK OF
PHOTOGRAPHY
Edited by
KEITH HENNEY
Editor, Photo Technique
and
BEVERLY DUDLEY
Managing Editor, Photo Technique
WHITTLESEY HOUSE London

New York
McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY, INC.
Copyright, 1939, hy the McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.
All rights reserved. This book, or parts thereof, may not be

reproduced in any form without permission of the publishers.
PUBLISHED BY WHITTLESEY HOUSE

A division of the McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.
Printed in the United States of America by The Maple Press Co., York, Pa.
PREFACE
The literature on photography abounds with books devoted to the elementarj'
or purely artistic phases of the subject. Few books are devoted to the serious aspects
of the technique of the photographic process or to the scientific basis underlying
photography and its applications, and most of these treat only of some restricted
branch of photography.
This "Handbook of Photography" was born of the desire of the editors to possess
for their own use a comprehensive, authoritative reference work on photograph}-
—
and its technical and scientific applications a reference text having the directness,
rigor, and authority which might be found, for example, in the various engineering
handbooks.
A number of workers in the photographic field, selected for their specialized
knowledge, have cooperated in the preparation of material for this handbook. The
work of the editors has been largely that of planning, organizing, and editing the
individual manuscripts for each chapter, as well as of organizing the book as a whole.
The editors wish to express their appreciation to Richard S. Morse of the Eastman
Kodak Co. and to Dr. Charles J. Smalley for the critical reviewing of several manu-
scripts included in this volume. Several of the illustrations are reproduced through
the courtesy of the Bausch and Lomb Optical Co., the Eastman Kodak Co., and
Julius Springer.
K. H.
B. D.
CONTENTS
Preface v
List of Contributors xi
CHAPTER T
Outline of Photography X
By Keith Henney and Beverly Dudley.
CHAPTER II
The Optics of Photographic Lenses 10

By R. KiNGSLAKE.
CHAPTER III
The Development of the Photographic Objective 37

By R. KiNGSLAKE.
CHAPTER IV
Cameras 68
By Keith Henney.
CHAPTER V
Shutters 97
By Alan A. Cook.
CHAPTER VI
Photographic Materials 116
By Haywood Parker.
CHAPTER VII
Photographic Sensitometry 153
By Beverly Dudley.
CHAPTER VIII
Exposure and Exposure Devices 208
By Beverly Dudley and A. T. Williams.
CHAPTER IX
Photographic Light Sources 261
By Beverly Dudley.
CHAPTER X
Light Filters •
292
By Beverly Dudley.
vii
531-35
Viil CONTENTS
CHAPTER XI
Developers and Theory of Development 318
By D. R. White and J. R. Weber.
CHAPTER XII
Technique of Development 351
By D. R. White and J. R. Weber.
CHAPTER XIII
Fixing, Washing, and Drying 378
By Beverly Dudley.
CHAPTER XIV
Printing Processes 412
By Keith Henney.
CHAPTER XV
Toning 453
By Donald Burchan and Ira Current.
CHAPTER XVI
Special Printing Processes 466
By Paul L. Anderson.
CHAPTER XVII
Defects in Negatives and Prints 507
By Beverly Dudley.
CHAPTER XVIII
Intensification and Reduction 547
By Beverly Dudley.
CHAPTER XIX
Darkrooms and Darkroom Practice 561
By Keith Henney.
CHAPTER XX
Stereoscopic Photography 572
By Vannevar Bush and John T. Rule.
CHAPTER XXI
Photography BY Ultraviolet AND Infrared 595
By Walter Clark.
CHAPTER XXII
Color Photography 616
Bv Olindo O. Ceccarini.
CONTENTS ix
CHAPTER XXIII
Motion-picture Photography 663
By Carl Dreher.
CHAPTER XXIV
Aerial Photography 708
By Leon T. Eliel.
CHAPTER XXV
Astronomic Photography 733
By Harlan True Stetson.
CHAPTER XXVI
High-speed Photography 762
By Harold E. Edgerton.
CHAPTER XXVII
MiCROPHOTOGRAPHY AND TECHNICAL MiCROSCOPY 770
By Francis F. Lucas.
CHAPTER XXVIII
Geologic Photography 799
By Robert F. Collins.
CHAPTER XXIX
Spectroscopic Photography 804
By G. R. Harrison.
CHAPTER XXX
Radiography 822
By Robert C. Woods.
Appendix A. Tables of Conversion Factors 835
Appendix B„ Relative Film-speed Designations 839
Appendix C. Density-opacity-transmission Conversion

Factors 840
Appendix D. Filter Factors 846
Appendix E. Weston Film -speed Ratings 850
Author Index 855
Subject Index 861

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
PaulL. Anderson, E. E., photographer, writer, lecturer. East Orange, N. J. Special
Printing Processes.
D. Burchan, Paper Testing Department, Agfa Ansco Corp., Binghamton, N. Y. Ton-

ing of Photographic Papers.
V. Bush, Eng. D., D. Sc, President, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington,

D. C. Stereoscopic Photography.
O. O. Ceccarini, consulting engineer, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Pictures, Culver City,

Calif. Color Photography.
Walter Clark, Ph. D., technical assistant to Vice-President in Charge of Research,

Eastman Kodak Co., Rochester, N. Y. Infrared and Ultraviolet Photography.
R. F. Collins, A. B., A. M., Department of Geology, Smith College, Northampton,

Mass. Geologic Photography.
Alan A. Cook, A. B., Scientific Bureau, Bausch and Lomb Optical Co., Rochester,
N. Y. Shutters.
Ira B. Current, Paper Testing Department, Agfa Ansco Corp., Binghamton, N. Y.

Toning of Photographic Papers.
Carl Dreher, B. S., Consulting Engineer, Hollywood, Calif. Motion-picture

Photography.
Beverly Dudley, B. S., Managing Editor, Photo Technique; Associate Editor,

Electronics, McGraw-Hill Publishing Company, Inc., New York. Outline of
Photography; Photographic Sensitometry; Exposure and Exposure Meters; Light
Filters; Fixing, Washing, and Drying; Defects in Negatives and Prints; Intensifi-
cation and Reduction; Appendices.
Harold E. Edgerton, Sc. D., Department of Electrical Engineering, Massachusetts

Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Mass. High-speed Photography.
Leon T. Eliel, Vice-President, Fairchild Aerial Surveys, Los Angeles, Calif. Aerial
Photography.
George R. Harrison, Ph. D., Department of Physics, Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, Cambridge, Mass. Spectroscopic Photography.
Keith Henney, M. A., Editor, Photo Technique; Editor, Electronics, McGraw-Hill

Publishing Company, Inc., New York. Outline of Photograph}^; Cameras;
Printing Processes; Darkrooms and Darkroom Methods.
R. Kingslake, M. Sc, Associate Professor of Optics, University of Rochester, Roches-

ter, N. Y. Optics of Photographic Lenses; The Photographic Objective.
F. F. Lucas, Hon. D. Sc, member of technical staff. Bell Telephone Laboratories.

New York. Photomicrography and Technical Microscopy.
Xll LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
Haywood Parker,M. Sc, Service Department, Eastman Kodak Co., Rochester,

N. Y. Photographic Materials.
John T. Rule, S. B., Division of Drawing, Massachusetts Institute of Technology,

Cambridge, Mass. Stereoscopic Photography.
Harlan T. Stetson, M. Sc, Ph. D., cosmic terrestrial research, Massachusetts Institute
of Technology, Cambridge, Mass. Astronomical Photography.
J. R. Weber, M. Sc, Ch. E., Du Pont Film Manufacturing Company, Parlin, N. J.

Developers and Theory of Development; Technique of Development.
Deane R. White, Ph. D., Du Pont Film Manufacturing Company, Parlin, N. J.
Developers and Theory of Development; Technique of Development.
A. T. Williams, Engineering Department, Weston Electrical Instrument Corp..

Newark, N. J. Exposure and Exposvire Meters.
Robert C. Woods, physicist, National Testing Laboratories, Inc., Rochester, N. Y.

Radiography,
CHAPTER I
OUTLINE OF PHOTOGRAPHY
By Keith Henney and Beverly Dudley
Present Status of Photography. —The

fact that vision is the sense upon which we
depend most and conclusions of the exterior world is probably
in arriving at our ideas
the reason why visual representations have always been so important in conveying
intelligence between people. Crude drawings and sketches, for the purpose of impart-
ing ideas, certainly antedate the written word and probably also the more refined
elaborations of the spoken word, and they still find application. Orthographic
projections, isometric perspective drawings, and symbolic or graphical representations,
usually technical in character, are later developments of the first crude factual type
of drawings. A totally which aesthetics
different type of intelligence conveyance, in
and the appreciation of the beautiful play a dominant part, has been developed in the
various methods of painting, drawing, and the graphic arts. All these powerful
—
methods of conveying intelligence be it factual data or a desire to point out the
beautiful in nature —depend for their success upon the interpretation of results
through our visual sense. All of them make use of light as the common factor.
With the introduction of practical photographic processes beginning about 1837, a
new, accurate, and relatively rapid means of portraying visual sensations became
possible. At first these photographic processes were slow, cumbersome, and were
infrequently employed, at least judged by present standards. But the results that
could be obtained in the hands of skilled workers were quite remarkable. With the
introduction of dry plates and roll film in the latter part of the nineteenth century,
considerable impetus was given to photography. It became possible to use photo-
graphs to replace hand drawings for purposes of illustration in reading matter. Pic-
tures could be made, relatively quickly, of many things for which a graphical record
was desired. A new field of artistry became possible, although even now there are
some who refuse to admit the artistic possibilities of photographic methods. The
introduction of the film rather than the glass plate as a base for the photographic
emulsion made possible the motion pictures and aided the adoption of photograph}^ as
a hobby by a vast army of amateur photographers.
More recently, the introduction of high-speed film materials having good color
sensitivity throughout most, if not all, of the visible spectrum and the wide acceptance
of high precision cameras of miniature size produced a public "picture consciousness"
which has been considerably strengthened in the last decade. This has resulted in,
or perhaps it would be more precise to say that this has been associated with, con-
siderable improvements in the graphic arts. Magazines, books, and newspapers are
better illustrated than ever before, and there are more illustrations used in them.
Since about 1935 or 1936 a number of publications have appeared which have been
almost completely devoted to the pictorial representation of current events. Indeed
1
2 HANDBOOK OF PHOTOGRAPHY
the effectiveness of pictures is so great that a large portion of newspaper readers,

at least in the large metropolitan areas, form their opinions and biases through pic-
tures rather than through the written word, and there is some doubt as to whether,
the users of such printed matter can truly be called "readers."
The universal appeal of pictorial representations, the wide applicabilitj'- of photog-
raphy to practically any and every activity directly or as an important adjunct, and
the high quality and reliability of photographic equipment, together with its relative
" foolproof ness," have enabled even the youngest tyro to obtain recognizable pictures.
Yet, in its more advanced forms, photography presents a challenge to the best artist,
or scientific worker, or serious amateur. Because there is no field in which photog-
raphy may not be used, it has an appeal which is perhaps more universal than any
other hobby, so far as the amateur is concerned. The applications of modern photog-
raphy are without number.
The most common field of photography is probably the motion-picture field. Each
week millions of persons in the United States obtain entertainment, education, and
emotion from motion pictures. The motion-picture industry is one of the largest in
this country, and it affects the lives of all of us to such an extent that little further
comment need be made on this subject.
Press photography is perhaps the next most important field affecting the greatest
number of persons. Not only is it possible for the press photographer to supply his
local paper with pictures of neighboring events but, because of the assistance which
electrical science has rendered press photography, it is also possible to transmit
photographs over a telephone circuit to any two points between which telephone com-
munication exists. The publication of pictures of football games while the game is
still in progress, even in cities far removed from that in which the game is played,
has become so commonplace within the past several years as to occasion no particular
comment. Indeed, one now looks for pictures of important events very shortly after
they have transpired, and the large paper which does not supply this service is likely
to be regarded as not being "up on its toes."
Although still employing other methods of pictorial presentation, modern adver-
tising is using photography in increasing doses. Many examples of this type of com-
mercial photography have high artistic merit and show much originality.
In other ways photography is used in science, engineering, medicine, law, education,
and other professions and trades for establishing recorded data, for making obser\ra-
tions and securing more or less quantitative data than would be possible through
the use of the human eye only. X-ray photographs, for example, are of inestimable
importance, not only in the medical sciences where they had their first appearance,
but also in industrial analysis for the detection of flaws and other defects in metals.
Infrared plates have permitted taking photographs of objects invisible to the human
eye. High-speed photographs have apparently slowed down motion to enable studies
to be made of fast-moving objects. In astronomy practically all present-day work is
accomplished through the aid of photography, the astronomer seldom looking through
the telescope for purposes of observation. Photographs taken in the stratosphere,
with the aid of infrared plates, have shown the curvature of the earth. Through the
aid of aerial mapping, photography is used to survey, quickly and accurately, large
areas which might otherwise not be surveyed because of cost and inaccessibility.
Photomicrography is important to the research worker in recording the microscopic,
whether his field be foods, textiles, metallurgy, medicine, biology, chemistry, or
what not.
Color photography is just beginning to make its appearance in practical form.
Although color photography may be said to have had its origin in 1861 with the work
of Maxwell, it is only within the past few years that high-quality color motion pictures
OUTLINE OF PHOTOGRAPHY 3
have been available. Color photography for the amateur is gradually approaching,
for already it is him to purchase color film and make his own trans-
possible for
parencies. Making prints in color from this color film or from color-separation nega-
tives is still such a complicated and costly process that relatively few amateurs
have attempted this field. But, in time, color processes will undoubtedly be developed
into such a form that the average amateur can make complete use of color. Black-
and-white prints may then be expected to be seen only in exceptional cases or where
the utmost economy must be effected.
In practically every phase of industry, photography is employed at the present
time. It is impossible to enumerate the various uses to which photography may be
put, but perhaps enough has already been written to indicate its importance. What
has been accomplished in the past provides a background by which we may make some
type of estimate of the developments yet to come.
—
Elementary Photographic System in Monochrome. All modern photographic
upon the photochemical action which takes
processes depend for their operation
place when "light" strikes certain sensitized materials. In the vast majority of cases
which are referred to as photographic processes, the photosensitized material consists
of a thin layer or emulsion of a silver halide deposited on a transparent supporting
base of glass, nitrocellulose gelatin, or paper. A photochemical change occurs in the
silver halide grains which are exposed to light, although the exact nature of this
alteration has not yet been entirely satisfactorilj^ explained. Exposure of the grains
of the silver halide produces a "latent image" of the object focused on the photo-
graphic material by a lens system. With the proper chemical processing operations,
the exposed grains of silver salt are changed to metallic silver, and the unexposed
grains are dissolved out of the emulsion. Since the silver grains are black when
viewed by transmitted light, the light portions of the original image become dark,
and the dark portions of the original object become more or less transparent. Thus
the light and dark portions of the original object have been reversed, and for this
reason the combination of the developed silver grains on their support of glass or
gelatin is known as a negative.
If we now use this negative, in conjunction with a light source, as a new image
and go through another similar photographic process, we can obtain on a glass plate,
gelatin film, or, more usually, a paper base, another image. However, this second
image will be reversed in intensity from that of the first negative; it will be a negative
of a negative, and will therefore show bright and dark areas in monochrome in accord-
ance with the original image.
This is the essence of the more common black-and-white photography. The
details of the various operations will be dealt with in subsequent chapters of this
book, but a brief introduction of the essential operations will be given in this chapter
to provide a certain degree of unity and coherence which could not otherwise be
obtained in a reference volume such as this handbook.
Ldght Source. — To actuate the photographic plate, the light source which is to be
used must produce some radiation in the spectral region in which the sensitized plate
is sensitive. All usual photographic materials are most sensitive in the blue end of
the visible spectrum. Those photographic materials which are sensitive only to the
blue end of the visible spectrum are usually known as "ordinary" or orthonon mate-
rials, indicating that their sensitiveness does not extend through the complete visual
spectrum. Orthochromatic materials are sensitive in the blue, green, and, more or
less, the yellow portions but are insensitive to the orange and red regions of the visible
spectrum. Panchromatic materials are sensitive to all portions of the visible spec-
trum but still are more sensitive to the blue than red. Therefore, so far as the light
source is concerned, almost any source of visible light can be used with panchromatic
materials. Since incandescent light sources have the predominance of their energy
in the red region, the exposure time required with such a source will be greater with
orthochromatic materials than with panchromatic materials. With orthonon mate-
rials and incandescent lamps, the exposure time will be still further increased. When
using orthonon emulsions it may be desirable to use a light source having a large
portion of its energy in the blue end of the visible spectrum. This may be accom-
plished by using mercury-arc lamps.
—
Photography by Reflected Light. Although the source of light provides the radiant
energy which actuates the photosensitive material, it is not the image, of the light
source which it is usually desired to record photographically. It is almost the universal
procedure, except in special branches of photography, to record the image of some
object which is illuminated by the light source. The light reflected from the subject
and falling on the photographic sensitized material produces the latent image. Since
this is usually the case, the reflection characteristics of the subject to be photographed
are just as important as the spectral characteristics of the light source or the photo-
graphic material.
All materials behave with respect to light in three distinct ways: they may reflect,
absorb, or transmit light. There are no perfect absorbing, reflecting, or transmitting
mediums, and, in general, all three characteristics take place at the same time and
under the same conditions. A given medium, however, may show one of these three
properties to a very large extent and the other properties to a very small extent.
Consequently we refer to the medium in terms of the characteristic which it exhibits
predominately.
The reflectance of a surface depends upon the nature of its surface as regards
smoothness and polish, its color, and even the type and relative position of the light
source with which it is used. A nonselective reflecting surface is one which changes
the direction of the light rays of all wavelengths reaching it instead of absorbing them.
A colored reflecting surface is one in which the amount of reflection is not uniform
throughout the visible spectrum. A blue surface reflects blue light and shows more or
less absorption in the other portions of the visible spectrum; a purple surface shows
relatively high absorption in the yellow region and comparatively large reflection in the
blue and red ends of the visible spectrum.
—
Lens and Focusing System. In order that the illuminated subject may form a
plane, two-dimensional image on the photographic film it is necessary that the outline,
contrast, surface configurations, and other visual characteristics of the real subject be
represented properly on the photosensitive material. This requires the use of a lens
and focusing system of which the primary purpose is to focus the subject properly
on the photosensitive material. The degree to which the latent image is produced
is directly proportional to the amount of light falling upon the photosensitive material
and the length of time of exposure. Therefore, if more light can be transmitted
through the lens and can be made to fall on the plate, a shorter exposure will suffice
to produce a given photographic effect.
The optical system of the camera depends to a large extent upon the type of
photography which is to be accomplished. For astronomical photography, for
example, the lens system would be a telescope; for spectroscopic photography a prism
or grating forms an important part of the optical system; for photomicrography a
microscope is essential; whereas for ordinary amateur photography, a single lens not
highly corrected may suffice. For most types of photographic work, the lens system
should have certain particular characteristics and attributes, which will be discussed
in greater detail in Chap. II but which will be mentioned here.
In general, what is desired in most photographic applications is that the image on
the photosensitive plate be an accurate two-dimensional reproduction of the three-
dimensional subject as might be seen with one eye of the observer were it placed at
the same position as the camera lens.
Briefly, it may be said that photographic lens systems differ from other lens sys-
tems in that they cover a wide angle of view. Telescopes, microscopes, and other
objectives cover a field of view of perhaps 5 or 10°. A photographic lens system
usually covers a field of view of 45 to 60°; in wide-angle photography the field of view
may extend to 90 or 135°, and an extreme case has been recorded in which the field
of view was as great as 180°. Throughout this large range of view, the lens system
must be properly corrected for all forms of distortion, and all spectral colors must be in
focus on the same plane simultaneously. Moreover, provision must be made for
focusing the image on the photographic plate, although, in the simpler and less expen-
sive cameras for amateur use, the lens is fixed once and for all to take pictures with
reasonable sharpness of focus from infinity to some distance (usually between 6 and
20 ft.) near the camera.
Shutter. —The
shutter in cameras consists of an aperture of some sort through
which from the image and lens passes on its way to the photographic plate.
light
The function of the shutter is to act as a light chopper, i.e., to open for a length of
time sufficient to permit a definite quantity of light to fall upon the plate, thereby
producing a latent image. The amount of time during which the shutter is open and
permits the passage of light to the film depends upon the intrinsic brightness of the
illuminated subject, the "speed" of the lens system, whether or not there is motion
taking place in the subject being photographed, and, if so, the speed of the object,
the distance of the object from the lens, and the direction of relative motion with
respect to the lens, as well as upon the speed or sensitivity of the photosensitive mate-
rial. The exposure is definitely associated with the "speed" of the lens, the intrinsic
brightness of the illuminated subject, and the duration of time for which the open
shutter permits light to pass through the lens to the photographic plate.
Various types of shutters are made at the present time, and each of these has its
own peculiar characteristics, advantages, and disadvantages. There is no single
shutter which, under all conditions, will provide ideal light-chopping conditions.
Therefore, under certain circumstances, distortion of the photographed image will be
apparent, or various portions of the photographic plate will not be uniformly exposed,
thereby producing distortion by improper rendition of tone values.
—
Photographic Sensitive Materials. The most important component of the entire
photographic process, and the one which alone makes photography possible, is the
sensitive plate or film; all other equipment, no matter how useful, is supplementary and
of no avail without the photographically sensitive material. The characteristics of
photographic sensitive materials will be discussed in greater detail in Chap. VI.
If true tonal rendition is to be achieved in monochromatic photography, the amount
of silver deposit on the negative should be exactly proportional to the intensity of
illumination of the subject being photographed. The brightness range of most
ordinary subjects is not usually greater than 100 to 1 and this range can generally be
accommodated by average photographic negative materials. Where the silver deposit
of the negative is not proportional to the illumination intensity of the subject being
photographed, some tonal distortion will occur. Tonal distortion may also take
place in printing the paper positive from the negative, so that for accurate tone
reproduction both the negative and the print must have their exposure factors timed
(other factors also enter into the matter but will be discussed in detail later) properly to
produce a final result (print) having the same luminous visual intensity variations as
the original subject.
Camera as an Integrated Unit. —The camera shown diagrammatically in Fig. 1 is
the device which contains the various essential mechanical and optical elements for
making the negative. Essentially it is a lighttight box holding the negative film or
plates upon which the image is impressed. At the other end of the lighttight box
is the lens and focusing system. The shutter may be before, behind, or between the
elements of a complicated lens system, or in focal-plane shutters it may be immediately
next to the photosensitive material. In addition to these essential elements, the
camera is provided with a variety of semiessential and highly convenient features and
adjustments. These include focusing rack and pinion arrangements; methods of
aligning or misaligning the lens, with respect to the plate, for producing or eliminating
certain distortions; a ground glass or optical focusing system; provisions for deter-
mining the angle of view to which the film will respond; methods for quickly changing
from one plate to another; screwheads for attaching to tripod supports, view finders,
range finders, etc.
The various types of work which are attempted make it desirable to put emphasis
on certain features, perhaps at the expense of other features, for specialized branches
of photography. For this reason a wide variety of cameras of different construction
y Light from
Jighi- source
'/mage of
Object object on
film or
plate
Lens fp cusses image

Light reflected of object on photo-
from object graphic plate
Fig. 1. — Diagram of camera focused on object, ready for making a photograph.
is Each of these has its own field of maximum utility, but no single type
available.
of camera is ideally suited to all types of photographj^. Large studio-type cameras
with a wide variety of adjustments which can be made quickly and conveniently are
frequently used when large prints of high detail are required. But these cameras are
bulky. The miniature camera which has become so popular within the past decade
is admirably adapted to rapid-fire picture taking, is eminently suited to candid
photography. Its negatives are subject to deleterious effects of grain, scratches,

and other negative imperfections, as the print must be enlarged to be useful. Minia-
ture cameras do not have adjustments for eliminating angular or perspective distor-
tion. For photography in which action plays a large part, the reflex type of camera is
very popular since it enables the operator to view the subject up to the moment of
taking the picture, and to center properly the most important action. The focal-
plane shutters of these reflex cameras are sufficiently fast to stop motion where a
between-the-lens shutter could not be used satisfactorily.
—
Developing and Fixing. After the negative material has been exposed and the
latent image is impressed on it, it becomes necessary to develop and fix the negative
before it can be used to provide a print. The developing process is one in which
the silver halide grains which were exposed to light are reduced to metallic silver, the
process being carried on in the dark to prevent further exposure or fogging of the
negative material. The fixing process dissolves out the undeveloped silver halide
grains and leaves the metallic silver untouched. The fixed negative must be washed
to free it from the fixing solution, as otherwise the negative may turn yellow or brown
with aging.
Printing. —The final operation is that of making the print by enlarging or contact
printing. Like the negative, the exposed print must be developed, fixed, and washed.
Motion-picture Photogra'phy. —The differences between still- and motion-picture
photography are differences of degree rather than differences of fundamental opera-
tion. The same fundamentals are necessary, viz., illumination, lens, camera, sensitive
material, and chemical operations of developing, fixing, and printing. One difference is
that the individual pictures made are very small compared to those usually employed
in still photography. But many miniature cameras make negatives which are onlj^
slightly larger than motion-picture frames. The chief difference between still- and
motion-picture photography is that in motion-picture work numerous frames are
exposed one after the other in rapid succession. One common practice is to make
24 exposures per second.
The prints, which are made on transparent film instead of on paper are viewed
by projection upon a screen. When these frames are pi-operly projected upon a screen
in rapid succession the photographed subject appears to be in motion. Because of
the physiological factor known as the persistance of vision, the human eye does not
perceive each individual frame separately as such and is unaware that the motion
picture is made up many discrete frames, none of which record any appreciable
of
motion. The filmprojected intermittently, and flicker, due to the stop-start
is
motion of the film through the projection camera, must be overcome. This is accom-
plished by projecting a number of frames per second
fairly large (usually 24) and by
projecting each frame twice by momentarily cutting off the light in the middle of the
period for which an individual frame is in the light beam.
Amateur motion-pictures cameras employ 16- or 8-mm. film; professional machines
use 35-mm. film. Some 8-mm. pictures are made by using 16-mm. film which is
capable of recording two images side by side if the film is properly run through the
camera twice. In processing this film the two halves are slit apart and the ends
joined.
Photography in Colors. —
In color photography, a subject is photographed, in
effect, three times, each negative produced being made by exposure through a filter
which passes approximately one-third of the visible spectrum. If positive prints
from these three negatives are properly dyed or otherwise colored and are placed in
superposition, a colored image will result. This print will closely resemble the original
subject in form, contrast, and in color.
Red, green, and blue-violet filters are used to divide the visible spectrum into
three parts for making the three negatives. The negative taken with the red filter
contains densities which are proportional to the amount of red present in the original
subject and which are passed by the red filter. Wavelengths corresponding to blue-
violet and green are not passed by the red filter but are passed on to the negatives
exposed behind the blue-violet and green filters, respectively. The process of making
negatives from light corresponding to only a portion of the visible spectrum is known
as "separation," and the negatives are known as separation negatives. It is quite
likely that four or more divisions of the spectrum could be made with the possibility
of greater fidelity in color of the final result, but this has not been found to be necessary.
At the present time there are two general methods of color photography, the
additive and the subtractive methods. Both of them are based on the fundamental
necessity of making color-separation negatives.
In the additive-color process the separation negatives may be made as outlined
above. Black-and-white prints made from these negatives on transparent material
(films or plates) may be placed in three projection lanterns and projected upon a
screen, each image being accurately registered with the others. The positive print
made from the red-filter negative is projected through the red filter; the positive made
from the green-filter negative is projected through the green filter; and, finally, the
blue-violet- filter positive is projected through the blue-violet filter.

Since the red-filter positive will be transparent where there was red in the subject,
the red beam of the lantern will get through the positive and be projected upon the
screen. no green or blue-violet got through the red filter, these parts
Since, however,
of the scene will be represented on the red-filter positive by dense deposits of silver,
and none of the red lantern beam will get to the screen. Similarly, the green and
blue-violet portions of the subject will be projected upon the screen by the appro-
priate lanterns.
Present-day color films and plates (except Kodachrome) are based on the additive
principle. Between the support and the photosensitive material is placed a myriad
of small blue, red, and green filters arranged in a regular or a heterogeneous pattern.
The film or plate is exposed with the support side of the structure next to the lens,
so that the rays of light reflected from the subject must go through the support and
the myriad of filters. Light from a red portion of the subject will get through the
red filters and expose the sensitive grains immediately behind the small red filters.
Similarly the blue and green portions of the subject are recorded behind their corre-
sponding filters. The material is now developed as a negative. The portions repre-
senting color in the original subject are deposits of silver and are more or less opaque.
The negative is then bleached which removes these silver deposits and renders the
negative transparent in the regions where there was light of the appropriate color in
the subject. Next, the film is exposed to white light and developed again. In this
process the silver halides, not exposed, by the reflected light from the subject and
representing portions of the subject which reflected no light, are rendered opaque.
If, therefore, there were no filters in the material, the plate or film would look like
any other positive transparency. The small filters, however, are not destroyed by
the processing, and light must pass through them before passing through the trans-
parent portion of the positive which represent colored portions of the original subject.
In the subtractive process black-and-white positive prints are made from each
of the separation negatives. The opacity of each part of these positives is inversely
proportional to the light reflected from portions of the subject in which there was
color of the wavelengths transmitted by the filter through which the corresponding
negative was made. A heavy silver deposit on the red-filter positive represents a
portion of the subject in which there was very little red.Looked at in another way,
this heavy silver deposit represents a portion of the subject in which there was con-
siderable nonred. Since white light minus red appears blue-green to the eye, the
nonred portions of the positive are colored nonred (blue-green.) By any one of
several processes, therefore, the silver deposits in the positives are dyed in colors
complementary to those of the filters through which the negatives were made.
Thus the blue-violet- filter positive is colored yellow; the red-filter positive is
colored blue-green (cyan); and the green-filter positive is colored magenta. When
these three positives are superimposed and viewed by transmitted light or by light
reflected from a white support placed under the three superposed positives (paper
print), a colored image of the subject appears.
The essential difference between the additive and the subtractive processes is the
use of colored light for viewing the additive positives (either from a lantern in projec-
tion or from the multitudinous filters which are part of the color material) and the
use of white light for viewing the subtractive prints. In the additive processes the
final result is made up by the addition of the individual contributions of the several
colored images to an unilluminated screen. In the subtractive process, the purpose
of the blue-green positive (made from the red-record negative) is to subtract from
the white light, by which the result is viewed, the wavelengths that did not exist in
the subject. Thus the blue-green positive subtracts blue-green or nonred from the
white light. Since white light may be made up of blue-green and its complementary
red, the result of subtracting blue-green from a white screen is the same as adding
red to an unilluminated screen. Similarly the magenta positive subtracts nongreen
from the white light; yellow subtracts nonblue-violet from the white light.
In the final subtractive print, red portions of the subject are represented by yellow
and magenta superposed; blue is represented by blue-green and magenta; and green
is represented by blue-green and yellow superposed. Where there was no color in
the subject, there is no deposit of color on the final print and thus the white light by
which the result is viewed passes through the positives unobstructed. Where there
was black in the subject, all three colors are superposed in the final print and therefore
the result is white light minus magenta, blue-green, and yellow. Since the wave-
lengths represented by these three colors cover the entire visible spectrum, all wave-
lengths to which the eye is sensitive are subtracted, and none of the white light is
reflected or transmitted to the eye. This portion of the image appears black in
consequence.
Since there is always some color in an additive picture but since there may be no
color in portions of the subtractive print, the latter is brighter and more contrasty.
Unlike the additive material in which many small filters are a part of the material,
Kodachrome is a color film in which the colors come about in another way. Koda-
chrome is a subtractive material. It is made up of three distinct layers of color
material each substantially sensitive to only a portion of the spectrum. As a part of
the processing of the film these layers are dyed in colors complementary to the colors
they recorded when the exposure was made.
—
CHAPTER II
THE OPTICS OF PHOTOGRAPHIC LENSES

By R. Kingslake
—
The Nature and Properties of Light, In spite of the enormous amount of theo-
reticaland experimental work that has been done on light, its real nature still remains
a mj^stery. The original corpuscular theory of Newton (1643-1727), in which light
was supposed to consist of a hail of small discrete particles, was abandoned in favor
of the wave theory of Huygens (1629-1695), Young (1773-1829), and Fresnel (1788-
1827) because it did not adequately explain the phenomena of polarization, inter-
ference, and diffraction. The physical nature of the light waves postulated by
Huygens was hotly debated during the nineteenth century, the matter reaching its
Maxwell's electromagnetic theory of light (1873).
climax in
Even and comprehensive theory could not explain
this elaborate
certain aspects of the photoelectric effect or of the observed
spectral distribution in the radiation from a hot bodj^; an attempt
to explain these phenomena led Planck (1900) to develop his
quantum theory, which is a very elaborated form of corpuscular
theory. At the present time, we have the two incompatible
theories of light (electromagnetic waves and discrete quanta)
in use together, the physicist choosing to adopt whichever theory
best fits his experimental conditions.
Fortunately, in discussing lens action we need consider only
the simple wave theory of light, without even inquiring into
the nature of the hypothetical medium through which the waves
are propagated. We call this medium the ether, and we adopt
the simple Huygenian assumption that the wave front is
W propagated by means of wavelets which start from every point
Fig. 1.—Prog- on a wave front, their common envelope constituting the new
ress of a wave by wave front.
means of wavelets.
In Fig. 1 the full line W
represents a wave front at
any given instant, the wavelets starting out from a number of
points are shown, together with the new wave front at a later time. W
The velocity of light (c) is very high, being about 3 X 10^° cm. per sec. in vacuum,
but light travels slower in passing through matter. The ratio of the velocity of light
Table I. Some Typical Approximate Refractive Indices
Substance Index Substance Index
Water 1.33 Fluorite 1.43

Alcohol 1.36 Quartz 1.54
Glycerin 1.46 CrowTi glass. . . . 1.46-1.53
Carbon disulphide 1.63 Flint glass 1 53-1 65
. .
Monobromonaphthalene 1.66 Dense flint glass 1.65-1.92

Methylene iodide 1.74 Diamond 2.42
10
— .
THE OPTICS OF PHOTOGRAPHIC LENSES 11
in vacuum to its velocity in a transparent material is called the "refractive index"

of the material (see In practice, however, the refractive index is taken as
page 12).
being the ratio of the velocity of light in air to that in the material, since practically
all lenses are used in air and the refractive index of the material relative to air is the
really significant figure. The refractive index of air relative to vacuum is about
1.00028. Some other typical refractive indices are given in Table I.
Since light consists of waves of some kind, there must be a wavelength (X), which
is the distance from crest to crest measured along the direction in which the light is
traveling;and there must be a definite frequency {v) or number of waves passing a
given point in a second. Furthermore, if c is the velocity of light, then these quan-
tities are related by
c = X^ (1)
It is found that the velocity about 3 X lO^" cm. per sec, or 186,000 miles per sec.
c is
but it is also found that light of any one pure spectral
for light of all colors in air,
color has a definite frequency p and hence a definite wavelength X in air. For light
which is visible to the eye, these frequencies are very high, and the wavelengths are
very short. Light waves too short to be seen are called ultraviolet and will affect a
photographic emulsion or a photoelectric cell; light waves too long to be visible are
called infrared, of which the shorter infrared waves up to X = 0.0012 mm. can be
photographed by means of special infrared-sensitive emulsions.
In Table II are given the approximate limits of the regions in the spectrum which
appear to have the colors stated, but it should be remembered that color is a physio-
logical or even a psychological phenomenon and that the colors of natural objects are
never pure spectral colors but always more or less broad bands or mixtures of various
pure colors. White light consists of a mixture of all the colors of the spectrum.
Table II. Approximate Wavelength and Frequency Limits of Colors

IN THE Visible Spectrum
Frequency limits, Wavelength limits

Color in the spectrum
per sec. (in air), microns
(Infrared) . . Below 4.0 X 101 Greater than 0.75

Red 4.0-4.8 0.75-0.63
Orange 4.8-5.0 0.63-0.60
Yellow 5.0-5.2 0.60-0.58
Green 5.2-5.9 58-0 51
. .
Blue 5.9-6.5 0.51-0.46

Violet 6.5-7.5 0.46-0.40
(Ultraviolet) Over 7.5 Below 0.40
In the above table, the wavelength limits are given in microns. The micron
(written n) is equal to one-thousandth of a millimeter. Wavelengths are often
expressed in terms of angstrom units (lA = 10~^ ju = 10"'^ mm.) or sometimes in
millimicrons (m/x). For example, the wavelength of monochromatic sodium light
is 5893 A. or 589.3 m/x or 0.5893 m or 0.0005893 mm. This length is approximately
1/50,000 in.
Since the velocity of light is less in glass than in air, it follows that the light waves
will become closer together in glass, as indicated schematically in Fig. 2, and hence
the wavelength is reduced in glass to the same extent as the velocity. On emerging
into air again, both the velocity and the wavelength resume their original values.
Polarized Light. —In ordinary

light, the waves are vibrating in every direction, but
it has been known time that light reflected off the surface of glass at the
for a long
correct angle^ is vibrating in only one- plane. Such a light is called polarized light,
and has a number of interesting properties. For example, if polarized light vibrating
in a horizontal plane is allowed to fall upon a vertical plate of glass at the polarizing
angle, the whole of the light will be transmitted, and none of it will be reflected. This
latter case is of great use in photography as a means of reducing the specular reflection
or "glare" from polished surfaces.
In practice, light is polarized by means
of Nicol prisms made of calcite, or by
"polaroid" filters. Polaroid is a sheet of
plastic material containing certain sub-
microscopic crystals which transmit only
those vibrations taking place in one direction.
Light Rays. Since the new wave front —
formed by the Huygenian wavelets is
Fig. 2. —
Passage of light wa parallel
^ to the original
^ wave front, the
*^„°!:'?, J!fA^„^!^^„„ti':.!^°'"??
J^'jT^^ IJght win travel along lines which are every-
in wavelength medium
in passing from one
to another.
where perpendicular to the wave fronts
themselves. These lines representing the
light paths are called "rays," and almost all our discussions of lens action will be on
the basis of these rays, even though physically rays have no existence. Rays are
the analogue of a railroad track, light quanta being the trains, with the difference that
the quanta are in some unknown way accompanied by light waves which spread out
on all sides of the ray and cause interference effects with the waves belonging to the
neighboring rays. However, since the wavelength of the light is very small, these
interference effects cause, in general, only an unimportant fine structure within the
light distribution obtained on the assumption that each ray carries its proper share
of the total amount of light in the beam. We ^
may therefore say, in general, that where many
rays cross there is likely to be a strong concentra-
tion of light.
The Law of Refraction. —When a train of light
waves falls obliquely on the surface of separation
between two different mediums in which the
speed of light is different, the parts of the waves
which cross the boundary will be accelerated or
retarded, causing the waves to take up a new
direction in the second medium (Fig. 3).
Considering now the ray path, we find that it
is bent at the surface as shown dotted in Fig. 3,
the whole phenomenon being known as "refrac-

Fig. 3. —The refraction of light.
tion." the angles between the ray and the normaP on left and right of the sur-
If
face are, respectively, i and i' and if the refractive indices are similarly n and n',
then it can be shown that these quantities are related by the equation
n sin i = n' sin i' (2)
which is the well-known "law of refraction." The two parts of the ray and the normal
all lie in one plane called the "plane of incidence." It should be noted that, because
1 This angle of incidence is' such that its tangent is equal to the refractive index of the glass.
2 The "normal" is a line drawn perpendicular to the refracting surface at the point where the ray
strikes it.
of the symmetry of Eq. 2, the light may travel along a ray in either direction without
changing the refraction conditions
—
The Action of a Lens. The action of a lens is illustrated in Fig. 4. If expanding
light waves start out from a point source B and travel toward a lens, presently one
point of the wave will meet the lens, say at a. Then from a to c the light will travel
slowly, while the light from d, which later reaches the rim of the lens, will continue at
its original speed. All the intermediate parts of the wave will travel through some
air and some glass, so that by the time the light inside the lens has reached c, the light
from d will have reached e, and the emerging wave front will be ec as shown. This
wave now proceeds onward, and, if the wave happens to be concave as shown, it will
shrink to a "focus" at B'. We can imagine an ideal lens in which the emerging wave
will be spherical, centered about a single point B', but in practice, owing to the limita-
tions imposed by the use of onl}^ spherical surfaces and by the limited availability of
optical glass types, the emerging wave will generally not be spherical and there will
-B-^#^M#F[Sffl-4*i^
Fig. 4. — Refraction of light waves by means of a lens.
not be a perfect focus at B'. In such a case, we say that the lens has "aberrations,"
the nature of which will be discussed below.
We may, if we wish, discuss the action of this lens by the ray method by drawing
the orthogonals (perpendicular lines) to the wave fronts as in Fig. 4. These rays are
there shown dotted in, and it is seen at once that for our "ideal" lens all the rays
emerging from it will cross at B', whereas if the lens has aberrations, some of the rays
will miss B' and cause a confused patch of light at B' instead of a sharp focus.
—
Lens Calculations. For reasons connected with the manufacturing processes at
present in use, only spherical or plane refracting surfaces are used in photographic
lenses. Some attempts made
to employ aspherical surfaces, but these are
are being
still entirely experimental. a comparatively simple matter to calculate the
It is
path of a light ray through a lens system, if the radii of curvature of the surfaces,
the thicknesses of the successive lenses, and the refractive indices of the glasses are
all given. The formulas by which these calculations are made assume a particularly
simple form for the special case of a "paraxial" ray, which is a ray lying very close
to the optical axis^ of the lens. For such a ray, if s, s' are the distances of object and
image, {i.e., the crossing points of the ray with the axis) from a single refracting surface
of radius r separating two mediums having refractive indices n and n', then it can be
proved that
n' _ n n' — n ,„v
s s r
By applying this formula successively to all the surfaces in a lens, the position of the
final image of a given object point can be determined.
The signs in this equation are correct if distances are measured outward from the
pole of the surface as origin, and are regarded as positive or negative if to the right
or left of the surface, respectively.
1 The "axis" is defined as the line passing through the centers of curvature of all the lens surfaces.
Focal Length of a Lens. —The above process is a very laborious one, and to simphfy
it Gauss, about 1841, devised his system of principal and focal points. These are
defined as follows: In Fig. 5 is shown a general lens system of any internal construc-
tion, such as a photographic objective, and a series of rays from a very distant axial
object point is shown entering the left-hand end of the system. These will all
emerge from the other end of the lens as a converging beam, as shown, and each ray
will evidently possess an "equivalent refracting point" where the entering and emerg-
ing portions of the ray intersect. The surface which joins vip all these equivalent
Fig. 5. — The equivalent refracting surface of a lens.
refracting points is called the "equivalent refracting surface" of the lens, and where
this crosses the axis is the "second principal point" Pi of the lens. Also, the point
at which the innermost rays Ijang close to the axis cross the axis is called the "second
focal point" Fi, the distance from Pa to

being the focal length of the lens. If rays
F-i
from a distant object point enter the lens at the right-hand end, there will be another
principal point P\ and another focal point F\, the distance between them being another
focal length. It can be proved that, in any lens whatever, these two focal lengths
are equal. ^
Combination of Two Lenses. — If two lenses of focal lengths /i and Ji are used
together in succession, the focal length F of the combination will be given by
i = 1 4-i _ _1 (4)
where d is the distance between the second principal point of the first lens and the
first principal point of the second lens (Fig. 6).
Fig. 6. —A system composed of two separated lenses.
It should be noted that if /i and fi are both positive, i.e., convex lenses, then
increasing their separation will lengthen the combined focal length. On the other
hand, if a positive and a negative
lens are separated, the focal length of the combina-
tion is In the case when d is equal to /i, the combined focal length is also
shortened.
/i, and hence the presence of a second lens in the focal plane of the first lens does not
affect the focal length of the first lens. In the limiting case when d = fi /a, the +
1 This statement is incorrect if the image and object happen to be situated in different mediums.
The eye and the oil-immersion microscope objective are the only important systems in which this
occurs.
power becomes zero and the focal length is infinite. This case represents the common
telescope, or the so-called afocal system.
Distances of Object and Image.

1. From the Principal Points. — If p, p' are the distances of object and image,
respectively, from the first and second principal points of a lens and if / is the focal
length, then
2. From the Focal Points. — If x, x' are the distances of object and image, respec-
tively, from the first and second focal points of a lens, then
xx' = -p (6)
In both these equations, distances measured to the left of their respective focal or
principal points must be regarded as negative and distances to the right as positive.
Calculation of the Focusing Scale for a Camera. —
the focal length of a camera
If
lens is /, we may use the formula xx' = —f^ to calculate the positions of the divisions
on a focusing scale. For if x is the distance from the object to the first focal point of
the lens, the distance of the object from the lens is (/ — x), and x' = is the distance
to be marked off from the » mark on the focusing that the sign
scale. Remember
of X will be negative if the object is to the left of the lens, with the light going from
left to right. This procedure applies only in the case of cameras in which the entire
lens is moved back and forth to focus it. In some recent cameras only the front
element of the lens is adjusted for focusing, and in these cases the correct focusing
scale must be determined by computation or by direct trial and error. On account
of the variation in the aberrations caused by this method of focusing, the trial-and-
error method of constructing a focusing scale is probably the most satisfactory. The
advantages of moving only the front lens are (1) greater rigidity is possible in the
camera if no sliding front has to be provided and, (2) a very small longitudinal move-
ment of the front lens often produces a very large movement of the final image on the
plate.
—
The Thin Lens. If a lens is extremely thin, its two principal points fall together
within the lens, and we can then measure all our distances from the thin lens instead
of from one or other of the principal points. This is often a great assistance in making
approximate lens calculations or measurements.
—
Concave Lenses. Concave lenses fit into the scheme outlined above for convex
lenses, provided we remember that the focal points are interchanged in position (Fig.
Fig. 7. — Focal and principal points of a concave lens.
7) as compared with a convex lens. This affects the use of the formula xx' = —f,
connecting the distances of object and image from their respective focal points. To
use this equation with a concave lens, if the light travels from left to right, x must mean
the distance from the object to the first focal point (on the right) and x' is the distance
from the image to the second focal point (on the left). The two principal points
fallwithin the lens as usual, and the focal length is now negative.
—
The Size of the Image. The size of an image can be obtained at once if it is
remembered that any ray entering toward the first principal point of a lens leaves from
the second principal point at the same slope as it enters (Fig. 8). Thus, if an object
subtends an angle B at the first principal point of a lens, theimage will subtend the
same angle the second principal point.
6 at
Therefore, if p, p' represent the distances of the
object and image from the two principal points,
respectively, the magnification will be given
by
Fig. 8. —
Equal slope property of
image size _ image distance _ p'
the principal points. In this dia- (7)
gram d\ = Oi.
object size object distance p
If object and image distances are measured from the focal points (x, x'), then the
magnification is given by
m = — x'
:t = f-
(8)
(A negative magnification merely implies an inverted image.) If an object is very

distant and subtends an angle 6 at the lens, its image will lie in the focal plane and will
also subtend an angle 6. Thus the linear size of the image in this case will be equal
to / tan d.
—
Telephoto Lenses. A telephoto lens is a lens having a long focal length but
a short "back focal distance," or distance from the rear lens surface to the focal point.
The long focal length ensures a large-scale picture, but, since the image is close to the
back of the lens, the over-all camera length is kept short. This result is achieved by
using a positive front element and a negative rear element, usually of approximately
equal focal length, separated by a finite distance. In such a combination (Fig. 9) the
VsAiWA^SAAAA/\Â.
Fig. 9. —The telephoto lens.
two principal points fall in front of the convex element, giving the desired long focal
length and short back focus. The focal length of the system can be altered by chang-
ing the separation. In the past, many "telenegative" lenses have been designed for
use behind an ordinary photographic lens to convert it into a telephoto lens; it is now
customary to use only complete telephoto lenses properly designed for the purpose.
The ratio of focal length to back focal distance is called the "telephoto magnification."
—
Longitudinal Magnification. If an object has a depth q along the lens axis, then
its image will have a depth q' along the axis (Fig. 10), where A', B' are, respectively,
the images of the object points A, B. Then the ratio q' /q is called the "longitudinal
magnification" of the image. It can be shown that, if q and q' are small, the longi-
tudinal magnification m' equal to the square of the ordinary magnification in. Hence
is
in any ordinary camera, where m is generally fairly small, m' is very small, and a
considerable range of object distances appear equally in focus on the plate. On the
other hand, in photomicrography where the magnification m is high, m' is very high.
and only a very thin section of the object appears sharply in focus at a time. In this
connection, should be noted that for a fixed lens, if the object is moved to the right,
it
the image moves to the right also.
A K-Ct-H
A B A' B'
Fig. 10. — Diagram illustrating longitudinal magnification.
—
Image of a Sloping Object. It can be shown that a perfect lens will produce an
undistorted image of a plane object set perpendicular to the axis, in a plane also per-
pendicular to the axis. If the object is plane but is inclined to the axis, then a perfect
lens willproduce an image on a plane which is also inclined to the axis, but the image
willnot be perfectly sharp all over. Thus when photographing a sloping object, it is
necessary to stop down the lens if a sharp
picture is desired. A
good rule for the
correct arrangement of object, lens, and
plate is to ensure that object and image
planes meet on the median plane of the
lens (Fig. 11). The image will, of course,
be badly distorted, but the distortion can
be rectified by projection printing from a
tilted negative, using a tilted easel to hold
the bromide paper.
Measurement of Focal Length of a
—
Camera Lens. The simplest method is to -Photography obhque
stand the camera flat upon a table covered object.
with a sheet of paper and to turn it until
the image of a distant object one edge of the picture. A pencil line x
falls just at
(Fig. 12) is then made
along one side of the base of the camera, and the camera is
rotated on the table until the same distant object just falls at the opposite edge of the
picture. Another pencil line y is then drawn along the side of the camera base, and
the two lines are produced until they intersect at P. The angle 6 between them repre-
camera corresponding to
sents the angular field of the
Hence,
the particular linear size of the picture used.
by drawing a line across the previous two lines, of
length equal to the linear picture dimension D, the
focal length / can be at once read off.
The focal length can also be measured by a "nodal

slide" method. In this, the lens is mounted hori-
Fig. 12. — Determination of the

zontally on a simple slide over a vertical axis of rota-
The image of a distant object is carefully
tion.
focal length of a lens.
observed while the lens is turned through a few
degrees about the vertical axis, and the lens is then moved back and forth on its
slide until no sideways motion of the image is seen during this small rotation. In this
case the vertical axis passes through the second principal point of the lens, and the
direct distance from the vertical axis to the image gives the focal length (Fig. 13).
This follows from the equal-slope property of rays entering toward the first principal
point of a lens and leaving from the second.
—
Limitation of the Beam of Light. In every lens system, there is some material
stop or diaphragm which actually limits the size of the beam of light passing through
the system from a given object point. It may be a variable-iris diaphragm, as in a

photographic lens, or it may be a lens cell as in a telescope or a projection lens or a
microscope objective. By analogy with the eye, this stop is called the "iris" of the
system. Bj- further analogy with the eye, the image of the iris as seen from the
entrance end of the system is called the "entrance pupil," this pupil being therefore
the common base of the cones of rays entering the
system from various points in the object plane.
Similarly, the image of the iris formed by that part
of the lens system lying between the iris and the
image is called the "exit pupil," which is thus the
common base of all the cones of rays proceeding
Fig. —
13. Diagram illustrating
from the lens to various points in the image. The
the nodal slide.
entrance and exit pupil are evidently images of each
other, since they are both images of the iris.
The positions of the iris and the pupils in a symmetrical lens are indicated in
Fig. 14, together with a typical beam of light passing through the system from a
distant object to the image.
_^H^,
should be noted especially that this expression for E does not depend in any
It
way on the distance of the object or on the slope d of the entering ray but only on the
intrinsic brightness of the object and the slope of the emerging ray. This is because
there is a compensation here between the light-gathering power of the lens and the
magnification. Suppose for example the distance of the object shown in Fig. 15
from the first focal point of the lens were reduced to half. The angle 6 would be
doubled, and the amount of light entering the lens from each little element of the
object would become four times as great. But the image would now be twice as
large as it was, and hence it would have four times its former area. Thus four times
as much light would be spread over an image four times as large, and the resulting
illumination on the plate would be unchanged.
Relation between Exposure and Aperture Ratio. The relation between the —
aperture ratio of a lens and the illumination in the image can be deduced from the
consideration that in a perfect lens the equivalent refracting surface ("principal
plane") a sphere centered about the focal point
is / ^ \
(Fig. 16). Hence, if h is the height of the incident ^ ^^^\

X—l-
raj'^ above the lens axis, sin 0' is approximately equal h 7 /^ "-7- Ik
to (h/f). Now
the diameter of the entering beam i
— j
'^"~
--^fc^^F2
(the entrance-pupil diameter) is equal to 2h, hence ~Y% Tj
I
J
the "aperture number" or ratio of the focal length
\ \ /
to the diameter of the entrance pupil is equal to ^ /
\
f/2h = 1/(2 sin 6'). If this number is represented \ i^—/
by A, e.g., A = 4.5 for an //4.5 lens, we see that Fio- 16. The aperture ratio of a —
sin d' = 1/2A, and hence the image illumination is perfect lens,
given hy E — kirB/Â^ accurately for all apertures up to the very largest. Thus we
reach the familiar result that the required exposure is proportional to the brightness
of the object and inversely proportional to the square of the /-number and is inde-
pendent of the distance of the object.
It is also interesting to see that the greatest possible aperture ratio ^ is f/0.5, for
at this value d' = 90° and the extreme ray would just graze the plate. Even this
ratio is, strictly speaking, unattainable, for there must be some space between the
back of the lens and the image plane.
If the bellows of a camera is extended to focus a near object, then the value of
/>/u
d becomes
J---1.J-in
dimmished proportion
^- .X,
to the
_i-
ratio I
-——
/original-image distanceX
,. ^
\ new-image distance /
), and the
, ,
exposure required must be divided by the square of this ratio. Thus in changing
from a distant object to equal conjugate distances (unit magnification), the aperture
numbers must all be doubled, and the exposure made four times as great. If the
magnification actually used is m, all marked /-numbers should be multiplied by
(1 -|- m), and exposures by (1 -1- 7n)^.
The effect of a change of bellows length on exposure is verj^ small except when the
object is quite close to the lens, as may be seen from Table III.
The "Uniform Scale" (U. S.) sj^stem of designating the stops in a photographic
lens based on the area of the iris opening rather than its diameter. When it was
is
introduced, //4 was felt to be the limit of large apertures and was called "U. S. 1."
Then the other apertures fell as shown in Table IV. This system is now practically
obsolete.
1 Bracey has designed a lens for astronomical purposes

consisting of a reversed oil-immersion micro-
scope objective, the photographic plate being attached by a layer of oil to the back (plane) surface of
the lens. The aperture of this is given as //0.36, such a speed being possible since for an immersion
lens of this type, aperture number is defined by f/27ih where /i is the index of the oil, say 1.52. Bracey,
Astrophys. J., 83, 179 (1936).
— ——
Table III. Effect on Exposure, Magnification, and Aperture, of

Extending Bellows
Distance between object and

lens in multiples of the focal
length, / 100/ 50/ 20/ 10/ 5/ 3/ 2/ nf
Magnification, m, 0.01 0.02 0.05 0.11 0.25 0.50 1.0 -

n \
Multiply /-number by 1.01 1.02 1.05 1.11 1.25 1.50 2.0 {I + m) = -
Multiply exposure by 1.02 1.04 1.11 1.24 1.56 2.56 4.0 (1 + m)2 =
(n - 1)2
Distance between lens and filna,
nf
in multiples of focal length . . . 1.01/ 1.02/ 1.05/ 1.11/ 1.25/ 1.50/ 2.0/ = (1 + m)f
Bellows extension, from infinity
position, in terms of focal
length 0.01/ 0.02/ 0.05/ 0.11/ 0.25/ 0.50/ 1.0/ mf =
Table IV. Comparison of Methods of Specifying Apertures
/-number 5.6 16 22
U. S. number. 2 16 32
Measurement of Aperture Ratio. —

As the aperture ratio is defined as A = f/D
where D the diameter of the entrance pupil, it is necessary to measure / and D
is
separately. The measurement of focal length is given on page 17. The entrance
pupil can be measured by means of an ordinary traveling microscope equipped with
an objective having a sufficiently long working distance to reach down into the lens
as far as the entrance-pupil plane. Alternatively, the emerging parallel beam from a
point of light at the focus may be allowed
to fall on a piece of photographic printing
paper, and the diameter of the disk of

formed can be measured directly.
light so
If is performed while the
the experiment
lens is mounted upon a nodal slide, both
/ and D can be determined together.
Variation of Illumination over the
Image. —-The discussion of image illumi-
nation given on page 18 refers specifically
to the center of the picture. At a field
Fig. 17. — Oblique illumination in a camera.
angle 4> from the lens axis, the illumina-
tion will be reduced to £'o cos* 0, where Ea is its value on the axis. Two of these
cosine terms appear because the oblique-image point is farther from the lens than
Table V. Variation of Illumination of Photographic Plate

Angle <t>
from
the axial image point, one cosine is present because the aperture is projected as an
eUipse in the outer parts of the field, and the fourth arises from the obliquity of the
light as it falls on the plate (Fig. 17). Table V shows the variation in light inten-
sity on the photographic plate for various angles off the optical axis.
The Vignetting Effect. — In addition to the loss of light caused by the cos^ <f>
law
(Table V), in many lenses the mounts cut off oblique pencils more than axial pencils,
causing the illumination in the outer parts of the picture to be still less (Fig. 18).
v_y
Diagram illustrating vignetting effect.
To an eye at A, the lens has a circular aperture, but viewed from B, the aperture is
limited by the overlap of two ellipses, as shown at the right of Fig. 18. The com-
bination of the cos** 4) relation with vignetting may produce such a diminution of light
that the corners of thephotographic print appear dark, and sometimes almost black.
The vignetting effect can generally be reduced by stopping the lens down.
The magnitude of the vignetting effect can readily be determined by the arrange-
ment shown in Fig. 19. In this diagram, S represents a lamp and G an opal-glass
6 R P
Fig. 19. — Diagram showing the measurement of vignetting effect.
plate before the lens L to be investigated. R is a, row of pinholes in a metal screen

placed in the focal plane of the lens and near a photographic plate P. Each pinhole
in R will project on the plate a picture of the shape of the lens aperture correspond-
ing to the particular point in the field occupied by the pinhole.
—
The Light Transmission of a Lens. It might be thought that as a lens is made of
glass, its light transmission would be determined only by the transparency of the
glass itself. This is unfortunately very far from the case because a surface separating
air from a medium of refractive index n reflects back a proportion [{n — l)/{n + 1)]^
—
of all light falling on it within 20 or 30° of the normal. This value ranges from 0.04
(4 per cent) for n = 1.5 up to 0.067 for n = 1.7. Consequently, taking a mean
reflecting power of 0.05, the transmission of one glass-air surface is about 0.95, and if
a lens has -p glass-air surfaces, the over-all transmission will be (0.95)^. Values of
this are given in Table VI.
Now most of this reflected light emerges back again through the front of the lens,
but 5 per cent of it is again reflected by each surface as the light passes through it,
with the result that each double internal reflection causes about 0.25 per cent of the
incident light to go back into the camera as unwanted light. If the theory is worked
out fully including the effects of further multiple internal reflections, it is found that
for light entering the lens along its axis, the total light transmitted is given by the
fraction (1 — r)/[l -\- {;p — \)r\ whereas it was seen above that the useful light is
only (1 — i-y. In these formulas r is the fraction reflected at each surface, and p is
the number of surfaces. The difference between these two amounts represents the
intensity of the unwanted light, which reaches alarming proportions in a lens con-
taining five or six separate elements (see last column, Table VI) and explains why a
picture taken by a simple landscape lens in a cheap camera is often much more
contrasty than the same picture taken with a complex anastigmat. Each double
internal reflection, of course, forms an image of the source somewhere, but as these
ordinarily fall verj^ far from the plate, they are recorded as general illumination and
not as specific images. However, it does occasionally happen that one or more of
these doubly reflected images falls on or nearly on the plate, where it forms a most
annoying "ghost image." Ghosts of this type are most likely to occur when photo-
graphing a bright object such as the sun or an artificial source of light against a dark
background. Occasionally a faint image of the iris itself is formed, after two internal
reflections, on or almost on the plate, causing a "flare spot" to appear in the center of
the picture.
Table VI. Stray Light in Lenses (/• = 0.05)
Number of
some softening of the contrast. Indeed, some "diffusion attachments" operate on

this principle.
Optical Density. —
While on the subject of light transmission, it is convenient to
introduce the frequently occurring concept of optical density. "Light transmission"
is defined as the ratio of the amount of light leaving the system to the amount entering
it in the same time. This is a ratio which is never greater than 0.9, since that is the
transmission of a single lens or plate of glass.
Since the transmissions of plates or other elements passed in succession by a beam
of light must be multiplied together to yield the over-all transmission, it is more con-
venient to adopt a logarithmic unit which can be directly added for successive trans-
missions. Such a unit is "optical density," which is defined as log (1/transmission).
Thus transmissions of 1, 10, and 50 per cent have densities, respectively, 2.0, 1.0,
and 0.301. A transparent clear-glass plate transmitting 90 per cent of the light, has a
density of 0.046.
The term "opacity" is sometimes used for the reciprocal of the transmission.
Thus a transmission of 50 per cent has an opacity of 2 and a density of logio 2, or
0.301. If several plates are used in succession, their opacities must be multiplied
together to get the over-all opacity.
Cleaning a Lens. — Dirt marks on a lens act both as obstructions to
or finger
light and which soften definition and contrast. A lens should
as diffracting agents
not be cleaned more than necessary as grit is likely to be harder than glass and indis-
criminate wiping maj^ scratch the lens surfaces. Clean chamois leather moistened
with alcohol is a good cleanser, followed by the minimum of polishing with a dry
chamois leather. Soft tissue paper or specially made lens paper may also be used.
A lens should not be taken apart unless absolutely necessary as this will admit dust
and dirt which will settle eventually on the inner lens surfaces. Slight decentration
may also arise from casual disassembly of a lens.
If a lens has been dropped, it may be found that one of the balsam layers between
the elements of a cemented component has started to break apart. In this case the
lens should be returned to the makers to be recemented; this is not a job for the user to
undertake himself.
—
Depth of Field. We have so far supposed that the whole of our object lies in a
plane at a fixed distance from the camera and that the image is sharply focused on the
plate. these conditions is not fulfilled, we shall, of course, obtain a
If either of
blurred image. In practice it is found that a certain slight amount of blur is tolerable
because it cannot be detected in the final picture, and thus we have a certain deter-
minable "depth of field" for our camera, which is the range over which the object or
the photographic plate may be moved along the axis of the lens before the consequent
blurring of the picture becomes noticeable. To obtain a quantitative measure of this
effect, we consider the passage of the beam of light from a single object point to the
"
corresponding image point. If this image point is out of focus, a "circle of confusion
will be seen on the plate instead of a point of light, and if the diameter of this circle of
confusion subtends an angle of a minute of arc or less at the observer's eye, he will be
unable to say whether the image is in sharp focus or not.
Now a minute of arc is an angle of 1 in 3400, so that a circle of 0.1-mm. diameter
should just be distinguishable as such when viewed at a distance of about 12 in. As
this is the normal viewing distance for direct contact prints, a circle of confusion of
0.1-mm. diameter provides the limit of our depth of focus for such cases.
However, when the photographic picture is subsequently enlarged, as occurs in
motion pictures for example, it is necessary to adopt a much more stringent criterion
of sharpness than 0.1 mm.; indeed, the limit is then fixed by the coarseness of the grain
structure in the photographic emulsion. The measured "resolving power" of
emulsions runs from 30 lines per millimeter for fast negative emulsions down to
80 lines per millimeter for process plates and lantern plates. Thus we may expect
that the minimum discernible circle of confusion over this range of emulsions will be
similarly from 0.03 to 0.01 mm. On the average, it is commonly stated that, for the
highest definition requirements, a circle of confusion of Hooo in- (0.025 mm.) is per-
missible, while 0.1 mm. is satisfactory in making direct-contact prints.
—
Depth of Focus in the Image. In Fig. 20 is shown the cone of rays from a lens in the
neighborhood of an image point. Assuming that the lens is perfectly corrected, this
cone will shrink to a point at the best focus, and
expand uniformly within and beyond this focus.
Evidently, if the plate is situated anywhere in
the range for which the expanded beam has a
diameter less than that of the permissible circle
Fig. 20. Depth of focus in the of confusion c, the image will appear perfectly
image.
sharp, whereas outside this range some diffusion
will be observed. If this range extends to a distance R to each side of the perfect
focus, then R = cA, where A is the aperture number of the lens. The use of this
relationship is chiefly found in determining the precision of focusing necessary in a
camera, the permissible degree of nonflatness in films, etc.
—
Depth of Focus in the Object.- So far as the practical photographer is concerned, the
important aspect of depth of focus is the range of distances in the object which will
appear substantially in focus on the plate. This is more properly called "depth of field."
If the camera is focused accurately on a certain plane in the object, at a magnifica-
tion m, then the distance beyond the focused plane corresponding to a circle of con-
fusion c on the plate, is given by
where d is the diameter of the entrance pupil of the lens, and s is the longitudinal
distance of the focused object plane from the entrance pupil. Similarly, the depth
of focus within the focused plane is
R2=—^
md + c
(11)
If the object is fairly near the camera, md is large compared to c, and we can write
approximately
«. = «' = £ (12)
As an example in the use of these formulas, suppose we have an//4.5 lens of focal
length 100 mm. (4 in.). Then with an object at 10 ft. (3.28 m.) distance and assuming
a permissible circle of confusion of 0.1 mm. on the film, we have
s = 3280 mm.
, 100 „„„
a = -T-p = 22.2 mm.
4.5
c = 0.1 mm.
- _JL _ J_
"^'s-f 31.8
md = 0.70
i2„ = ^=
0.8
410 mm. = 16.1 in. = 1 ft. 4 in.
iJi = 328
??§ = 546 mm. = 21.5 in. = 1 ft. 10 in.
0.6
:
Hence the whole depth of acceptably sharp field would be from 8 ft. 8 in. to 11 ft.
10 in.
By the approximate formula (12) we have
Ri = Ri = 469 mm. = 18.5 in. = 1 ft. 6 in.
giving a range from 8 ft. 6 in. to 11 ft. 6 in.
—
Depth of Focus, Including Enlargement of the Print. It can easily be shown that if
we photograph the same object with two lenses of different focal lengths and diameters,
if we subsequently enlarge the smaller picture to make it the same size as the larger
picture, and if we insist on equally sharp definition in the two final equal-sized pictures,
then the depths of focus of the two cameras will be proportional solely to the diameters
of the two lenses. Thus an //2 lens of 2-in. focus and an //4 lens of 4-in. focus both
have a diameter of 1 in. The 2-in. lens forms a picture half as large as the 4-in. lens,
but after enlargement to make them equal in size, the depth of focus of each will turn
out to be the same. This property constitutes the real advantage of the miniature
camera, in that it permits the use of a fast lens without loss of depth of focus.
—
The Hyperfocal Distance. In a fixed-focus hand camera, it is desirable to choose
the focused plane so that the extreme end of the beyond-focus depth just reaches
infinity. In this case, we write iî = oo, whence md = c from Eq. (10). Now since
m = f/x [Eq. (8), page 16], our focused distance in this case will be given by a; = fd/c.
This is called the "hyperfocal distance." It should be noted that in a camera cor-
rectly focused for this distance, the within-focus depth just reaches x/2. As an
example, consider a camera lens of 100-mm. focal length and aperture //8. The
diameter of the pupil is d = '^^% = 12.5 mm., and the hyperfocal distance is given by
X = fd/c = (100 X 12.5)/0.25 = 5.0 m. (16 ft.), assuming the permissible circle of
confusion on the plate corresponds to c = 0.25 mm. The range of object distances
sensibly in focus then runs from » up to 2.5 m. (8 ft.).
—
The Resolving Power of a Lens. Îf we follow through all the implications of the
Huygens wave theory of light, we find that the image of a point source formed by a
perfect lens is not a true point, but a small disk of light surrounded by a series of very
faint rings of light, called an "Airy disk." The practical diameter of the central
circular patch is found to be 2\f/d, where X is the wavelength of the light used (approx-
imately 0.0005 mm.), /is the image distance from the lens, and d is the clear diameter
of the lens. Hence two close point sources will be just "resolved" if their separation
is equal to X//d or \A, where A is the aperture number of the lens. This quantity
is so small that it scarcely ever enters into photographic problems, for even at //16,
as might be used for copying work, the least resolvable separation of two adjacent star
images is 16X = 0.008 mm., while the grain of even a process plate is at least twice as
large as that and with ordinary plates it may reach ten or twenty times as large.
—
The Pinhole Camera. A type of camera which should not be despised is the
common pinhole camera, which is simply an ordinary camera having a pinhole in
place of a lens. The size of the pinhole is of considerable importance, for if it is too
large the picture will be blurred owing to the spreading of the cones of light from the
various object points as they pass through the hole, but on the other hand if the pin-
hole is too small the light waves will spread out owing to diffraction effects, again
causing a blurred picture. There is thus an optimum size of hole to be used with
any given length of camera. It can be shown that the image of a single object point
will be as small as possible, as a result of interference effects between light waves from
the different parts of the hole, if the diameter of the hole A is given by the following
formula
A^ = 0.00007/ (13)
—
where / is the length of the camera from pinhole to plate. This formula leads to the
values given in Table VII.
Table VII. Optimum Size of Pinhole
/.in 3
.1, in
Relative aperture
Size of image point, in.
—
The third point to notice is that for proper perspective the print must be viewed
from the point originally occupied by the center of the lens. With amateur snap-
shots, this point is frequently too close to the print for the eye to accommodate, and
a magnifier must be employed. The ideal magnifier is one having a focal length
equal to that of the camera lens. If such a magnifier is used, the improvement in
perspective is often amazing, and the whole scene takes on an impression of great
reality. If the picture is enlarged, the viewing point is carried away from the print in
proportion to the degree of enlargement, and for this reason alone enlargements of
snapshots are frequently found to be much more "natural" and pleasing to the eye
than the original contact prints. A
good rule with miniature cameras is to enlarge
by the ratio of 15 in. to the focal length of thecamera lens, on the assumption that
the enlargement wdll be viewed at approximately 15 in. distance.
A fourth factor which sometimes accounts for an unnatural picture is the size of
the angular field of view covered by the photograph. Artists rarely show more than
30 or 40° in one picture, and photographs which include very much more than this are
often deceptive. Almost all photographs taken with a wide-angle lens covering a
field of 80 or 90° or even more are unsatisfactory, a typical example being a close view
in a small steamship cabin which looks like a wide and spacious room in the print.
The data in Table VIII may be useful, relating the focal length and size of angular
field of lens with the size of picture produced by it.
Table VIII. Angular Field of Lens

:
—
Choice of Focal Length for Various Purposes. Under all circumstances a good
rule to follow is that the focal length should be as long as possible, if good perspec-
tive representation is desired. In particular for portraiture, to form a head

image, say, 3 in. high, a magnification of about one-third is required, and therefore if
the subject is to be, for example, 9 ft. from the lens, the plate must be 3 ft. from the
lens, requiring a focal length of 28 in. As this is very long, it is generally necessary to
place the subject at less than 9 ft. from the camera, with consequent slight "dis-
tortion" of the perspective.
However, in spite of everything, small lenses are by far the most popular, mainly
from considerations of portability and cheapness and because the depth of focus
for a given /-aperture is considerably increased. Optically, also, small lenses are better
because the aberrational defects in a particular type of lens shrink with the scale on
which the lens is constructed, while the various aberration tolerances remain
unchanged. Thus it is often possible to make an //1. 5 lens for 16-mm. motion
pictures of a design which could not be made to exceed, say, //2.0 when used with
35-mm. films, or perhaps //2. 5 for a miniature camera covering two frames of 35-mm.
film.
Lens Defects. —We have discussed so far the properties of a perfect lens. In
practice no lens is perfectand some slight knowledge of the kinds of defects likely to
be encountered is useful to the practical photographer. The principal aberrations
may be listed as follows
1. Spherical aberration. A longitudinal variation of image position for different
zones of the lens.
2. Coma. Variation of image size for different zones of the lens.
3. Chromatic aberration. Longitudinal variation of image position for different
colors.
4. Chromatic difference of magnification, or transverse chromatic aberration.
Variation of image size for different colors.
5. Distortion. Variation of magnification in different parts of the field.
6.Astigmatism. A longitudinal separation between the images of radial and

tangential lines in the field.
7. Curvature of field. A curvature of the "field surfaces" obtained by joining
up the radial and tangential astigmatic images over the entire field.
These be considered separately.
will
Spherical Aberration. —
In practically every lens of any kind it is found that
rays from an object point on the lens axis, entering the lens at different distances out
from the center, cross the axis again on the image side at different points. This is
clearly a defect, since in a perfect lens all the rays from an axial object point cross
the axis again together at the image point.
The situation for an entirely uncorrected simple convex lens is indicated in Fig. 21.
The point P represents the "axial image point," which is the crossing point of raj's
passing through the lens near its center. The position of this image point is given
hj the formulas on page 15. Now in a simple lens, the other rays which pass through
the outer parts of the lens fall short and cross the axis at points M, N, etc. The
distance from P to M
is called the spherical aberration of the lens for the particular
ray concerned, usually the extreme marginal ray at full aperture. Evidently stopping
down the diaphragm of such a lens will reduce the spherical aberration drastically.
The dotted curve in Fig. 21 is a graph connecting the height of incidence of the ray
with the position of its crossing point with the axis. This graph is approximately
a parabola for an uncorrected lens because the aberration increases approximately
as the square of the height of incidence; thus halving the lens diameter reduces the
aberration to one-quarter of its previous amount.
In a spherically corrected lens, the aim is to make the extreme marginal ray cross
the axis at the point P, which can be accomplished by a suitable choice of lens shape
and construction. Then it generally happens that the intermediate rays do not cross
the axis at this focus but fall a little short of it, giving the situation indicated in Fig. 22.
Fig. 21. — Diagram illustrating spherical aberration.
This small residual aberration for the intermediate zones of the lens is known as "zonal
aberration" and is generally negligible, but it becomes of serious magnitude in micro-
scope objectives and photographic lenses of over //3 relative aperture. In large
telescope objectives, zonal aberration would be so serious if spherical surfaces were
Fig. 22. — Diagram illustrating zonal aberration.
used that one or more of the lens surfaces is invariably made aspherical by judicious
hand retouching, and consequently the quality of such a lens ultimately depends more
on the skill of the retoucher than on the care of the designer.
The general effect of large spherical aberration in a lens is to produce an image of a
point source consisting of a bright central point (the focus of the axial
rays, represented by P in the ray diagrams) surrounded by a halo of
light caused by the rays which miss the point F, as indicated in Fig.
23. With an extended object, of course, every point will be imaged as
a patch of this sort, all the central bright spots serving to outline the
image, and all the halos merging together to produce a general fog or
Fig. 23.—
haze over the picture. On stopping down the lens by means of its iris Image of a
diaphragm, the halo becomes smaller, the central brightness remaining point source
virtually unchanged until the entire halo has gone. Further stopping when spher-
erra-
beyond that stage diminishes the central brightness also. i*?^ .^
tion IS Dr6s—
The author once examined an //1. 5 lens which had a large residual gj^^_
of spherical aberration of this type. The outer halo could be com-
pletelyremoved by stopping the lens down to//2.9, after which further stopping down
merely diminished the brightness of the central spot. As far as extended objects are
concerned, this lens would give its best image at //2.9. Any enlargement of the
aperture beyond //2.9 would produce a haze over the whole picture resulting in bad
loss of contrast, the effect being almost similar to admitting air&y light into the
camera by making holes in the bellows!
by letting it form an
Spherical aberration can be immediately recognized in a lens
image through a filter, to make the light reasonably mono-
of a distant point source
chromatic, and then examining the image with a strong magnifier or a low-power
microscope.
Coma. — Coma is an aberration which does not exist in the center of the image
(the lens axis) but increases steadily for images lying progressively farther out in the
Fig. 24. — Image produced when coma is present.
field. a difference in magnification, or distance of the image from the

It is essentially
lens axis, for different zones of the lens. Each zone forms a minute ring image of an
object point, all the various rings falling between two lines at 60° to one another as
indicated in Fig. 24. The strongest concentration of light is, as for spherical aber-
where the rays through the middle of the lens form their focus, viz., at P in
ration,
Fig. 24.This comatic (cometlike) form of star image off the axis of the lens is very
commonly found in an ordinary astronomical telescope having a slightly tilted
objective. It is common too in photographic lenses, but there it is generally so
700 1-
Red
400
Position of Focus
^Lighf_
direction
Fig. 25. — Curve relating wavelength with position of focus, for a simple lens and for an
achromat.
mixed with astigmatism and other aberrations that few people have ever seen an
image afflicted with pure coma and nothing else.
Chromatic Aberration.—This is characterized by a longitudinal displacement of
the image plane for different wavelengths (colors). In an uncorrected positive lens
the violet focus is the shortest and the red the longest, the other colors falling into
between the two extremes.
their place In an achromatic lens an attempt is made by
combining two or more different kinds of glass to unite two colors at a common focus.
When this is done, the intermediate colors fall closer to the lens than the united pair,
and the extreme colors fall beyond, so that the curve connecting wavelength (X)
with image position becomes bent back on itself as shown in Fig. 25. This means
that in the neighborhood of one wavelength the lens is substantially free from chro-
matic aberration, that being the "minimum focus wavelength" corresponding to the
point m in Fig. 25. For lens systems to be used before the eye, this minimum-focus
wavelength should fall at about 0.55 m, which is the peak of the sensitivity curve of
the eye, but for photographic work with ordinary plates, it should fall much lower,
say at 0.45 n or even less. For use with panchromatic materials having a very broad
range of color sensitivity and sometimes even with two definite peaks of sensitivity
at different wavelengths, the best position of the minimum-focus wavelength has not
yet been decided. The only solution may be to make "apochromatic" lenses, i.e.,
lenses in which the curve in Fig. 25 is practically flat or in which it has a double bend
giving union of three colors at a common focus. Either of these conditions is hard to
and is indeed almost impossible because of the necessity of correcting all the
fulfill
other aberrations at the same time. The longitudinal extent of the chromatic
aberration of a lens is not diminished by stopping down, but its seriousness is reduced
Barrel Original Object Pincushion

Fig. 26.— Outline of square images produced when distortion is present.
because the depth of focus becomes increased at smaller aperture and thereby absorbs
more of the chromatic aberration.
—
Chromatic Difference of Magnification. This exists in any lens in which the focal
length is different in different colors; it should be carefully distinguished from ordinary
chromatic aberration in which the position of the focal point varies in different colors.
Chromatic difference of magnification produces colored fringes round the outer edges
of the image, and in photography these are recorded as blurred outlines. The effect
becomes Avorse if the image point lies farther from the center of the picture. It is
especially serious in lenses to be used in color photography or in three-color process
work, and it is not improved in any way by stopping down the lens.
In modern miniature cameras with good lenses, this defect is never likely to be
large enough to be noticeable, even when taking pictures on Kodachrome film. Its
effect in enlargers is liable to be much more serious, and is discussed under process and
enlarging lenses below (on page 48 in Chap. III).
Distortion. —
When distortion is present in a lens, the magnification is not constant
all over the picture, but the outer parts may be magnified less or more than the central
parts. These cases are illustrated in Fig. 26. In the upper part of that diagram are
shown images of a uniformly divided scale taken with a lens having these two types of
distortion, and in the lower part of the figure are shown the effects of these distortions
on the image of a square. In the latter case, since the corners of the square are farther
out than the sides, they are magnified relatively less or more than the sides, and hence
the square is distorted into a barrel- or cushion-shaped figure. In each case, the
perfect square-image is shown dotted. Distortion is unaffected by stopping down
the lens, and is very serious in any lens where measurements are to be made on the
plate, e.g., in process lenses or lenses for map copying or aerial surveying. Lenses with
a symmetrical construction are generally found to have very little if any distortion.
Distortionless lenses are called "orthoscopic" or "rectilinear."
Astigmatism. —
This aberration, like coma, does not exist on the axis of a well-
centered lens but increases rapidly in the oblique pencils. It is characterized by a
longitudinal difference in position between the images of radial lines in the field and
Fig. 27. —An astigmatic image.

tangential lines. Thus, if a wheel having a tangential rim and radial spokes is photo-
graphed the spokes may be in focus and the rim blurred, or vice versa (Fig. 27). In
any oblique pencil through the lens from an extraaxial object point, the imaging beam
nowhere contracts to a point when astigmatism is present (hence the name), but
instead it shrinks to a pair of focal lines. Thus a series of sections across such a
beam would appear as indicated in Fig. 28 if shown side by side. In this figure, the
e-K
Fig. 28. — Diagram illustrating the images which are obtained when astigmatism is present.
focal line marked R points radially in toward the center of the picture, and hence
radial lines in the picture would be imaged sharplj^ there. The other focal line T is
tangential to the picture, and tangential lines in the image are sharply defined there.
Midway between the focal lines the beam has a circular section, which represents
generally the position of best average definition.
Vignetting in a lens affects the astigmatism of very oblique pencils, because,

when vignetting is present, the effective aperture of the lens is the intersection of two
ellipses as shown in Fig. 28, and hence the lens aperture in the radial direction is
smaller than in the tangential direction. This small radial aperture makes the
radial focal line short, but it depth of focus to the tangential line;
also gives great
similarly, the large tangential aperture makes the tangential focal line long but gives
the radial line very little depth of focus. Generally speaking, the result of this is
that the radial lines have a definite focal position, whereas tangential lines are equally
sharp over a considerable range of positions, and indeed often it is impossible to say
where is the plane of best definition of tangential lines in the corners of the picture.
Curvature of Field. —
If all the tangential focal lines in the image of a plane object
are joined, they are found to lie on a surface called the "tangential field curve" of the
lens; similarly the radial focal lines all lie on the "radial field curve" or, as it is more
usually called, the "sagittal field curve" of the lens. These two field curves touch
at the center of the field since the astigmatism always vanishes there, and in a well-
corrected lens they both approximate reasonably to the plane of the plate. The
field curves of a typical lens are shown in Fig. 29. Stopping down the lens does not
Fig. 29. —The field curves of a typical lens. The particular curves shown, apply to the
Cooke wide-angle //8 lens.
affect the positions of these image curves, but it increases the depth of focus and
shortens the focal lines themselves, so in practice it considerably reduces the effect
of astigmatism on the image.
—
The Angular Field of a Lens. This is limited by the state of correction of the lens
aberrations, and generally the limits of the iiseful field of a lens become very evident
in a photograph of some flat object (the front of a building, for instance) taken at full
aperture on a large plate. The limit is usually expressed as the useful angular field
measured outward from the axis before definition becomes too bad to be tolerated;
this should strictly be called the "semifield." Sometimes the whole angular extent
of the usable field is specified, and sometimes the field is indicated by stating the size
of plate covered by a lens of given focal length. For ordinary lenses, a semifield of
22 or 25° is For wide-angle lenses, 45° is a reasonable limit, i.e.,
considered normal.
a 90° total Motion-picture lenses have smaller fields, for instance a lens of
field.
1-in. (25.4-mm.) focal length for use with 16-mm. motion-picture film need only
cover a semifield of 13°50', as each frame has the dimensions 7.5 by 10 mm., giving
a diagonal length of 12.5 mm. The 35-mm. film has a frame of dimensions 18 by 24
mm., with a diagonal of 30 mm., and hence, when used with a lens of 2-in. focal
length, the semifield is 16°30'. In the Leica and other miniature cameras covering
two adjacent frames of 35-mm. film, the picture size is 24 by 36 mm., giving a diagonal
of 43.2 mm., and hence with a 2-in. lens the semifield to be covered is 23°. With a
3-in. lens this drops to 15°48'. A common rule is that the diagonal of the field is
about equal to the focal length of the lens; this rule implies a semifield of about 26°
(see Table VIII for further illustrations).
Effect of Inserting a Parallel Plate into a Light Beam. There is optically no —
effectwhatever from the insertion of a piano-parallel plate of glass or other homo-
geneous transparent material into a parallel beam of light. Hence filters, prisms, etc.,
required for use wdth a lens focused on a distant object should be inserted into the
beam before it enters the lens.
Fig. 30. —Passage of a converging beam through a parallel glass plate.
The situation is quite different if the parallel plate is inserted into a converging or
diverging beam. If the beam is such that its central raj^ falls perpendicularly on the
parallel glass slab, it is affected in the manner indicated in Fig. 30. Suppose the
beam without the slab comes to a perfect focus at B, then when the slab is inserted
the focus will be shifted away by about one-third of the slab thickness to B'. More-
over, the foci of rays at different slopes through the plate will be shifted by different
amounts, resulting in the introduction of considerable spherical aberration.
But an oblique pencil is upset bj'- the slab in a much more complicated fashion.
In Fig. 31, if 5 is a perfect image point before
inserting the slab, the image may go to a position
B' after inserting the slab; but ii A'B' is greater
or less than AB there will be distortion intro-
duced, and moreover the image B' will in general
suffer from spherical aberration, coma, astigma-
tism, and all the other aberrations due entirely
to the passage of the rays through the slab.
The amounts of these aberrations due to the
parallel-sided slab are independent of the position
of the slab but depend only on its thickness and
refractive index. These remarks apply directly
—
Fig. 31. -Passage of an oblique to filters inserted between the lens and the picture
pencil of rays through a parallel and to reflecting prisms of all kinds, which are
plate. optically equivalent to a parallel slab plus one or
more plane mirrors.
The firm of Taylor-Hobson has designed special camera lenses for use in Tech-
nicolor, for in that process a beam-splitting prism must be inserted between the lens
and the film ordinary lenses would be useless here on account of the great thickness of
;
the prism and the strong convergence of the raj^s passing through it.
—
Simple Lens Tests. Undoubtedly the simplest test for a photographic lens is to
photograph on a fine-grain film a distant vertical wall carrying on it sharp detail such
as pieces of paper covered mth printed matter of various sizes. The experiment
should be done outdoors, but not in direct sunlight, so as to secure uniformitj^ of
illumination. In this waj" any nonuniformity of illumination over the field, due to a
combination of vignetting and the cos* law, will be made apparent, together with
<t>
the quality and sharpness of definition over the whole field. To detect inequality of
illumination most easily, the exposure should be on the short side, because then the
underexposure produced by vignetting becomes exaggerated. Enlarger lenses should
be tested with a cross-ruled glass screen in place of the negative, the image being
caught on a sheet of bromide paper.
There have been many special lens-testing benches constructed which facilitate
the testing of photographic lenses, but the direct photographic test, accompanied by
tests for ghost images (see page 22), is likely to be as useful and as satisfactory as any
other for the actual photographer to perform
himself. A brief bibliography of lens tests is given
at the end of this chapter.
—
Enlarging Lenses. In general, the require-
ments to be satisfied by the lens on an enlarger are
not essentially different from those of a camera
lens. There are, however, a few minor points
which should be emphasized. Strictly, enlarging
lenses should be designed for the approximate
magnification under which they will be used, as a
change in object distance may seriously upset the
corrections of a photographic lens. For instance,
some good anastigmats which give a flat field with
a distant object project an image when used in an
enlarger which is backward curving, i.e., an image
in which the corners are too far from the lens.
Fortunately stopping down the enlarging lens will
help all aberrations except distortion and trans-
verse chromatic aberration. As regards these two
defects, it can easily be shown that, if the lens is
symmetrical about a central stop, they will be
automatically removed when used at imit magni-
FiG. 32. — Diagram of a -Diagram of the brilliant

simple view finder. view finder.
fication. Hence, if good correction of these aberrations is important, a lens of

a symmetrical type is to be preferred for use on an enlarger. Incidentally, in
three-color work with color-separation negatives, chromatic difference of magnifica-
tion is a very serious defect and should be avoided wherever possible. For com-
mercial color work, apochromatic process lenses are made in which this aberration is
very well corrected for all colors of the spectrum.
—
View Finders. The simplest view finder is really a small camera with a simple
lens, a mirror, and a ground-glass screen (Fig. 32), and, since only a single mirror is
used, the picture seen is reversed from left to right. However, as ground glass is very
wasteful of light, it is more usual now to project the image into the plane of a viewing
lens, which is so chosen as to project an image of the first lens into the plane of the
observer's eyes (approximately) (Fig. 33). The observer then sees a brilliant picture
in the plane of the viewing lens on which the effective outline of the field can be etched
or markedin some suitable way. The size of the etched frame bears the same relation
to the camera picture as the focal length of the finder lens bears to that of the camera
lens.
For cameras held close to the face, a direct-vision view finder may be used con-
sisting of a plano-concave lens cut to a rectangular shape (Fig. 34). The eye. position
isoften indicated by a small view hole, and the field limits are marked on the lens at
the position corresponding to a semifield projected outward from the point E',
<t>
which is the virtual image of E formed by the concave lens. In using this finder, the
eye must be accommodated sufficiently to see the image of distant objects formed by
the lens, and in a small compact camera this may be too close for convenient vision.
In such a case, a convex lens may
be mounted at E, having its focal plane coinciding
\vith the image of distant objectsformed by the concave lens, i.e., with its posterior
focal point. The finder then becomes simply a reversed Galilean telescope.
Fig. 34. — Diagram showing optical paths in a direct-vision view finder.
Parallax in View Finders. —Since the view-finder lens is necessarily displaced to

one side of the camera lens, the picture seen in the view finder wUl be correct only for
objects at one distance, usually infinity. Some cameras therefore contain an arrange-
ment which automatically causes the axes of finder and camera to converge correctly
while adjusting the focus so as to intersect at the focused object, while others show
a series of frames which outline the field seen at various distances, for instance, very
distant, 6 ft. and 2 ft.
Bibliography
General geometrical optics:
Hardy and Perrin: "The Principles of Optics," McGraw.

Martin, L. C: "Applied Optics," Pitman.
Gleichen, a.: "Theory of Modern Optical Instruments," H.M.S.O.
Optics of photography:
Traill Taylor, J.: "The Optics of Photography and Photographic Lenses," Whitaker.
CoNRADY, A. E.: "Photography as a Scientific Implement," Blackie & Son, Ltd.
Lummer: "Contributions to Photographic Optics," Macmillan.
Cole, R. S.: "A Treatise on Photographic Optics," Low.
Fowler, H. A., and L. E. Varden: Optical Glass in Photography, Am. Phot., November, 1938.
Lens-testing methods:
RiCHTEB, Merte, and von Rohr: "Das photographische Objektiv," p. 367, Springer.
Jewell, L. E.: J. Optical Soc. Am., 2, 51 (1919).
Bennett, A. H.: Nat. Bur. Standards (U. S.), Bull., 19, 587 (1923); Sci. Paper 494.
: J. Optical Soc. Am., 14, 235 (1927).
KiNGSLAKB, R.: J. Optical Soc. Am., 22, 207 (1932).
Gardner, I. C. and F. A. Case: J. Research Natl. Bur. Standards, 18, 449 (1937); Res. paper 984.
Williams, R. L.: Testing Sharpness of Photographic Lenses, Am. Phot., June, 1935, 331.
CHAPTER III
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE PHOTOGRAPHIC OBJECTIVE

By R. Kingslake
—
Landscape Lenses. Historically, photographic lenses fall into two groups, the
early period prior to 1886 "and the anastigmat period since that time. In that year a
revolution occurred in lens design as a result of the successful development of barium
crown glass by Abbe and Schott, in Jena.
The photographs were made by placing paper covered with a light-
earliest
sensitive material in the focal plane of a camera obscura, the lenses used being first
simple plano-convex lenses, and later sim-
ple meniscus "landscape" lenses as sug-
gested by WoUaston in 1812 (Fig. 1). A
suitably designed meniscus lens, with a
stop in front of it on the concave side of
the lens, will give good pictures at //ll or
//16, covering with moderate definition a Fig. 1. —
Meniscus Fig. 2. —
Achro-
landscape lens of Wol- matic landscape lens
total field of about 45°. This lens is still
laston. of Chevalier.
universally adopted in low-priced cameras.
In addition to its cheapness, this lens has the advantage of possessing only two glass-
air surfaces.
The lack of achromatism of this lens was soon found to be a disadvantage, even
before the camera obscura became a photographic camera, and the achromatic land-
scape lens was introduced by Chevalier in 1821 (Fig. 2). The process of achromatiza-
tion automatically removed both of the chromatic aberrations, thus improving the
definition in a twofold manner.
The Petzval Portrait Lens. —The landscape lens at//ll was successfully adopted in
the early daguerreotype process, but exposures of half an hour or more were necessary
even in sunlight. Consequently when daguerreotype portraiture was attempted, the
need soon arose for a much faster lens. J. Petzval,
of Vienna, solved the problem in 1841 by the design
of his well-known portrait lens (Fig. 3), which is
still popular although its regular manufacture has
been abandoned in recent years since the introduc-

tion of anastigmats of equal or greater speed. The
Fig. 3. —Petzval portrait Petzval lens contained four single lenses and six
lens.
and covered a field of 25° at an
glass-air surfaces
aperture of //3.4. This general design was subsequently improved by Dallmeyer,
Voigtlander, Zincke-Sommer, and Steinheil, reaching finally an aperture of //2.4. It
suffered from the disadvantage of astigmatic defects in the outer part of the field,
which could not be removed so long as the designer was limited to the use of ordinary
crown and flint glasses.
—
Orthoscopic Lenses. The processes of photography were at this time undergoing
rapid improvement, and by 1858 the wet-collodion process had become generally
adopted. Its relatively high speed made indoor and architectural photography a
37
practical possibility.At once the distortion of the landscape lens and the limited
field ofthe portrait lens became strongly noticeable and objectionable. In 1859,
J. T. Goddard attempted to remove the distortion of the landscape lens by intro-
ducing a cemented doublet between the lens and the diaphragm. Within the following
few years many other nondistorting or "orthoscopic" lenses were introduced, most of
which comprised two identical lenses placed symmetrically about a central stop, such
as Steinheil's "periscopic" lens of 1865 (Fig. 4). The argument here was that if the
lens is whereas if the stop is in front
in front of the stop, pincushion distortion arises,
of the lens, the distortion is barrel-shaped. Thus, when both lenses are used together,
their distortions will neutralize each other. Some extremelj^ wide-angle lenses were
made at this time, notably the Harrison and Schnitzer Globe lens, Sutton's panoramic
Fig. 4. — Steinheil's peri- Fig. 5. —Busch Pantoskop

scopic lens. wide-angle lens.
lens containing water inside a hollow thick glass sphere, and the Busch Pantoskop lens.
This latter coAêred a field of 100° at// 30 (Fig. 5).
The Effects of Shifting the Stop. —The real advantages of the symmetrical con-
struction were not at first realized. These follow from a consideration of the laws
governing the changes of aberrations as the stop is moved longitudinally along the
lens axis. These changes may be represented symbolicallj^ by the equations:
Sph* = Sph )
Coma* = Coma -h X X Sph \ (1)

Ast* = Ast + 2K X Coma + K^ ^ Sph)
The asterisk (*) indicates the value of each aberration after the stop has been shifted
by an amount represented by K. Thus, shifting the stop does not affect spherical
aberration at all, but it changes the coma if spherical aberration is present, and it
changes the astigmatism if either spherical aberration or coma or both are present.
In the landscape lens, the stop is placed at such a position that the coma is just neu-
tralized by the {K X Sph) term in the second equation above. Thus a landscape
lens must have spherical aberration if it is to be coma-free, and, of course, coma is a
much worse defect than spherical aberration since coma increases as the field increases,
whereas spherical aberration is constant over the entire
field. The field of a landscape lens must then be flattened
by a suitable choice of lens shape.
The Rapid Rectilinear Lens. —
In 1866, Dallmeyer and
Steinheil simultaneously and independently realized that,
if two identical lenses are mounted symmetrically about
Fig. Rapid rectihnear ^ central stop, the three transverse aberrations-distortion,
6.
chromatic difference of magnification, and coma, are

automatically removed (or drastically reduced), and hence each component of such
a symmetrical system need not be corrected for any of these three aberrations.
They therefore constructed a symmetrical lens, each half of which was corrected for
longitudinal chromatic and spherical aberration; the astigmatism was then removed
by placing the stop at the correct position relative to each component to make use of
the {2K X Coma) term in the third equation above. In this way they produced the
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE PHOTOGRAPHIC OBJECTIVE 39
well-known Rapid Rectilinear or Aplanat lens (Fig. 6), covering a field of 45° at //8,
and giving excellent definition at the center of the picture because of the good
spherical correction.
The Petzval Theorem.— Actually, the astigmatism in the Rapid Rectilinear lens
was deliberately not reduced to zero because that would give rather a badly curved
field. There is a simple theorem named after Petzval, which states that the radius of
curvature of the central part of the astigmatism-free field of a lens is given by p in
1 _ ^(n' — n\
(2)
p -^V nn' r }
where r is the radius of curvature of a surface in the lens separating materials of
refractive index n and n', the summation to be made for all the refracting surfaces in
PS T T SP PS T
(a) (b) Cc) (d) (e)
P+z.= + + o o +
Ast. = - + - o O
Fig. 7. — The Petzval surface and astigmatism curves.
the lens system. This sum
independent of the object distance, the thicknesses and
is
airspaces in the system, and the stop

position. It is therefore a very inflexible quan-
tity which it is hard to vary or control. The surface whose radius p is given by Eq. (2)
is called the "Petzval surface" and represents the shape of the field if astigmatism
is corrected.
If astigmatism is present, however, it is found that the longitudinal distances from
this Petzval surface to the radial (sagittal) and tangential (meridional) focal lines,
respectively, are in a ratio of 1 : 3, as indicated in the various cases illustrated in Fig. 7.
In case a of this figure, it is clear that the introduction of a little negative (over-
corrected) astigmatism has flattened the effective field, as compared with case e
in which the astigmatism is zero. The ideal case is, of course,

zero Petzval sum and zero astigmatism; this condition is
realized approximately in the modern "anastigmat" lenses
(case d).
Attempts to Reduce the Petzval Sum. It soon became —
apparent that a flat field free from astigmatism could only be
obtained if the Petzval sum were drastically reduced in FiG. 8. Hypergon —
wide-angle lens.
magnitude. This could be done in three different ways: (1) A
single lens could be made to have a low sum by giving it a meniscus form with equal
outside radii and considerable thickness. This shape appears commonly in manj^
types of anastigmat, reaching its limit in the nonachromatic Hypergon (Fig. 8) which is
designed to cover a field of 140° at//22. (2) In an achromatic lens, if the crown and
flint components are separated by a fuiite distance, the flint must be strengthened to
compensate for its smaller effective diameter, and this will at once reduce the Petzval
sum. (3) To fulfill the Petzval sum and also the achromatic condition in a reason-
—
ably thin cemented doublet, the ratio of the V of each glass to its refractive index n
^
must be the same. Unfortunateh^ in ordinary crown and flint glasses the n and V
change in opposite directions, as indicated in Table I.
Table I. Index and Dispersion of Old Types of Glass
Type
pensate the inevitable spherical undercorrection of the new achromat rear element.
Similarly, the glasses for the rear element were so chosen that the Petzval sum of the
rear would compensate that of the front element. The shapes of the lenses were also
chosen so as to correct the coma and astigmatism of the whole system.
The Protar lens, as first made, operated at //7.7 or less. However, its aperture
was subsequently raised to //4.5 by changing the rear component into a triplet (Fig.
Fig. 12. — Goerz Fig. 13. — Symmetrical Fig. 14. -Voigtlander Col-
Dagor. double-protar lens. linear.
11) in which the positive barium crown element was divided into two parts placed
one on each side of the light flint negative element.
In 1893, as a result of the simultaneous and independent activities of Rudolph at
Zeiss and von Hoegh at Goerz, the old and new achromat elements of the Protar were
combined into one. The Zeiss Triple-Protar and the Goerz Dagor were practically
identical designs, consisting of a symmetrical arrangement of two cemented triple
elements (Fig. 12). Each element was in external form a thick meniscus lens, this
Fig. 15. —Watson Holo- Fig -Reichert Com- 17. — Rietzschel

stigmat. binar. Linear.
shape helping to reduce the Petzval sum in addition to flattening the field. The
refractive indices were in the order high-medium-low while the F-numbers of the
glasses were, respectively, high-low-high. Thus, if an imaginary line is drawn to
bisect the middle lens of each element, the outside doublets are evidently new achro-
mats and the inside doublets are old achromats.
In the same year, Rudolph designed the convertible double-protar lens (Fig. 13)
in which the new and old achromats were directly cemented together forming quad-
FiG. 18. —Goerz Pantar. Fig. 19. —

Goerz Convertible Fig.20.— Half of Turner-
Anastigmat. Reich convertible lens.
ruple elements, which were then mounted symmetrically in pairs about a central stop.
Because of the high degree of correction of these elements, they could be used sepa-
rately as anastigmatic landscape lenses at //1 2 or combined together in pairs to make
a "set" of interchangeable lenses. Thus by having a "set" of three lenses of different
foci, six possible focal lengths could be obtained. This design is still largely used by
commercial photographers. Other variations of these symmetrical cemented anastig-
mats soon followed. Some typical examples are given in Table III:
—
Table III. -Symmetrical Anastigmats

Manufacturer Lens System
Tivo Triplets
Busoh Leukar ?
Goerz Dagor -|- — -f- ; (Fig. 12)
Gundlach Perigraphic ?
Rodenstock Eikonar ?
Schneider Angulon — (Fig. 15)
Schneider Symmar -f-
— -\- (Fig. 12)
Steinheil Orthostigmat + (Fig. 14)
Voigtlander Collinear + (Fig. 14)
Watson Holostigmat — (Fig. 15)
Zeiss Convertible Protar)
Zeiss Ortho Protar / ' '
^ ^^• 15)
Zeiss Triple Protar H + : (Fij 12)

Two Quadruplets
Beck Bystigmar - + + — : (Fig. 13)
Goerz Pantar ^ + + : (Fig. 18)
Reichert Combinar + H + : (Fig. 16)
Rietzschel Linear + — + — : (Fig. 17)
Simon Octanar + + — + : (Fig. 16)
Zeiss Double Protar h -\ : (Fig. 13)
Tvô Quintuplets
Goerz Convertible Anastigmat Series II — + — + — : (Fig. 19)
Turner-Reich lens \- H : (Fig. 20)
These completely cemented symmetrical lenses do not generally exceed //6.3

in aperture, with some exceptions up to //4.5, but they cover a wide field of as much as
90° in some cases. Some of the triplets are convertible but generally only at reduced
aperture. In some cases a front lens of one type is convertible with a back lens of a
different type such as the Polyplast of Dr. Stable (Fig. 21).
Fig. 21.— Polyplast Fig. 22. — Meyer Plasmat, //4.

convertible lens.
The convertible lens has largely disappeared from amateur use with the advent of
fixed-lens hand cameras. To use a convertible lens adequately, a tripod and focusing
screen are really necessary.
In recent jêars, considerable improvements have been made bj' separating one or
more of the lenses in these symmetrical types, and in some cases departing from strict
24. —Schneider Ortho- Fig. 25. — Meyer Kino-Plas-

Angulon. mat, //1. 5.
symmetry. For example, in the Meyer Plasmat //4 (Fig. 22), the two lenses nearest
the stop in the Goerz Dagor have been detached, the same type of construction being
adopted in the Ross //4 wide-angle Xpres, the Schulze Euryplan //6, the Busch
Stigmar//6.3, the Bausch and Lomb Aero lenses, and the Zeiss distortionless Orthom-
etar//4.5. Some advantage has been gained by separating the old and new achromats
in the double-protar type, for instance in the new Taylor-Hobson Series 15 con-
vertible anastigmat //6.8 (Fig. 23). The Schneider Ortho-Angulon contains two
symmetrical quadruplets in which the inner elements have bieen detached (Fig. 24).
The Meyer Kino-Plasmat //1. 5 is an extreme variant of these nearly sj^mmetrical
types (Fig. 25).
—
The Cooke Lens. These recent developments represent the limit to which the
wide-angle symmetrical "continental" type of lens has been carried. At the other
end of the scale, we have the Petzval portrait lens and its variants, which have a large
aperture (up to about //2. 4) but cover only a rather small field (20°). The limit along
this line is the recent Zeiss R-Biotar for motion-picture photography of X-ray images
on fluorescent screens, which has an aperture of //0.85 and covers a field of only
14° (Fig. 26).
In order to provide a lens having intermediate properties between these "conti-
nental" and "Petzval" tj^pes, H. Dennis Taylor in 1893 and succeeding years devel-
Fig. 27.— Cooke Fig. 28. — Beck

FiG. 26. —
Zeiss R-Biotar for mo-
lens with negative
element mounted be-
Neostigmar,
Cooke type.
of the
tion-picture X-ray photography.
tween positive ele-
ments.
oped the well-known Cooke lens in which the Petzval sum is reduced by separating
the constituents of an achromat.^ A simple separated doublet would suffer from
very bad distortion and transverse color; therefore, Taylor divided the positive
element into two and mounted the negative element between them (Fig. 27).
Although it is theoreticallj^ possible to design such a lens using old glasses, he shortened
the system and made the corrections easier by using barium crown instead of ordinary
crown for the convex elements. This type of lens can be made in apertures up to
//3.5, to cover a field of 55°, and has the great advantages of weak curves, few com-
ponents, and no cemented surfaces. At the same time it has six glass-air surfaces,
but if the iris is placed in the rear airspace no trouble from ghosts or flare spots is
ordinarily encountered. The Cooke t3'pe of lens is made by many firms and has been
regarded as the major real invention in lens design since the advent of the new glass
types. The Beck Neostigmar is really of the Cooke type, with the diaphragm placed
in the front airspace (Fig. 28).
The aperture of the Cooke lens was raised to /,'2.3 in 1925 by Bielicke in the
Astro Tachar lens (U. S. Pat. 1540752), and in 1926 by Lee in the Taylor-Hobson
//'2.5 Speedic lens, hy splitting the rear positive element into two closely spaced posi-
tive lenses (Fig. 29). Even the recent Zeiss Sonnar lens (Fig. 30) covering 54° at
may be regarded as a development of the Cooke type in which both the middle
//1. 5
negative lens and the rear positiAê lens have been made into cemented triplets,
although, of course, it by no means follows that this design was actually arrived at
by successive modifications from the original Cooke tj'pe.
1 Taylor, H. D., Optical Designing as an Art, Trans. Optical Soc. (London), 24, 143 (1923).
Another modification of the Cooke lens is the Aldis lens (Fig. 31) designed in
1901 by H. L. Aldis, to cover 35° at//6. In this type the front two lenses are thick-
ened and cemented together to form a low-power negative system of such a shape as to
correct the aberrations of the single positive lens forming the rear element.
—
Fig. 29. Taylor-Hobson Fig. 30.— Zeiss //I. Fig. 31.— Aldis
//2.5 Speedic lens. Sonnar lens. lens; modification of
Cooke lens.
The Four-piece Lens. — In connection with the Cooke lens above, it was mentioned
that the Petzval sum can be reduced by separating the positive and negative elements
of an achromatic doublet. If two such separated doublets are mounted symmetrically
about a central stop, a lens is obtained which offers even more possibilities for a good
design than does the Cooke lens. Two independent series of designs based on this
general principle have been developed, one in which the four lenses are all biconvex or
biconcave and the other in which all four lenses are meniscus-shaped. The first form
is exemplified by the Goerz Celor //4.5, designed by von Hoegh in 1898 (Fig. 32).
Later modifications of this type are the Goerz Dogmar, the Steinheil Unofocal, and
the Taylor-Hobson Aviar. The second form may be said to have originated in the
Alvan Clark lens of 1889 (U. S. Pat. 399499) in which two Gauss-type telescope
objectives were combined together with their concave sides facing a central stop.
Fig. 32.— Fig. 33. — Ross Homo- Fig. 33a. —

Bausch Fig. 34.— Unar lens
Goerz Celor centric. and Lomb Metrogon. of Rudolph.
//4.5.
The Gauss telescope objective consists of a meniscus-shaped crown and fhnt elements
in close contact and is characterized by being spherically corrected at two different
wavelengths, thus having exceptionally good spherical correction throughout the
who'e spectrum. One of the first anastigmats to embody this principle was the
Ross Homocentric (Fig. 33) and the identical Meyer Aristostigmat designed by
Kollmorgen in 1902. The type is still being adopted for some purposes such as the
//lO process lens of Bausch and Lomb. An extreme example of this form is the
Richter lens (U.S. Pat. 2031792), the same type of construction being adopted in the
Bausch and Lomb Metrogon (Fig. 33a). The glass types employed in these sym-
metrical four-piece lenses are generally barium crown and light flint, but it is quite
possible to satisfy the Petzval sum with old glasses as was shown by Martin in the
Busch Omnar in 1902. Rudolph tried mixing the Celor and Homocentric types by
using the front half of the Celor with the rear of the Homocentric types in his Unar
lens (Fig. 34), but it was not long manufactured. The Wray Lustrar is also of this
general type (Fig. 35).
Variations of the Celor type soon appeared. For example, Goerz made the two
negatives into cemented triplets in the Alethar process lens (Fig. 36), and Rudolph
4
raised the aperture to //3.6 with a 65° field in his symmetrical Planar lens (Fig. 37)
by making both negatives into hyperchromatic negative doublets. This Planar type
has provided the inspiration for a number of recent unsymmetrical lenses of extremely
large aperture such as the Taylor-Hobson Opic //2 (Fig. 38), the Zeiss Biotar //1.
Fig. -Wray Lustrar -Goerz Alethar process Fig. 37. — Ru-

lens. dolph's symmetrical
Planar lens.
(Fig. 39), the Schneider Xenon //2, the Bausch and Lomb Raytar //2.3, and the
Kodak Ektar In extreme cases the rear positive lens is also doubled, either
J/2.
cemented or separated, as in the Xenon //1. 3. The Portrait Euryplan (Fig. 40) is
really of the Planar type.
Fig. 38. — Taylor-Hobson Fig. 39. — Zeiss Biotar, Fig. 40. —^Schulze Portrait
Opic //2. //1. 4. Euryplan.
The Ernostar lens //1. 8 (Fig. 41) designed in 1924 by Bertele is a four-piece lens
inwhich the second negative has been made into a thick cemented triplet. The Meyer
Primoplan //1. 9 is similar, but the second lens is a doublet of deep meniscus form
(Fig. 42). In the Taylor-Hobson Super-speed Panchro //1. 3, the second lens is a
doublet and the rear a triplet (Fig. 43).
Fig. 41.— Ernostar //1.8 Fig. 42.—Meyer Pri- Fig. 43.— Taylor-Hob-
lens designed by Bertele. moplan //1. 9. son Super-speed Panchro,
//I.3.
—
The Tessar Lens. By cementing together the rear elements of an unsymmetrical
Celor-type lens, Rudolph in 1902 produced the Tessar lens (Fig. 44), which is probably
the best known and most generally used type of lens produced in recent times.
The glasses are the familiar dense barium crown for the positives and light fhnt for the
negatives, and the airspaces are adjusted to fulfill the Petzval sum. In a sense, the
Tessar can be regarded as an extension of the Cooke three-lens type, but it is, perhaps,
more accurate to regard it as a logical simplification of the four-lens type of construc-
tion. Another view is that the Tessar is a combination of the front half of a Cooke
9
lens with the rear half of the original Protar lens.The Tessar lens has been made in
apertures ranging from //15 as an apochromatic process lens, down to f/2.7 for cine
purposes. The field runs from 45 to 75°, depending on the aperture and focal length.
—
Modifications of the Tessar Type. The first modification of the Tessar type of
construction was the Voigtlander Heliar //4.5 (Fig. 45) and Dynar //6 (Fig. 46)
designed by Harting in 1902, in which both the front and rear positive elements are
made into cemented doublets. In a sense, these lenses are thus modifications of the
Fig. 44. —-Tessar lens Fig. —

45. Early model of Fig. 46. —Voigtlander
designed by Rudolph. Voigtlander Heliar lens. Dynar.
Cooke type. The Dallmeyer Pentac//2.9, designed by Booth in 1919, is of the same
general type as the Dynar. The modern Heliar lens is also of the Dynar type, the
original Heliar type being no longer made. In 1903, Harting designed the Oxyn
//9 (Fig. 47) for process work, in which the front element of a Heliar was combined
Muth the rear of a Dynar. This lens also is no longer made. In the Voigtlander
Heliostigmat (Fig. 48), the front lens is doubled but the rear lens is a single positive
element. This is a kind of inverted Tessar type.
Fig. 47. — Oxyn lens Fig. 48. — Voigtlander

signed by Harting. Heliostigmat.
The Zeiss Biotessar //2.7 (Fig. 49), designed by Merte in 1925, is really a Dynar in
which an additional thin positive lens has been cemented to the front face of the rear
doublet making it into a triplet.
Another modification of the Tessar is the Ross Xpres (1913) in which the rear
lens a triplet instead of a doublet (Fig. 50). This is made in apertures from //1.
is
to//4.5, and covers a field of about 53°. The Gundlach Radar (Fig. 51) has also a
triplet rear element.
Fig. 49. — Zeiss Biotessar Ross Xpres. Fig. 51. — Gundlach

f/2.7. Radar.
—
Telephoto Lenses. A telephoto lens consists merely of a pair of widely spaced
positive and negative elements. In such a system, the principal points are shifted out
beyond the positive element so that, if this positive lens is turned toward the object,
the true or equivalent focal length of the system Avill be much greater than the back
focus. Hence a lens of long focal length, giving a large image, can be used on a small
camera having a short bellows extension. The earliest telephoto lenses were merely
small Galilean telescopes with the eyepiece racked out far enough to project a real
image on the photographic plate. By 1891, optical manufacturers began making
achromatic negative lenses in adaptors by which they could be mounted behind ordi-
nary photographic lenses. Such "telenegative" lenses were rather unsuccessful on
Fig. 52. -Busch Bistelar, 2 X, Fig. 53.— Zeiss Magnar 3 X, //lO.

f/7.
account of the low speed and poor correction of the whole system, but at// 11 or less
they could be useful. By varying the separation of the telenegative lens from the
positive lens, the over-all power of the system could be changed, such adjustable or
Pancratic lenses giving a range of from 2 X to 8 X magnification.
I _
Fig. 54. — Dallmeyer Dallon //5.6. Fig. 55.— Taylor-Hobson 2 X,

//3.5 telephoto lens.
However, it was soon realized that even a magnification 2 X is a very considerable

advantage, and in 1898 Zeiss produced a complete telephoto lens of 2 X to 3 X power,
at an aperture of //6 to// 10. This was followed by other fixed-focus telephoto lenses,
notably the Busch Bistelar 2X f/7 (Fig. 52) designed by Martin in 1906, and the
Fig. 56.— Taylor-Hobson 2.3 X, //5 Fig. 57. —Zeiss Tele-Tessar.

distortionless telephoto.
Zeiss Magnar 3X (Fig. 53) //lO by Rudolph and Wandersleb. Both these systems
consisted of a cemented positive doublet in front and a cemented rear negative doublet.
Most manufacturers have made telephoto types since 1900, of various constructions.
Fig. 58. —Voigtlander Tele- 59. —Voigtlander Tele-

Dynar, //6.3 lens. Dynar //4.5 lens.
but the aperture remained low until the Dallmeyer Dallon //5. 6 lens (Fig. 54) designed
by Booth in 1919, and the Taylor-Hobson 2 X telephoto //3. 5 by Lee in 1925 (Fig. 55).
The inevitable distortion of ordinary telephoto systems was finally overcome by Lee
in the Taylor-Hobson distortionless telephoto //5, 2.3 X (Fig. 56).
Other types of telephoto lens are the Zeiss Tele-Tessar (Fig. 57) the Voigtlander ;
Tele-Dynar (Figs. 58, 59); the Ross Teleros (Fig. 60) and Telecentric (Fig. 61); the
Stable Neoplast (Fig. 62); the Plaubel Tele-Makinar (Fig. 63); the Schneider Tele-
Xenar (Fig. 64); and the Goerz Telegor (Fig. 65).
The telephoto lens is now enjoying a new lease of life with the advent of miniature
cameras and amateur motion pictures on 16-mm. film. It should be pointed out,
Fig. 60.— Ross Teleros. -Ross Telecentric.
however, that for these purposes some firms sell ordinary lenses of relative^ long
focus under the name of telephoto lenses, which are designed to give larger pictures
than are obtained with the standard lens for that type of camera. This practice is
justified by the much better definition and larger aperture obtainable with ordinary
lenses than with real telephoto lenses.
Reversed Telephoto Systevis. —In some cases, particularly with very short-focus
lenses, the working distance (or back focus) is too short to accommodate auxiliary
Fig. 62. —Stable Neoplast. Fig.63.— Plaubel

Tele-Makinar.
apparatus such as the mirror in a reflex camera, the shutter in a cine camera, and in
particular the beam-splitting prism of a Technicolor camera. In such cases there is a
real advantage in placing a negative lens in front and a positive lens behind.
A notable example of this general construction is the Hill lens made by Beck
(Fig. 66) to photograph the whole sky in a single picture.
Fig. -Schneider Tele-Xenar. Fig. 65. —Goerz Telegor. Fig. 66.— Hill
sky lens made by
Beck.
—
Process Lenses. ^Lenses for making half-tone and other printing blocks are
designated "process lenses" and usuallj^ operate at approximately unit magnification
and at low aperture (say //lO to //30). For these reasons a symmetrical type of
construction is generally adopted, favorite types being the Celor or Homocentric
forms containing four separated single lenses. Actually for photographing black
lines on a white ground, the stray light due to internal reflection between eight glass-
air surfaces is liable to cause loss of contrast, and it is likely that clearer reproduction
might be obtained if a lens having fewer glass-air surfaces such as the Dagor were used.
high degree of freedom from distortion is most necessary in a proc-

It is clear that a
one used to copy maps or any other diagrams on which measure-
ess lens, especially in
ments are to be made. All aberrations other than distortion and transverse chromatic
aberration can be eliminated by stopping the lens down to a small aperture, and the
two latter aberrations will also vanish if the lens is symmetrical and used at unit
magnification. However, in lenses suitably designed, these two aberrations can
be made negligibly small even for magnifications other than unity.
For three-color process work, it is clearly essential to use a lens in which the
transverse chromatic aberration is very highly corrected, since the size of picture
,
produced must be identical in red, green, and blue light. Such a lens is called an
"apochromatic process lens," and ordinarily requires very careful choice of glass in
its design.
Enlarger Lenses. — In by an enlarging
general, the requirements to be satisfied
lens are not essentially different from those of a process lens. an ordinary camera
If
lens is used for enlarging, trouble may arise because such a lens has been designed for
use with a distant object, and in an enlarger it operates at a magnification of one or
two only. The effect of this may be that a lens having a well-corrected flat field
when used on a camera has a curved field on an enlarger, and the definition may
become worse still on account of coma and other aberrations which disappear when a
distant object is used. Stopping the lens down will assist all these defects except
distortion and transverse chromatic aberration, jis was mentioned above under
Process Lenses. Incidentally, for three-color separation work, an apochromatic
objective is really necessary, for even the residual longitudinal chromatic aberration
of an ordinary lens may give a blurred red image with perfectly sharp blue and green
images.
—
Aero Lenses. The lenses used in aerial photography fall into two groups, viz.,
those for aerial surveying and those for military purposes. In the first group the
aperture need not be high as aerial surveying is carried out only in perfect weather
with bright sunlight, and it is doubtful if such photographs would be taken at an
aperture greater than //8 or //ll. On the other hand, distortion and to a lesser
extent coma and transverse chromatic aberration must be corrected to a very high
degree since extremely precise measurements are to be made on the photographs taken
from the airplane. It goes without saying too that the definition over the whole
picture must be very sharp. The achromatism should tend toward the green or yellow
regions of the spectrum as a yellow haze-cutting filter is invariably used in surveying
work.
For military purposes, however, a speed of at least //4.5 is necessary since pictures
must often be made in poor light, but distortion need not be quite so highly corrected
as is necessary for map making. Nevertheless good distortion correction is valuable
if it can be obtained, for then the same lens can be used for surveying if desired.
In all airplane work, a long focus is desirable to give a large-scale photograph when
taken at a considerable altitude.
—
Lenses for Infrared Photography. As was mentioned above under the description
of chromatic aberration (page 30), when a lens is achromatized by the use of crown
and fhnt glasses, there is one particular wavelength for which the focus falls closest to
the lens. If a lens is intended to be used specifically in the infrared, i.e., for wave-
lengths between 0.75 and 1.2 ix, the minimum focus should be at perhaps 0.9 or 1.0 n,
instead of being at 0.55 y. as in visual achromatism, or at 0.48 y. for photographic achro-
matism. Thus, lenses for infrared use must be heavily overcorrected chromatically.
Since a lens achromatized in this way would be virtually useless in blue light, an
infrared filter is sometimes incorporated into the lens to prevent its use for other
purposes.
Portrait Lenses. —
Any lens of sufficient aperture may be used for portraiture.
Moreover, as was mentioned on page 26, good perspective demands a long focus,
consequently portrait lenses are usually somewhat large in size. The field to be
covered in portraiture is usually very small, and conseqiiently a lens of the Petzval
type is really surprisingly satisfactory.
For artistic photography, there is a considerable demand for "soft-focus" or
"diffusion " effects. These effects can be obtained by placing over the lens a diffusion
attachment, which is merely a glass disk carrying
ridges or other means for diffracting a portion of
the light. Some lenses are, however, specially
designed to give a softness of contrast by deliber-
ately leaving a suitable residual of spherical or
I chromatic aberration, or both, in the design. It
Fig. 67. — Dallmeyer-Bergheim essential for this purpose that the definition
is
diffuse portrait lens.
itself shall be good, but there must be a softness
or diffuseness of the light superposed on the image. In some lenses variable diffusion
may be obtained by sliding one lens along the barrel. In other cases, the diffusion
can be varied by stopping down the iris diaphragm. An interesting design for
diffuse portraiture is the Dallmeyer-Bergheim lens, which consists of a telephoto
combination of two simple lenses with variable separation to give variable sizes of
pictures (Fig. 67).
Anamorphic Systems. — It is occasionally desired to have a lens which will give
different two direc-
magnifications in
tions. ^ This is possible by means of
cylindrical lenses used in the manner
indicated in Fig. 68. If the two lenses
are equal in power and arranged with

axes perpendicular to one another, the
magnifications in the directions of the
cylinder axes will be in and 1/m, respec-
Fig. 68. —An anamorphic optical system.
tively. The value of m will become greater, the greater the separation between the
lenses. altered by using two lenses
The relative values of the magnifications can be
of unequal focal length. If one cylindrical lens is rotated relative to the other, the
image of a square becomes distorted into a rhomboid.
—
Supplementary Lenses. -These are lenses intended to be attached to the front
of an existing lens to lengthen or shorten the focal length. They are generally simple
Fig. 69. — Passage of light rays through a portrait-attachment supplementary lens.
meniscus landscape designed to work with a stop situated at the entrance-pupil

lenses,
of the existing lens, as indicated in Fig. 69. If the supplementary lens is positive,
the over-all focal length is shortened, and on a focusing camera the picture seen will be
reduced in size. With a fixed-focus camera such as a cheap box camera, the addition
of a positive lens in this way enables close objects to be photographed. The correct
1 For a full discussion of the various means by which this may be attained, see Newcomer, U. S.
Pat. 1932082 a933) ; 1945950 and 1946951 (1934).
THE DEVELOPMENT OE THE PHOTOGRAPHIC OBJECTIVE 51
distance of the object is then marked on the lens mount, and the auxihary lens becomes
a "portrait attachment."
If a negative lens is added to an existing lens, the focal length is increased, and a
larger picture results. The Dallmeyer Adon lens was an interesting extreme
original
case of a supplementary lens, for the Adon was a 2 X Galilean telescope system if the ;
telescope were focused correctly for infinity, it would serve to double the size of the
image of a distant object without upsetting the focus adjustment of the camera.
Astronomical Photographic Lenses.—At first, astronomical photography was done
by merely placing a photographic plate in the focal plane of an ordinary telescope.
However, in such a case the field of view is very small, being only about a degree in a
refracting telescope and but a few mmutes of arc in a reflector. Also, in a refractor
the visual achromatism is entirely unsuited to photographic work, and a chromatically
undercorrected zero-power "correcting lens" is commonly inserted in the telescope
tube to improve the achromatism for photography.
As soon as photographic materials of a suitable character became available,
toward the end of the last centurj'^, astronomical photography rapidly became more
and more common. To cover a wide field of sky in a single exposure, large photo-
graphic lenses of the Celor or Cooke types were used. These have been constructed in
focal lengths of several feet, at apertures up to //6 and are very highly corrected
s3^stems.
In recent years, a number of interesting small lenses of great relative aperture have
been developed for astronomical purposes. The first was Dennis Taylor's //2 lens^
consisting of two similar cemented trip- __„
let combinations, together with a strong ^^^ I
concave lens placed very close to the

focal plane (Fig. 70). This concave lens ~
acts as a "field flattener," according to
the plan suggested in 1866 by Piazzi-
Smyth. By virtue of its position, the Fig. 70. —Taylor //2 Astro lens,
concave lens has practically no effect on
the focal power or on the spherical aberration of the system, but it carries its full
weight in reducing the Petzval sum. The Piazzi-Smyth lens has also been applied
to large reflecting telescopes by Ross to improve their'field of view.
In 1934, Rayton of the Bausch and Lomb Company constructed a high-speed
spectrographic objective for Mount Wilson observatory, which consisted of a 4-mm.
microscope objective enlarged eight times so as to give a focal length of 32 mm. The
numerical aperture of the microscope objective was 0.85, giving an /-number of
1/(2 X 0.85) = 0.59. Even this verj^ high speed was surpassed in 1936 by Bracey^
who similarly enlarged an oil-immersion microscope objective having a numerical
aperture of 1.4. This gives an equivalent /-number of 1/(2 X 1.4) = 0.36 and repre-
sents an increase in speed of 2.7 times over the Rayton lens. The objections to this
lens are, however, the extreme smallness of the spectrum produced by it, since its
focal length is only 16 mm., and also the necessity of oiling the plate to the back of the
lens. Nevertheless, it represents the ultimate limit which has been achieved in the
effort to obtain speed in a photographic lens.
—
The Principal Types of Photographic Lenses. The following list includes most of
the lenses made hj some of the more prominent manufacturers in recent years. The
data of current lenses ha^^ê been derived from the makers' catalogues and advertise-
ments in photographic journals, and from information supplied by them. The
properties of obsolete lenses have been drawn largely from the bibliography given
1 Brit. Pat. 127058.
2 Aatrophys. J., 83, 179 (1936).
helow. While everj^ has been made to secure accuracy, there niaj^ be some
effort
errors and omissions Also some firms have been omitted entirely as their
in the list.
catalogues were not available at the time of writing. It should be realized that the
lens market is continually changing, old and unsatisfactory types being constantly
li
Fig. 71. — Bausch and Lomb Plas- Fig. 72.— Beck
tigmat Portrait lens. Isostigmar.
withdrawn from circulation and new designs substituted. Also, various firms have
recently combined, thus eliminating a number of overlapping types of lens. Notable
examples of this are the Zeiss-Ikon sj^stem, containing Zeiss, Goerz, Ernemann, lea,
and Contessa-Nettel, which was formed in 1926. The Agfa Company has recently
Fig. 73. -Dallmeyer Stigmatic Fig. 74. —Dallmeyer Stig- Fig. 75. — Dallmeyer
//4. matic //6. Stigmatic f/7.5.
absorbed Rietzschel. Reichert has made no photographic lenses since the war, and
Beck has recenth^ given up all photographic lenses except the Hill sky lens. The
Gundlach-Manhattan Optical Company ceased operations a few years ago. Many
makers of cameras and enlarging equipment supply lenses, purchased from another
Fig. 76. — Kodak f/2.7 cine Fig. 77. —Laack Polyxentar. Fig. 78. — Meyer Makro-
lens. Plasmat f/2.9.
manufacturer, which are sometimes engraved with the name of the maker of the
apparatus. This accounts for a number of names which are not included in Table VI.
Fig. 79.— Plaubel Tele-Peconar 80. —Rodenstock Fig. 81.— Roden-

//3. Imagonal. stock Pant agonal
wide angle.
In addition to the types in Table VI, many firms have made in the past lenses of
the rapid-rectilinear, Petzval portrait and simple landscape types, all of which are now
obsolete but are still to be found in common use. Lenses of the rapid-rectilinear type
have been given various trade names, for example:
Beck: Biplanat, Symmetrical, Portrait Biplanat

Bert hiot Perigraphi que
:
Busch: Rapid Symmetrical, Rapid Aplanat, Wide-angle Aplanat

Dallmeyer: Rapid Rectilinear
Fleury-Hermagis Eidoskop
:
Groerz: Lynkeioskop and Paraplanat

Hartnack: Pantoskop
Ilex: Convertible Rapid Rectilinear
Meyer: Aristoplan and Aristoplanat
Rodenstock: Recti-aplanat, Wide-angle Aplanat
Schulze: Orthoskop and Sphariskop
Steinheil: Aplanat
Suter: Aplanat
Voigtlander: Euryskop
Wollensak: Versar
Wray: Platystigmat
Also the very interesting series of Steinheil lenses, in which an attempt was made to
reduce the Petzval sum by using old glasses, has been omitted. They are given in
Table IV:
—
Table VI. Photographic Objectives
/- Field, Type and figure

Name Foci Remarks
number degrees number
Aldis Brothers, Sarehole Road, SparkMll, Birmingham, England.
Aero
—
Table VI. Photographic Objectives. — {Continued)

Name number degrees
Foci
number
Remarks
Bausch and Lomb Optical Company, Rochester, N. Y.
Aero lens 4
Aero lens
Aero lens
Aero lens
Aero lens
Aero Tessar
Aero Teasar
Convertible Protar series
7a
Extreme wide angle,
series 5
Medium wide angle,
series 4 -
Metrogon
Micro Tessar
Plastigmat
Process-anastigmat
Protar, series 7
Raytar
Sigmar
Tessar Ic
Tessar
Tessar 26.
..... . —

Name Foci Remarks
Boyer. Les fitablissements Boyer, 25 Blvd. Arago, Paris (13e). {Continued)
Saphir 2.3 45 15-100 mm. Cine, min. cam

Saphir 3.5 62 15-170 mm. Tessar 44
Saphir 4.5 64 40-500 mm.
Saphir 6.3 62 54-500 mm.
Saphir-Aviation 5-6. 64 20-120 cm. Aero
Saphir Apo. . . . -12. 40 30-120 cm. Process
Saphir B 4.5 85-210 mm. Tessar Enlarging
Topaz 2.9 52 2-18 cm. Cooke
Topaz 3.5 52 2-18 cm.
Topaz 4.5 58 75-135 mm.
Topaz 6.3 58 58-210 mm.
Busch. Emil Busch A.G., Optische Industrie, Rathenow bei Berlin, Germany.
Bistelar. . 30 20-55 cm. 52 Tele

Glaukar. 2.5 13 mm. Cooke 27 Cine 8 mm.
Glaukar. 2.8 35 20 mm. 16 mm.
Glaukar . 3.1 47 60-400 mm.
Glaukar. 4.5 57 85—165 mm.
Glaukar. 6.3 62 90-150 mm.
Glyptar. 3.5 53 25-75 mm. Tessar 44(?)
Glyptar. 4.5 53 55-400 mm.
Leukar. .. 61 90-250 mm. Two triples,
symm.
Leukar . . 7.7 61 330-450 mm.
Leukar . . 9 80 65-300 mm.
Omnar . . . 4.5 75 13-25 cm. Homoeentric 33
Omnar. . . 5.5 75 9-45 cm.
Omnar. . . 7.7 80 9—55 cm.
Perscheid 4.5 38 21-48 cm. Special design Artistic photography
Perscheid 5.5 38 60 cm.
Stigmar. . 6.3 Plasmat 22 Convertible
J. H. Dallmeyer, Ltd., Willesden, London N.W. 10., England. (Medo Photo Supply Co., 15 West 47th
St., New York.)
Adon 10-37
Anastigmat
Dallmeyer-Banfield . .
Dallmeyer-Bergheim
DalJon 6
Dallon 18
Dallon 17
Dallon 16
Dalmac
Enlarging anastigmat
Grandac 1
—

Name Foci Remarks
J. H. Dallmeyer, Ltd., Willesden, London N.W. 10., England. (Medo Photo Supply Co., 15 West 47th
St., New York.) {Continued)
Grandac 2. 11
Mutac
New Large Adoii
Pentac
Perf ac
Popular-telephoto
Portrait anastigmat . . . .
Portrait anastigmat . . .
Portrait anastigmat . . . .
Serrac
Soft-focus lens
Speed anastigmat
Stigmatic 1 . .
Stigmatic 2
Stigmatic 3
Super-six
Triple anastigmat
Wide-angle anastigmat.
—

Name Foci Remarks
Gundlach-Manhattan Optical Company, Rochester, N. Y.
Anastigmat, series 4 6.3

Hyperion
Perigraphic
Radar
Turner-Reich
Ultrastigmat
.Table VI. —Photographic Objectives. — {Continued)

Name Foci Remarks
Kodak. Eastman Kodak Company, Rochester, N. Y. {Continued)
Anastigmat 6.3 52 53-128 mm. Cooke 27

Anastigmat 6.3 52 170 mm. Celor 32
Anastigmat 7.7 48 130 mm. Enlarging
Aviation 4.5 46 10 in. Tessar 44 Aero
Aviation 46 12M in.
Aviation 24 24 in.
Ektar 54 45 mm. Biotar 39 Min. cam.

Kodar 52 98-173 mm. Cooke 27 Enlarging
Photostat anastigmat 50 13-21 in. Celor 32 Photostat
Process anastigmat . . 50 10 in. Process
Process anastigmat . . 50 18 in. Tessar 44
Laack. Julius Laack Sohne, Curlandstrasse 60, Rathenow, Germany.
Cine lens 2, 2.3

Cine-Pololyt
Cine-Polyxentar
Dialytar
Dialytar
Dialytar
Dialytar P
Dialytar T
Dialytar T
Dialytar T
Dialytar T
Dialytar wide-angle .
Pololyt
Pololyt
Pololyt
Pololyt
Polyxentar
Polyxentar
Regulyt
Regulyt
Repro-Polyxentar . . .
Teleanastigmat
Texon
Texon
—

Name Foci Remarks
E. Leitz, Wetzlar, Germany. (750 Fifth Ave., New York.) {Continued)
Hektor 4.5 19 135 mm. 4 comp., middle Min. cam.

cem.
Hektor 6.3 76 28 mm. 5 comp. wide angle
Hektor rapid 1.4 27 25 mm. 7 comp. partly Cine 16 mm.
cem.
Hektor rapid 1.5 35 12 mm. " 8, 9 mm.
Summar 2 48 50 mm. Biotar 39 Min. cam.
Telyt 4.5 12 200 mm. Min. cam. tele
Thambar. . . 2.2 27 90 mm. 4 comp., middle Portrait soft
cem.
Varob 3.5 50 mm. Tessar 44 Enlarging
Voort 4 95 mm. Enlarging
Hugo Meyer, Gorlitz, Germany. (245 West 55th St., New York.)
Aristostigmat 4.5 75 lM-20 in. Homocentric 33

Aristostigmat 6.3 90 lH-20 in. Wide angle
Double- Aristostigmat . . 6.8 82 4-90 cm. 4 cem. lenses, Convertible
symm.
Double-anastigmat . . . . 6.8 62 lM-30 in. Dagor 12
Double-Plasmat 4 57 2-19 in. 22
Double- Plasmat 5.5 57 2-19 in. 22
Helioplan 4.5 65 55-250 mm. Celor 32 Enlarging
Euryplan 4.5 Plasmat 22
Euryplan 6 85 2-24 in. Convertible
Kino-Plasmat 1.5 32 15-88 mm. 25 Cine
Kino- Plasmat 2 2-12 cm. 25
Makro-Plasmat 2.9 75 1-12 in. 78
Portrait-Trioplan 3 40 3-19 in. Cooke 27 Portrait
Primoplan .5, 1.! 47 13-100 mm. 42 Min. cam.
Primotar 4.5 Tessar 44
Process-Plasmat 8 48 14-34 in. Plasmat 22 Process
Tele-megor 4 3-9 in. Dallon 54 Tele
Trioplan 2.9 55 15-210 mm. Cooke 27
Trioplan 4.5 64 3-14 in.
Trioplan 6.3 64 2-14 in.
Veraplan
Wide-angle Aristostig-
mat 100 3-11 in. Homocentric 33 Wide angle
O.I. P. Society Beige d'Optique et d'Instruments de Precision, Blvd. Albert 148, Ghent, Belgium.
Labor. 3.5,4.5
Major
Major
Miror.
—

Name Foci Remarks
Plaubel A.G., Konigstrasse 66, Frankfurt a.M., Germany. (Photo Marketing Corp., 10 West 33rd St.
New York.)
Anticomar
—

Type and figure
Name num^ber
Remarks
Ross, Ltd. Clapham Common, London S.W.4., England. (Medo Photo Supply Co., 15 West 47th St.,
New York.)
.\po-Process-Xpres 9-16 60 13-48 in. Process

Combinable 5.5 58 4-21 in. Convertible
Compound-Homocentric 6.8 Two triples,
symm.
Concentric 16 9 Wide angle
Homocentric 5.6 56 12-24 in. 33
Homocentric 56 7-24 in. 33
Homocentric Process
Process Xpres 9-16 60 13^8 in. Process
Telecentric 6.8 30 9-17 in. 61 2X tele
Teleros 5.5 30 6-22 in. 60
Teleros 6.3 18 9-25 in. 3X "
Teleros 8 30 40 in. 60 2X "
Wide-angle 16 95 3-12 in. Wide angle
Wide-angle-Xpres 4 80 4-20 in. Plasmat 22 Aerial, infrared
Xpres 1.9 45 1-3 in. Cine
Xpres 2.9 53 1-10 in. 50
Xpres 3.5 53 lJ-2-10 in. 50
Xpres 4.5 53 3-21 in. 50
H. R. Roussel, 3 Blvd. Richard Lenoir, Paris Xle, France.
Kynor 20-100 mm. Cine

Stylor. 34 35-300 mm. Tessar 44
Stylor. 53 50^00 mm.
Stylor. 53 75-200 mm.
Stylor. 53 54-500 mm.
Trylor 58 105-135 mm. Cooke 27
Trylor 54-270 mm.
Jos. Schneider and Co. Optische Werke, Bad Kreuznach, Germany. (Burleigh Brooks Inc., 127 West
42nd St., New York.)
. .. —

Name Foci Remarks
Jos. Schneider and Co., Optische Werke, Bad Kreuznach, Germany. (Burleigh Brooks Inc., 127 West
42nd St., New York.) {Continued)
Symmar .... 6.8

Tele-Xenar
Tele-Xenar
Tele-Xenar.
Xenar
Xenar
Xenar
Xenar
Xenon
Xenon
Xenon
—

Name number degrees
Foci
number
Remarks
Taylor, Taylor and Hobson Ltd., Leicester, England.

. —

Name Foci Remarks
W. Watson and Sons Ltd., 313 High Holborn, London W.C, England.
Holostigmat lo. 4.6 75 4i.i-8Ji in. 15 Convertible

Holostigmat 1 . 6.1 70 4-14 in. 15
Holostigmat 3 . . 9.5 61 11-26 in. 15 Process conv.
Holostigmat . . . . 11 110 3-9 in. 15 Wide angle
Testa 6.5 70 5x-4, Qyi in.
WoUensak Optical Company, Rochester, N. Y.
Anastigmat 5 7.5
Cine-Velostigmat
Cine-Velostigmat
Cine-Velostigmat
Cine-Velostigmat
Cine-Telephoto
Cine Verito
Extreme wide angle . . .
Varium
Velostigmat la.
Velostigmat 2
Velostigmat 3
Velostigmat 4
Velostigmat Process . .
Verito
Voltas
..
. ...
... . . . —

Name Foci Remarks
Carl Zeiss, Jena, Germany. (485 Fifth Ave., New York.) (Continued)
Convertible Protar da.

Double Amatar
Double Protar
Kino-tele-Tessar
Magnar
Orthometar
Ortho-Protar
Planar. . .
Protar 1 .
Protar 2..
Protar 2a.
Protar 3..
Protar 3a.
Protar 4 .
Protar 5 .
Protar . . .
Quadruple-Protar 7
Quartz anastigmat
R-Biotar
Sonnar. . .
Sonnar. . .
Sonnar. . .
Sonnar. .
Sonnar . . .
Tele-Tessar.
Tessar
Tessar
Tessar
Tessar
Tessar
Tessar
Tessar
Triotar
Triotar
Triotar
Triple Protar.
Triplet
Unar
a namerefers to the "series number" of that particular lens. In the second column
is the /-number or range of /-numbers made, and in the third is the whole angular
field covered by the lens. In column four the range of available focal lengths is
stated. In the fifth column appears the diagram number illustrating the internal
structure of the lens and also, in some cases, the name of a well known member of
each type. This entry does not imply that the lens in question is a copy of the original
type; it may
be an entirely independent design using radically different glasses and
Dynar and the Pentac, which
radii of curvature, as has occurred, for example, in the
appear alike in a diagram but which are really quite dissimilar designs.
In the last column appear remarks as to the purpose or uses of the various lenses.
—
A dash ( ) in any column implies that the particular information was not available.
Bibliography
Books:
Von Rohr, M.: "Theorie und Geschichte des photographischen Objektivs," Springer (1899).
Eder, J. M.: "Die photographischen Objektive," Knapp (1911).
Mert^, W., R. Richter, and M. von Rohr: "Das photographische Objektiv," Springer (1932).
Fhaprie, F. R-.: "How to Choose and Use a Lens," Am. Photographic Pub. (1937).
Beck, C, and H. Andrews: "Photographic Lenses" (Beck; and Lund Humphries)
Traill-Taylor, J.: " The Optics of Photography and Photographic Lenses," Whitaker (London) (1898).
LuMMER, O.: "Contributions to Photographic Optics," Macmillan (1900).
Gleichen, a.: "Theory of Modern Optical Instruments," H.M. Stationery Office.
Neblette, C. B.: "Photography," Van Nostrand.
Auerbach, F.: "The Zeiss Works," Foyle.
Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th ed., Photography, by A. H. Hinton.
Periodicals:
Clay: R. S.: Traill-Taylor Memorial Lecture, Phot. J., 46, 458 (1922).
Kingslake, R.. The Development of the Photographic Objective, J. Optical Sac. Am., 24, 73 (1934).
Taylor, W., and H. W. Lee: The Development of the Photographic Lens, Proc. Phys. Sac. (London),
47, 502 (1935).
(See also a series of articles on current German lenses in Photo Woche, May to October, 1937.)
CHAPTER IV
CAMERAS
By Keith Henney
BASIC ELEMENTS
Any camera must have the following parts: a lens to form the image upon the
sensitive material; a holder for the sensitive material; a lighttight enclosure (fre-
quently a tube or bellows) to cover the space between the lens and the sensitive mate-
rial;a shutter to open and close the lens aperture for the desired exposure time; a
finder to show what is being photographed.
The simplest camera, e.g., the popular box camera, has these elements in exceed-
ingly simple form. The lens is fixed focus; the shutter is a simple flip-flap arrange-
ment that makes an exposure with each push of the shutter lever whether up or down;
the film runs over a pair of rollers as it is taken from the unexposed film spool and is
wound up on the take-up spool.
To these basic elements other accessories and convenient adjustments may be
added. The lens may have an adjustable diaphragm so that the amount of light
admitted to the film or plate in unit time and the depth of focus may be controlled.
The lighttight enclosure (the bellows) may be extensible so that the lens-film dis-
tance may be varied as required for focusing images at greater or lesser distances
from the lens; the shutter may have various speeds so that exposure may be controlled
independently of the aperture opening, and a spirit level may be added; the front
board carrying the lens may be adjusted up or down and sideways or swing hori-
zontally and vertically from some median position; the back which holds the film
or plate may swing about a vertical or horizontal pivot the bellows may have double
;
or triple extension for photographing objects very near the lens and so on.
If the camera is to be focused, there must be a focusing scale or some other method
must be provided for determining the correct distance of lens-to-film for a given
object-to-lens distance.
Focusing accomplished in several ways. The lens-film distance may be adjusted
is
by extending by screwing the lens and shutter into, or out of,

or closing the bellows, or
a helical mount. The front lens only may be adjusted as to lens-film distance.
Finally, the front lens may be removed completely for close-ups. The focal length
of a camera lens may be increased or decreased by using either the back or front ele-
ments singly (if so designed) or by the use of accessory clip-on lenses.
A variable diaphragm opening may be provided by a simple series of holes in a
metal slide which may be moved in front of the lens, or it may be continuously variable
in diameter as in an iris.
The speeds at which the shutter may be opened and closed may be few or many;
or the speed may be continuously variable over a wide range. Inexpensive hand
cameras for amateur use seldom have shutter speeds slower than .^5 sec. because of
the impossibility of getting snapshots at slower speeds without accompanying move-
ment of the subject or camera during exposure. These cameras seldom have shutter
speeds greater than Koo sec. In cheap cameras the actual periods of time during
which the shutter is open may vary widely from the marked speed. On the other
68
CAMERAS 69
hand, more expensive shutters may have numerous speeds, and the actual periods of
opening may correspond fairly closely with the markings placed on the shutter by the
manufacturer.
The shutter may be an iris type or of the focal-plane type. These are described
more fully in the section on shutters.
The enclosure between lens and film must be lighttight and in the focusing types
of camera must be flexible. The simplest enclosure is that of a box camera. It is
rugged and rigid and enables the lens to be maintained in a fixed position with respect
to the sensitive material. In other types of camera the bellows is a molded or metal
section into which another molded or metal section turns. With lenses of short focal
length the variable lens-film distance is not very great, but the necessary accuracy of
adjustment may be increasingly great.
The most common form of lighttight enclosure is the leather or composition
bellows. If images are to be photographed natural size, the bellows must extend to a
length equal to at least twice the focal length of the lens. When the bellows is not fully
extended, it tends to sag and to cut off the edges of the picture. Therefore hooks are
usually provided to hold up the center of the bellows when the lens is focused on
distant objects, or when the camera is closed. These hooks engage with eyes on the
camera frame automatically when the camera is closed and disengage when the
bellows is extended beyond the point where support is needed.
The scene or object to be photographed is located in a view finder in the smaller
cameras and upon a ground-glass screen placed in the focal plane in larger cameras.
View finders are of several types as described on page 80.
CAMERA TYPES
Pinhole Camera. —The earliest, and simplest, form of camera uses a pinhole
instead of a lens. Although it is capable of producing very beautiful landscapes of
great softness, the pinhole camera is of academic interest only at the present time.
A minute hole is punched in a sheet of metal or other opaque material and is placed in
front of a lighttight enclosure at the rear of which is a screen on which the ima.ge is
allowed to fall. The sensitive material may be placed upon this screen.
The pinhole has some advantages over the best of lenses. It suffers no distortion.
It has infinite depth of field. It will cover a very wide angle, 125° compared to the
75 to 90° covered by a modern wide-angle lens. Photographs made with the pinhole
have apparent depth that often compares most favorably with stereoscope camera
pictures. Furthermore the pinhole camera is cheap!
The disadvantages are the excessively long exposures necessary and the fact that
"wire sharpness" is not possible.
In Fig. 1 will be seen a side view through a pinhole camera. Point sources of light
are not brought to a point focus as with a converging lens. A point source produces a
cone of light, the dimensions of a cross section of the cone depending upon the size of
the aperture. If the pinhole is circular, the cone will be circular; and if the hole
is square, the point source will become a small square of light when it falls upon the
screen. These circles (or squares) of confusion increase in size as the screen is moved
away from the hole; but, since the image is enlarged at the same time and to the same
degree as the enlargement of the circle of confusion, the relative sharpness of the
image for a given pinhole is independent of the aperture-screen distance. The size
of the image is increased by increasing the distance between pinhole and screen. The
time of exposure will be directly proportional to the square of the distance between
pinhole and screen.
Increasing the size of the hole will increase the illumination but will also increase
the circles of confusion so that the sharpness of the picture will suffer. Decreasing
—
the size of the hole will increase the sharpness up to a certain point. As the size
of the hole approaches one-half wavelength of the light being used (for example the
blue Fraunhofer G line), the phenomenon of diffraction will cause the image of a point
source to become a series of concentric circles of maximum and minimum brightness,
thereby ruining the image.
For a given wavelength of light and a given screen-pinhole distance there is a best
diameter of hole (see page 26.) For example at a screen distance of 6 in. the best
diameter of hole is 0.02 in. This amounts to a working aperture of //300 so that the
pinhole in this case would have a speed Hsoo of that of an //6 lens.
Pinhole Camera Construction. —Since this type of camera is occasionallj^ used for
pictorial work, the following data will outline the practical angles of pinhole-camera
d+X/2
Fig. 1. —
Fundamentals of pin- —
Fig. 2. Relation of aper-
hole camera. Imâge of point ture and image size for best
source is circular if pinhole is definition. The best radius
circular. Image at B is larger than of hole = vX^ where X =
image at A; as image becomes wavelength of light to be
larger, definition becomes poorer. used and d = distance of
screen from aperture.
construction. A thin sheet of copper or brass may be punctured by a needle and

tacked to a larger piece of wood or other material. If the metal in which the hole is
punched is comparativelj' small, there is greater likelihood that the piece will not be
deformed during the puncturing process. The metal plate may be laid down on a
piece of wood, the needle being forced through the center of the metal with a quick
tap of a mallet. The hole should then be cleaned up by means of a small file, when
the needle is again thrust through the hole. Now the metal sheet should be blackened
by holding it over a smoky flame or by dipping it while hot into nitrate of silver.
Several pinholes of different sizes may be mounted on a piece of cigar-box wood or
other light material and arranged to be pushed in front of an aperture in the front
of the camera. Since the exposure time is so long a shutter will not be needed. All
that is necessary is to push the desired pinhole to the center of the aperture, and to
push it away at the end of the exposure. Sufficient space must be allowed between
the several pinholes so that the camera aperture is effectively closed when no pinhole
is in position in front of this aperture.
Table I will be useful in determining needle size.
Clerc^ notes that a 5-sec. exposure will suffice when using a very rapid modern
plate for an open landscape at midday in fine weather with an aperture of 0.6 mm.
with the plate at a distance of 8 in. from the pinhole.
1 "Photography, Theory and Practice," 2d ed., Pitman (1937).
—
CAMERAS 71
Table I. Pinhole Camera Data
Pinhole diameter,
and the ability to keep the subject from approaching too close to the lens. The
negatives will stand some enlargement, but not a great deal, naturally.
—
Folding Cameras. Next above the box camera in complexity is the folding
camera for roll film. This group comprises cameras from the very cheapest to the
most expensive. The simplest camera of this type has a lens which snaps forward into
fixed position when the front of the camera is opened. It is used, therefore, exactly
like a box camera with the advantage that it is more compact. Its lens operates at
about the same aperture as that in the box camera.
With lenses of larger aperture and consequently of smaller depth of focus, some
means of focusing must be provided. The lens as a whole may be moved along a
track with a focusing scale in feet or meters placed alongside; or the lens may turn
Fig. 4. — Single folding camera.

m a threaded mount, or only the front element of a doublet may turn, with the distance
scale placed along a circular portion of the camera structure.
Folding roll-film cameras are seldom equipped with lenses of greater aperture than
//6.3 or//4.5. One reason is the cost of such lenses, and another is the shallow depth
of field. When the camera at large apertures is focused upon a near object and
operated with the diaphragm wide open, the user must estimate the distance to the
subject with accuracy greater than that possessed by the average person. Since at
any aperture the required accuracy of adjustment of the lens-filni distance increases
as the lens-subject distance decreases, cameras of the type being described are seldom
equipped for working closer to a subject than 6 ft. If, however, a short-focal-length
lens is to be used, as in a miniature camera, the lens may have a larger aperture, and
focusing may be possible up to within 3 ft. of the subject.
Thousands of miniature cameras with fairly large-aperture lenses but not equipped
with coupled range finders find their way to the secondhand market because the pur-
chaser cannot get sharp pictures — largely due to the lack of the necessary ability
to estimate distance. A purchaser of a miniature camera naturally expects enlarge-
—
CAMERAS 73
ments. however, becomes

An out-of-focus condition that will not mar a contact print,
excessively annoying any reasonable magnification is made.
when an enlargement of
Folding roll-film cameras may be purchased in sizes from 35 mm. and half vest-
pocket up to postcard (3K by 5)4 in). Prices vary from a few dollars up to several
hundred.
Table II. Focal Length of Lenses Used on Roll-film Cameras

Picture Size, In. Focal Length, In.
(Approximate) (Approximate)
1 X IH 2
1^ X 2M 3
2H X 3}i 4
2y2 X 4M 5
3}i X 4M 5ys
SH X 5K 6M
The better grades of roll-film cameras have rising and falling fronts (the extent of
rise or fall may be about one-fourth the height of the picture) which make it possible
to raise or lower the lens to include or exclude various portions of the foreground.
The better cameras have superior general construction, are heavier, and are more
sturdy. They often have two finders, a brilliant type and a wire type.
The folding type of camera possesses several advantages over the box type of
camera. It is more compact; better models have better lenses and more adjustments.
Since the lens may be focused accurately upon the desired subject, enlargements of
considerable magnification are possible.
—
Hand Cameras for Plates and Film Packs. Approaching the professional view
camera in complexity, sturdiness, and general utility are the hand cameras designed
to use either film pack, plates, or cut film in plateholders. Such cameras have been
built in sizes as small as vest pocket, but the most popular sizes are the 6 by 9 cm.,
9 by 12 cm. and 4 by 5 in. They are generally fitted with a shutter of the Compur
type; they carry well-corrected lenses of the anastigmat type with apertures of //4.5,
//3.5, and sometimes //2.8 and often have double extension bellows for making
pictures approaching natural size. They have fronts which can be raised or lowered
or moved sideways, and some more versatile have removable lens boards,
of the
reversible backs, triple extension bellows and tilting backs. Such cameras differ
from a studio or view camera only in being more compact and less weighty. The lens
and bellows may be racked back into the camera frame and the front closed. The
camera then becomes very compact. A few models are thin enough to be placed in a
coat pocket.
Cameras of this general type are often fitted with focal plane shutters and are used
for newspaper and sport photography. The popular Speed Graphic is of this type.
When equipped with a coupled range finder and a flash-bulb synchronizer, the graphic
type of camera is an extremely versatile instrument. They are available in sizes
from 23^ by 3J^ in. to 4 by 5 in.
—
View and Studio Cameras. The chief difference between view or studio cameras
and the better hand cameras lies in the compactness of the latter. View and studio
cameras fold up but not into such small space as the hand cameras. View and studio
cameras usually have frames of wood, hand cameras are usually built on metal
frames. View and studio cameras are made in sizes from 3}^ by 4^ in. up. The
lenses of these cameras are removable. Focusing from the back is possible. This is
of importance in close-up work (especially with wide-angle lenses) where the front
of the camera might obtrude itself into the field of view.
The studio camera is heavier and bulkier than the view camera and is usually
mounted on a support which can be rolled about the studio on wheels.
A typical 8- by camera has the following characteristics: triple exten-

10-in. studio
sion bellows (30 in.); back capable of being raised to form an angle of 45° with the
camera bed or of being dropped through an arc of more than 70°; rising and falling
front movement of 3^^ in. above center and %
in. below center; lateral movement of
lens of 2 in. and a horizontal swing of 80°; weight, 9% lb.; dimensions folded, 4J^ by
IIM by UH in.
—
Reflex Cameras. In the reflex camera it is possible to focus the image of the
subject to be photographed until the instant of exposure. This important and useful
feature is accomplished in the following manner.
A mirror at an angle of about 45° is placed between the lens and the ground-glass
focusing screen which is placed, not directly behind the lens as in other cameras,
but in the top of the camera and at 90° to the path of the rays from the lens to the
sensitive material. The image, therefore,
isseen right side up and full size (usually),
although reversed from left to right. When
the exposure is to be made, the mirror
moves out of the way of the light rays. The
mirror pivoted about its upper end, and
is
before the shutter is opened for the expo-

sure, the mirror is urged upward by a spring
to close the top of the camera so that no
light through the ground glass can fog the
film.
The great advantage of the reflex camera
is the fact that a moving object can be
followed on the ground-glass screen and kept
in continuous focus until the exposure is
made. For this reason the reflex is the
favored camera for action photography.
The disadvantages of the reflex are: (1) bulk
and weight; (2) to get sufficient light on the
screen, it is necessarj^ to focus with the lens
Fig. 5. —Grafiex form of reflex camera. wide open. If, then, the lens is to be stopped
1, hood; 2, ground glass; 3, mirror; 4,
down before making the exposure, the time
focusing knob; 5, lens.
taken to adjust the stop and to recompose
the picture may
eliminate one of the reflex camera's great advantages.
The ground-glass screen is surrounded by a hood to keep light from
it, except that
coming from the In small reflex cameras, focusing becomes more difficult
lens.
because of stray light getting on the screen. Certain of the small reflex cameras have
rather large hoods, which keep stray light from the screen and thereby aid the user to
get sharp focus. Many small reflex cameras have built-in magnifying lenses located
over the center of the screen so that still sharper focus is possible. The grain of the
ground-glass screen may sometimes be too coarse to allow the accuracy of focusing
necessary when the lens aperture is large.
One way to get around the difficulty of focusing the reflex camera at small lens
apertures is to use two
one for making the picture and one for focusing. These
lenses,
lenses are moved with
the same focusing adjustment, so that, when the image is
accurately focused upon the viewing screen, it is also in sharp focus on the sensitive
material. The focusing lens may have longer focal length than the picture-taking
lens, so that an enlarged image will be seen on the focusing screen. Because the
depth of field of the focusing lens is shallower than that of the taking lens, the user
will get sharper images than if the two lenses have the same focal length. One
CAMERAS 75
difficulty of the reflexcamera is the fact that it is focused and adjusted at waist level.
In a crowd it is desirable to use a camera which can be held at (or above) eye level;
not all reflex cameras can be held upside down for such situations. Certain high-grade
miniature reflex cameras are equipped with eye-level finders of the wire frame type.
—
Miniature Cameras. Recent years have seen a remarkable sale of so-called
miniature cameras. This increase in popularity of small cameras which are not at —
all recent in origin or use —
îs due to several causes, not the least of which is that finish-
ing plants catering to amateurs are now equipped to give good service on the small
films used and can now deliver an enlargement of reasonable size which compares
favorably in quality with a contact print of the same size and made from a larger
negative.
From the user's standpoint the miniature camera has the following advantages:
the camera is compact; it is cheap to operate; its short-focal-length lens has much
greater depth of field ^ than the lenses on the larger amateur cameras; these lenses
may have exceptionally large apertures without too great expense; small lenses are
easier to correct for distortion so that the miniature camera will produce negatives
which may be enlarged many
diameters; high shutter speeds are possible with the
small between-lens shutters used in small cameras. To these advantages of the
camera and its accessories must be added those secured by modern high-speed and
fine-grain films.
The disadvantages of the miniature camera are largely those which arise from the
fact that the image small and in general cannot be seen on a ground-glass screen as in
is
larger cameras. The difficulty of composing a picture is increased on this account.

Because of the small size of picture made with miniature cameras, it is practically
necessary to enlarge all the pictures. In the enlargement process, some fineness of
detail is inevitably lost, especially in large "blow ups." A print 8 by 10 in. made
by contact from an 8- by 10-in. negative will have greater detail than one blown up
from a 24- by 36-mm. negative. Therefore, in those situations where the maximum
detail is required, the large camera must be used. This is the case where photo-
engravings are to be made with a fine screen for use on coated paper. The loss of
detail will not be apparent, however, if engravings are made with coarse screens or are
printed on anything but the better grades of coated paper.
The miniature camera of good construction and with coupled range finder comes
the nearest to the "universal camera" of any yet devised. It will make pictures
under light conditions which would preclude the possibility of any sort of success
with large cameras having longer focal-length lenses of smaller aperture. The minia-
ture will make pictures which can be enlarged many diameters and thus can compete
—
with the larger cameras when a large print is desired with the disadvantage that the
detail in the enlargement will not be so great as in the contact print. The depth
of field of the short focal-length lenses used on miniature cameras is a distinct advan-
tage not possessed by lenses of larger focal length used on large cameras.
Portability is one of the small camera's great advantages.
—
Types of Miniature Cameras. Cameras taking pictures 21^ by 2J4 in. in size are
usually classed as "miniatures" although no strict definition is possible. Cameras of
this general class, therefore, may be grouped as follows: (1) small cameras not equipped
with coupled range finders; (2) small cameras equipped with coupled range finder;
(3) reflectingcameras.
In group 1 are found fixed-focus cameras or cameras which maj^ be focused. The
latter are equipped with focusing scales. With the latter camera the user must first
estimate, or measure, the distance of the object from the lens and then set the camera
1 When the lens is focused upon an object 4 ft. distant, the range of sharp focus for a 2-iu. lens
operating at //2 is about 3 in; with a 514 -in. lens the range of sharp focus at //4 is about 1 in.
accordingly. The camera may make a single exposure, or it may carry enough film
to make
36 exposures. The lenses are fairly well corrected. Some are equipped with
masking devices so that, on a given film, two sizes of pictures may be made. Cameras
of this type, equipped with large-aperture lenses, produce good results in the hands
of those who can estimate or measure distance accurately. In general, however,
the user cannot expect to enlarge his negatives as much as negatives made with
cameras having coupled range finders and lenses with greater correction. These
small guess-the-distance cameras are not comparable with the second group for the
serious photographer.
In the second group are those cameras which represent the acme of manufacturing
precision. In size of picture made, they range from the 24- by 36-mm. negative made
on 35-mm. standa d motion-picture film to 2}^ by 3J^ in. They utilize coupled range
finders. They are fitted with lenses with very high correction, often arranged to be
interchangeable with other lenses of shorter or longer focal length. In the Leica,
Contax, Exakta, and similar types of cameras a focal-plane shutter operating at
speeds up to H250 sec. is supplied. The accuracy of adjustment and the correction
of the lenses is so great in these cameras that enlargements of 10 to 30 times are not
out of the ordinary at all. In a few cameras, roll film, cut film, or plates may be used.
Many accessories are available for cameras of this general class, which extends the
possibilities of the camera. The user need not purchase anything but the camera and
lens, however, to have a complete outfit. The additional lenses, and other accessories,
will cost a great deal more than the camera itself and form desirable equipment which
—
can be accumulated over a period of time or never purchased at all. An important
feature is the mechanical coupling between the shutter-cocking mechanism and the
film-advance mechanism, making it impossible to make double exposures.
In the third group are the reflecting cameras. Some of them have a single lens;
others have two lenses, one for focusing and one for making the exposure. In general
these cameras do not have interchangeable lenses, although front lenses may be used
to reduce or increase the focal length of the taking lens. Certain models, however, are
equipped so that the lenses may be changed for others of longer or shorter focal length.
In the Contaflex of Zeiss Ikon the focusing lens brings the image, not to a ground-
glass screen, but to a plano-convex lens of rectangular shape, the underside of which
is matted. The image is "brilliant" to the corners. For critical focusing a magnify-
ing lens can be swung into position over the image. This latter feature is character-
istic of several of the miniature reflex cameras. In addition, the Contaflex has a
built-in photoelectric exposure meter.
Certain two-lens cameras are not reflex types. The second lens is merely a view-
finder lens and is not connected mechanically with the taking lens. The second lens
makes it possible for the user to see an image of his scene full size and right-side up by
means of a reflecting mirror. The finder lens is of fixed focus and is not connected
with, or related to, the taking lens. The latter must be set to the correct focusing
position after the user has estimated or measured the distance of the subject from the
lens.
Optical and Mechanical Requirements for Miniature Cameras. —
Speaking before the
Photographic Society of America, Rochester, 1938, H. W. Zieler discussed the maxi-
mum inaccuracies that may exist in manufacture and alignment maintenance in a
high-grade camera making a negative 1 by 1 J^ in. in size. He stated that a 2-in. lens
at 33^ ft. at an aperture of //1. 5 must be focused with a maximum tolerance of
0.001 in. The focal length of the lens must be matched to the focusing mechanism
to within 0.001 in. The total variation from all causes in the mechanical dimensions
of the coupled range finder must not be over 0.001 in.
CAMERAS 77
J ti\
Fig. 6^. Fig. 65.

—
Fig. 6A. Opaque screen projector recommended for continuous reference or reading
16-mm. film pictures. The projector is equipped with an advancing lever which advances
documents one picture at a time. It also has a winding crank which enables the operator
to move the film rapidly through the projector.
—
Fig. 6-B. ^Library-type projector for 35-mm. film records.
Fig. QC. — Rerordak check and document recorder.

All this shows the precision of manufacture, and the precision of maintenance
required, ifthe small camera is to produce 8- by 10-in. prints (8X enlargements)
that are satisfactory from the standpoint of detail.
—
Sequence Cameras. Several miniatures have optional accessory rapid-film
winders which shorten the time required to wind up a new film and to set the shutter.
The Robot camera has a built-in device which makes the exposure when the release
button is pushed, moves the film forward, and cocks the shutter when the release is
allowed to return to its normal position. When a strong spring is wound up by the
user, it is possible to make 24 exposures as fast as the release button can be pressed.
A sequence of exposures made with this camera resembles a series of frames made with
a motion-picture camera with the exception that each individual exposure may be
made in Hoo sec. Interchangeable lenses are available for the camera.
—
Stereoscope Cameras. Double-lens cnmeras for making stereoscopic exposures
are described in the chapter on Stereoscopic Photography. These cameras range in
price from $12 up to several hundred dollars. The simplest use ordinary roll film
and make individual pictures 2J^ by 2^:^ in. The higher priced units have reflex
focusing, use plates or film, and come in several sizes, usually 45 hy 107 mm. or
6 by 13 cm.
Identification Cameras. —These cameras are for use in schools, etc., where a large
number of portraits are to be made for identification purposes. One type, listing at
about $100, holds 100 ft. of negative film, unperforated, giving 500 exposures \% in.
wide. The camera is operated 4 ft. from the subject and is fitted with an //3.5 lens.
Another type holds 200 ft. of film, taking 1000 individual exposures, and is fitted with
an //4.5 lens of good correction. Printing machines are available for this type of
camera.
Certain 35-mm. cameras are available which hold enough film for 250 exposures;
these may be used for schools, etc., where a large number of negatives are to be made
without the bother of frequent change of film.
—
Panorama Cameras. Cameras of this type have means for revolving the camera
on the tripod so that it covers a field of view wide in relation to its height. Thus the
panorama camera is useful for covering large groups of people, as at conventions and
gatherings, large estates, mountain vistas, geological surveys, etc. In the Folmer
Graflex No. 10 Circuit panoi'ama camera, speeds varying from J-^ to J-i2 sec. are
available; the lens is a triple convertible with focal lengths of 10, 15}^, and 20 in. and
is equipped with a meter to indicate the amount of film used for any exposure, per-
mitting the determination of the amount of film left in the container. Film in
lengths up to 10 ft. and widths of 6, 8, and 10 in. is used.
—
Recording Cameras and Projectors. A valuable extension of the use of photo-
graphic equipment lies in the recording of documents, such as bank checks, books,
letters, etc. Devices for this purpose are really automatic cameras which make
the exposures as fast as the documents are fed into a hopper at one end. The operator
does not need to be an expert photographer. Banks may photograph up to 100 checks
per minute with the Recordak. The microfilm Recordak uses 35-mm. fine-grain film
and is adapted to the use of libraries, companies wishing to record blueprints, etc.
Projection machines are furnished for viewing the photographed records. Recor-
daks are supplied on a rental basis; library-type projectors are sold to the user.
CAMERA ADJUSTMENTS
With the exception of the fixed-focus cameras of exceeding simplicity, all cameras
have certain adj\istments which increase their versatility. These adjustments are
listed below.
CAMERAS 79
—
Focusing. Usually focusing is accomplished by changing the lens-film distance
by moving the entire lens. The lens may sometimes be screwed into a threaded
mount instead of being moved by means of a bellows. In other cases only the front
section of the lens may be moved. As already indicated, certain simple cameras
have only two focusing positions of the lens, one for close-ups and one for distant
scenes. In either of these positions the lens acts as a fixed-focus lens.
—
Rising Front. The lens board may be raised above a median position so that less
of the foreground and more of the upper part of a picture may be included without
! i
^^£
(or bottom) may be moved closer to the lens. It is usually possible to make the same
adjustment along a vertical axis.
If the camera is pointed upward to include in the picture the top of a building or
other tall object and if the plate is not maintained parallel to the lines of the building,
these lines will seem to converge near the top. This distortion is apparent and not
real, because, if the eye is placed at the position of the lens, it will be seen that the
lines of the building do converge. In a photograph, however, the viewer does not
wish the actual truth but wishes to see the building as he would see it if viewed from
a more distant point.
By combining the use of the rising front and the swing back the lines of the building
can be kept parallel. The film should be maintained parallel to the lines of the build-
ing by means of the swing back, and the top of the building should be brought into
the scene by using the rising front.
By making use of the swing back it is two
often possible to bring into sharp focus
objects located at different distances from the camera. an object near the top
If
of the picture is to be in focus at the same time an object near the bottom is in focus
and if the two objects are at different distances from the lens, the edge of the film
Fig. 8. —By tilting the swing back from vertical position, top and bottom of stairs can be
more nearly focused at the same lens position.
that represents the more distant object should be moved closer to the lens than the
edge on which the closer object is to be registered.
When the swing back and rising front are to be used, the lens of the camera should
be able to cover sharply a larger area than the normal size of the sensitive material.
In these cases the image at the edge of the film is of importance; therefore the lens
must be well corrected and should be used at as small an aperture as the exposure
time will permit.
—
Removable Lens Board. View and studio cameras and some folding hand cameras
have removable lens boards so that lenses of longer or shorter focal length may be used
interchangeably.
Reversible Back. — Cameras used by advanced amateurs and by professionals have
reversible backs so that the picture may be made either with the short or the long
dimension of the plate as the bottom of the picture without turning the camera itself.
Such cameras do not require a tripod hole on the long dimension of the camera body.
—
Other Adjustments. Occasionally the bed of the camera may be tilted upward or
downward; the back may be raised as well as tilted, etc. Such adjustments are useful
when making exposures in cramped quarters or when using wide-angle lenses, but in
general these adjustments are seldom used.
CAMERA ACCESSORIES
View Finders. —The majority
cameras are equipped with view finders by which
of
the user can tell when he has included
the required subjects in his scene. View and
studio cameras do not usually have such finders. The picture is composed upon a
ground-glass screen.
CAMERAS 81
Simplest of the view finders is the direct-vision type. This consists of a wire frame,
more or less the exact size of the film or plate to be used, and a peep sight. Usually
the frame is situated at the lens position; the peep sight is usually at the focal plane.
The camera is held at eye level; therefore the picture composed in this type of finder
tends to be more natural than one composed in a type that must be held at waist
level. (Photographers for fashion magazines usually choose a very low point of view
to accentuate the vertical lines of the models and their clothes rather than the hori-
zontal lines. A reflex type of camera is preferred for this purpose.)
The frame and the peep sight need not necessarily be located, respectively, at the
lens and at the focal plane, but wherever they are located, their relative dimensions
with respect to each other and the eye and to their respective locations must be such
that the eye will see what the camera lens embraces. These finders generally fail to
include the proper view when the camera is very close to the object and should not be
relied upon for close-ups.
Refiecting-type Finders. — Cameras of the simplest types are usually equipped
with a finder consisting of a lens, a mirror, and a ground glass upon which the lens
Peep
sighi-
FiG. 9. — Direct-vision view finder.
focuses the image. The image is right side iip but is reversed, right to left. The focal
length of the finder lens is short enough (about 1 in.) so that a small image is produced
and all objects within the range of the camera adjustment will be in focus. There is
no relation between the focal lengths of the finder and the camera lenses.
A type of finder which is more efficient in its use of the light collected by
reflecting
the lens is commonly knownas the "brilliant" type. The lens forms an image, not
upon a ground-glass screen, but in a second lens which confines the fight collected into
a narrow cone and directs it to the user's eye. At a normal viewing distance of 12
in. above the finder, the cone of light is wide enough to include both eyes of the user.
It is necessary that the user assume such a position that his eyes intercept the cone of
light or he will not see the image of the scene he is to photograph. A hood is usually
part of a brilliant finder. It shields the image from extraneous light.
In still another type of finder (direct-vision optical finder) a strong negative lens
forms a virtual image in front of the lens and a weak positive lens projects this virtual
image to a comfortable position with respect to the eye, i.e., about 15 ft. away. The
image in such an optical finder is erect and not reversed.
More elaborate finders are arranged to indicate to the photographer when his
camera is properly focused as well as to show him the field of view that is being covered.
I
I Oblique
' ' ligh-tra^jS
beni and
confined fo
Light scaHered a narrow
in all olireclions cone
Real image Real image
o n ground
/A--'
"
in Ihis lens
glass
MirrorU- Camera
- Camera
Ground Glcjtss Finder Brillian+ Finder

Fig. 10."— Common types of finders.
The field seen through the finder is often smaller than that actually covered by the
lens, so that the user is certain of getting into his picture all that he sees in the finder.
The fact that the lens of the camera and the lens of the finder do not view the subject
from the same point not a serious matter unless close-ups are made. Errors due to
is
separation of the two lenses are minimized

by placing the finder as close as possible to
the camera lens and by making the finder
axis and the camera axis intersect at about
15 ft; in front of the camera.
Parallax. —
Certain view finders auto-
Objeci Image Image matically compensate the error arising from
j
Ay Ay 1-2^ parallax which causes the picture as actually

L8cU Li
registered on the sensitive material to be
Fig. 11. —
Use of negative lens to form differentfrom that seen in the view finder.
virtual image in front of lens L\ which is
As the camera is brought close to the object,
then projected to a comfortable position
with respect to the eyes. the view is restricted by a mask which is
mechanically connected with the coupled
range-finder mechanism. In general, however, the photographer must be careful
to include the desired object in the center of his composition when working
up close to the object and when relying upon the view finder to determine what is
actually being photographed. If the camera is equipped with a ground glass, it will
be much safer to make the actual composition by this means than to rely upon the
view finder.
Focusing Scale. — Cameras of the focusing type must use a focusing scale unless
the operator is on a ground-glass screen each time he makes an
to focus his scene
exposure or unless he has an "automatic focus" type of coupled range finder. All but
reflex, view, and studio cameras employ a focusing scale which may be used or not as
the owner of the camera desires. With lenses of long focal length it is more important
to estimate distance accurately than with short-focal-length lenses because of the
shallower depth of field of the former. If the negatives made by the short-focal-length
lens are to be enlarged to the same size as those produced by the longer lens, the
accuracy of focusing must be the same.
CAMERAS 83
The following formula may be used in marking out a focusing scale. First deter-
mine the setting of the lens for focusing upon a distant (infinity) object. Then the
difference between the lens-film distance for this setting and that required to focus
accurately upon a nearer object will be found from
D = P
-f
where/ = the focal length of the lens in inches;
s = the distance of object to lens in inches;
D = the distance, in inches, of the lens from the infinity position.
—
Example. Design a focusing scale for a 5-in. lens. The lens focuses a distant object sharply when
5 in. from the film.
it is An object 25 ft. from the lens will be sharply focused when the lens is moved
away from the infinity setting by /V(s — /) in- or 25 -i- [(25 X 12) — 5] or 0.085 in. If the object is
only 6 ft. from the lens, the lens must be moved away from the infinity setting 25 -r- (72 — 5) or 0.37 in.
from its infinity setting.
With cameras having lenses of focal lengths of about 5 to 6 in. and having focusing
scales parallel to the motion of the lens in focusing, the maximum error in estimating
Fig. 12A. —Range finder in Fig. 125. —Coupled range Fig. 12C'. —Out-of-focus
focused position. finder in unfocused position. adjustment of range finder
with horizontally split file.
distance is such that at //8 the lens must be set to within J-^2 in- of the position
determined by accurately focusing on a ground glass. If the lens has a shorter focal
length and correspondingly greater depth of field, then the error in estimating distance
and setting the lens for the estimated distance may be greater. On vest-pocket size
and somewhat larger cameras the maximum permissible error is of the order of the
distance between the 25- and the 50-ft. marks on the focusing scale. For miniature
cameras the error should not amount to more than the interval between the 13- and
20-ft. marks. Naturally the error may be greater if the camera lens is operated at a
smaller aperture.
Range Finders. —
A valuable accessoiy to any camera is a range finder by which
the user enabled to measure accurately the distance of the object from the lens.
is
The photographer may then set the lens-film distance by means of the focusing scale,
or, if the range finder is mechanically connected to the lens in some manner, the act
of measuring the distance automatically sets the lens-film distance.
Range finders are of several types (described below) all depending upon the prin-
ciple of presenting to the photographer two images of the object. When the range
finder is properlj^ adjusted, the two images merge, and the distance to the object is
read from a scale attached. In some range finders the object or field of view is split
so that one-half is displaced with respect to the other when the range finder is wrongly
adjusted. In others two complete images are visible until the exact adjustment is
secured.
—
Range Finders. In Fig. 13 consider two rays of light from an object E
Principle of
so far distant that the raysfrom it are essentially parallel. Let these rays pass through
apertures and Q. The rays will also pass through A and B. Now consider another
object situated on the ray passing through 0. The ray from D passing through will
pass through B but, because of the closeness of D, a ray from it passing through Q will
not pass through A but rather through some point such as C. The closer the object
D, the further apart will B and C be. Thus the distance between B and C is a measure
of the distance of the object D from the line OQ. If some means is provided at Q to
bend the ray from D so that it goes through A, the amount of adjustment necessary
will be a measure of the distance from to D. A fixed point of comparison is provided
From
\ distant
[object
I
^
01 D
Fig. 13. —Elements of coupled range finder.
by reflecting the beam twice and moving B over to the original position of A. Thus
B and C, when adjusted to C, are presented to the eye together, and any difference
in their positions is readily seen (see Fig. 14).
The distance between and Q is known as the base of the range finder. Increasing
the base increases the accuracy of the distance determination but increases the diffi-
culty of using the device. If too great a base distance is used, the two images may be
so far apart that it will be difficult for the user to find them.
—
Kodak Pocket Range Finder. In Fig. 15, with the eye at the indicated position,
the field of view divided horizontally by the edge of the mirror 1 so that one-half
is
of the field comes straight to the eye while the other half is brought to the eye by
Fig. 14. — Mechanism of range finder by which point C is moved to C", the relative motion
required being a function of the distance.
reflections from mirrors 1 and 2. These mirrors are approximately Ihz inches apart.
This distance constitutes the base of the range finder. When the mirrors are parallel
to each other, the vertical lines of an object at infinity appear continuous in the two
halves of the field. For objects closer to the range finder, mirror 1 must be moved
so that it is not parallel to mirror 2 in order to make the two halves of the field merge.
This is accomplished by turning the actuating cam which swings the lever bearing
mirror 1. The spring urges the lever against the cam so that backlash in the cam is
eliminated. Because of the definite relation which exists between the angle between
the mirrors and the distance from the object as viewed in the range finder, it is possible
to calculate a scale which indicates the distance directly when the two halves of the
CAMERAS 85
field coincide. This scale is mounted in the window of the actuating cam so that
as the cam is rotated the scale rotates with it and a small index mark indicates the
distance between image and range finder. A small lens is placed so that the scale is
easily seen at one edge of the view.
Mirror ^
Pivoi-
^Mirror ^
Fig. 15. — Kodak pocket range finder.
—
Kodak Coupled Range Finder. Mechanically coupling the range finder to the lens
of acamera enables the user to measure distance and set the lens of his camera with
one motion. Thus the range finder becomes a focusing device rather than a distance
indicator, althoughit will also measure the distance of the object to be photographed.
In the Kodak coupled range finder employed on certain miniature cameras, two
images of the same object are created by two lenses. To make the two images coin-
Obj'ecfive
F/e/c/ /ens /ens L
Divi'c/ing /ine-^^
Ocu/ar /enses
Objec/ive /ens M \
/mage formed by /ens L
Image formed by /ens M
Field of view
Fig. 16. — Kodak coupled range finder.
cide, one lens is moved with respect to the other. The objective lens of the range
finder is movable support which is actuated by an adjusting cam which
carried on a
is turned by the focusing knob. Turning this knob moves the camera objective along
its axis and thereby focuses it by means of a helical thread. This cam is so con-
structed that, when the range-finder objective is correctly placed for the given object,
the camera objective is focused upon this object.
.
The two images presented to the eye of the user form a field divided into two
halves. With the camera in normal position the lower half of the image as viewed
in the eyepiece is the fixed portion of the image. When the camera lens is out of
focus, the upper haK of the image is displaced to the right or left. Focusing consists
in bringing these two halves of the field into proper relationship so that a unified
image results.
In Fig. 16 the two images created by L and M
occur on the face of prism Pi at the
common boundary of prisms Pi and P3. The rays from M
travel above prism P2
while the rays from L travel inside the prism P-i and are reflected at a point just below
the other rays. Both rays are then deflected bj^ prism Pz back to form the split image.
Prism Pi is an erecting prism to present the image to the eye right side up. The field
lens collects all the rays forming the image so that
they are carried to the eye. The ocular lenses are
provided so that the images, which are only a short
distance from the eye, may be seen easily. The
objectives and oculars actually amount to two small
telescopes giving a magnification of 3 X
The eyepiece, which carries the ocular lenses, is
adjustable along its axis to allow for variations in
individual eyesight. The user is instructed to adjust
the eyepiece for an object 8 ft. away, a setting which
enables images for both distant and near objects to
be accommodated by the eye.
—
Leica Coupled Range Finder. ^The principle of
the range finder fitted to Leica 35-mm. cameras may
be seen from Fig. 17.
"A ray of light^ from the object at O passes
through the window A, through the glass sheet C,
which is set at an angle of 45° to line O A, through the
window D, and into the eye at E. Another ray of
light from the same point on the object passes
through window F, is refiected from mirror G, then
from the glass sheet C, and finally passes through
window D into the eye at E. Thus the eye at E will
two images, a shown
Fig. 17. — Principle of Leica
see
large circle
direct one, such as that
and one reflected from the
in Fig. 12,
in the
range finder.
mirror G, which is the one shown in the small circle in
Fig. 12. The mirror G can be rotated about an axis H bj^ means of lever L, and it is
obvious that if this mirror G is rotated to the proper position the ray of light OGC will
then emerge from window D along the line OE, and the two images will seem to have
become one, or are coincident. Corresponding to this proper position of the mirror G,
the end of the lever L indicates on the empirically calibrated scale S the distance OC,
which is called the "range" of the object at O."
Figure 18 shows the range finder as fitted to the cameras. A collar, which is part
of each lens available for the Leica camera, fits against a small roller which in turn
actuates the prism of the range finder. The field seen in the range finder is enlarged
about 13^ times. A circular image is seen in the Leica range finder, the center of
the image being brighter than the surrounding part of the field. Two complete
images are seen in tliis center portion unless the range finder is properly focused for the
desired object.
1 CoRNOG, I. Clyde, The Autofocal Camera, Am. Phot., January, 1937, p. 1.

CAMERAS 87
An orange-redfilter may be placed over one of the range-finder ports so that a deep
color imparted to one of the images, increasing the ease of accurate focusing by an
is
increase in contrast between the two images.

The base of the Leica range finder is approximately 40 mm.
Zeiss Coupled Range Finder. —
The principle of this type of finder is shown in
Fig. 19.
^r .-•e-
Fig. 18. —Leica range finder as fitted to camera.
"At P' there are two prisms of triangular cross section and very small angle.
Viewed in the direction of the arrow these prisms would look like the inset in Fig. 19.
In the figure these prisms are shown in such a position that a ray of light such as OP
will pass through them without any change in direction, and the ray would go along
the line OE into the eye at E; together they act
here like a sheet of glass with parallel faces. These
prisms are arranged so that they will rotate
about the line OPE in opposite directions and at
equal rates as the focusing device of the camera is
adjusted. Having been turned for a little way,
the pair no longer act like a sheet of plane parallel
glass, but like a single prism, since now one side
of the combination is thicker than the other.
This can easily be demonstrated by using the
pointed ends of two lead pencils to represent the
prisms, holding the pencils perpendicular to
the plane of Fig. 19, and rotating each towards the
right-hand side of the figure, in opposite directions.
The result is that the ray of light is caused to
deviate from the path OPE to the path OPE'. In
this case mirror G is fixed, as is the sheet of glass
C, so that the ray OGC passes into the ejê at E'.
It is obvious that by rotating the prisms as
described the two images can be brought into
coincidence along the line PE'."
In the Zeiss range finder, use is made of the
EE'
fact that the color of light passing through a very jpjq^ jg _
-Zeiss coupled range finder.
thin metallic layer is complementary to the color
by the layer. The colors into which white light are split by a
of the light refiected
semitransparent gold coating are red and green which, when mixed, become white
again.
The image-dividing mirror is given a coating of gold so that the objects in the
image be seen in nearly their natural colors in the central field when the camera is
will
properly focused because the green and the red portions of the image will be rejoined
then. The mechanical details of the range finder are shown in Fig. 20.
-
of the Zeiss range finder is approximately 4 in.

The base The field of view of the
red image reduced in size so that only the part of the scene to be reproduced with
is
maximum sharpness is visible.

The following notes on range finders are taken from the Zeiss Ikon bulletin "Con-
tax Photography."
The simplest form of range finder comprises merely two mirrors, one fixed in
position and the other variable (see Fig. 21). Since "the full distance range between
infinity and about 3 ft. only involves a movement of the movable mirror through some
Eye
Glcfss pencil
w/fh sem/'-Q
mirror an^
prism
reflecfincf
Circular wedges
Fig. 20. —Rotating-wedge range finder.
Fixed __^
Fig. 21. — Simple two-mirror range finder.
Fig. 22. — Rotating-wedge type of range finder.
3° which must be linked up with a movement of the focusing mount of the lens
through 140°, ... a small error in the mirror will involve a considerable error in the
focusing.
"A very considerable advance on this construction is reached in the rotating-
wedge distance meter. In this instrument, a range of focusing distances between
infinity and 3 feet involves a revolution of the two wedges through 90°, so that a gain
in accuracy is reached, together with a comparative immunity from mechanical
breakdown and damage through shock.
"A further gain which the wedge principle introduces is that the base distance can
be made of a solid glass pencil, one end of which is semi-gilded. This, though valuable,
CAMERAS 89
is not so important as the possibility of separating the wedges from the base prism.
The wedges can be placed on the actual lens mounting, while the base prism and eye-
piece remain in the camera body. In this way, those portions of the meter which are
most sensitive to mechanical shock can be safely protected by the body, thus affording
a very high degree of security from breakdown.
"A still further step in the development of the distance meter may be taken. The
distance meter may work on the 'swing-wedge' method, and its field of view is arranged
to agree with that of the camera lens. A combined distance meter and view finder
thus results. The swing-wedge principle involves the use of two cylindrical lenses,
their outer sides plane and their inner sides ground circular, placed in close con-
tact. The front lens is concave, and remains stationary, while the rear lens, which is
convex, swings from side to side. The combined distance-meter-view-finder makes it
possible to increase the field of view through the distance meter that would otherwise
only be possible with the rotating wedge distance meter by increasing considerably
the size of the camera. Such combination is clearly useful from the point of view of
ease in focusing, quickness of exposure after focusing, and certainty of sharp pictures,
since there is only one eyepiece to be looked through instead of two."
—
Accuracy of Coupled Range Finders. The following data are taken from a paper
by Cornog.^
"The principle of the range finder may be discussed in connection with Fig. 17.
The 'range' of the object is the distance CO, or R, measured from the center line
connecting the two mirrors G and C, and the 'base' B of the instrument is the distance
between the centers of these same mirrors. The base B subtends the angle X
at the
object, so that
tan X = I (1)
where X
is expressed in radians and B and R in feet, or meters. This relation may be
expressed in terms of the position of the lever arm on the scale S (Fig. 17), as in Eq. 2,
S =^ tan-i I (2)
"The range of the object is given, therefore, by the expression
R = r^X
tan
(3)
which may be called the 'law' of the range finder.

"Since the angle X is always very small, it is necessary that a range finder be well
constructed if precise results are to be obtained: given a good instrument, the deter-
mining factor then becomes the adjustment for coincidence. In a reasonably well
constructed instrument of the type of Fig. 17, such as may be found on a camera, the
base length is about two inches, and with ordinary care in setting for coincidence an
object twenty feet distant can be located within ±4 inches, or within a length of
8 inches, while if the object is only three feet away its position can be located within
±0.1 inch, or within a length of 0.2 inch."
A good lens operating at an aperture of //1. 5 focused on an object 20 ft. distant
will have a depth of focus from 17 ft. 10 in. to 22 ft. 10 in.; focused on an object 4 ft.
distant objects between 3 ft. 11 in. and 4 ft. 1 J^ in. will be in focus (circle of confusion
3^00 in.). Thus it may be seen that the accuracy of adjustment of the range finder
is such that the depth of field of even the fastest lens will take care of minor errors in
operating the range finder.

1 Ibid.
—
Depth-of -field Indicator. A useful accessory included on most miniature cameras
and on many larger cameras is a depth-of-field, or depth-of-focus, table. Such a
table shows the distance range which will be in sharp focus when the camera is focused
upon a given distance and the lens is working at a given aperture. Often the depth-
of-field table is in the form of an indicator which shows the user the depth as soon
as he has focused the lens upon the desired distance. All such depth-of-field scales
or indicators are based upon a certain value of the circle of confusion (see below);
on miniature cameras in which the negatives are often enlarged considerably in
making prints, the circle of confusion considered is much smaller than is used when
large-sizeimages are secured.
two types of depth-of-field indicators are shown.
Illustrations of
—
Depth of Field. If a lens is focused upon a given distance, objects in the plane at
that distance will be sharply in focus. Objects near this plane will not be so sharply
focused, but they will be sharper than objects at greater distances from this plane.
If the lens is stopped "down, objects at
considerable distance from the plane upon
which the lens is focused may be relatively
sharp, although not so sharp as objects in the
plane upon which the lens is accurately
focused.
The distance from the nearest to the
farthest subjects which appear sharply focused
Depth-of-field indicator.
is called the depth of field. But this distance
range is subjective, depending upon the inability of the human eye to distinguish
between a point and a small circle.
If focused accurately upon a given plane, then points of light in other
the lens is
planes will not produce points of light in the plane of the film but will produce circles
which are cross sections of the pencils of light which come to a point focus in front of,
or behind, the film plane. Therefore, the only points of light existing in the film plane
are images of points of light in the plane upon which the lens is exactly focused. All
other points in front of or behind this plane will be reproduced upon the film plane as
circles, larger circles being produced by point sources existing at greater distances
from the plane upon which the lens is focused than by points nearer the plane upon
which the lens is focused. These circles are known as "circles of confusion."
It is generally assumed that, if a print is viewed from a distance of 12 in., circles
of confusion Hoo in. in diameter or less will not be perceived as circles by the eye;
they will look like points.
A depth-of-field table, can be calculated on the basis of a given circle of confusion.
If a camera makes negatives which are not to be enlarged, then the depth-of-field
table may be based upon a circle of confusion of K50 in. If, however, negatives
are to be enlarged so that the resultant print has circles of confusion no greater than
3^50 in., the accuracy with which the camera is focused must be correspondingly
greater. Depth-of-field tables used with miniature cameras are often based upon
a circle of confusion as small as Mo 00 in.
Depth-of-field Table. —Assuming

a permissible circle of confusion, the distance
from the lens of the nearest object which is in focus when the lens is focused upon
infinity, is known as the hyperfocal distance. This varies with focal length, circle of
confusion, and aperture. The hyperfocal distance, in feet, is
pi
H (4)
(fXCX 12)
CAMERAS 91
where F = the focal length of the lens in inches;

/ = the working aperture //number;
C = the diameter of the circle of confusion in inches.
The hyperfocal distance is sometimes defined as Image
the distance of the nearest object in focus when the plane
lens is focused upon this object sharply and when
objects very far away are acceptably sharp. The
value of H
is used in calculating depth of focus as
outlined below.
In making a depth-of-focus table the distances
desired are the distance to which sharpness extends Y\g. 24. -Point source
beyond and upon which the lens focused to a point only in image
inside the distance
is focused. Thus, if the lens is focused upon a plane plane. Elsewhere the point
10 ft. from the camera, between what limits will other
becomes a circle,
objects be focused? These distances may be obtained as follows:
Near distance =
H— —a = Dat
;
-^^ (5)
-\-
Far distance = v? = J^f (6)

H — a
and for objects 6 ft. or less from the camera
Near distance =
HX a
= D. (7)
" + {"-1)
Far distance =
HXa Df (8)
H («-/.)
where H = the hyperfocal distance in feet;
a = the distance in feet to which the camera is focused;
/ = the focal length in inches.
Example. —
Assume a lens of 5-in. focal length, aperture //5, circle of confusion of J-ôo in. diameter.
What the hyperfocal distance and what are the nearest and farthest objects in focus when the lens is
is
focused on an object 25 ft. distant? Hyperfocal distance = F-/{f X C X 12) ft. H
H 5 X 5 X 400 10,000
= 167 ft.
5 X 12 60
Therefore, if the lens is focused upon infinity, objects 167 ft. from the camera and beyond will be in focus.
HXa 167 X 25
=
Near-object distance 21.7
H+a 167 -t- 25
Far-object distance = H X a 167X25 27_4

H-a 167 - 25
Therefore objects within a range of 21.7 and 27.4 ft. will be in focus.
It will be noted that the depth in front of the plane upon which the lens is focused
is shallower than the depth behind (farther from the camera) the image plane. At
25 ft., an object 3.2 ft. in front of the 25-ft. plane will be in focus; an object 4.4 ft.
behind this plane will be in focus. If, therefore, it is desirable to make an object
closer than 21 ft. be in focus at the same time an object 25 ft. distant is in focus,
it will be necessary to focus the camera on a plane somewhat closer than 25 ft. for a
given aperture.^
Universal Depth-of-field Table. —
In the following table (Eastman Kodak) the data
are figured for a circle of confusion such that the angle between two lines connecting
the edges of the circle with the optical center of the lens is 2 min. of arc. This amounts
to a circle whose diameter is approximately Mooo of the focal length of the lens. In
such a table the circles of confusion are large for large prints and small for small prints.
Table III.— Universal Depth-of-field Table^
Aperture
CAMERAS 93
The tripod is a necessity in all except candid and sports photography. The tripod
must be chosen for the function it is to perform. If it is to support a small camera
for a single shot, it need not be so heavy or so stable as the tripod which must support
a heavy camera such as that used for making color-separation negatives. For the
small camera the metal folding tripods are suitable, those made in the Orient excepted.
In nearly every case these Oriental tripods are "weak in the knees." They must be
chosen with extreme care. A 9- by 12-cm. camera can be supported on a metal
telescopic tripod for a single shot, but, if separation negatives are to be made, a
sturdier support needed. In this case where three exposures must be made from
is
exactly the same point of view, a wooden tripod of heavy construction is recommended.
The tripod will tend to slip along the floor or surface less if its legs make a fairly
large angle with the floor or ground. On the other hand, it will tend to move less
when changing the angle with the ground or floor is small, i.e., if the
films, etc., if
tripod legs are well spread out. Rubber feet are useful on floors; spokes are advisable
when the tripod is to be used out of doors.
Hand cameras as purchased are usually supplied with three plateholders. These
are metal single plateholders into which cut-film sheaths may be placed. Reducing
sheaths are available for these metal plateholders. These sheaths fit into the slots
where the plates ordinarily fit, and the sheaths themselves have grooves into which
the cut film may be used. A film-pack adapter is merely a holder made of metal,
usually, with an extension on the rear into which the film pack may be placed.
Folding roll-film cameras are seldom equipped with plateholders or detachable
backs into which cut film, plates, or film-pack adapters may be placed. Studio or
view cameras employ film or plateholders habitually. These are usually made of
wood and are made in forms which will take either plates or films. In those which
hold plates, film sheaths may be placed so that either plates or films may be employed.
Therefore the plateholder is more universally useful than the holder adapted only
for cut film.
Wooden plate or film holders tend to warp in damp places; metal holders tend to
rust.
Synchronized flash guns are devices which enable the photographer to fire off a
flashbulb at the same instant the shutter of his camera is opened. In principle they
are all alike although the practical application of the several types may differ.
When the shutter release ispushed to the point where the shutter is opened an
electrical contact is made. Such devices are generally used with between-lens shutters
and not with focal-plane shutters. In the latter type of shutter, the various portions
of the film or plate are exposed in sequence as the shutter opening moves across the
image plane. The photographer is likely to find on his negative only a portion of
the expected picture when the focal-plane type of shutter is used, unless the syn-
chronized device is properly engineered with this type of shutter in mind.
A lens shade is an accessory that is little used, but which should be in every
photographer's kit. Many a photograph, taken slightly against the light, which has
turned out to be rather hazy would have been sharp if a lens hood or shade had been
used.
CAMERA-OBJECT RELATIONSHIPS
The material in this chapter, up to this point, deals with the physical equipment
by which photographs are made. Good pictures, however, depend not only upon the
equipment but upon the manner in which this equipment is used. Much depends
upon where the camera was placed when the exposure was made, e.g., how close to or
how far from the object. It is here, and in other matters, that the photographer must
use judgment; and, while this handbook is concerned almost exclusively with physical
equipment, the following material in this chapter (and a few paragraphs in the chapter
on Optics of Photographic Lenses) deals with the proper relations that must exist
between the camera and the object to be photographed, if a pleasing result is to be
secured from the photographer's efforts.
Perspective. —
Most photographs are attempts to represent, on a two-dimensional
plane, a three-dimensional scene or object. One of the photographer's most difficult
problems is to give the viewer of the photograph some idea of the relations in space
existing between the several parts of the scene or object. The appearance of the
several objects of a scene in respect to their relative positions and dimensions is known
as perspective. If a photograph shows these several objects to be in the same relative
position and dimension as they would appear to the eye if placed at the position of the
lens, the perspective of the photograph is natural. A good lens always does this: the
photograph made with it is natural if the eye looks at the print from the proper
—
viewpoint but this is rarely the case.
When one looks down a long lane of trees, those trees in the receding distance seem
to become shorter and shorter as the distance increases. If the photograph makes the
Fig. 25. —Two objects of same height {AB and CD) are focused at X'Y' and X'Z' by long-
focus lens or at XT and XZ by short-focus lens.
nearer trees appear taller, when compared to the distant trees, than they would appear
if the observer were actually looking at the scene, the perspective is exaggerated and is
unnatural.
If certain conditions are fulfilled, the perspective of the photograph wUl be more
natural than if these conditions are not carried out. It is often said that a long-focus
lens produces better perspective than a short-focal-length lens. It is true that the
focal length of the lens enters into the problem, but the essential condition to be
fulfilled is that the angle subtended by the print at the eye must be equal to the angle sub-
tended by the object at the lens. Under this condition the perspective of the print will
be natural.
The angle subtended by the print at the eye depends upon the viewing distance.
Since 10 in. is generally considered as normal viewing distance, when the print is held in
one's hands, the lens to be used is one that will focus upon the sensitive material when
placed 10 in. from that sensitive material — in other words, a 10-in. lens focused upon
infinit}'.
All pictures made from the same viewpoint, no matter whether with a long-focal-
length lens or a short-focal-length lens, will have the same perspective. The short-
focal-length lens may include a wider field of view, and a given object will be smaller
than when made with the long lens, but if the fields of view of the final prints are the
same and if the relative heights of two objects in the two prints are measured, they
willbe found to be the same.
AB and CD are two images of equal height but one is closer to the
In Fig. 25,
camera lens than the other. A short-focal-length lens will focus these images in the
plane XYZ. Object AB will have a height on the image plane of XY, and object
CAMERAS 95
CD willhave a height of XZ. The ratio of XZ to XF will be equal to the ratio of

BA toEC. A long-focal-length lens will focus the two objects in the plane X'Z', and
the ratio of the two image heights will be X'Z'/X'Y', which, by similar triangles, is
Fig. 26. —
Effect of moving close to object to increase image size. Viewed at normal
distance (10 in.) a print made under these conditions will appear distorted in perspective.
equal to BA/EC. Therefore the perspective will be exactly the same in the two
cases. The images produced by the long-focal-length lens will be larger than the
images produced by the short-focal-length lens, but the angle subtended at the lens by
the two objects will be exactly the same in the two cases. The print made with the
long-focus lens should be viewed at a distance OX', while the print made with the lens
of short focal length should be viewed at a distance of OX. If the image XYZ is
enlarged so that it has the same dimensions as X'Y'Z', then it may be viewed at
the distance OX', and so far as perspective is concerned there will be no difference
between the two prints.
The objection to the lens of short focal length is the natural tendency of the user
to move up close to the subject in order to get a large image. This is sure to
produce an exaggerated perspective. In Fig. 26 the relative sizes of the two
images on the final print will be XZ/XY = X'Z'/X'Y' = AB/EC when made with
the two lenses from the same viewpoint. If the short-focal-length lens is moved
closer to the image (Fig. 26), the ratio of the two images will be X"Z"/X"Y" =
AB/FC, with the result that the nearer object will be larger, when compared to the
farther object, than it appears in the print made from the longer focal-length lens.
Example. —The relation between image distance, object distance, and focal length of lens is
- = ^
O ~ d- F
where O = size of object;
/ = size of image;
d = distance of object from lens;
F = focal length of lens.
Assume two poles in the ground, 10 m. apart and 10 m. high. The camera is first placed 20 m. from
the first pole. The focal length is 6 cm. (0.05 m.). On the print the nearest pole will have an image
height determined by the above formula of 1000 cm./(L/0) = ^""ôo = 2.5 cm. The pole farther
away will have a height of 1.66 cm. These two images will have a ratio of 2.5: 1.66 or 1.5. The image
of the nearer pole will be 1.5 times as high as the one farther away.
Now move closer to the poles so that the negative is made at a distance of 10 m. from the nearer pole.
In this case the two image heights will be, respectively, 5 cm. and 2.5 cm., or the nearer pole will be
twice as high as the farther pole.
—
Proper Viewing Distance. Prints must be viewed at the proper distance if the
perspective is to be natural. Consider two prints, one made with a short-focal-length
lens and the other with a long-focus lens. The short-focus lens was moved closer
to the object when the exposure was made to secure an image more nearly equal in
size to that of the other lens. If the print made with the short lens is held at the
same distance as the print made with the longer lens, the perspective will not be
natural, but if the smaller print is moved closer to the eyes, the perspective will seem
more natural. The viewer may have to shut one eye so that he can approach close
enough to the print to embrace all of it, but the perspective will be more nearly like
that made with the long lens.
a scene is photographed with a lens covering a very wide angle, it will be difficult
If
to view the entire picture at once, so that the print will be moved away from the eyes.
This distorts the perspective. On the other hand, if a telephoto lens is used which
covers a very narrow angle, it will be natural for the user to move the print closer to
the eyes so that the print fills the field of vision. This distorts the perspective in the
other direction.
The important that the print is to be viewed at such a distance that the
criterion is
angle subtended at the eye equal to the angle subtended at the lens by the object.
is
An enlargement from a negative made with a short-focal-length lens and viewed

from the proper viewing distance will often have a better perspective than a print
made by contact with a negative produced with a lens of longer (although improper)
focal length for the viewing distance to be employed. A 5- by 7-in. print made with
a 7-in. lens should be viewed at 7 in. viewing distance. If
held at 10 in. the perspective will be somewhat unnatural.
A negative made with a 2-in. lens and enlarged 5 times
produce a print when sdewed at 10 in. which will
will
have more natural perspective than the contact print of
the same size made with the 7-in. lens. The difference
in perspective, however, will be small.
If L is the viewing distance of the print, / is the
D=Nd
focal length of the taking lens, and n is the linear mag-
nification of the print compared with the negative, then^
L =n/ (9)
Fig. 27. —
Relations be-
from which the correct viewing distance or the best linear
tween focal length of taking
lens and proper viewing magnification may be found if the other two factors are
distance for print. known.
Example. —What is best degree of enlargement for a negative made with a 2-in. (5-cm.) lens when
the print is to be viewed at 30 in.? (This figure approaches the distance at which salon prints are
viewed.)
7 30
=
" = 7 = T 15
Thus a print from a 35-mm. negative should be arproximately 13 by 20 in.; or at a viewing distance
of 10 in. the best size for a 35-mm. enlargement is 5 by 7 in.
—
Choice of Focal Length. Since the eye includes an angle of about 50°, it is advis-
able to include only this angle in a print. Thus we have the rule that the focal length
of the lens should be equal approximately to the diagonal of the plate or film to be
covered. For example, a certain lens designed to cover a 4- by 5-in. plate has an
equivalent focal length of ^^%2 in. Focused upon an object at infinity, this lens
subtends at the plate an angle of approximately 53°.
1 This may be proved by Fig. 27. Let d be the diagonal of the plate to be covered by a lens of focal
length /, and let D be the diagonal of the enlargement. The condition is that the print and the negative
subtend equal angles at the eye of the observer and at the lens, respectively.
By similar triangles, D/2 -=- d/2 =L-^f=D-i-d.
But D = nd. Therefore
Nd _L
d -f
N = ^
CHAPTER V
SHUTTERS
By Alan A. Cook
In the early days of photography shutters were seldom necessary. Photosensitive

materials were slow and long exposures were required. Dry plates appeared in 1880,
roll film in1884, and the first Kodak in 1888. For successful amateur photography
there was then a need for an exposing device to uncover the camera lens for a definite
short period of time and then to close it again.
There were earlier shutters, many of them homemade. Some were built like a
guillotine with a simple slide and a slit in it and a rubber band set of springs to snap
the slide opening across the front of the lens an —
early conception of the focal-plane shutter.
Another type consisted of two blades sliding
like double doors at right angles to the lens axis
or pivoted above to swing out at the start of the
exposure and back into an overlapping position
at the center when the exposure ended. Such
blades were of light thin material and could be
located between the lens elements. The casing
could serve as a holder for the lens mounts.
Interlens Shutters. —The principles of this
early were naturally carried into the
design
development of the interlens shutter. This term
will be used to describe shutters that open
centrally and are located between or near the
lens elements, as distinguished from focal-plane
shutters which are located near the plane of the
film or plate.
Single-blade Shutters. —The interlens shutter
in its simplest form an exposure mechanism
is Fig. 1. —
Construction details of
with a single moving blade. Inexpensive box Eastman single-blade automatic
cameras are usually equipped with a device of shutter (Julius Springer).
this kind and Fig. 1 shows the details of construction of such a shutter from
an Eastman camera. A is the release lever, and B is the release-lever spring,
which has a double action according to the position of the double-action link C.
The main spring D connects C with the shutter blade E. For alternate exposures this
blade oscillates between the position shown in solid lines in Fig. 1 and the dotted-line
position. At each pressure on the release lever the opening in the blade G revolves
over the lens opening H to give an exposure of about J^5 sec. The lug F stops the
rotation of the blade at the proper place after exposure. Note that both the link C
and the main spring D have a double action for alternate exposures and that the
actuating force on the blade is not the direct pressure of the release lever but the effect
of the tension produced in the main spring D. / is a lug which holds the blade until
the pressure on the D spring has developed maximum tension.
97
A more modern box-camera shutter is shown in Fig. 2. It consists of two moving

parts and two springs. When the exposure trigger is depressed, shutter cover 14
moves from a position in contact with stud 15 (Fig. 2A) to stud 16. In so doing,
cam edge 25 of the shutter cover contacts stud 18 on the shutter blade, moving it
Fig. 2. —Shutter of modern box camera.

across the face of the camera so that the opening in the shutter blade, 26, comes
opposite the opening 4, thereby exposing the film. When the trigger is released,
spring 11 causes the cover to move from its position in B to its original position in A.
Another, more complex, single-blade shutter is shown in Fig. 3. A is a view of the
individual parts of the No. 1 Kodo shutter
of Eastman Kodak. B shows the assem-
bled shutter.
Figure 4 shows how a disk diaphragm
operates to provide four different sized
openings for the lens to permit an adjust-
ment for varying light conditions.
Before going on to shutters of more
complicated design, it will be advisable to
define more accurately the different parts
of an interlens shutter and describe their
5.- --=^ ^1
Fig. ZA. Fig. 3S.

Fig. 3A.— Parts of No. 1. Kodo
shutter for box camera. 1, speed pointer; 2, speed-
pointer rivet; 3, opening lever; opening-lever rivet; 5, blade controller; 6, blade-opener
4,
rivet; 7, trigger spring; 8, trigger assembly; 9, trigger screw.
Fig. 35.— Modern box-camera shutter, completely assembled.
function. In general, an interlens shutter has a casing which serves as a lens holder
and contains three separate units:
1. A diaphragming device to provide an adjustable aperture for the lens.
2. A blade mechanism to open and close for exposure.
3. A retarding device to slow down the action of the blades from maximum speed
of action, thus providing a series of definite time intervals and a lever which can be set
to operate the shutter at any one of these intervals.
SHUTTERS 99
Diaphragms are commonly of two types. The rotating disk shown in Fig. 4 is the
cheapest, but does not provide a continuous series of lens openings and
it is bulky if
more than a few stops are to be used. The iris

diaphragm consists of a number of ring sectors,
usually made of thin metal, which will be called
"diaphragm leaves." Figure 5 shows the action of
_ __ / \ /b
/ ^^'^— "^^^/^
I
a typical iris leaf. It has a pivot A at one end, the

other end is provided with a stud or some similar
Fig. 4. Fig. 5.
Fig. 4. —
Disk diaphragm of simple Kodak shutter.
Fig. 5. —
Action of a single diaphragm leaf (Julius Springer), a, fixed end of leaf on
pivot; h, movable end of leaf at full opening; 6i, movable end of leaf at intermediate
position; 62, movable end of lead at smallest opening.
fastening which is fitted into a short slot in a rotatable ring. Three different posi-
tions of the single leaf are shown in Fig. 5. Figure 6 shows how a seven-leaved
I 2 3
Fig. 6 .
—Action of seven-leaved iris diaphragm (Julius Springer). 1, full opening; 2, half

closed; 3, smallest opening.
B
a b c
Fig. 7. — Complete a, mounting plate,
iris-diaphragm assembly (Julius Springer),
6, leaves, 12 in all; c, slotted ring; d, iris opening indicator; e, iris ring connected to d\ j;
slot to limit rotation of ring; g, slot in which movable end of leaf is carried; h, stud that
pivots fixed end of leaf in mounting plate.
diaphragm operates in the same three positions. The central lens opening can be
made larger or smaller by simple rotation of a slotted control ring in which the free
ends of all the leaves are fitted.
Figure 7 is a complete iris-diaphragm assembly with 12 leaves to provide openings

that are almost complete circles. This drawing shows the number of parts involved
and gives an idea of the small space within which they can be fitted. This is an
important point because the available space between the lenses in modern photo-
graphic objectives is very limited. In small short-focus lenses there is often only
3^2 in. of space for diaphragm leaves.
—
Multiblade Shutters. About 1900, single-blade shutters were found to be inade-
quate. Photography had to find means of "stopping" faster motion. Double-
blade shutters, as shown in Fig. 8, were the first answer to this demand. A, B, and C
Fig. 8A. —FPK Automatic shutter made by Bausch & Lomb (from W. O. Hammer)
1,release lever; 2, pump for bulb release; 5, exposure indicator; 7, diaphragm adjustment
and indicating lever; 8, lever operating blades; 9, levers operating for bulb and time
exposure.
1 5 3
Fig. 8J5. —Automatic shutter made by Bausch & Lomb (from W. O. Hammer). 1,
release lever; 2, pump for bulb release; 3, pump for retarding device; 5, diaphragm indicator
and adjusting cam; 7, diaphragm lever; 8, diaphragm leaves; 9, blades.
SHUTTERS 101
o
Fig. 8C.— Wollensak Regno setting shutter. 1, release
lever; 2, pump for bulb release; 3, pump for retarding device;
o
Fig. 9. — Blade
action of double-
4, setting lever; 5, exposure indicator; 7, diaphragm lever. blade shutters.
—
Fig. 10. Blade action of three-blade Fig. 11.— Compact shutter and lens
shutter (Julius Springer), (a), blade assembly (Julius Springer), a, back
open; {b), blade closed; 1, pivot of blade case or housing; b, front cover plate;
5; 2-3, pivots of blades which have been c, mechanism mounting plate; d, front
removed for illustration (they are exactly lens mount; e, back lens mount; /, iris
similar to 5); 4, mounting plate; 5, diaphragm leaves; g, shutter blades; h,
blade; 6, stud to connect blade 5 with diaphragm lever and indicator; i, disk
sector ring 8; 7, slot in sector ring; for t, b, or i exposures; k, exposure indi-
8, sector ring; 9, spring; 10, stop stud cating ring; I, diaphragm scale; m-n,
fixed on plate 4. levers to regulate the gear-retarding
device.
Fig. 12. —
Photograph
showing the construction
of the popular Compound
shutter, made by Freder-
ich Deckel, Munich. 1,
finger release; 2, air pump
for bulb release; 3, pump
retarding device; 4, setting
lever for motor spring; 5,
exposure indicator (time,
bulb, instantaneous) 6,;
speed-setting dial; 7, dia-

phragm adjusting and indi-
cating lever; 8, adjusting
cam under speed-setting
dial; 9, pin to connect cam
8 with dial 6.
'^2 5
Fig. 13. — Retarding device

of the
L' c d Compound shutter (Julius Springer).
a, air cylinder; b, speed-setting dial;
c, speed-setting cam, pivoted at d; d,
pivot for speed-setting cam; e, piston
inside cylinder; /, retard-lever link;
g, pivot for retard-lever link; h,
retard lever; i, pin connecting dial
and cam and regulating position of
the link /.
Fig. 14A. —
Mechanism of mod-
ern Compur shutter, #0 (Julius
Springer), a, backing case; c, set-
ting lever, linked with leaves ci and
ct and mainspring a; e, release lever,
linked with levers d, f, and g\ h,
trigger for the sector ring, moved by
e; i, ki to fcs, retarding device;
e, ei, mechanism of self-timer; m, pro-
jections of sector ring; wi, knob for

operating self-timer; o, cable-release
bushing; p, stop for release lever e.
SHUTTERS 103
are different makes of shutters of this period. The blades are clearly shown —in the
closed position in 8A and 8C, in the open position in Fig. 8B.
Although these shutters
were a great advance over previous models and were used all over the world on
American-made cameras, they were merely one step in a long series of development.
As increasing speed and accuracy became necessary, a different type of blade action
was devised.
Figure 10 shows a three-blade shutter with blades 2 and 3 removed. In this
illustration, 5 is a blade which is operated by rotation of the ring 8 through pressure
Fig. 145. — Retarding device of the Compur shutter (JuUus Springer). /, shutter
set for slowest speeds to 3^{o sec. II, shutter set for
; medium speeds from J-'fo to 3"ioo sec;
///, shutter set for fastest speeds.
The labeled parts are as follows: a, speed-indicating dial; b, fixed plate support for cam;
c, pivot for dial and cam; d, e, speed-control cams working together; /, pin connecting the
cams with dial a; g, h, pins regulating positions of two levers by cams; i, pivot of gear sector
s; k, pivot or setting lever p; I, pivot of retard lever t; 711,1%, escapement mechanism which
is thrown out of action at speeds of I-iq sec. and faster; o, pivot of escapment lever v;
p, setting lever; r, gear retard, acting with z and m

(these gears do not operate at maximum
speed because the gear sector s is depressed to its lowest extent by pin h before lever p
is operated); s, gear sector pivoted at i; t, retard lever; z, gear retard.
on stud 6 which is firmly attached to the blade. Note that only a few degrees of
rotation of the ring 8 suffice to open the blade completely and that spring 9 acts to
close it by pulling the ring back to position b where it is stopped by stud 10 which is
fixed in the case. All this makes for rapid action when the parts are made of light,
rigid material.
These are only typical of the principles of modern shutters because shape and
number of blades as well as the method of operatingthem are all subject to wide
variations in different commercial designs. The question of blade action in relation

to shutter efficiency will be discussed in a later paragraph.
There is one design of blade mechanism which is worth noting although shutters
made to that pattern are no longer on the market. This design is characterized by-
blades revolving in one continuous motion from closed position through open position
to closed again. The principle itself is interesting because blades that open and close
in one motion are theoretically capable of higher speeds than the design actually used
at present in which the blades open, come to rest, and then close again.
Seffing
'effing lever
Cab/e re/ease Jever ^Self-iimer
bushin.-: rjiiiose caich Release
lever
J
Relea::^
Cable release
lever
Fig. 15. —Photograph of modern Compur Fig. 16. —Illustration of Kodamatic shut-
shutter, ter.
Fig. 17. — Mechanism of Wollensak Betax shutter.
Retarding Devices. —In the timing-control mechanism of a shutter there have been
tried a number of different mechanical principles. Among the first were adjustable
spring tension on the main lever of the shutter (the one which operates the blades)
and the application of a leather brake to a coil spring to slow down its action. The
air pump as a retarding device was mentioned in an American patent in 1885 and has
SHUTTERS 105
of
Over-all
length
shutter
inner
barrel
I
SHUTTERS 107
o ^-
^
o
s
°
Eh a3
< 3.
s S
P3
—
been used a great deal. long as it can be kept clean, but this is hardly
It is reliable so
possible in a hand camera thatexposed to dust when in use. A later method, first
is
made practical in 1910, depends on the braking action of a train of gears or an escape-
ment-wheel mechanism of some kind. This gear and escapement retarding device
is now considered the most accurate yet devised and is used on all modern interlens
shutters.
With three separate mechanisms built into one small casing, it is not surprising
that a photographic shutter is a complicated mechanism. It has to be to fulfill the
functions of diaphragm action and timing control. Figure 11 is a drawing of the
complete assembly with lenses attached. The mechanical clearances are very small
especially in the smaller outfits, and this is one reason why amateur repairs nearly
always end up by ruining the shutter completely. The remarkable fact about shutters
is that designers have been able to put so much mechanism into a small space and
that manufacturers have been able to

make them perform reliably.
—
Automatic Action. There is one other
point to be considered in this short outline;
the difference between automatic shutters
and those that have to be set for each
exposure. Early shutters were all the
second type there was a setting lever plus
;
4 2 a release lever, and two operations were

Fig. 18. —
Retarding device for Wol-
required to complete the exposure. This is
lensak Betax shutter. 1, lever engaging
pinion on escapement; 2, escapement; a disadvantage that was recognized at the
3, pallet whose number of oscillations beginning of shutter development. Auto-
are controlled by escapement 2; 4, pallet matic shutters were attempted by
designers
lever, offering resistance and providing
smoothness of operation; 5, slot in escape-
as early as 1892. The principle had
ment balance in which pallet lever rides. already been demonstrated in the trigger
action of automatic revolvers. As applied
to shutters, this trigger action consists of some mechanical arrangement of two springs
on the main lever of a shutter in such a fashion that the shutter blades are closed by
spring 1 after being forced by hand against the pressure of spring 2; i.e., spring 2
opens the blades when released after tension is applied to it by hand. After its action
of opening the blades, it is disconnected from the lever by a slip catch (or some similar
device) and spring 2 is then free to close the blades.
It is a simple device mechanically, and there are many ways to accomplish this
automatic feature of shutter action. But there is, as usual, a disadvantage. In
automatic shutters spring 2 must open the blades against the pressure of spring 1,
Table III. Wollensak Shutter Dimensions
Number
Over-all length, in 0.710 0.808 0.827 0.946 1.024 1 .024
Diameter case 1.521 1.970 2.345 2.940 3.705 4 .660

Maximum diaphragm opening 0.552 0.710 1.024 1.380 1.761 2 .233
Front lens opening 0.838 1.059 1.204 1.764 2.389 2 .901
Threads, per in 50 50 50 40 40 40
Back lens opening 0.838 1.059 1.204 1.764 2.389 2 .901
Threads, per in - 50 50 50 40 40 40
Length flange hub, in , 0.177 0.197 0.197 0.293 0.316 0.335
Diameter flange hub 0.953 1.185 1.325 1.997 2.623 3.128
Threads, per in 40 40 40 30 30 30
—
SHUTTERS 109
therefore it must be stronger than spring 1. From this it follows that an automatic
shutter never closes so fast as it could
did not have this double-spring feature.
if it
For this reason the fastest interlens shutters are not the automatics but are of the
type that must be set by hand before each exposure.
Table IV. Dimensions —Wollensak Studio Shutters

The shutter of the Contax camera uses a metal strip assemblj^ instead of cloth as
curtain material with an adjustable width of slit. This Contax shutter is rated at
M250 sec. at its fastest speed.
The advantage in respect to speed that focal-plane shutters have over those of the
interlens type due to the fact that the focal-plane shutter does not expose the whole
is
area of the film at once. The blades of an interlens shutter actually move much
faster than a curtain at the focal plane; for example, assume a }i,-va.. slit in a curtain
shutter set for 3iôoo sec. in a miniature camera, the film width being about 1% in.
{i.e., '^}-'8 in.), and the slit requires ^îooo or 0.00909 sec. to complete the exposure.
Compare this with an interlens shutter where at maximum speed the blades open and
close completely within I500 or 0.002 sec. in the fastest models.
Aperture
indicator
Curfoln
winding key
Release
trigger
Tension
indicator
Tension
winding l<nob
Fig. 21. — Back of Graflex camera showing focal-plane shutter construction.

Adisadvantage accompanies the high speed of focal-plane shutters. The result
is distortion, causedby the fact that a moving object is not completely "stopped"
by a focal-plane shutter but changes its position during the time required for the slit
to travel across the area of the film. The elliptical wheels of racing cars are a familiar
example of this. This distortion makes the focal-plane shutter unsuitable for aerial
mapping where complete freedom from distortion is desirable.
—
Shutters of Special Types. There are few other kinds of shutters that need be
mentioned. Those for studio use are generally made only in large sizes, to accommo-
date portrait lenses, and are limited to a bulb exposure. In these shutters one set of
blades often serves for both diaphragm and shutter blades by the introduction of a
stop ring which can be adjusted to prevent the blades from opening to their full
extent when the release is operated. Exposures of about Y^ sec. are the fastest possible
with these outfits, and longer exposures are secured by holding the release for the
required length of time.
In a stereo shutter two separate blade assemblies are mounted at the proper dis-
tance in a single casing and connected by a long lever to operate from tlie standard
—
SHUTTERS 111
mechanism of one of the shutters. Shutters of this t3rpe are never so fast as the
standard models with one set of blades.
Another and different principle is found in the louver or Venetian-blind shutter.
One model was designed for use in an aerial camera and was located midway between
the lens and the plate. There have been few practical applications of this type.
Efficiency and Accuracy of Shutter Testing. Interlens Shutters. Êfficiency may —
be defined as the ratio of light transmitted by a shutter during the exposure interval
to the amount of light that would have gone through if the full aperture had been open
during that interval. An efficient shutter is one whose blades open fast and close
fast; the wide-open position should be held for as long a part of the prescribed exposure
time as possible. Efficiency varies with the size of lens aperture that is employed.
The efficiency ratio may be expressed graphically when the constants of the shutter
have been determined. A typical set of such diagrams are shown in Figs. 25, 26,
f///////// ////////
nr
*g
^-h
^-mpm^
^^â^^^^^^^^^k^^^^^»,'.^«^p ^
^>/^//////.'^^^^/.
Fig. 22. — Focal-plane

shutter of Leica camera. The parts labeled are as follows:
c, roller for extensionbands of lower curtain i; /, upper curtain; g, extension bands; h,
spring roller for bands g of upper curtain; i, lower curtain; j, spring roller for lower curtain;
fc, pin connecting rollers c and e; m, winding knob; n, coupling pin connecting winding knob
m with axle.
and 27. In these the area DT (or %

DT for Fig. 27) represents ideal performance or
fullopening for the total interval at which the shutter is set to operate. The shaded
area in each diagram represents the time the shutter is actually open, and the ratio
of the two is the efficiency in percentage.
The determination of the constants of any particular shutter requires special
equipment of a high order of precision. One really needs a slow-motion picture of the
shutter blades in the act of opening and closing, and the separate pictures must be
exactly timed. Such a set of pictures is presented in Fig. 28, and the time interval
between pictures in this case is Hooo s^c. The timing accuracy of the shutter is
shown also, being ^Hooo sec. for this particular exposure. Efficiency is here
measurable by simply comparing the total open area of the blades in all exposures on
the print and the ideal area of 11 pictures at the full circular aperture; in this case it is
about 60 per cent.

The apparatus required to make such an analysis, as shown in Fig. 29, was designed
by P. G. Nutting for use in the Kodak Laboratories. It consists of an arc lamp as
light source, a constant-speed motor to drive a cylinder on the rim of which are
20 small flat mirrors, a holder for the shutter, a small lens toform an image of the
blades,and a rotating drum to hold the film that is to record the separate images.
The mirror cylinder must turn at exactly 50 r.p.s. (or 3000 r.p.m.) if its 20 mirrors
Fig. 23. — Mechanism of metal focal-plane shutter used in the Contax camera.
Fig. 24.- -Linked metal bars (lower left) and assembly of bars in focal-plane shutter for
Contax.
are to give exactly 1000 flashes per second on the shutter blades. It is impossible to
make an accurate determination of efficiency without special apparatus like this.
Photometric methods are accurate if properly carried out, but they involve consider-
able labor for a complete analysis.
—
Focal-plane Shutters. In the case of focal-plane shutters, efficiency is more easily
determined. All one needs to know is the essential lens and shutter dimensions
given in Fig. 30. Examination of this drawing shows that the distance E between
the shutter curtain and the film is the determining factor in efficiency. Only when
SHUTTERS 113
E = 0, i.e., when the shutter is at the emulsion surface, is a focal-plane shutter

100 per cent efficient. The aperture ratio of the lens also enters into the calculation,
so that a focal-plane shutter 80 per cent efficient for an //4.5 lens may be totally
D,= 2/5D-~|_
Fig. 26.
Fig. 25. —
Efficiency diagram of interlens shutter. The total time of operation of the
shutter is T; the time during which the leaves are entirely open is T2. During the interval
Ti the shutter is opening, whereas during T^ it is closing. D
represents the diameter of
the aperture. The efficiency is the ratio of the shaded area to the area of the entire
rectangle, and may be expressed as
DiT2 + HTi + ]4Ti)

V
DT
In this case, the efficiency is 86.5 per cent.
Fig. 26. — Efficiency diagram for interlens shutter. The efficiency of the shutter
represented in this case is less than that of the shutter of Fig. 25 because the ratio of To/T
is much less than in the former case. Efficiency is 61.1 per cent.
Fig. 27. —Efficiency diagram of interlens shutter, illustrating that for a given shutter
speed, the shutter efficiency, rj, increases as the diameter of the aperture, D, is increased.
Efficiency is 84.5 per cent.
Fig. 28. —Shutter test strip. The single exposures are made with a time interval of
Mo 00 sec. each. Shutter efficiency is about 60 per cent for this case.
Fig. 29.- -Shutter-testing outfit of P. G. Nutting, a, arc lamp; b, motor drive; c, mirror-
wheel assembly; d, shutter holder; e, auxiliary lens; /, drum for film strip.
unsuitable when an f/2.0 lens is put on the same camera. In Fig. 31, slit width and
efficiency are plotted for three diiferent values of e, and typical efficiency curves
are drawn to show how efficiency varies with lens aperture.
Shutter Tests. —To test the accuracy of a shutter one does not need the special
equipment required to make a measurement of efficiency. Neon tubes operated on
60-cycle a.-c. line give 120 flashes per second, ^Yhich is suitable for testing the slow
range of shutter speeds. Such a test requires only a good tripod or a steady hand.
The pictures must be taken at night. Pick out a neon sign in which one vertical
line is well separated from the rest, take the picture from about 6 ft. distance and
from a position such that other lights do not fog the film, and swing the camera
steadily during the exposure so that the image of the neon tube moves steadily across
the center of the field during the time the shutter is open. This will give one flash
of light on the film for every K20 sec. that the shutter was open, (for 60-cjrcle source),
and by simply counting the number of lines the
length of the exposure can be calculated.
For faster exposures a rotating automobile
tire is a suitable test object. The idea is to
measure with the shutter the length of travel
of a piece of white tape stuck on the wheel in a
radial position to extend all the way from the
outer rim of the tire, the point where it touches
the road, to the center of the hub cap. In an
open space where there is plenty of light, jack
up one back wheel of the car. Use a long piece
of white tape ô. in. wide, mark it with two lines
as shown in Fig. 32, and stick it firmly on the
tire and hub. If the speedometer is correct
Fig. 30.— The essential lens and ^^^ ^^^^^.^ -^ ^^^^^^
^^^^^ ^^ y^ ^^^^^^ ^^^
shutter dimensions required lor deter- ,• ,.,1 ,• -n ,1 1 ^
^'
mining the efficiency of focal -plane ^ê outer portion of the tire will then be rotat-
shutters. C, curtain of focal-plane ing at 30 m.p.h., when one wheel only is rotat-
shutter; D, diameter of the lens ing. This speed is 158,400 ft. per hr., 44 ft. per
aperture; E, distance between shutter
sec, or 528 in. per sec. (0.528 in. per Mooo sec.)
and photographic material; F, focal
length of lens; L, camera lens; P, plane The photograph should be taken with
the
of photographic material; S, width of camera in line with the axle and at a distance
slit in shutter curtain. For focal- such that the wheel and tire fill about half the
plane shutters, the efficiency is given By measuring on the print and
film area.
by
1 SF scaling from the 5.28-in. distance marked on
V = the tape, the travel of the H-in. width of the
ED SF + ED
1 +
w tape during the shutter opening can be meas-
ured. One must remember that the tape is
actually }4 in. wide. It should appear 3-i plus 0.528 in., or 1.028 in. wide for a shut-
ter exposure of exactly Hooo sec. Furthermore, the travel of any point of the tape
not on the outermost portion of the tire is proportional to its distance from the
center of the hub, and its rate of travel can be easily determined. On a 16 by 5.50
tire, for example, the outside diameter is 27 in., radius 13.5 in. For a point 10 in.
from the hub the speed ratio is 10 divided by 13.5 times 0.528 in.^which equals 0.391
in. in Kooo sec.
The results of this method
of testing will be found difficult to interpret in the case
of focal-plane shutters, because of the distortion factor previously mentioned. It
does give a true measure of the ability of a shutter to stop motion and to that extent
is a reliable test of accuracy when carefullj^ carried out.
—
Caxe of Shutters. It is in order to list a few precautions for the user of photo-
graphic shutters of any type. A good shutter is built like a good watch and should be
treated with the same consideration. It should not be oiled, greased, cleaned, or
taken apart by anyone except an expert repairman. If the shutter fails to work
properly, send it to the manufacturer for repair. Keep it as free from dust and dirt
SHUTTERS 115
as possible and some kind when not in use. Cameras with focal-plane
in a case of
shutters made be left open in the sunlight; the sun's image is hot
of cloth should not
enough to burn holes in them. In fact, it is unwise to leave a camera open in the
sunlight at any time. The reason for this is that the emulsions used on films have
100
90
^ 80
^70
u
0)
Q- 60
-c 50
c 40
'.^
30
t ^
uj 20
CHAPTER VI
PHOTOGRAPHIC MATERIALS
By Haywood Pakker
Many
substances are sensitive to light and thus can be used to form photographic
images. The modernart and science of photography, however, is based almost
exclusively on the use of the light-sensitive gelatino-silver halide emulsions. The use
of various other materials, such as bichromated colloids, the ferroprussiate or blue-
print papers, the diazotype materials, and even the collodion wet plate, is restricted
to such specialized fields that they are not generally included in discussions of photo-
graphic materials.
In general, photographic materials are made up of two basic parts: the light-sensi-
tive emulsion, in formed; and the base or mechanical support
which the image is
which maintains the emulsion in the correct geometrical form. In addition to these
two essentials, practical materials often contain additional layers for various special-
ized purposes.
Photographic emulsions in general fall into two classes: negative emulsions, very
sensitive to light and intended for use in the camera; and positive emulsions, much
less sensitive and used for preparing prints from the camera negative. Although
there is actually no sharp division between these two classes, in general their prop-
erties differ so greatly that they are usually considered separately.
—
The Emulsion. The light-sensitive layer, or photographic emulsion, consists of a
suspension of minute silver halide crystals in gelatin. Thus it is not a true emulsion
in the colloid chemical sense but, by virtue of widespread and long continued use,
the term has taken on this specialized meaning in photography, and there is Uttle
danger of confusion.
Preparation. —
Negative emulsions are prepared by adding a solution of silver
nitrate slowly to a solution of potassium bromide and gelatin, with continual stirring.
By double decomposition this produces a precipitate of silver bromide which is kept
dispersed and prevented from settling by the gelatin. Since free silver ions tend to
react with gelatin, care is taken to keep the potassium bromide present in excess
throughout the precipitation.
After precipitation is complete, the emulsion is digested, by boiling if it is acid,
or at a moderate temperature if it is made alkaline with ammonia. During this treat-
ment, the smallest crystals tend to go into solution and to precipitate on the larger
crystals (Ostwald ripening); there is also a tendency for recrystallization through
collisions and coalescence.^
When
the ripening has been carried to the desired point, the emulsion is cooled to
allow the gelatin to set. It is then shredded into small pieces and washed in cold
water to remove the soluble potassium nitrate formed as a by-product of the precipita-
tion reaction as well as the excess potassium bromide.
After washing, the emulsion is again melted, and more gelatin and various special
agents such as hardeners, wetting agents, etc., are added. Next the emulsion is given
a further ripening treatment and is then mixed thoroughly, filtered, and coated in a
1 Sheppahd, S. E., and R. H. Lambert, Grain Growth in Silver Halide Precipitates, "Colloid
Symposium Monograph," vol. 6, p. 265, 1938.
116
'
PHOTOGRAPHIC MATERIALS 117
thin uniform layer on the properly prepared support material. Here it is set by
chilling and dried. The drying conditions must be carefully controlled to prevent any
sudden changes in the rate of drying, which would cause variations in the sensitivity
over the surface of the emulsion.
For most negative emulsions a small percentage of potassium iodide is mixed with
the potassium bromide. This produces mixed crystals of silver bromoiodide which
are more sensitive to light than the pure silver bromide. The ripening treatments also
cause a great increase in sensitivity, partly because of the increase in grain size but
largely due to a reaction with certain components of the gelatin.
Positive emulsions are prepared in a similar manner, except that chlorides or
mixtures of chloride and bromide are normally used instead of bromide and iodide.
Chloride emulsions for contact printing papers are often coated without washing to
remove the soluble salts.
In actual practice, each of the above steps may involve several operations, and all
the steps are mutually interdependent. They must all be carefully adjusted to one
another in order to obtain the properties desired in the finished emulsion. While a
great deal of research has been carried out by photographic manufacturers on the
effects of variations in the different steps, very little of the information gained has
found its way into the scientific literature. Actually this is of little importance since
it is a knowledge of the properties of the finished materials, rather than the details of
manufacture, which is of interest to the user of photographic materials.

Photographic Gelatin. —
The unique importance of gelatin in photography is due to
its desirable physical characteristics, combined with certain peculiar and very valuable
chemical properties.
Physically, gelatin has the property of absorbing water and swelling. Below a
certain temperature range (ordinarily 35 to 40°C.) this swelling is limited, and the
gelatin remains in the semisolid gel form. Above this temperature the swollen gelatin
melts to the sol form, or a colloidal solution, which will take up water without limit.
When the sol is cooled, however, it will again set to a firm gel even in concentrations
as low as 1 per cent. Thus the gelatin is particularly suited for use as the binder for
the sensitive silver halide grains, since it can be made alternately liquid or solid as
required in the various steps of manufacture, and after exposure of the finished mate-
rial it will again swell to allow penetration of the developer chemicals to the exposed
grains.
In addition to its action as a mechanical binder, it also acts as a protective colloid.
If aqueous solutions of silver nitrate and potassium brromide are mixed, the resulting
minute particles of insoluble silver bromide rapidly agglomerate into a curdy precipi-
tate which settles out. Also, the particles are spontaneously developable, i.e., a
normal photographic developer solution will reduce all the silver bromide particles to
metallic silver, even without exposure to light. However, if even a small quantity of
gelatin is present, it prevents the agglomeration of the particles, and it also prevents
any action by the developer until the grains have been rendered developable by
exposure to light or by some chemical action.
An equally important property, however, is the effect of gelatin on the sensitivity
of the grains. When the silver bromide is first precipitated, it is comparatively
insensitive. During the digestion, however, the sensitivity may be increased from
100 to 1000 times, provided a suitable gelatin was used and the initial precipitation
was made in the proper manner. This sensitizing action is partly due to the presence
in the gelatin of minute quantities of certain types of organic compounds containing
labile sulfur which, under the conditions of the digestion is capable of reacting to form
specks of silver sulfide on the surface of the silver bromide grains.
1 Sheppard, S. E., Photographic Gelatin, Phot. J., 66, 380 (1925).
, Some Factors in Photographic Sensitivity, J. Soc. Motion Picture Engrs., 24, 500 (1935).
—
The photographic properties of the emulsion are con-
Silver Halide Crystals.
trolled chieflyby the composition, size, and condition of the silver halide crystals.
The slower positive emulsions are composed of silver chloride, silver bromide, or
mixtures of the two in various proportions. The faster negative emulsions consist of
pure silver bromide, or, more usually, silver bromide with a small proportion (3 to
5 per cent) of silver iodide.
Fig. 1. —Grain structure of a medium-speed emulsion. (Magnification, about 1580 X.
Fig. 2. —Grain structure of an ultrarapid emulsion, showing the hexagonal and triangular
shape of many of the grains. (Magnification, about 3500 X.)
The grains vaiy in size from submicroscopic up to as much, in exceptional cases,

as 7 or 8 M in diameter. The available evidence indicates that all the grains, even
those below the limits of resolution of the microscope, are definitely crystalline. The
larger grains show the form of fiat hexagonal or triangular plates with rounded
corners, though occasionally needle-shaped crystals and irregular lumps appear^
Tbavelli, a. p. H., and S. E. Sheppard, "The Silver Bromide Grain of Photographic Emulsions,"
Van Nostrand, (1921).
(see Figs. 1, 2). Owing to the unidirectional shrinkage of the emulsion in drying,
these flat crystals are oriented parallel to the plane of the emulsion. ^ Though the
smaller grains appear only as round spots in photomicrographs, owing to limitations
of the resolving power, it is reasonable to believe that they belong to the same crystal
species as the larger grains.
In any one emulsion the large grains show, as a class, higher sensitivity than the
smaller grains, though this difference is statistical and there are many individual
exceptions.
In bromoiodide emulsions the large grains also contain a higher proportion of
iodide; this may be a contributing factor in the greater sensitivity, but it is not
the only factor since the grains in pure bromide emulsions show a similar increase in
sensitivity with size.^
The is not uniform over the surface
sensitivity to light, or rather to developability,
of the grain concentrated at one or more sensitivity specks. It has been estab-
but is
lished that these sensitivity specks are caused by minute quantities of silver sulphide
in the crystals. These impurities probably produce strains in the crystal lattice and
tend to concentrate or orient the products of light action from the adjacent portions
of the crystal in order to form developable nucleii.
Since the grains of different sizes differ in sensitivity, the characteristics of the
emulsion depend to a considerable extent on the way in which its grains are distributed
along the various sizes. The size relations of the grains are best shown by size-
frequency curves in which the number of grains falling in each class size, expressed as
a fraction of the total number of grains, is plotted against the class size. In general,
emulsions containing very small grains are slow, and the sensitivity increases as the
average grain size is increased. When the majority of the grains are in one size group,
i.e., when the size-frequency curve shows a high maximum with only low wings, the
emulsion tends to be more contrasty; if the sizes are more widely distributed, the
maximum contrast tends to be lower. These relations are only general and are modi-
fied by other factors affecting the grain sensitivity, such as the extent of formation
and the distribution of sensitivity specks. The size-frequency curves for the grains
in two typical emulsions are shown in Fig. 3. Curve B is for a slow lantern-slide
emulsion that has comparatively low speed and high contrast; curve A is for a portrait-
film emulsion which has comparatively high speed and low contrast.
The size distribution and the sensitivities of the grains are determined by the
conditions of precipitation and ripening of the emulsion. The initial grain sizes are
determined by such factors as the concentrations of the silver nitrate and potassium
bromide solutions, the quantity of gelatin present, and the rate of mixing. The final
size distribution is affected by the nature of the original precipitate and by the con-
ditions of digestion. The presence of silver halide solvents such as excess potassium
bromide or, in the case of alkaline digestion, of ammonia, seems to favor the production
of larger grains through Ostwald ripening, by facilitating the solution of the smallest
grains. The sensitivity specks of silver sulphide are also formed during the digestion,
and their production is controlled by the conditions of the digestion and the nature of
the gelatin.^
Other Emulsion Components. —In commercial practice, various substances in
addition to the gelatin and silver halide are added to control the properties of the
emulsion. Sensitizers to increase the light sensitivity may be either "chemical."
1 SiLBERSTEiN, L., The Orientation of Grains in a Dried Photographic Emulsion, /. Optical Soc. Am.,
5, 171 (1921).
2 Sheppard, S. E., and A. P. H. Travelli, The Sensitivity of Silver Halide Grains in Relation to
Size, J. Franklin Inst., 203, 829 (1927).
3 Chibisoff, K. W., "Ripening of Photographic Emulsions," p. 405, IXth Cong, intern, phot.,
Paris (1935).
such as the various classes of sulphur compounds which apparently act by favoring
the growth of sensitivity specks and which cause a general increase in sensitivity,
or "optical," such as the dyes which extend the absorption bands of the dyed grains,
thus extending the sensitivity to new regions of the spectrum. Antifogging agents of
various chemical types are added to restrain the formation of spontaneously develop-
able fog grains and to allow the digestion process to be carried as far as possible.
The physical properties of the emulsion are modified by hardening agents that
decrease the swelling and raise the melting point of the gelatin so that it can withstand
higher temperatures in processing. Chrome alum was originally widely used, though
more recentl}^ organic tanning agents have been introduced. Wetting agents which
reduce the surface tension of the melted emulsion are added to facilitate the coating.
Printing-paper emulsions contain other addition agents, or doctors, of various
types to control such properties as image color, contrast, surface texture, etc.
250
f
200
150
100
50
unless special precautions are taken, the safe processing temperature is at least 20°F.
below the melting point in water. This would indicate that hardening might be
desirable with all emulsions, but since the hardening reduces the swelling and thus the
penetration of processing solutions, it may affect the developing characteristics
unfavorably; consequently a high degree of hardening is given only where the con-
ditions of use demand it, as with emulsions for use in tropical climates.
The melting point alone, however, is not the only measure of permissible processing
temperatures, since thickly coated emulsions are more susceptible to mechanical
damage when swollen than are thinly coated emulsions with similar melting points.
—
Since the silver grains reflect a certain amount of the incident
Optical Properties.
light,the emulsion forms a turbid medium, in which the light is scattered to a certain
extent around the point at which it enters the emulsion. This causes a small spreading
of the developable image around the edges of the optical image; this spreading is
called "irradiation." The amount of spread is proportional to the exposure, in any
particular emulsion, but for most work the effect on the definition is not of importance
except for very great exposures. When the negative image is to undergo considerable
enlargement in printing, as in miniature-camera negatives, overexposure should be
avoided to prevent loss of definition from irradiation. Also when precise measure-
ments are to be made on the developed image, this spreading must be taken into
account. The spreading is occasionally of practical value, as in the measurement of
brightness in astronomy. Since a star image is practically a point, it is too small for a
measurement of density. However, since the distance to which the irradiation is
effective is proportional to the brightness, the diameter of the developed image gives
a measure of the brightness of the star.^
Effects of Processing. —
As has been mentioned, the gelatin swells to different extents
in the various processing solutions, but so long as a critical temperature is not exceeded,
it shrinks on drying to substantially its original form. The presence of a silver image
does cause minute changes, however, so that, for instance, two adjacent point images
tend to draw closer together during the processing, and, in extremely precise measure-
ments of position, this factor must be considered. Also, since near the edges of a
plate the strains are not evenly balanced, a slight distortion may occur. For this
reason precise measurements are never attempted near the edges of a plate.
—
Supports. The material used as a mechanical support for the emulsion must first
of all be photographically inert, i.e., it must have no deleterious action on the emulsion
before exposure, on the latent image produced by the exposure, or on the final silver
image produced by development, and it should not be affected by the solutions used in
processing the exposed emulsion. The physical properties required vary considerably
and are determined by the use to which the material will be put. Of the various niate-
rials which might be suitable, the only ones in common use are glass, cellulose ester
films, and paper.
Glass. —For many years glass was the chief, and is still an important, base for nega-
tive emulsions and positive transparencies. It is practically completely inert and
transparent, and it maintains its form without bending and without any shrinking or
swelling during or after processing. However, it has the disadvantages of weight,
bulk, fragility, and, for some applications, nonflexibility. Therefore it has been
superseded for most purposes by the more convenient cellulosic films, though it is still
used for those special applications where rigidity and absolute freedom from swelling
or shrinking are important. Also, because of the possibility of coating single plates by
hand or small batches of plates by machine, it is generally used for experimental
emulsions which are used only in small quantities, such as the various specially sensi-
tized emulsions used in spectroscopy and astronomy.
1 R088, F. E., "The Physics of the Developed Photographic Image," Van Nostrand (1924).
—
Glass for photographic use should be flat and free from any imperfections which
affect the transparency, such as bubbles or striations, and it should preferably be prac-
tically colorless. For most purposes, specially selected cast or drawn glass is suitable,
though such as very large size plates used in photomechanical
for certain special cases,
reproduction, ground and polished plate glass is used.
For the ordinary plate sizes, up to 8 by 10 in., glass approximately 0.05 to 0.06 in.
thick is generally used. The larger sizes are usually coated on heavier glass, the thick-
nesses used for one type of plate being shown in Table I.
Table I. Thickness of Glass Used in Plates for the Graphic Arts

Plate Size Thickness, In.
8 X 10 0.060
10 X 12 0.075
11 X 14 0.085
14 X 17 0.085 .
16X20 to 24X31 0.130(1^)

26X34 to SOX 40 0.190(^6)
Occasionally plates are supplied on specially thin glass that has a certain amount of
flexibility, hence permitting the use of the plates in instruments, such as certain types
of spectrographs, where the focal plane is slightly curved.
Since the emulsion will not stick to plain glass, plates are subbed with some mate-
rial svich as sodium silicate or hardened gelatin to which the film emulsion can adhere.
Film. — Photographic film base is normally composed of a cellulose derivative,
usuallj^ cellulose nitrate or cellulose acetate, mixed with certain materials, called plas-
ticizers, which keep the film flexible and transparent. Camphor is the usual plasticizer
for nitrate film, while various high-boiling-point organic liquids, such as certain of the
hydroxy-substituted amines or certain organic phthalates, are used with cellulose
acetate.
Film is light in weight, flexible, strong, and transparent.
The be used in long strips that can be fed through the camera
flexibility allows it to
or other apparatus, slowlj'' or rapidly as desired, bj'^ more or less simple mechanical
means. The light weight and mechanical toughness also give film an advantage over
glass by simplifying the problems of storage, handling, and transportation, particularly
when any considerable quantities are involved. Film is not completely inert but
swells slightly in the processing solutions, and shrinks on drying, but this is of impor-
tance only where the most extreme precision in reproduction of geometrical form
is required, as in some astronomical work and in aerial mapping. Materials for these
purposes are available on film base which has been specially treated so that the dimen-
sional changes are practically zero.
Cellulose acetate film has the advantage of low imflammability, since it presents no
greater hazard than an equal weight of newspaper. In the past, its physical and
mechanical properties were not so desirable as those of nitrate film. In recent years
these properties have been much improved, and acetate film is finding increasing use,
particularly where the fire hazard offered bj^ nitrate film is of consequence.
The thickness of film base varies according to the type of film and manner in which
it will be used. Thus roll film must be sufficiently flexible to pass through the camera
readily. Cut films, on the other hand, should be sufficiently stiff to remain flat in the
film holder and to handle conveniently during and after processing. Motion-picture
film must be sufficientlj^ flexible to pass through the camera or projector, though the
curves are not so sharp as in some roll-film cameras, and the film must be strong enough
to withstand the strain imposed by the pull-down mechanism. Some representative
values are shown in Table II.
—
Table II. Thickness of Film Base

Thickness, M^.
Roll film "
85
Motion-pictui'e film 140
Cut film 200
The emulsion will not adhere directly to cellulose nitrate or acetate. Therefore,
the surface of the fUm base must be specialljf prepared to ensure adhesion of the emul-
sion.i This is usually done by coating with a thin layer of substratum or "sub"
containing an adhesive, such as gelatin, a solvent for the adhesive, and a solvent for
the film base. Since the sub contains both solvents and nonsolvents for the gelatin
as well as for the cellulose esters, the relative proportions of the constituents must be
chosen with care.
Paper. —
Paper is an ideal support for photographic prints since it is more or less
flexible, opaque, economical, and durable. The requirements are rather rigid, since
the paper must not affect the keeping properties of the emulsion or the permanence
of the developed image and must be unaffected by the immersion in alkaline developers
and acid-fixing baths. Photographic paper is made from specially pure stock, with
particular attention to freedom from metallic impurities and any substances which
might affect the emulsion or the silver image, either directly or through decomposition
products. Originally rag stock was much used, but with the increasingly severe chem-
ical treatments given cloth fibers in dyeing, cleaning, and stripping the dyes, particu-
larly the use of chlorine bleaches, the rag fibers are often rather badly broken down;
hence high-grade sulphite pulp has been found to produce more stable papers.
Papers for positive emulsions are made in both single weight and double weight
and are provided with a coating of baryta in hardened gelatin to present a smooth
surface for the emulsion, and to increase the reflecting power of the paper. The
texture of the print surface is controlled largely bj^ the composition and handling of
this baryta coating.
For some applications, where very rapid processing and drying is important, the
paper base is waterproofed by impregnation with a lacquer of cellulose nitrate or

cellulose acetate.
—
Requirements for Special Cases. While certain properties, such as inertness toward
the emulsion or the processing solutions, are required of all support materials, certain
particular properties may become of great importance in materials for specialized
uses. Thus the motion pictures require a flexible base with considerable mechanical
toughness, exhibiting little shrinkage during processing or on aging. Ordinary
amateur photography, making use almost exclusively of roll film and film packs,
isbased on the use of a flexible fllm support, but factors such as toughness and low
shrinkage are of less importance. Certain very precise fields on the other hand, such
as astronomy and precision cartography, can tolerate no shrinkage or distortion;
hence they utilize only emulsions on glass. In aerial mapping, where low shrinkage
is important, the factors of weight and flexibility are also of great importance, so that
specially prepared low-shrinkage film is used.
In most fields of photography, however, these refinements are of no significance,
and the choice of support material can be made on the basis of greatest convenience
in use, which in most cases means film.
Protective and Other Additional Coatings. —
In addition to the base or mechanical
support, and the sensitive emulsion, many commercial materials have other layers
which improve the photographic or mechanical properties in various ways.
Gelatin Backing (Noncurling). —
Since the gelatin emulsion swells on wetting and
shrinks on drying, while the film base is substantially unaffected, strains are produced
1 FucHS, E., Preliminary Preparation of Photographic Layers, Phot. Ind., 34, .552 (1930).
which tend to cause the material to curl. The early films, coated on a comparatively
thin base, often curled into a ^Tight roll no larger than a pencil.
In order to prevent
this curling, most now
coated on the back with a layer of hardened gelatin,
films are
which has practically the same shrinkage as the emulsion and so balances the strains.
Antihalation Backings. —
When a beam of light enters the emulsion, it is scattered
to some extent by successive reflections from the surfaces of the silver bromide grains,
causing irradiation, as has been described. At the brighter points in the image the
emulsion cannot absorb all the light, and a considerable portion passes into the base.
Of this light, the rays which strike the back of the support nearly normal to the surface
pass out into the air and do no harm, provided the plateholder or pressure plate has a
nonreflecting surface. However, all rays striking the rear surface at less than a cer-
tain critical angle undergo total internal reflection and pass back through the base,
Fig. 4. — Diagram illustrating how halation is produced in ordinary emulsions by surface

reflections.
reaching the einulsion at some distance from the original image. Thus, around every
bright point of the image, there is produced a circle or halo of light, with a diameter
depending on the thickness of the base (hence it is smaller for film than for glass).
This effect, called "halation," is illustrated in Fig. 4. The halation can be prevented
by placing some material between the emulsion and the rear air surface which will
absorb the troublesome light. Thus the base can be dyed a light gray, and, since the
halation-producing light passes twice through the emulsion at a considerable angle,
it isgreatly reduced in intensity, while the printing light, which must pass only once,
is only slightly affected. With films which have a gelatin backing, however, it is
more customary to color the backing with a dye, or a pigment, which is decolorized
during treatment in one of the usual photographic solutions, such as developer or
fixing bath. Since it is only necessary to absorb light to which the emulsion is sensi-
tive, orthochromatic materials are usually provided with a red backing which absorbs
blue and green, while panchromatic materials are provided with a dark-green backing
which absorbs chiefly red and blue but also some green.
—
Double Coating. In order to increase the exposure latitude or the brightness
range which they can record, some films (and plates) are coated with two thicknesses
of emulsion. The bottom emulsion is usually slower than the top emulsion, so that it
is not affected until the exposure approaches the shoulder region for the top emulsion.
—
For this reason it greatly extends the straight-line portion of the characteristic curve
for the combination.
The slow bottom emulsion also reduces the effect of halation to a considerable
extent, because absorbs part of the light that would otherwise get through to the
it
base and also, being less sensitive, it is affected much less by the light which is reflected
from the rear surface of the base.
Overcoating. —The grains of the emulsion can be made developable by mechanical
action as well as by and abrasions show up as dark
light action, so that scratches
streaks after development. In order to prevent the formation of such defects during
handling, films are often provided with a thin top coating or overcoating of clear
gelatin. Film-pack emulsions are practically always overcoated, as are some roll
films. Since the overcoating hinders diffusion of the processing solutions to some
extent, an overcoated emulsion usually develops more slowly than a similar emulsion
without the overcoat. This is why certain film packs require a longer time of develop-
ment than the corresponding emulsions on roll film.
Paper emulsions are often particularly sensitive to abrasion, so that they are often
given an overcoat or "antiabrasion" layer.
Strip-ping Film. —
In certain special processes, particularly in the graphic arts, it is
desirable to remove the emulsion from its original support and transfer it to a new
support, either so that it can be trimmed as desired and combined with portions from
other negatives or so that it can be reversed, right for left. Emulsions for this purpose
are generally coated on a thin skin of hardened gelatin or cellulose nitrate or acetate,
to give them sufficient mechanical strength for handling after stripping. This skin is
cemented to the support by an adhesive which holds it in place until stripping is
desired.
Characteristics of Photographic Materials. —The methods of measurement and
the significance of the various relations between exposure, development, and density
i.e., the sensitometric characteristics, such as emulsion speed, contrast, latitude, fog,
etc. —are discussed in the chapter on Photographic Sensitometry, and some values are
given below in the discussion of specific materials.
In addition to the speed, contrast, rate of development, etc., there are several
other properties to be considered in the selection of materials for any particular
purpose. Of these, the spectral sensitivity and the graininess and resolving power are
probably the most important.
Spectral Sensitivity. —The normal human eye is sensitive to radiant energy over
the wavelength range from approximately 400 to 760 m/x, or from violet to red, with
the maximum of sensitivity to the yellow-green, at around 550 (Fig. 5).
The spectral sensitivity of the photographic emulsion, however, is quite different,
beginning far in the ultraviolet and overlapping the visual sensitivity only in the blue.
The different silver halides vary slightly, but all are practically completely insensitive
to green, yellow, and red. Therefore ordinary emulsions are said to be color blind,
because they reproduce colored objects in very different brightness relations than are
seen by the eye.
This normal sensitivity of the silver halide can, however, be greatly extended by
the use of certain sensitizing dyes. At first, commercial emulsions were sensitized
only into the green. This gave a very noticeable improvement in the rendition of
colored objects but hardly justified the name "orthochromatic" (true color) which was
applied to distinguish these improved emulsions from the ordinary color-blind mate-
rials. Later, when really "true color" emulsions were produced, which were sensitive
to the red as well as the blue and green, they were called "panchromatic" (all color).
The first panchromatic emulsions had only low sensitivity to the green and red as com-
pared to the normal blue sensitivity, but, as new and better sensitizing dyes became
available, the sensitizing was improved to the extent that the present supersensitive
type of panchromatic emulsions have very high red and green sensitivitj^
The use of sensitizing dyes is not limited to the visible regions of the spectrum but
has enabled the sensitivity to be pushed far into the infrareu; hence now the photo-
graphic emulsion is much more versatile than the eye, and it is possible to take pictures
with the completely invisible radiations on either side of the visible spectrum.
—
Types of Dyes. In order to exert a sensitizing action, a dye must stain the silver
halide; beyond this, however, the various sensitizers apparently have no common
characteristics. Sensitizers are found in many chemical classes, but the majority of
the most useful dyes seem to belong to either the cyanines, the xanthenes, the styryls,
or the flavines.^ As would be expected, the dyes, or rather the dyed silver halide,
must absorb the wavelengths to which sensitivity is conferred. It has been found
that this holds quantitatively and that for any single dye the spectral sensitivity curve
0.5 7
1.5
2.5
2.0
however, and the degree of sensitizing is apt to vary, not only from plate to plate
but even over the surface of one plate, therefore, with the wide variety of sensitizings
now available in commercial emulsions and the possibility of obtaining any of a large
number of other sensitizings on special order, ^ the need for sensitizing by bathing has
practically disappeared.
BLUE , GREEN RED
Measurement and Specification of Spectral
Sensitivity. —The spectral sensitivity of an emul-
1
sion can be measured by the ordinary sensitomet-
ric procedures by confining the exposing light to
a single wavelength, as with a monochromator, or

to limited regions of the spectrum, as with color
filters. However, a quicker and more convenient
method, which at the same time gives more
readily comprehended pictorial presentation, is to 3
expose the material in a spectrograph equipped
with a neutral density wedge over the slit.^
In either case, the results show the spectral
response of the material to the particular light
employed. In order to obtain the absolute spec-
tral sensitivity, it is necessary to take into account
the spectral distribution of energy in the exposing
light.
Spectrograms contain the more complete gen-
eral information but require considerable care in
interpretation. In particular, it is necessary to
consider the spectral quality of the light used in
the exposure. Spectrograms are usually made to
"day-light," which is supposed to correspond to 7
"mean noon sunlight," which is defined as having
a color temperature of 5400°K., or to "tungsten"
at a color temperature of 2360°K., which is com-
paratively poorer in blue and stronger in red than
the "daylight." In either case, the short wave- BLUE ' GREEN '
RED
length, or blue, end of the spectrogram is artifi- 400 500 600 700
by absorption by the
cially restricted
apparatus, so that the spectrogram is
glass in the
apt to give a with
Fig. —
6. Spectrograms, made
tungsten illumination, and
false impression of the sensitivity to blue. various color sensitizings, as fol-
The wedge over the slit generally has a uniform lows: 1, ordinary unsensitized
emulsion; 2, 3, and 4, various
density gradient, so that the exposure decreases
degrees of orthochromatic sensi-
logarithmically with the height above the base line.
type A panchromatic; 6,
tizing; 5,
Spectrograms for various types of negative type B
panchromatic; and 7, type
materials are shown in Fig. 6. C panchromatic. Curve 8 shows
the
sensitivity of the spectral
A
spectrogram is, essentially, a response curve
human eye.
for light of one particular quality. Equal-energy
curves (Fig. 5) in which the absolute sensitivities are plotted against wavelengths
give more quantitative information but are also much more difficult to construct.
From the equal-energy curve, response curves can be obtained for any light whose
spectral distribution is known, merely by multiplying the sensitivity at each wave-
length by the relative energy in the light at that wavelength.
' Mees, C. E. K., Photographic Plates for Use of Spectroscopy and Astronomy, J. Optical Soc. Am.,
21, 754 (1931); 22, 204 (1932); 23, 229 (1933).
2 Jones, L. A., Photographic Sensitometry, /. Soc. Motion Picture Engrs., 18, 324 (1932).
Even ordinary spectrograms, however, are very useful, particularly in comparing

various emulsions, since they present graphically the differences in spectral sensitivity.
This is particularly true with emulsions used for certain scientific purposes where the
sensitivity over a limitedwavelength range may be very important.
Unfortunately, neither the spectrogram nor the equal-energy curve can be defined
by a few numerical constants. For most practical applications, it is sufficient to know
the integrated response over various spectral regions, and this can be expressed
numerically.
In most practical applications, as for instance in color photography, this selection
accomplished by the use of color filters which transmit
of definite spectral regions is
only the region desired. Therefore, the "filter factors," or the ratios between the
sensitivity to the unfiltered light and the sensitivity to the portions of that light passed
by the filters, often give the most useful quantitative information.
Obviously, the filter factor will depend on the quality of the light as well as the
transmission of the filter and the color sensitivity of the emulsion. Thus the factors
1.2
10^
0.6
"t^
U
5 l4
ô 2-8
-^
2.2
5.6
3.0
^
exposure of equal total energy and at the same intensity. This effect, likewise, is of
no concern in normal photographic practice.
The precautions which must be observed in photographic photometry to avoid
errors from these and various other sources have been discussed by Harrison and more '
recently by Jones.
Graininess. —The photographic image is composed of discrete particles of silver,
and thus under smooth image presents
sufficiently high magnification the apparently
a granular or mottled appearance. Since even the largest grains are only a few microns
in diameter, very high magnification would be necessary to make the individual grains
visible. Nevertheless, with negative emulsions particularly, the inhomogeneous
appearance becomes noticeable at low magnification, in some cases at less than 5 X
linear enlargement. This inhomogeneous appearance, termed graininess, seems to be
due to a clumping or grouping of the individual grains into more or less dense clusters,
with areas of lower density between them. This graininess is of no concern when the
image is to be viewed or printed in its original size but becomes very important when
the image is to be enlarged greatly. Thus it is important in miniature-camera work,
in motion pictures, and in certain scientific work, such as spectrography.
Graininess is determined chiefly by the nature of the emulsion, but with any
particular emulsion it is affected by such things as the composition of the developer,
the degree of development, the density, the nature of the enlarging optics, the contrast
of the printing medium, and the sharpness and definition in the negative image. In
general, graininess increases with gamma, increases with density, and is more notice-
able the negative image is not sharp.
if Graininess is also more apparent when there
are any considerable areas of uniform density in the print. Thus, in any attempt to
compare the graininess of two emulsions, all these factors must be held constant.
Since the nature of the emulsion is itself controlled by so many factors, it is impos-
sible to make definite statements which hold without many exceptions. In general,
however, it can be said that graininess tends to increase as the emulsion speed increases.
Thus, when the image is to be enlarged to any extent, it is usually undesirable to
employ a very high-speed emulsion unless the conditions of exposure demand it.
However, since this relation holds in only a general manner, the emulsion speed should
never be taken as more than a rough indication of the probable graininess.
The method of measuring graininess depends on the use to which the emulsion
will be put. Thus graininess of miniature negatives should be judged from carefully
prepared enlargements, ^ while graininess of motion-picture film should be judged under
actual projection conditions.^ For scientific work, such as spectroscopy, the relative
graininess can be judged from microphotometer tracings of regions uniformly blackened
to a density of 0.3. * Curves of this type for some typical commercial plates and for a
group of special emulsions supplied for use in spectroscopy are shown in Fig. 8.
Methods of using microphotometer tracings to derive quantitative values for
graininess have also been proposed.^
Harkison, G. R., Instruments and Methods Used for Measuring Spectral Light Intensities,
1
Am., 19, 267 (1929).

J. Optical Soc.
2 FoRSYTHE, W. E., editor, "Measurement of Radiant Energy." Reference is made especially to
Chap. VIII, Measurements of Radiant Energy with Photographic Materials, by L. A. Jones.
3 Crabtree, J. I., and Vittum, A New Ultra Fine Grain Developer, Am. Phot., 30, 188
(1936).
* Crabtree, J. I., and C. H. Schwingel, Duplication of Motion Picture Negatives, J. Soc. Motion
Picture Engrs., 19, 891 (1932).

° Mbes, C. E. K., "Photographic Plates for Use in Spectroscopy and Astronomy," Eastman Kodak
Co.
6 Van Kreveld, A., Objective Measurements of Graininess of Photographic Materials, J. Opt. Soc.
Amer., 26, 170 (1936).
GoETZ, A., and W. O. Gould, The Objective Quantitative Determination of the Graininess of
Photographic Emulsions, J. Soc. Motion Picture Engrs., 29, 510 (1937).
Resolving Power. —
The ability of the emulsion to reproduce fine detail is limited by
the inhomogeneity of the image and the spreading of light around the edges of the
optical image. The resolving power is conditioned by two factors, the turbidity and
the contrast.^
The dependent on the light-scattering power and the absorption of
turbidity is
the emulsion. Thus

coarse-grain emulsions which show greater scattering tend to
have lower resolving power, while emulsions which have been dyed to increase the
absorption (so that the exposure is confined to the surface crystals) show an increase
in resolving power. In actual practice, the effective resolving power depends on a
number of factors besides the emulsion properties, particularly the contrast of the
optical image, the densitj^ of the image produced, and the spectral quality of the expos-
ing radiation.
EASTMAN 40
EASTMAN 33
EASTMAN TYPE
PROCESS ,VyHWVi^'''*^'*'f^'^%Vi;WW%^''i^' rsr v>'«'V^w-WAv^^Vl^/V(^**'rt'/*^''^'^^
TYPE 144 ^l/^H^''^\'.<!M\Y^^'lÛ\V^y^|^'i^^'vJ//tWl\''^^^^ '-»k.-yV.'-;^^r|;'!-'w^..A^f.,j»î^>vvV--j-t^\V^/^VV
Fig. 8. — Microphotometer tracings

of regions of uniformly blackened areas of various
photographic showing relative graininess. The Roman numerals refer to the basic
films,
emxilsions supplied with various types of color sensitizing for spectrographic work.
Resolving power is measured by photographing a series of line gratings, the

numerical value being equal to the number of equal-width black and white lines per
millimeter that can be resolved. Since the resolving power depends on so many
external factors in exposure and development, the absolute value is of much less
importance than the relative values for different emulsions. The average resolving
powers for a group of emulsions covering a considerable range of speed and contrast
are shown in Table III. These values were obtained with an optical image contrast
of 20 and for the density showing maximum resolving power when development was
carried to give y — 0.8 y^.
—
Negative Emulsions. Because of the extremely varied types of work which must
be handled in the various fields of photography, negative emulsions with widelj^ vary-
ing characteristics are needed and have become available. The chief variations are
in spectral sensitivity, speed, contrast, graininess, and resolving power.
Spectral Sensitivity. —
As mentioned previously, ordinary emulsions are sensitive
onlj'^ to blue and ultraviolet light, orthochromatic emulsions are sensitive also to green,
and panchromatic emulsions are sensitive to all colors of the visible spectrum.
Ibid.
—
Ordinary emulsions are used for photoengraving line and half-tone work, for
copying from various types of black-and-white originals, and. to a limited extent, for
certain types of commercial work and some outdoor subjects.
Orthochromatic materials are widely used for general photography, particularly
for exposures by daylight. With materials having a high green sensitivity, the render-
ing of colored objects is appreciably better than with ordinary materials, though reds
are still rendered too dark and blues too light. Many workers, however, feel that
this disadvantage is offset by the convenience of being able to handle the ortho-
chromatic materials under red safe lights, which give considerable illumination in the
darkroom.
Table III. Resolving Power to White Light of Several Types of Emulsions

Resolving
Material Power
Eastman 50 Plates 3g
Eastman 40 Plates 40
Eastman 33 Plates 60
Eastman Process Plates 80
Eastman Spectroscopic Plates, Type 1 45
Eastman Spectroscopic Plates, Type II 50
Eastman Spectroscopic Plates, Type III 70
Eastman Spectroscopic Plates, Type IV 85
Eastman Spectroscopic Plates, Type 144 80
Eastman Spectroscopic Plates, Type V 160
The degree of orthochromatism, or the ratio of green to blue sensitivity^ varies

considerablyamong the many materials available. Thus the filter factors for the
various materials vary considerably, particularly with the heavier correction filters
and the contrast filters.
Panchromatic materials are used where a reasonably true rendering
in all cases
of the tone values of colored objects is They
are also very useful for exposures
desired.
by artificial light, which is rich in red and poor in blue light. Under such conditions
the red sensitivity gives the panchromatic materials a much higher effective speed
than either the orthochromatic or ordinary emulsions. Naturally, panchromatic
emulsions are necessary for natural color photography, at least for the red-filter
negative. ,
Panchromatic materials differ considerably among themselves in the relative

sensitivities to the blue, green, and red regions While there are a
of the spectrum.
great many variations, panchromatic sensitizings can be grouped for convenience into
three types, for which typical spectrograms are shown in Fig. 6.
Type A, or ordinary panchromatic, which was the only sensitizing available until
a few years ago, has a comparatively high sensitivity to the blue, with much lower
sensitivities to green and red. It is used in only a few materials at present.
Type B, or orthopanchromatic, has a high green and blue sensitivity and only
slightly lower red sensitivity. It most nearly matches the color sensitivity of the e3'e,
though blues are still rendered slightly too light. With daylight this can be com-
pensated by the use of the light-yellow Wratten K2 filter, which holds back part of the
blue light. With artificial light the reds and blues both are rendered slightlj' too
light, and the correct rendering is obtained in combination with the light-green
Wratten XI filter.
Type C, or hyperpanchromatic, has fairly high green sensitivity but even higher
red sensitivity. It is used principally when the highest possible speed is desired,
particularly with artificial light. Emulsions with this sensitizing render both blues
and reds somewhat too light and green and yellow-green too dark. However, a true
tone rendering can be obtained by use, with daylight, of the light-green Wratten XI
—
filter,which holds back both blue and red slightly, and, with artificial light, by the
darker Wratten X2 filter, which holds back more of the red.
Average filter factors for these three types of panchromatic sensitizings and for
several degrees of orthochromatic sensitizing are given in Table IV. For most pur-
poses these are sufficiently accurate; it is only necessary to know to which group any
emulsion belongs. For very precise work, where very close matching of exposures
is necessary, the exact filter factors for any particular material can be obtained from
the manufacturer. However, since the filter factors depend on the spectral quality
of the light as well as on the emulsion, the values will hold only for light of the quality
specified. For light of anj^ other quality they will serve only as a rough guide.
Table IV. ^Filter Factors for the Types of Emulsion Sensitivity Illustrated
IN Fig. 6
FUter
extremes of this range are used only for special purposes, while the great majority of
materials in general use is grouped within a range of about 3 to 1,. with the upper side
of this range roughly one-fourth the speed of the extreme ultrafast emulsions and the
lower side about six times the speed of the slow-process emulsions.
Except for a few extremely fine-grain special copying materials, the slowest nega-
tive materials are the so-called "process" emulsions used chiefly in the graphic arts.
They have high resolving power, low graininess, high rate of development, and high
contrast. Thus they are particularly suited for copying black-and-white and line
originals and for half-tone work. The regular process materials have ordinary non-
color sensitive emulsions, but panchromatized emulsions are also available with the
general characteristics of the process materials, though with somewhat higher speed.
The "commercial" emulsions have from about four to eight times the speed of the
ordinary process emulsions. They have fairly fine grain and high resolving power, and
the contrast can usually be varied over a considerable range by proper choice of
developer and developing time. They are useful for copying and for general com-
mercial work, particularly in the studio in cases where very short exposures are not of
particular importance. They are available with ordinary, orthochromatic, or pan-
chromatic emulsions, the speed increasing in that order.
Above the so-called commercial emulsions there is a large group which makes up
the majority of negative materials, including practically all the amateur roll films,
work and for a large part of the general commer-
as well as the films used for portrait
cial work. The emulsions in this group are practically all either orthochromatic or
panchromatic, and the speeds range from about equal to about three times that of the
faster commercial emulsions. The contrast and development characteristics vary
over a wide range, but in general the contrast is considerably lower than for the com-
mercial emulsions. In general, the materials in this group offer the most practical
compromise between the various desirable properties, such as ease of handling, reason-
ably high speed, considerable exposure latitude, graininess low enough for most uses,
good keeping qualities, etc.
In addition to this large group of general-purpose materials there are a few ultra-
speed emulsions with speeds ranging up to practically four times the upper limit of the
general group. They are intended for use only in cases where extreme speed is essen-
tial, as in press photography where exposures are often made under very difficult
conditions. They are available with both orthochromatic and panchromatic

sensitizings.
Factors Influencing Choice of Negative Emulsions. —
For the great majority of
photographic work practically any of the fairly 'fast emulsions, those falling in the
"portrait" group in the classification above, will serve quite satisfactorily. For some
special types of work, however, certain other emulsions will be definitely superior. In
selecting an emulsion for any particular purpose the various properties such as speed,
color sensitivity, contrast, exposure latitude, graininess, and resolving power should be
considered, but the choice should be determined by those characteristics which are of
real importance in the work at hand.
Thus, while emulsion speed is undoubtedly very important, it will often be more
desirable to consider how slow a material can be used, rather than to seek the fastest
material available, since this allows much greater leeway in selection of other desirable
characteristics.^
Somewhat connected with speed is the question of color sensitivity. Thus, for
exposures with tungsten light, panchromatic emulsions are necessary, except in cases
where long exposures can be given. Panchromatic materials are becoming increas-
ingly popular for general work and are necessary where various colors must be rendered
1 Cassidt, E. H., Are Fast Films Worth the Price?, Brit. J. Phot., 84, 84 (1937).
in a reasonably true tonal relationship or where orange or red filters are used. They
are particularly valuable in portrait photography since they avoid the exaggeration of
skin defects given by blue-sensitive materials and thus minimize the need for
retouching. In many cases, however, particularly for daylight exposures, ortho-
chromatic or even ordinary materials will be quite satisfactory and may be desirable.
Thus some landscape workers prefer these to panchromatic emulsions because the
greater reproduction of blue atmospheric haze increases the apparent separation of
planes and enhances the "aerial perspective."
The user often does not give much consideration to the contrast characteristics,
probably because with many emulsions the contrast can be varied over a considerable
range by proper control of exposure and development (Fig. 9) and because the range
of contrasts obtainable in printing materials makes it possible to obtain acceptable
prints from negatives of widely varying contrast. In some applications, however, the
4.0
3.0
PHOTOGRAPHIC MATERIALS . 135
Types of Negative Materials. —The various emulsions are supplied on plates, cut
films, roll films, film packs, and the special modifications of these such as motion-
picture films.
Plates and cut films, which are loaded into holders or special magazines in the
darkroom, are most widely used commercially and are the only forms available in the
larger sizes. Since they are handled in holders, they are particularly suited for use
with the professional types of cameras using ground-glass focusing. Also, since each
negative is a separate entity, it can be exposed and developed individually, which is
often very desirable. Because of the wide variety of applications, most of the various
emulsion types are available in this form. Most of the special emulsions, such as the
spectroscopic materials which are coated on special order, are supplied only on plates.
Film packs have many of the desirable characteristics of cut films, such as use with
ground-glass focusing and individual handling when necessary, but with the additional
advantage that the films in the pack are protected from light, both before it is used and
after the films have been exposed. Thus the film pack can be loaded into and removed
from the holder or adapter in the light, and a darkroom is necessary only for develop-
ment of the films. The films used in the packs must be fiexible and so have a thinner
base than cut films. The result is that the films are more difficult to hold flat; hence,
while film packs serve excellently in the smaller sizes, up to about 4 by 5 in., they do
not work particularly well in the large sizes. Onlj^ the more widely used emulsions are
furnished in film packs.
Roll films consist of a long strip of film wound on a flanged wooden or metal spool
with an opaque backing paper. This backing paper is sufficiently longer than the
film to provide a leader for threading through the camera without exposing any film
to the light. Because of their great convenience, roll films are most widely used by
amateurs. Previously only one or two emulsions were available on roll films, but now
a wide selection of medium and high-speed emulsions, with orthochromatic or pan-
chromatic sensitizing, can be obtained.
A comparatively new development is the daylight-loading magazine containing
a short length of 35-mm. film, with standard motion-picture negative perforation, for
use in miniature cameras. In this case the film is wound on a spool inside a lighttight
container, with the end of the film extending through a slit, light-locked with black
plush. The end of the film which is threaded into the camera in the light is, of course,
fogged, but after the camera is closed, fresh film is drawn from the magazine. When
the whole strip has been exposed, it is wound back into the magazine and so can be
removed from the camera in the light.
Aerial films can be considered as a special type of roll film, supplied in greater
widths and in very much greater lengths than ordinary roll film. Instead of a full-
length backing paper, which would add unnecessary bulk and weight, they are supplied
with opaque leader strips cemented to the ends of the film and long enough to wrap
several times around the roll, thus protecting it from light. Because of the large
negative size, the film base is thicker than that for roll film and is often especially pre-
pared to have very low shrinkage.
Motion-picture film consists of long narrow strips, having perforations along one
or both sides to allow accurate positioning of successive small portions of the film in
the exposure aperture of the camera. For commercial users the film is usually fur-
nished wound on simple cores and requires a darkroom for loading into the camera
magazine. The films supplied for amateur use, however, are wound on special reels
with solid flanges which allow daylight loading. The 35-mm. films are usually avail-
able on either nitrate or safety (acetate) base, while 16-mm. films can be furnished
only on safety base.
136 .
Negative papers are occasionally mentioned as being more economical than film.
The grain of the paper, however, makes them unsuited for the regular photographic
uses requiring contact printing or enlarging. Negative papers, or fast emulsions
coated on paper base, are finding wide use in various types of recording instruments
and for copying documents and drawings. A special waterproof paper base, coated
with a thin emulsion suitable for reversal processing is used for the "direct positives"
produced by the while-you-wait automatic portrait machines.
—
Standard Sizes. In the course of the evolution of photography, cameras taking
many and various sizes of films or plates have been introduced. While many of the
odd sizes have become more or less obsolete, enough cameras remain in use to require
the supplying of an unnecessarily large number of film and plate sizes. Thus one
manufacturer lists 30 sizes of roll films, 13 sizes of film packs, 49 sizes of cut films, and
37 sizes of plates. Even this does not show the total number of negative sizes, since
there are a number of cameras using one of the regular roll films but making an odd
sizenegative in order to get more pictures per spool.
Fortunately, there seems to be a tendency for most new apparatus to use one of the
more popular sizes listed in Table V. This is very desirable since the odd sizes are
sometimes difficult to obtain, while the popular sizes are generally available and the
rapid turnover insures reasonably fresh stock.
In connection with these sizes, it should be noted that the nominal dimensions for
cut films and plates are the upper limit of the actual dimensions and the lower limit for
interior dimensions of the film and plateholders. With roll films and film packs on
the other hand, the listed sizes are the nominal sizes of the picture area and the actual
film size may be somewhat greater.
In commercial photofinishing it is the usual practice to employ printing masks
somewhat smaller than the actual negative image size in order to allow a slight toler-
ance in positioning the negative on the printer.
Table V.
print. Most 16-mm. films are put through a reversal process to obtain a positive
image on the same film that was exposed in the camera. However, there are films
available for the regular negative-positive processing. Emulsions of various speeds
and with both orthochromatic and panchromatic sensitizings are available, as well as
several direct-color films.
For sound recording on 16-mm. film, the perforations are omitted from one side,
making this space available for the sound track without encroaching on the picture
area. Thus the regular silent film can be run in sound projectors without any change
in size or position of the projection aperture. Sound film cannot be used in silent
projectors unless they are fitted with special sprockets and pulldown claws operating
on only one side of the film.
STANDARD 3S-MM. FttM STANDARD 16-MM. FILM

CtTTTlNOAND PERPORATinO DIUBNSIONS CDTTIHO AHD PERFORATIHO DIHEHSIOKS
or BZCATIVS ADD POSITIVE KAW STOCK OF HEGATIVB AND POSITIVE RAW STOCK
These dimensions and tolerances apply to the material im- These dimensions and tolerances apply to the materia] im-
mediately after cutting and perforating. mediately after cutting and perforating.
Inches Millimeters Inches MiUimeters
1.378 + 0.000 35.00 + 0.00 0.630 + 0.000 16.00 + 0.00

-0.002 -0 05 -0.002 -0.05
1.109 * 0.002 28.17 *0.05 0.485 * 0.001 12.32* 0.025
0.134 * 0.002 3.40 « OS 0.072 * 002 1.83* 0.05
0.187 * 0.0005 4.75 *0.013 300 ± 0.0005 7.62* 0.013
0.110 * 0.0003 2.79 * 008 0.072 * 0.0002 1.83* 0.005
0.078 * 0.0003 1.98 • 0.003 0.050 * 0002 1.27* 0.005
Not > 0.001 Not >0 025 Not > 0005 Not > 0.013
0.020 approx. 0.51 approx. 0.010 approx. 0.26 approx.
18 70 =< 0.015 475.0 * 0.381 30.0 * 0.03 762.0 •^ 0.76
* L « the lengtb of any 100 consecutive perforation intervals. * L M the length of. any 100 consecutive perforation intervals.
Fig. 10. — Dimensional standards for 35-mm. and 16-mm. film as standardized in the United
States of America.
The 8-mm. was derived from the 16-mm. size in an attempt to lower the film
film
cost to amateurs. Since the picture area is only one-fourth that of the 16-mm. film,
graininess and resolving power are very important, and it is necessary to use specially
prepared and very thinly coated emulsions. There are two 8-mm. systems in use. In
one case, the film is originally 16-mm. wide, and it is run twice through the camera,
exposing one-half of the width on each passage. After processing, the film is slit to
give two lengths of the 8-mm. width, with perforations on only one side. In the
other case, the camera takes the film in the final 8-mm. width. The double-width
film has less tendency to give trouble from stretching of the wet film during processing.
Identification of Cut Films. —
Since it is often difficult to identify the emulsion sur-
face of cut films for proper loading into the film holder, cut films are usually supplied
with reference notches near one corner. When the notches are on the right side of the
top edge, the emulsion side of the film faces the operator. In addition, the number,
shapes, and arrangement of the notches are used to identify the type of emulsions as
13S HANDBOOK OF PHOTOGRAPHY
indicated in Fig. 11. Each manufacturer uses a different notching code, so the user
must take care not to confuse them.
X-F PANCHROMATIC-NITRATE
SUPERSENSITIVE PLENACHROME PORTRAIT- NITRATE fNON-HALATION BACK)
S^ V
LTU
X-F PANCHROMATIC- SAFETY
Wl PORTRAIT-SAFETY (NON-HALATION BACK)
COMMERCIAL ORTHOC HROM ATIC
wv V: LTU
w^^ P0RTRA1T-H6S PROCESS
HIGHLY GREEN SENSITIVE . (MADE IN SAFETY BASE ONLY)
SUPER PLENACHROME PRESS (MADE IN SAFETY BASEONLYj (NON- HALATION; NON-ABRASION)
SUPERPAN PORTRAIT
v^v-wi V w 1
-^ COMMERCIAL- PANCHROMATIC PROCESS

(MADE IN SAFETY BASE ONLY) (MADE IN SAFETY BASE ONLY)^
(NON-HALATION BACK) NON- HALATION; NON-ABRASION)
SUPERSENSITIVE PANCHROMATIC
urui V V
(
—i_rw
s/
PENTAGON ,
X-FORTHOCHROMATIC
(MADE IN SAFETY BASE ONLY) fMADE IN SAFETY BASE ONLY)
UUVJl (NON-HALATION BACK) (NON- HALATION BACK)
COMMERCIAL PANCHROMATIC V" "V^
i_n_n_n_ri
FINE GRAIN PANCHROMATIC X-F ORTHO PRESS
SUPERPAN PRESS (MADE IN SAFETY BASE ONLY) (MADE IN SAFETY BASE ONLY)
(NON-HALATION BACK) (NON-HALATION BACK)
V LTV ^^r><^
COMMERCIAL
— ^-n X-F PAN PRESS
(MADE IN SAFETY BASE ONLY)
(NON-HALATION BACK)
N/^ "u 1
(a) (b)
PORTRAIT- PAR SPEED SUPER ORTHO PRESS COMMERCIAL PAN
PROCESS PAN
KODACHROME PROFESSIONAL
FESSIONAL
FILM- DAYLIGHT TYPE
TYPE
KODACHROME PROFESSIONAL
FILM- TYPE B
v>^^^
Fig. 11. —
Reference notches cut into cut film for purposes of identification. When
the emulsion side faces the photographer, the notches are in the top-right corner, (a)
Agfa Ansco film. (6) DuPont film, (c) Eastman film.
Positive Materials. —
The positive emulsions used for photographic prints differ
considerably among themselves but, in general, have much finer grain and are much
slower than the negative emulsions and have somewhat higher contrast. Positives
are made both on transparent supports for viewing by transmitted light, either directly
or by projection, and on opaque supports for viewing by reflection. The differences in
the optical conditions in these two cases so change the apparent properties that it is
necessary to consider them separately.
Transparencies. —The principal positive materials which are viewed by transmitted
light are motion-picture positive films and lantern-slide plates, which are both nor-
mally used for projection of the image on a screen.
Motion-picture positive film is coated with a bromide emulsion which has approxi-
mately the speed of the slower process negative emulsions. It is not color sensitized,
as it is always exposed to a negative in monochrome, and it is desirable to be able to
handle it under bright orange or green safe lights. The maximum gamma is rather
high, and the behavior during development differs somewhat from that of most nega-
tive emulsions in that, as the development time is increased, not only is the slope of the
characteristic curve (gamma) increased but the curve is shifted to the left, as shown in
Fig. 12. Thus the correct exposure depends very markedly on the degree of develop-
ment to be given.
The toe portion of the curve is of more importance than in the case of negative
materials, since it is desirable that the brightest high lights should have as low a density
as possible, in order to allow a bright screen image. This introduces some distortion
of tone values since the high-light tones, falling on the toe of the curve, will have a
.
: — 4
2
Paper Prints. —The great majority

of photographic prints are made on paper and
are viewed by This has two important effects. First, a certain frac-
reflected Ught.
tion of the incident light is reflected by the emulsion surface and the grains near the
surface; this reflected light definitely limits the maximum black that can be obtained.
Thus, with some matte-surface papers where the diffuse reflection is considerable, the
maximum black reflects as much as 6 per cent of the incident light, thus giving a total
brightness range from high lights (represented by the clear paper base) to shadows of
only 15 to 1 or a density range of 1.18. With certain glossy papers, on the other
hand, where the diffuse reflection is low, the total density range may be as much as
1.7 or more. This effect definitely limits the tone range that can be reproduced by
any particular paper. Fortunately, the brightness range, at least of the important
parts, of normally lighted subjects is usually not greater than about 1 to 40 and so can
be reproduced satisfactorily on paper. While the maximum density varies also with
the particular type of emulsion, average values for the various surface finishes are as
follows
Glossy 1.5-1.7
Semimatte About 1 .
Matte About 1 .
The manner in which the light is reflected depends upon the state of the surface.
With an optically smooth or "glossy" surface, the angle of reflection is equal to the
angle of incidence, as with a mirror, and little or no light is scattered in other directions.
With an optically rough surface, on the other hand, the reflected light is scattered in
all directions. In the case of a photographic print, or any other picture on paper, it
is the "diffuse" or scattered reflection which limits the maximum density, since the
print can be turned so that the specular, or mirrorlike, reflection does not reach the
eye. In measuring the diffuse reflection, in order to calculate the density, the paper is
usually illuminated at an angle of 45° and viewed normal to the surface.
The second effect is that, in the high lights and middle tones, the light passes
through the emulsion to the base and then is reflected back through the emulsion.
Therefore each area of the silver deposit has twice the density it would have for trans-
mitted light. Thus, since the maximum density is already limited by reflection, paper
emulsions are coated very much thinner than emulsions of film or glass.
For papers, three types of emulsions are used, differing in the composition and
grain size of the silver halide; bromide, for black tones; chloride, for black tones; and
chlorobromide of very fine grain for warm tones on direct development.
Speed. —
Paper emulsions cover a wide range of speeds, the ratio between the
slowest and fastest paper emulsions being considerably greater than the ratio between
fast papers and the fastest negative materials, as is shown by the approximate values
in the table.
Table VI. Relative Sensitivity of Various Photographic Materials

Type of Emulsion Relative Sensitivity
Positive emulsions (lantern slide, etc.) 1 , 000-3 000
,
Bromide papers 300-1 000

,
Chlorobromide papers, warm tones 100-200

Special warm-tone lantern slides, according to tone desired 1-25
Chloride papers 1-5
Bromide emulsions are comparatively fast, having speeds only slightly less than
the positive films, and so are suitable for printing by projection. Chloride papers are
very slow and so are normally suitable only for contact printing. The chlorobromide
papers cover a considerable range in speed, depending on the composition. The slower
ones, with speeds similar to the chloride papers, are suitable only for contact printing.
Others, with higher bromide content, may be used for either contact or projection
printing while the fastest ones are suitable chiefly for projection.
In general, for any particular type of paper emulsion, the more contrasty grades
are slower than the softer grades.
In connection with speed, the spectral sensitivity is important. The chloride
emulsions and the very slow chlorobromide emulsions are sensitive to the violet and
near ultraviolet but have very little sensitivity above 450 mî. Thus they may be
handled safely under a bright-yellow safe light with a cut between 500 and 550 mM.
The faster chlorobromide emulsions have additional sensitivity in the blue, extending
Chloride
papers
Series 00
safeligh+ fil+er
Chloro- bromi'de
Dopers
Bromi'de
papers
Series
Safeligh+ flfl+er
Series OA
Safeligh+fi'l+er
300 400 500 600 700
Fig. 13. — Spectrograms for various paper emulsions, compared with the spectral trans-
missions of suitable safe-light filters.
up to about 500 mû, and the bromide emulsions are sensitive still up to about
further,
520 mî. Thus for safe handling these emulsions require safe lights which pass no
light at wavelengths shorter than about 550 mû (Fig. 13).
In all cases the maximum sensitivity is in the violet and near ultraviolet; conse-
quently the tungsten light which is nearly always used for printing is really very
inefficient, as only a very small percentage of the radiated energy is effective in print-
ing. Mercury-vapor lamps and other sources of ultraviolet radiation are much more
efficient so far as photographic action is concerned, but because of cost, inconvenience,
or insufficient intensity, they are seldom used.
The so-called "high efficiency" tungsten lamps are sufficiently effective, and, since
they are convenient to handle and are comparatively inexpensive, they are generally
used for printing. However, it should be remembered that the proportion of light
of the shorter wavelengths decreases rapidly as the voltage is lowered, so that fluctua-
tions in line voltagemay cause considerable changes in printing time, even though the
visual brightness is not noticeably affected.
Contrast, Effect of Development. —Owing to the thinness of coating and the fine
grain, paper emulsions develop rapidly. During the very first period of development
the contrast increases with time as in the case of negative emulsions. During this
period, however, the shadow density is low and the characteristic curve is badly dis-
torted. As the shadow density approaches the maximum black, the curve is straight-
ened out somewhat and then begins to move to the left, with no change in slope or
contrast and with little or no further increase in shadow densitJ^ These effects vary
slightly with the different types of emulsions, for instance, with some bromide and
ohlorobromide papers, the contrast does increase slightly on continuing development
after the maximum black is reached.
1.8
emulsions the contrast can be expressed in terms of the slope of the characteristic
curve or of the density difference obtained for a given range of exposure or range of
object brightness. Because of the length of the straight-line portion of the curve, it is
1.5
x
negative just balances the curvature in the positive, giving practically perfect repro-
duction over the greater part of the tone scale. ^
The range of negative tones which can be reproduced in the print is determined
by the paper-exposure scale, or the ratio between the exposure which will just produce
a visible density and the least exposure which will produce the maximum black.
Since negatives made by amateurs are made under widely varying conditions of
lighting, and consequently of subject brightness, and since development conditions
are not always carefully controlled, amateur negatives vary widely in density range.
Therefore printing papers for amateur use are usually supplied in a number of grades
of contrast, with exposure scales varying from about 1 5 for the extra-contrast papers,
:
to as much as 1 50 for the very soft papers.

: This range of contrasts is covered in five
or six steps, so that it is possible to get acceptable prints from negatives having density
ranges between 0.7 (opacity range of 5 to 1) and 1.7 (opacity range of 50 to 1) (Fig. 17).
Blackest possible deposif/
White
paper ^M^
The exposure scales for the three contrast grades of a typical enlarging paper are:
normal, 32; medium, 16; and contrast, 11. The scales for the various contrast grades
of a typical amateur contact-printing paper run from 45 for the softest to 4.5 for the
most contrasty.
—
Image Tone {Color). The chloride emulsions and the bromide emulsions usually
tend to give images of neutral or cold black tones on normal development, and many
of them will give definitely blue-black tones with very active developers. Slightly
warm tones can sometimes be obtained with restrained or slow-acting developers,
but the possibilities for control are normally rather limited.
The fine-grain chlorobromide emulsions tend to givewarm-toned images on direct
development, particularly with the slower types of papers. Even warmer tones,
ranging to definite browns, can be obtained by the use of restrained developers.
Also, the colors given by the various aftertreatments depend very markedly on
the size and condition of the grains in the original silver image. The effectiveness of
the treatments also depend on the condition of the silver grains. Thus the direct
sepia-toning solutions, such as the hypo-alum toner, work comparatively rapidly and
give pleasing results with the naturally warm-toned images on chlorobromide papers,
but work only very slowly, if at all, with the coarse-grained cold-tone images on
bromide paper. On the other hand, the bleach and redevelop type of sepia toner
which works satisfactorily with cold-tone images tends to give unpleasant yellow
tones with the naturally warm-tone images.
In addition to the inherent color determined by the size and condition of the grains
of the silver grains, the apparent-image tone is markedly affected by the color of the
base, which is usuallj^ white or very slightly tinted cream or buff but is occasionally
supplied with a comparatively strong color.
Sheen. —
As has been mentioned, paper surfaces vary in sheen, or the ratio between
specular and diffuse reflection, from the almost purely specular glossy surfaces to the
almost purely diffuse matte. Although the degree of gloss probably could be expressed
quantitatively, as by the percentage of specular reflection, this would be of little value
to most users, and the descriptive terms such as glossy, luster, semimatte, matte, etc.,
are more generally understandable and useful.
While the choice of sheen is largely a matter of personal preference, some types of
prints definitely call for specific surfaces. Thus small contact prints are generally
made on glossy papers because of the greater density range and the sharper rendering
of fine detail.For the same reasons the glossy surface is preferred, usually demanded,
for pictures to be reproduced by any of the photomechanical processes. For portrait
and pictorial prints on the other hand, the softer and less glaring surfaces, such as
luster and semimatte, are usually preferred. The matte surfaces are easiest to work
on with pencil or water or oil colors.
The sheen is controlled by incorporating in the emulsion various inert substances
such as starch and by varying the composition and method of application of the
baryta layer.
Texture. —
In addition to the almost microscopic surface irregularities which con-
trol the sheen, the papers may have coarse irregularities giving various degrees of
roughness to the surface. Smooth surfaces can be obtained with any sheen from
glossy to absolute matte, but the rough surfaces cannot give a real gloss.
In addition to the various degrees of roughness, some special-purpose or novelt,v
papers have a definite surface pattern such as the linen finish.
Smooth or fine-grain surfaces are preferable for small prints, while the rougher
surfaces may be valuable for large prints and enlargements, either for suppressing an
excess of fine detail or, with a high degree of enlargement, for concealing lack of fine
detail and suppressing the apparent graininess.
The various degreesof roughness are usually controlled by varying the composi-
tion and coating conditions of the baryta layer; the pattern textures are produced on
the baryta layer under pressure by embossed rollers.
Weight or Thickness. —
Most papers which will be used for small-size prints are
supplied on either single- or double-weight stock, while papers for large prints, such
as the professional papers and enlarging papers, particularly those with rough sur-
faces, may be supplied only in double weight. Some papers, such as those for post-
card prints, are supplied on a thin cardboard.
Papers having the usual baryta coating cannot be folded without cracking.
Therefore a few papers, such as those used for document copying and for advertising
illustrations which will be folded for mailing, are supplied on a special thin base with-
out the baryta layer.
Special Emulsion Types. —
In addition to the regular black-and-white negative
and printing emulsions already described, there are a number of more or less special-
ized emulsions which, because of special requirements in the mode of use or in the
method of preparation, differ in properties sufiicientlj^ to justify separate discussion.
Printing-out Papers. —
At present the vast majority of photographic prints are
made on developing-out papers, with which the latent image produced by exposure is
converted to a visible silver image by the action of the developer solution. Printing-
out papers (POP), on which the visible image is produced by direct photochemical
darkening, were formerly widely used but are now used only in special cases, such as
the preparation of portrait proofs, and are losing ground even here.
While the normal developing-out emulsions are prepared with an excess of soluble
halide, printing-out emulsions contain an excess of soluble silver salt, usually the
tartrate or citrate, which acts as an acceptor for the halogen liberated by the photo-
chemical action.
The sensitivity is naturally very low; the papers can be handled safely in artificial
light or weak daylight, and for printing they require a light rich in ultraviolet, such
as that from a carbon-arc or a mercury-vapor lamp or strong daylight. Even so, the
exposures are a matter of minutes. The contrast is fairly low, the exposure scale
being equal to that of the softer grades of bromide paper.
After exposure, the image can be fixed by removal of the unchanged silver salts
with a solvent such as hypo. This leaves the image an unpleasant yellow color,
which can be corrected by toning the image by precipitation of gold, to give red or
reddish-purple tones, or precipitation of platinum, to give black tones. Even aside
from the unpleasant color, the untoned image is rather impermanent because the very
finely divided silver is rapidly attacked by any sulphur compounds in the paper or in
the atmosphere. Toning can be done after fixing but gives more dependable and
uniform results before fixing. Portrait proofs on P O P are seldom fixed or toned.
POPemulsions may be in either gelatin or collodion. In Europe, printing-out
papers supplied for amateur use sometimes have the toning agents incorporated in
the emulsion (self-toning papers), so that prints can be made without a darkroom and
can be processed merely by washing in water.
Because of the excess of soluble silver salts, printing-out-paper emulsions are
rather unstable and tend to darken on aging if any moisture is present. This can be
prevented by keeping the paper thoroughly desiccated.
Reversal Emulsions. —In some cases it is desirable or necessary that the final posi-
tive image be produced in the same emulsion
as was used for the original exposure.
At the completion of development, the emulsion contains two images, the negative
image of silver and a complementary positive image of the unaffected silver halide
which is normally removed by fixation. Thus, if the silver image is removed by
treatment in a bleach liath which does not attack the silver halide, the residual silver
halide can be blackened, by exposure and development or bj^ chemical action, to give
the desired positive.
In ordinary emulsions, there is much more silver bromide than is used in a normal
negative image, and the highlights of the residual positive will be dense and fogged.
Therefore emulsions intended for reversal processing are thinly coated so that the
high lights of a normally exposed, negative image will use up practically all the silver
halide.
There are always some very small insensitive grains which will not be affected by
the first development, even in heavily exposed areas, and thus remain to fog the
high lights of the positive. Therefore a silver halide solvent, such as ammonia or
hypo, is often used in the developer or in a rinse bath after development, to dissolve
out these small grains, thereby increasing the brilliance of the positive image.
When all the residual silver halide is utilized in the positive, there is no latitude for
the original exposure, and any small local variations in thickness, which in ordinary
work would be of no importance, have a marked effect. While some compensation
for variations in negatiAê exposure can be made by regulating the action of the silver
halide solvent, the range of control is limited. A much greater degree of control can
be exercised by taking advantage of the differential sensitivity of the residual silver
halide grains and giving a controlled second exposure. Thus, where the negative
exposure was heavy, there will be little silver halide left, and it is given a heavy
exposure to render it all developable. On the other hand, where the original exposure
was light, there will be a great deal of silver halide left and a slight second exposure is
given, so that only part is rendered developable and the final positive is not too
dense.
In this process, after removal of the negative image, the film is scanned by a photo-
electric cell which controls the intensity of the second exposure. Where the negative
image was heavy, there is less residual silver bromide, so that more radiation reaches
the photocell, which in turn increases the second exposure. With a thin or under-
exposed negative image, the reverse occurs. Thus the density of the positive image is
compensated as described above, and positives of good quality are obtained with a
wide range of camera exposures.
Reversal Materials. — Screen-plate color materials, such as the Lumiere Autochrome
plates and Dufaycolor films must be processed by reversal so that the positive image
will be in register with the screen-filter elements. They are usually processed with an
ammonia first developer and a strong second developer which completely blackens
the residual positive image. There is little or no latitude in exposure.
Substandard motion-picture films, particularly for amateur use where only one
positive is ordinarily needed, are processed by reversal in order to obtain better defini-
tion and lower graininess and to reduce the cost. Since exposures are made under
widely varying light conditions, some type of compensating processing is practically
a necessity. The Kodak automatically controlled second exposure was devised to
compensate for varying exposures throughout a single length of film.
"Direct positive" paper for automatic portrait machines has a fairly fast fine-
grain orthochromatic emulsion thinly coated on a waterproofed paper base and is
processed by reversal in order to reduce the time between exposure and deliverj^ of the
finished print. Lighting and exposure are standardized, and the whole residual posi-
tive is darkened either by full exposure and redevelopment or, more generally, bj'^
conversion to silver sulphide.
In addition to the regular reversal process, there are other methods of securing the
image directly. The so-called "tintype" made use of a collodion
effect of a positive
emulsion coated on a black support and developed to give a whitish silver deposit,
which then appeared as a positive against the dark background.
When sufficient exposures can be given, duplicates can be produced directly by

making use of the solarization region of the characteristic curve. Duplicating films
and papers are available which have the whole emulsion made developable by treat-
ment during manufacture. Exposure to light reduces the developable density, so
that exposure behind a negative gives a negative, or behind a positive a positive.^
X-ray Films. —Because very low absorption of X-rays by the silver halide
of the
of the emulsion, only a small portion of the incident radiation is effective in producing
a developable density. In order to increase the absorption and thus the photographic
eifect, emulsions for use with X
rays contain a high percentage of silver bromide and
formerly were very thickly coated. Because of the difficulties encountered in devel-
oping and fLxing these thick emulsions, X-ray ffims are now given emulsion coatings of
normal thickness on both sides.
Even with emulsions very rich in silver bromide, when the more penetrating
X rays are used, the direct action on the photographic emulsion is comparatively
slight, and it is now customary to place the ffim between intensifying screens coated
with a substance such as calcium tungstate, which fluoresces under the action of
X rays. Thus the greater part of the exposure is due to visible light from the intensi-
fying screens.
Since the radiographs are often needed in a hurry, particularly in emergency
and since it is often not possible to keep the processing solutions down
surgical cases,
to the recommended temperature. X-ray emulsions are usually hardened to a greater
degree than most negative films, in order to reduce the risk of trouble or damage from
excessive swelling.
Emulsions for Color Photography. —Because of the great differences between the
various systems of color photography, the characteristics required of the emulsions
used also vary greatly.
Additive Processes. —The only additive processes of practical importance at the
present are the integral screen-plate processes such as the Autochrome plates and the
Agfacolor and Dufaj^color films, which are processed by reversal, and the Finlay
process which uses separate taking and viewing screens. The requirements of the
reversal processes have been discussed. The Finlay
process, which uses compara-
tively coarse mosaic screens, employs a regularpanchromatic plate for the nega-
fast
tive, the only requirement being that the color sensitivity be sufficiently uniform to
remain properly matched to the taking screen and compensating filter. The plate
exposed behind the taking screen in an ordinary camera is developed to a negative in
the regular manner. Prints are made on positive plates, similar to lantern-slide
plates, which are then bound in register with the viewing screen which has the same
pattern as the taking screen. Thus as many positives as desired can be made from
one negative, also there is a chance to control the contrast and to compensate for
errors in exposure of the negative by controlling the exposure and development of the
positive. This and other advantages claimed over the reversal processes are some-
what offset by the larger size of the individual screen elements.
Suhtractive Processes. —
The materials used in the various subtractive processes
can be divided into negative, positive, and reversal. Color-separation negatives
obtained by any of the taking systems can in most cases be used with any one of
several printing systems, while the reversal system gives the color photograph directly,
as with the additive processes.
Negative Materials. —
The simplest sj^stem, from the viewpoint of demands on the
emulsion, is the production of the three color-separation negatives by successive
exposures in an ordinary camera. Practicalljr any panchromatic emulsion could be
Barth, W., a Film Emulsion for Making Direct Duplicates in a Single Step, J. Soc. Motion
Picture Engrs., 27, 419 (1936).
used, provided its contrast characteristics were suitable for the subject and the
printing process to be used. As a matter of convenience, however, it may be desirable
to choose a material which has, as nearly as possible, equal filter factors for the three
tricolor filters. For most lighting conditions, this will mean a material with a type B
or orthopanchromatic sensitizing.
Since the making of three successive exposures is ordinarily practical only for
still-life subjects and since satisfactorily accurate one-shot cameras are very expensive,
various bipack and tripack films have been developed, to allow one exposure in an
ordinary camera.
The tripack consists of three films placed in contact and exposed simultaneously,
to make the three separation negatives. The first two films are placed with their
emulsion surfaces in contact, so that the front film, which is blue sensitive, is exposed
through the base. This emulsion is yellow-dyed, or carries a yellow-filter layer on its
surface, to prevent any blue light from reaching the two rear films. The second film
is orthochromatic and so makes the green-sensation record. It is on a thin support
and is backed with a red-filter layer so that only red light reaches the rear panchro-
matic emulsion.
The two front emulsions must be as thin and transparent as possible, in order to
avoid excessive absorption of light, which would increase the exposure required, and in
order to reduce scattering of light which makes the rear image unsharp. The ratios
between the speeds of the three emulsions must be correct to compensate for the
absorption of light in the first and second emulsions, so that the one exposure will give
three well-matched negatives. It is desirable, but not necessary, to have the develop-
ment rates adjusted so that the three negatives can be developed together.
Because of the scattering of light in the first two emulsions, and the separation of
the rear emulsion by the thickness of the film base, the loss of definition is such that
tripack negatives usually do not give satisfactory enlargements and so are more suit-
able for use in the large sizes of studio and view cameras than in the smaller hand
cameras and are more satisfactory for portraiture than for general commercial
work.
To reduce this loss in definition, while still avoiding many of the complications of
the double-mirror cameras, various bipacks have been devised. The bipack is
essentially a tripack with the rear film removed and exposed directly to a second
image supplied by some type of beam splitter, such as a semitransparent mirror.
The front emulsion of the bipack, which is exposed through the base, makes the blue
negative, while the back emulsion may make either the green or red negative, depend-
ing on the design of the pack. In the Technicolor and Eastman bipack systems, the
red negative is made on the rear film of the bipack, and the green negative is made on a
separate film.^
Positive Materials. —To obtain a color print from the three separation negatives,
three positive images, in dyes or pigments of the respective complementary or minus
colors, are superimposed in register. Thus a yellow
which absorbs blue, is
positive,
made from the blue-filter negative, a magenta, which absorbs green, from the green-
filter negative, and a blue-green (cyan), which absorbs red, from the red-filter negative
(see chapter on Color Photography). These can be made by any of several processes.
A number of these, such as the bichromated gelatin, or so-called carbon process, the
gum-bichromate process, and their various modifications (particularly the widely
used carbro process) do not directly involve the use of sensitive silver halide emulsions,
and so they need not be described here. However, there are several methods in
which silver images are used to form dye or pigment images of the proper color.
1 Ball,, J. A., The Technicolor Process of Three Color Cinematography, ./. Soc. Motion Picture
Engrs., 25, 127 (1935).
Toning Processes for Color Photography. —One obvious method of converting

the black-and-white silver image into a color image is by toning, with either inorganic
or dye tones. The emulsions carrying the three-color images are then superimposed
bodily on a white base. Thus the three positives are separated by the thickness of the
emulsions and their supports. In order to reduce the total thickness to a minimum,
the Chromatone process makes use of stripping films, in which the special printing
emulsion is coated on a very thin cellulose film which is cemented to a heavier film
base with an adhesive soluble in warm water. Thus the heavy bases furnish protec-
tion during the development and toning processes and are discarded when the emul-
sions are transferred to the final support. This particular process is understood to
use special inorganic toning solutions, in which the silver images are converted into
colored inorganic compounds, but dye tones, with the silver image converted into a
compound which could mordant the dyes, might also be used.
—
Pigmented Gelatin. Rather than use the silver image as a base for the color image,
it can be used to form a relief image in pigmented gelatin, similar to that obtained with
the various "carbon" processes. In this case, pigment of the proper color is incor-
porated in the emulsion during manufacture. The emulsion is exposed through the
transparent base, and the absorption of light by the pigment holds the image near
the bottom of the emulsion. Thus, when the gelatin is hardened in the vicinity of the
silver image, either during development or by means of a special silver bleach, and the
unhardened gelatin removed with warm water, there is left a relief image with thick-
ness proportional to the density of the silver print. The three partial color positives
thus obtained are then transferred to the final support. In the carbro process, the
hardening is caused by the action of the bleach on a
differential silver image in contact
with the layer of pigmented gelatin.
Imbibition Processes. —
If, instead of making colored relief images which are
cemented together, plain gelatin reliefs are made, the3^ can be used as printing matrices
by saturating them with dye solutions of the proper colors, and placing them, one at a
time, in close contact with a gelatin layer containing a mordant to which the dyes will
transfer.
Wash-off relief film has an unhardened positive emulsion containing a yellow dye
to control the penetration of the printing light. The film is exposed through the base,
and the silver image is developed to completion. It is then treated in an acid bichro-
mate bleach which oxidizes the silver image and hardens the adjacent gelatin. Bath-
ing in warm water removes the unhardened gelatin and develops the relief image, or
matrix. After fixing, washing, and drying, the matrix is bathed in the proper dye
solution. The three dyed matrices can be superimposed in register for inspection of
color balance and contrast. Changes in contrast can be effected by controlling the
acidity of the dye solutions, and slight inaccuracies in color balance can be corrected
by washing out part of the excess colors. When the color balance is satisfactory, the
matrices are squeegeed successively into close contact with a gelatin-coated paper
containing an aluminum mordant. Thus in the final print the three dye images are
contained in a single gelatin layer. Additional prints can be made merelj- by redjêing
the matrices and transferring as before.
The Technicolor process uses this type of imbibition printing, transferring the
successive dye images to a gelatin-coated final film.
Catalytic Bleach. —
Another method of utilizing the silver image directly in the
formation of the dye image makes use of the fact that certain reagents, which alone
have no effect on the dye, destroy wherever there is a silver image. Thus this is in
it
effect a reversal process, giving a negative dye image from a negative, and a positive
dye image from a positive. However, because of the absorption of light by the dye,
the scnsitivitv is so low that it is suitable only for printing.
—
The Kodachrome Reversal Process. This process uses an integral tripack, or mono-
pack, with the three emulsions for making the color-separation negatives and their
corresponding partial-color positives coated on one support.^ Thus the difficulties of
handling three separate films is avoided, and exposures can be made in any ordinary
camera. The emulsion next the base is sensitized to red, the middle emulsion is sen-
sitized to green,and the top emulsion is sensitive only to blue and carries a yellow dye
to prevent blue light from reaching either of the lower layers. The different emulsions
are separated by very thin layers of clear gelatin. Since the total residual positive
method of reversal is used, the emulsions are very thin, and the total thickness of the
three combined emulsions and two intermediate layers is no greater than the thickness
of an ordinary negative emulsion.
The three partial-color positives are produced during the development of the
silver positives by interaction between "coupling" compounds and development
reaction products to form dye densities proportional to the silver densities. The
formation of three different dye images in their appropriate layers requires a rather
complicated processing procedure which can be handled satisfactorily only by properly
controlled processing stations.
The three emulsion layers must not only be coated extremely uniformly but must
be very accurately balanced for color sensitivity, speed, and contrast. This requires
very rigid control in manufacture. The result, however, is that the user has no worry
other than giving a reasonably correct exposure.
Bibliography
Periodicals:
SiLBERSTEiN, L.: Orientation of Grains in Dried Photographic Emulsion, J. Optical Soc. Am., 5, 181
(1921).
Sheppakd, S. E.: Photographic Gelatin, Phot. J., 65, 380 (1925).
Dtjndon, M. L.: Color Sensitizing Photographic Plates by Bathing, Am. Phot., 20, 670 (1926).
Shbppard, S. E.: Behavior of Gelatin in the Processing of Motion Picture Film, Trans. Soc. Motion
Picture Engrs., 11, 707 (1927).
, and P. H. Tkavelli: The Sensitivity of Silver Halide Grains in Relation to Size, J. Franklin
829 (1927).
Inst., 203,
Harrison, G. R.: Instruments and Methods Used for Measuring Spectral Light Intensities, J. Optical
Soc. Am., 19, 267 (1929).
Mees, C. E. K.: Photographic Plates for Use in Spectroscopy and Astronomy, J. Optical Soc. Am., 21,
753 (1931); J. Optical Soc. Am., 22, 204 (1933); J. Optical Soc. Am., 23, 229 (1933).
•Tones, L. A.: Photographic Sensitometry, J. Soc. Motion Picture Engrs., 18, 324 (1932).
Crabtree, J. I., and C. H. Schwingel: Duplication of Motion Picture Negatives, J. Soc. Motion
Picture Engrs., 19, 891 (1932).
Webb, J. H.: The Relationship between Reciprocity Failure and the Intermittent Effect in Photo-
graphic Exposure, /. Optical Soc. Am., 23, 157 (1933).
Sheppard, S. E.: Some Factors in Photographic Sensitometry, /. Soc. Motion Picture Engrs., 24, 500
(1935).
Ball, J. A.: The Technicolor Process of Three Color Cinematography, /. Soc. Motion Picture Engrs.,
25, 127 (1935).
Benedict, H. Facts and Foibles in Photography, Camera Craft, 43, 226 (1936).
C:
Crabtree, J. and Vittum: A New Fine Grain Developer, Am. Phot., 30, 188 (1936).
I.,
Mannes, L. D., and L. Godowsky, Jr.: The Kodachrome Process for Amateur Cinematography in
Natural Colors, J. Soc. Motion Picture Engrs., 26, 65 (1936).
FucHS, E.: Preliminary Preparation of Photographic Layers, Phot. Ind., 34, 552 (1936).
Barth, W.: a Film for Making Direct Duplicates in a Single Step, J. Soc. Motion Picture Engrs., 27,
419 (1936).
Baines, H.: Private Life of Roll Film Spool, Phot. J., 77,218 (1937).
Cassidy, E. H.: Are Fast Films Worth While? Brit. J. Phot., 84, 84 (1937).
Emulsions,
Staud, C. J., J. A. Leersmaker, and B. H. Carroll: Optical Sensitizing of Photographic
Paper Presented before the fall 1938 meeting of the Amer. Chem. Soc.
1
Mannes, L. D., and L. Godowsky, Jr., The Kodachrome Process for Amateur Cinematography in
Natural Colors, J. Soc. Motion Picture Engrs., 26, 65 (1935).

Leersmaker, J. A.: J. Chem. Phys., 6, 779 (1937).
, B. H. Carboll, and C. J. Staud: /. Phys. Chem., 5, 893 (1937).
Vardbn, L. E., and N. Harman, Jr.: New High Speed Emulsions, Am. Phot., 18 (1938).
J.
Varden, L. E.: Direct Copy Film, Am. Phot., 236 (1938).
Arnold, P. H.: Sensitivity Tests with Ultraspeed Negative Films, J. Soc. Motion Picture Engrs., 31,
541 (1938).
Armor, A. E.: Manufacture of Motion Picture Film, Phot. J., 459 (1938).
Albersheim, W. J.: Latent Image Theory, J, Soc. Motion Picture Engrs., 32, 73 (1939).
Books:
Travelli, a. p. H., and S. E. Sheppaed: "The Silver Bromide Grain in Photographic Emulsions,"
Van Nostrand (1921).
Ross, F. E.: "Physics of the Developed Image," Van Nostrand (1924).
Chibisoff, K. W.: "Ripening of Photographic Emulsions," p. 405, IXth Cong, intern, de Phot., Paris
(1936).
FoRSTTHE, W. E., et al.: "Measurement of Radiant Energy," McGraw (1937).
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:
CHAPTER VII
PHOTOGRAPHIC SENSITOMETRY
By Bevehly Dtidley
—
Introduction. Meaning of Photographic Sensitometry. -The term "photographic
sensitometry " is frequently used in a restricted sense to specify the sensitivity of
photographic materials to visible light or other radiations. A somewhat broader
view will be taken here. We shall use the term photographic sensitometry to denote
the quantitative determination of all the various characteristic responses of the photo-
graphic materials to radiant energy. By radiant energy we shall usually mean
visible light.
According to this definition, photographic sensitometry deals with those character-
isticresponses which are produced by: (1) the intensity and spectral distribution of
the source of radiant energy acting upon the photosensitive materials, (2) the total
duration of time and the manner in which the photographic materials are exposed to
radiant energy, and (3) the processing (developing, fixing, washing, drying, etc.) to
which the photographic materials are subjected.
The characteristics of photographic materials which may be determined through
sensitometry include: (1) the response to the intensity of the source of energy to which
the material is exposed, usually specified in some "speed" or "sensitivity" rating; (2)
the spectral sensitivity, or the relative response to energy at various wavelengths;
(3) the response to exposure of continuous duration; (4) the effect of intermittent
exposure, involving the manner in which photographic materials integrate the energy
to which they are exposed; (5) the response of the photographic material to varying
conditions of processing (especially development) for specified exposure; and (6) the
graininess. According to our definition such matters as the resolving power of the
photographic material and the distortions of the images which occur also properly
belong to the province of photographic sensitometry. However, these matters are
not of sufficient general importance and interest to be treated in this chapter, although
they may be of considerable practical importance in certain branches of photography,
such as astronomical photography or where images must be reproduced accurately
to scale.
Photographic sensitometry may be used to determine the characteristics of photo-
graphic materials which reproduce colored images as well as those materials which,
for want of a better name, may be termed monochrome, and which produce images in
varying densities without any appreciable spectral selectivity. The sensitometry of
materials for color photography is somewhat more involved, elaborate, and extensive
than that required for monochrome photography, but the fundamental principles
involved are identical in both cases.
In general, the procedure for the determination of sensitometric data is as follows
Test strips of the material under examination are given precisely known, graded
exposures to a light source of specified intrinsic luminous intensity and spectral dis-
tribution. These strips are developed for specified lengths of time under known
conditions of temperature, in a developer of known composition and concentration.
The developer used depends upon the purpose for which the sensitometric measure-
ments are made, but it is usually one which produces an unstained neutral-gray
153
deposit of silver. The test strips are then dried, after which the densities of the
silver deposits for each exposure step on the same strip are measured. The values of
density and the corresponding values of the logarithm of exposure are plotted for each
strip. Similar plots are made for other strips having different times of development,
so that a family of cur\ês D = logio E is obtained. This family of curves gives most of
the essential information relating to the characteristics of photosensitive materials.
The determination of the sensitometric characteristics of photographic materials
requires a knowledge and control of (but preferably standardization of) the following
conditions and apparatus:
1. A light source emitting radiations of known spectral distribution and known
intensity.
2. A
means for producing a series of graded exposures of known magnitudes.
Standardized conditions of processing (especially with regard to development)
3.
the material under test.
4. A method of determining quantitatively the density, graininess, and other
characteristics of the material after exposure and processing.
5. A method of properly interpreting quantitatively the results of sensitometric
measurements.
From standardization of 1 and 2 it is possible to determine the magnitude and
character of the stimulus (exposure) applied to the photographic material. Step 4
enables us to determine the characteristic responses of the photographic material to
the various stimuli provided by steps 1 and 2. Step 5 not only enables us to correlate
properly the stimuli and its response, but enables us to express the causal relations in
such manner as to permit of optimum use of photographic materials, filters, light
sources, and other accessories. An understanding of photographic sensitometry is
also useful in recognizing and correcting faults of over- or underexposure, incorrect
rendition of tone, incorrect rendition of colored objects in monochromatic or color
photography, etc.
Application of Sensitometry. —
Originally photographic sensitometry was used
almost exclusively by manufacturers of film material for the determination of film
characteristics and by a few scientific workers using photographj^ The first impetus
toward extensive general uses of photographic sensitometry came from the motion-
picture field with the introduction of sound pictures. While sensitometric methods
and processes are not yet employed by the average photographer or serious amateur
(nor are they likely to be used except in the simplest fundamental steps), a knowledge
and understanding of sensitometric methods may not onlj^ be advisable in aiding the
proper exposure and processing for portraits, pictorial, and other subjects but may be
essential —
or verj^ nearly so —
for motion-picture work, certain kinds of scientific
photography, and color, aerial, and other branches of photography where exacting
requirements must be met.
—
Light Sources for Photographic Sensitometry. The first step in photographic
sensitometry involves giving the photosensitive material a series of standard (or at
least precisely known) exposures. The exposure of the material under accurately
known conditions is accomplished by means of a sensitometer which consists, func-
tionally, of (1) a standard source of light or other radiation and (2) some form of
exposing device, such as an accurate shutter, which determines the quantity of light
which is permitted to act on the photosensitive material.
We shall first give some consideration to the light sources and the exposure devices
suitable for sensitometry. In a later section consideration will be given to sensitom-
eters in which the and exposure device are combined.
light source
Sources.—T)\e most important of a wide variety of light sources
Practical Light
which have been used for photographic sensitometry include, in approximately
:
PHOTOGRAPHIC SENSITOMETRY 155
chronological order: (1) sunlight, (2) the British Parliamentary candle, specifications
for which were given as early as 1860; (3) a phosphorescent plate in which the radia-
tion was provided by a layer of calcium sulphide activated by burning magnesium
ribbon; (4) the Harcourt pentane lamp which burns a mixture of pentane vapor and
air; (5) the Hefner lamp which burns pure amyl acetate (and which is still sometimes
used as a standard light source); (6) acetylene flames of various types with completely
specified burners; and (7) incandescent electric lamps. Unfortunately none of these
standards is ideally suited to photographic sensitometry, principally because of lack
of precision and reproducibility, but also in some cases because of unsuitable spectral
distribution of energy.
The characteristics necessary in a light source for photographic sensitometry are:
1. Accurately known (preferably standardized) and appropriate spectral-energy
distribution.
2. Adequate intensity of output so that exposures need not be too long.
3. Stability of characteristics throughout the useful
life of the light source.
4. Reproducibility of characteristics between successive uses of the light source.

5. Convenience in use.
fulfilled in the most desirable manner, for purposes of

These requirements are
photographic sensitometry, by incandescent lamps which have been carefully stand-
ardized and which are operated under carefully controlled conditions.
Modern practical sources of light for photographic sensitometry may be made
from
1. Cylindrical acetylene flame devised by Fery and Sheppard and Mees, fitted
with suitable filter (Wratten No. 79).

2. Tungsten lamps operating at a color temperature of 2360°K. fitted with a Davis
and Gibson liquid filter.

This latter type of light source was standardized as a satisfactory light source for
photographic purposes at the seventh International Congress of Photography which
met in London in 1928.
Both the spectral-energy distribution of the radiation emitted from the luminous
source as well as the intensity or magnitude of these radiations affect the density of
the exposed and developed photographic material. Consequently these two charac-
teristics of the luminous source must be accurately known if precise sensitometric
results are to be obtained.
The spectral composition of a luminous source specifies the relative amounts of
energy emitted at various wavelengths. Usually this relation is represented by
means of a spectral-energy curve in which the abscissas are wavelength and the
ordinates are relative energy. Figure 1 shows spectral-energy curves for one type of
luminous source.
Effect of Spectral Distribution of Light Source. —
It is important that the spectral-
energy distribution or color composition of the radiations emitted by any source
which is to be used as a standard of intensity in photographic sensitometry shall be
known and appropriate because photographic materials do not have the same spectral
sensitivity as does the human eye, which is used in the subjective evaluation of the
characteristics of any light source. Furthermore, with respect to their spectral
sensitivities, photographic materials differ enormously among themselves. Photo-
graphic materials are more sensitive at the blue and ultraviolet end of the visible
spectrum than elsewhere. Consequently a denser silver deposit will result if the
luminous source of given absolute intensity has most of its energy in the blue end of
the spectrum rather than in some other region. In fact, the use of certain types of
safe lights for photographic darkrooms depends upon so choosing the light source with
respect to the film characteristics that the visible light occurs at that portion of the
spectrum for which the film is A 15-watt red lamp used as a

relatively insensitive.
safe light for noncolor-sensitive emulsions may
produce no appreciable exposure
or fog, whereas a 15-watt blue lamp might badly expose the film under the same
conditions.
180
160
140
c?l20
(U
iSioo
^ 80
,2 60
40
20
deep red or a blue light, the luminosity is small, as the eye is relatively insensitive to
these colors. the energy is concentrated in the infrared or the ultraviolet portions
If
of the spectrum, the luminosity is zero, for the eye is not sensitive to these radiations.
An exactly analogous situation exists with regard to photographic materials.
Corresponding to the visibility curve of the human eye, the sensitivity of a photo-
graphic material to radiation of a given wavelength is known as its photobility. The
net or over-all response of a photographic material exposed to heterochromatic light
is the product of the spectral-energy distribution of the light source and the photo-
termed the "photicity" of the material. Photicity of photographic mate-
bility; it is
rials is analogous to the luminosity of the human eye (see Chap. X, Light Filters).
Although by no means a rigorous treatment of the subject, the previous paragraphs
will indicate the necessity of maintaining known or standard conditions for precise
sensitometric work. It is also necessary to determine just what is a suitable or
appropriate spectral-energy distribution for the light source used in sensitometry.
1.0
1
-EQ6
<u
>
|o.4
DC
0.2
Effect of Voltage on Incandescent Lamps. —The spectral-energy distribution, as well

as the intrinsic brightness, of incandescent lamps depends upon the temperature at
which they are operated, and depends upon the filament voltage and
this in turn
current. Therefore, for precise standardized conditions, the filament voltage must be
maintained constant. Maintaining constant voltage on the filament of the lamp
likewise keeps the absolute magnitude of the emitted radiation constant, another
essential requirement for sensitometry.
As the temperature of the tungsten lamp is raised, a larger portion of the total
energj^ is shifted into the blue end of the spectrum so that the lamps tends to approach
a more nearly white light source. But, even at the highest temperature at which
tungsten lamps can be operated, a filter is required, for incandescent lamps are still
entirely too deficient in blue radiation to produce a true white-light source. Further-
more, as the temperature of the lamp is raised, the life is considerably decreased and
the characteristics change more rapidly with age. A temperature of about 2500°K.
is the highest at which incandescent lamps may be operated if they are to give satis-
factory characteristics so far aslife, reproducibility, and precision are concerned.
The manner which the life, radiant energy, and other characteristics of tung-
in
sten-filament lamps vary with the applied voltage has been studied at the National
Bureau of Standards.^ Some of the results of this investigation may be used to
determine the effect on the light output of small variations in applied voltage. Sup-
pose we let F represent the luminous output (lumens) of the lamp at voltage V, and
Fo the normal or rated huninoas output of the lamp at its normal or rated voltage, Vo.
Then we may use the approximate relation
^=ô(^) (1)
(where 5 2 is an exponent which depends upon the size and type of the lamp) to com-
pute the allowable variation in voltage for a specified small variation in luminous out-
put. In order to make the most use of this equation, it is desirable to specify F and V
in terms of the normal valvies Fo and Vo, and the variations from these normal values,
b and d, respectively. We may therefore write
F = Fo(l + b) (2)
and
V = Fo(l ± d) (3)
where b represents the change in luminous output as a result of the voltage variation d.
Substituting these last two equations into Eq. (1), we have
F = Fed ±b) =
^^[^'''0-Tr)T' ^
"^^^^
^"^^ - ^^^
froni which
(1 + 6) = (1 + df' (5)
From Eq. (5) the maximum allowable voltage variation, ±d which may be tolerated
for a specified fluctuation in luminous output ±6 is then given by
_]_
+d = (1 + b)Bi - 1 (6)
In all these equations, the plus signs are to be used if the voltage (and hence the light
output) increases, whereas the minus signs are to be used if they decrease. Figure 4
Babrow, L. E., and J. Franklin Meyer, "Characteristic Equations

1 of ^'acuum and Gas-filled
Tungsten Lamps," Bur. Standards J. Research, 9,721 (1932).
shows the variation in light output for various types of incandescent lamps for small
voltage fluctuations.
-Br
.V
L=Lo(vJ
300
250
§200
S 150
100
90
60
« 70
60
50
^ 40
30
. — —
converges rapidly and the third term will seldom be required. Values of B2 for
various types of incandescent lamps are given in Table I.
Table I. Values op B for Various Incandescent Lamps
Value of
Type of lamp Power rating,

watts
Vacuum lamip. 15- 60 3.513 1 5805

. . 5805 13.5
Gas-filled lamps 40- 60 3.685 1.623 . 523 13.5
Gas-filled lamps 60-150 3.613 1.523 0.523 13.5
Gas-filled lamps 200-250 3.384 1.543 0.543 13.1
To maximum permissible voltage

illustrate the use of this equation, let us find the
variation d for a variation ofper cent of the light output, i.e., b = 0.01, for a 100-watt
1
lamp. For lamps between 60 and 150 watts, B2 = 3.613, so that, substituting values
for b and B2 into Eq. (7), we obtain, for an increase in voltage,
+d = 0.0027678 + 0.00001001 = 0.002778 = 0.2778 per cent
Thus, in order to maintain the light output constant to within 1 per cent, the voltage
applied to the lamp must be maintained constant to within about ^^4 per cent.
The plus signs in the above equations are to be used when d and b increase; the
minus signs are used when they decrease. We therefore get two answers for a given
voltage variation (depending upon whether the variation is an increase or a decrease).
The above example was considered to be an increase in both b and d. If it had been
considered a decrease, the result would have been —0.2758 per cent which, for prac-
tical purposes is the same thing.
The best types of commercial voltmeters are accurate to within 0.25 per cent;
laboratory standards are available which are accurate to 0.1 per cent. Consequently,
for precise sensitometric work the most accurate voltmeters are required to maintain
the voltage constant, or recourse must be made to potentiometric methods of control.
Filters for Incandescent Sources of Luminous Intensity. —
Since none of the light
sources which are suitable for photographic sensitometry from the standpoints of —
convenience, reproducibility and stability of characteristics, or adequate intensity
have spectral-energy-distribution curves approximating that of mean noon sunlight,
it is necessary to select a source of light on other grounds and then to modify its spec-
tral distribution through the medium of absorbing filters.

An acetylene flame, used in conjunction with a Wratten No. 79 filter has been used
for some time as a suitable source of white light. Although the spectral distribution
of this combination departs appreciably from that of mean noon sunlight, this depar-
ture is frequently of little practical importance. In fact Jones states that "speed
values determined from this source-filter combination using materials differing widely
in spectral sensitivity agree very well with speed values determined by using actual
sunlight."
A liquid filter has been developed by Davis and Gibson ^ which, when used with an
acetylene flame or incandescent electric lamp operated at 2360°K., produces a close
approximation to mean noon sunlight. The filters are stable and easily reproducible.
For use with an incandescent light source operating at 2360°K., the filter is made up of
two solutions as follows:
I Davis, R., and K. Gibson, Trans. Soc. Motion Picture Engrs., 12 (May, 1928).
Solution A
Copper sulphate 3 707
. g.
Mannite 707
3 . g.
Pyradine 30.0 cc.
Distilled water to make 1000 . cc.
SOLTTTION B
Cobalt ammoniuin sulphate 26 827
. g.
Copper sulphate 27 180
. g.
Sulphuric acid (sp. gr. 1 .835) 10.00 cc.
Distilled water to make 1000 . cc.
—
Exposure Devices. In making photographic sensitometric measurements, it is
customary and convenient to subject several strips of the material to be tested to a
series of graded exposures so that the developed test strip contains varying amounts
of silver deposit from the minimum (represented by fog density) to the maximum
possible for the type of material under test. Usually the test strips are exposed in a
series of discrete or stepped exposures varying in geometrical ratio, and the developed
test strip is sometimes spoken of as a scale of grays. To expose a test strip of this
type some type of exposure modulator or graduated exposure-determining device is
required. Furthermore it is essential to know the manner in which the density of the
silver deposit builds up with the duration of the exposure time, as well as with the
manner in which the photographic material is exposed.
Reciprocity Law and Intermittency Effects. —
It is usually assumed that the photo-
chemical reaction of photographic materials is directly proportional to the total
energy affecting the material and that the exposure E is equal to the intensity of the
radiations / impinging upon the plate and the time t during which these radiations
act. As a result of this assumption, it is implicitly assumed that the photochemical
effect is independent of the absolute value of either factor, I or t and, consequently,
that the photographic materials properly integrate the effects of incident radiant
energy. To a first approximation, this assumption is true. This is the reciprocity
law.^
The assumption is not exactly true for photographic materials, however, and while
the failure of the reciprocity law is usually insignificant for most applications of
photography, cannot be neglected where extremely long or extremely short exposures
it
are given. The intermittency effect, by which is meant the failure of a photographic
material to record the same density for a continuous exposure as for intermittent
exposure of the same total energy, is closely related to the failure of the reciprocity
law. Like the failure of the law of reciprocity, the intermittency law does not produce
appreciable errors for the majority of applications to which photosensitive materials
are used. However, neither effect can be neglected where precise results are desired,
such as in photographic sensitometry, or where very short or very long exposures are
involved.
Both of the effects mentioned above must be given consideration in photographic
sensitometry since these factors affect the design and construction of suitable sen-
sitometric exposure devices. An exposure device operating continuously does not
produce the same effect as an intermittent exposure device which permits the same
total energy to be impressed on the photographic materials. These two factors also
affect the definition of exposure for sensitometric work, and the proper interpretation
of sensitometric data.
Several formulas have been derived to express the response of the photosensitive
material for those cases where intermittency effect and failure of the law of reciprocity
need be considered. Of these, one of the simplest which agrees reasonably well with
1 J. H. Webb has published a number of important papers on the reciprocity law in the Journal of
the Optical Society of America.
experimentally observed facts, especially for low-intensity exposures, expresses the

exposure 1 E in terms of the luminous intensity of specified distribution / and the total
time of exposure t in the form
E = /"'r (8)
where the exponents may have Aâlues greater than unity. Some investigators have
found more complicated relations in which it was necessarj^ to express the exposure
in terms of the characteristics of the photographic material under investigation.
Obviously this is an undesirable situation, and it is convenient to have the various
factors involved as independent of one another as possible.
Since the failure of the law of reciprocity and the intermittency law do not produce
appreciable errors for the ordinary range of luminous intensities and exposure times
used in sensitometry (or in general photography, for that matter), the exposure has
been defined to be
E = It (9)
This is a simple relation for the exposure and is based on the assumption that the
exposure is of continuous duration. This definition of exposure, which is used in
sensitometry, has the additional advantage that effects of intermittency can be
studied independently, using the continuous exposure, as employed in ordinary sensi-
tometric methods, as a standard of comparison. In photographic sensitometry the
exposure is expressed in meter-candle-seconds unless otherwise stated.
—
Methods of Making Exposure. The adoption of the above definition of exposure
makes it evident that the graduated exposure of sensitometric strips may be controlled
in any one of three ways:
1. By keeping the intensity / constant and varying t.
2. By keeping t constant and varying the intensity /.
By varying both / and t.

3.
In these three cases it is assumed that the spectral-energy distribution of the
luminous source remains unchanged.
For simplicity in the construction and use of sensitometers, onh"- the first two meth-
ods are in common use, and the first two classifications enumerated above give rise to
the two classifications of sensitometers or exposure devices in common use. If the
illumination is maintained constant and exposure is varied by altering the time
throughout which exposure takes place, a time scale of exposure is obtained. A
sensitometer operating on this exposure principle is termed a "time-scale sensitome-
ter." On the other hand, if the time during which the exposure is made is kept con-
stant and the exposure is A'âried by altering the intensity of illumination between
successive steps, an intensity scale of exposure results. A sensitometer \ising this
principle is commonly referred to as an intensity-scale instrument. Both the inten-
sity-scale and the time-scale sensitometers vaa,y be made to produce a sensitometric
strip which is either continuous or stepped in its density variation.
Following Jones, ^ we may classify exposure devices in the following manner:
Type I: Intensity-scale instruments
I variable, t constant
1. Continuously varjdng exposure
2. Stepped exposure
1 In this case, we use the term exposure (for want of a better name) to indicate the intensity-time
product function, which will be integrated by the photographic material so as to give the same effect
as if the law of reciprocity was exactly followed and the intermittency law was nonexistent.
2 Jones, L. A., Photographic Sensitometry, /. Soc. Motion Picture Engrs., 18, 32 (1932).
Type II: Time-scale instruments

/ constant, t variable
A. Exposure intermittent
1. Continuously varying exposure
2. Stepped exposure
B. Exposure nonintermittent
1. Continuously varying exposure
Stepped exposure
2.
—
Exposure Devices. Probably the first atteinpts at photographic
Intensity-scale
sensitometry were made with plates or tablets having numerous areas of varying
transmission (or density) which were placed in contact with the photographic material
under test and then exposed to a suitable light source for a known length of time. The
areas of varying density were numbered, and the faintest number which could be
read, after exposure and development, indicated the speed or sensitivity of the mate-
rial. A later modification of this general principle made use of tablets whose density
varied continuously, rather than in steps.
Intensity-scale sensitometers have also been introduced which consist of a series
oftubes or cells of equal length, at one end of which is placed the photographic plate,
the other ends of the various tubes being closed by opaque plates containing apertures
of variable areas. If these apertures and tubes are properly illuminated, the exposure
of the film will be directly proportional to the area of the aperture.
A method of obtaining directly the H and D curve of a photographic material using
a square neutral-gray wedge behind which the photographic material under test is
exposed was suggested in 1910 by R. Luther. The resultant negative is preferably
developed to a high contrast. After being rotated through 90° with respect to its
original position, the negative is placed in register with the wedge through which the
exposure was made, so that the lines of equal density on the negative are perpendicular
to the lines of equal density on the tablet wedge of continuously graded density. By
direct observation of this wedge-negative combination, the density-log E characteristic
may be seen. By making a print through the wedge and the negative, preferably on
high-contrast paper, a permanent record may be obtained. This method of determin-
ing the D-logio^ characteristics has advantages where a rapid means of testing is
desired. It is not likely, however, that sufficient precision can be obtained for stand-
ardized sensitometric work.
It is generally agreed that an intensity-scale instrument represents the ideal form
of sensitometer since photographic materials are almost always exposed under variable
intensity conditions in practice. However, no really satisfactory sensitometer of the
intensity-scale type giving the required reproducibility, intensity, and precision has
been developed for commercial use.
None of the intensity-scale instruments is completely satisfactory for sensitometric
work, primarily because such devices are inherently complicated and require the high-
est degree of mechanical and optical workmanship to obtain the necessary precision.
The wedges (either stepped or of continuously varying density) which are required are
difficult to produce accurately with nonselective absorption and proper density varia-
tion. They must be stable, reproducible, and permanent in their characteristics.
Since thej^ diffuse the light passing through them, the results obtained through their
use will correspond only to the conditions under which the graduated density tablets
were used. With the tube type of sensitometers, it is required that the illumination
level be as uniform as possible; moreover the intensity range is limited.
Intensity-scale devices may be produced by:
1. Varying the distance between the light source and the sensitive material for the
various exposures.
Using different areas of a uniformly lighted source.

2.
Reducing the intensity of the light reaching the different portions of the sensitive
3.
material by means of screens of known absorbing power.

The last of these is the only method now in general use.
Time-scale Exposure Devices. —
Although, in practice, photographs are taken with a
shutter giving sensibly the same time of exposure to all parts of the negative, it is most
convenient and accurate to use time-scale devices in photographic sensitometry. The
reason lies in the greater simplicity, ease of construction, and inherent precision of
time-scale exposure modulators as compared with intensity-scale modulators. Such
time-scale devices make
use of a constant source of illumination and vary the exposure
by altering the time during which this light impinges on the photographic material.
Consequently a simple light chopper will suffice for this system. Such a light chopper
may take the form of: (1) a rotating wheel or drum with various segments cut out
through which the light passes as the wheel is rotated, (2) a slotted plate falling under
the influence of gravity or moved at some uniform velocity, or (3) a slotted tape which
moves past the aperture through which the light passes to expose the photographic
material. The slotted rotating disk or drum is usually the most convenient form of
varying the exposure and can be made to give either intermittent or nonintermittent
exposures. Nonintermittent exposure modulators may be made by rotating the disk
sufficiently slowly that the required exposure is obtained with one complete revolution
of the disk. Intermittent exposures result if the required exposure is built up through
successive individual exposures obtained from several revolutions of the disk. The
slots may be cut to give steps of varying exposure.
Differences between Intermittent and Continuous Exposure. —
A distinction must be
made between these two types of exposure devices, as it has been found that they do
not give the same results. The reason behind this discrepancy lies in the fact that
photographic materials have been found not to integrate an intermittent exposure
correctly, except to a rough first approximation. For this reason the characteristics
of the photographic material observed by intermittent exposure will depend upon
the intermittency of exposure as well as the total time duration for which the exposure
is made. As might be expected the magnitude and character of the intermittency
effect varies with the character of the photographic material under consideration.
Furthermore, whereas the speed is higher and the gamma lower^ for nonintermittent
exposures as compared with intermittent exposures for certain intensity levels, this
condition may be reversed at other intensity levels at which the comparisons are
made. For these reasons the effects obtained with intermittent and nonintermittent
exposures cannot be compared. Since intermittent exposure is not encountered in
practice, there is good reason for preferring the nonintermittent-exposure type of
device in sensitometry.
Rotating disks, falling plates, and other time-varying exposure modulators can
be made rather accurately, the precision being determined by the precision with which
the slots are cut or the precision with which the shutter devices are moved past the
film to give the necessary exposure. When rotating-disk exposure devices are used,
the speed of rotation may be determined with precision by means of rotation counters.
With a precisely cut disk properly driven, accurate results are easily obtainable.
Since the characteristic curves of photographic materials are customarily plotted
in linear rectilinear coordinates with density D as the ordinates and logio E as the
abscissas, it is convenient to make the progressive exposure steps of the sensitometer
bear a logarithmic ratio to one another. This may be accomplished by so cutting the
disks that the angle of arc in successive steps bears a known ratio to one another. The
disk used by Hurter and Driffield was based on this principle. It had nine apertures
' See p. 190 for definitions of speed and p. 179 for definition of gamma.
—
or slots decreasing in angle of arc from the center outward. The largest aperture was
180°, the second one was 90°, the third 45°, etc. The relation between the aperture,
angle of arc of the aperture, and the relative exposure of their disk is given in Table II.
Table II. Exposure Characteristics for Sectored Disk
Aperture number. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Arc angle, degrees 180 90 45 22.5 11.2 5.3 2.6 1.3
Relative exposure, 256 128 64 32 16 4 2
logio Erbl 2.11 1.81 1.51 1.20 0.6 0.3
It will be seen that logio Ere l is a uniform progression; the absolute value of
the exposure of the nth step being twice that of the (n — l)st step. At the present
time successive steps are often made equal to \/2 or \/2 times the next step in order
that more steps and finer gradations may be obtained between successive steps.
Practical Sensitometers. —Practical sensitometers usually take the form of a rotating
disk or cylinder in which slots of various widths are cut. Figure 5 shows the working
Fig. 5. —Diagram showing the construction of the Eastman Type 116 sensitometer.
essentials of the Eastman Type 116 sensitometer popularly employed in motion-picture

work. A line switch LS turns on current to a standardized lamp L, whose intensity is
controlled by adjustments of the rheostat R. The beam from the lamp travels in a
cone until it strikes the mirror M, which reflects the beam upward to the motion-
picture film/, held in position by the plate PL. A shutter is provided at S, and a filter
may be used, if desired, at F. The exposure drum D is driven by the synchronous
motor SM
through the gear train G and is coupled to the shutter S in such a way that
the shutter is opened for only one complete revolution of the drum D. Slots are cut
in the drum in such a way that the exposure for each slot is \/2 times that of the
preceding slot. The total exposure range of the drum is 1024 to 1.
Development for Sensitometry. —The sensitometric strips are developed after

exposure. upon the developing condi-
Since the density of the silver deposit depends
tions as well asupon the exposure, it is apparent that the developer and the conditions
of development must be standardized for precise sensitometric work. The conditions
which are chosen for standardization, however, cannot be established once and for
all, for consideration must be given to the type of work being accompHshed. The
development conditions will obviously be different for research work on developers
than for routine processing of a certain class of film.
The investigations of various workers have shown that the constitution of the
developing solution affects such photographic characteristics of a given material as
rate of development, contrast, density, fog, latitvide, speed, etc. A paper by Clark^
summarizes the effect of changes in the constitution of developers and may be con-
sulted by those interested.
Developers for Sensitometry. —
For a comparison of emulsion characteristics and for
investigations in which the control of processing is not involved, standard developers
and developing conditions may be established for photographic sensitometric work.
A developer suitable for this class of work should have the following characteristics:
1. Good reproducibility
2. Low
temperature coefficient
3. Low
sensitivity to changes in concentration of bromide
4. Production of neutral density image free from stains and selective absorption.
5. Good keeping qualities.
For many years a pyro developer was used for sensitometric work. Such a devel-
oper was generall}'^ suitable since pyro developers were extensively used in practice.
However, since some of the reaction products of pyro developers are definitely colored
and are absorbed by the film, the developed negative has a yellowish stain which has
considerable absorption to the blue, violet, and ultraviolet. The photographic and
visual density are therefore likely to be quite different and corrections are required
when converting one density into the other. Pyro developers have fallen somewhat
into disuse during recent years, so that a pyro developer for sensitometric work does
not have the merit it formerly possessed.
A developer suggested by Sheppard and Travelli,^ suitable as a standard developer
for scientific sensitometric work, consists of:
p-Aminophenol hydrochloride 7 J-l g.

Sodium sulphite (anhydrous) 50 g.
Sodium carbonate (anhydrous) 50 g.
Water to make 1000 co.
This developer produces a neutral-gray deposit, has desirable fog characteristics,

contains no bromide, and is relatively insensitive to the presence of bromide so that the
regression of inertia with increase in time of development and speed should be inde-
pendent of development time. This developer has a relatively high temperature
coefficient,^ so that for precise sensitometric work the temperature must be controlled
accurately during development.
1 Clark, W., Phot. J., 65 (n.s. 49), 76 (1925).

2 Jones, L. A., "Photographic Sensitometry," Eastman Kodak Co. (19.34).
The temperature coefficient for a particular developing agent is defined as the ratio of the velocity
'
constants k for any two temperatures. The difTerence in temperatures for the two velocity constants
is chosen as 10°C. Thus, if A20 is the velocity constant at 20°C., and fcao is the velocity constant at
30°C., the temperature coefficient t of this developer between 20° and 30°C. will be
r = ^" (10)
PHOTOGRAPHIC SENSITOMETBY 167
If being carried out for the control of photographic processing, it is

sensitoraetry is
desirable that the developer and the developing conditions be as nearly as possible
like those under which the processed materials are being developed. Not only should
the same type of developer be used, but the same developing solution should be used
at the same time that processing is accomplished. The developer becomes exhausted
upon use, and its effective composition changes. Consequently the action of the
developer after some use maj^ be considerably different from that when the developer
was freshly compounded. To insure that the developed sensitometric strips will
afford a precise index of the processing performance which it is desired to test, it is
essential that the sensitometric strips be developed along with the material under
test in such a way that both types of material receive identical processing.
—
In its broad aspects, the technique of development for
Technique of Development.
sensitometry no different from the development technique of other photographic
is
materials. However, the particular problems involved in sensitometry often make it

desirable to pay more than ordinary attention to such factors as (1) evenness of
development, (2) temperature of the developer, (3) agitation of developing solutions,
(4) prevention of bubbles, streaks, stains, etc.
Through the use of thermostatic control, it is easily possible to control the tempera-
ture of the developing solution to ±0.1°C., and through more elaborate temperature-
control baths still further control can be effected. Temperature variations of 0.1 °C.
will not cause serious errors in sensitometric work due to the temperature coefficient of
developers. Where thermostatic control of the developing solutions is not possible or
practicable, the temperature of the developing bath may be maintained reasonably
constant by immersing the developing tank or tray in a large tank of water which is
thoroughly agitated. After the developing solution is in temperature equilibrium

with its surrounding bath, the thermal inertia of the water surrounding the developing
tank will assist in preventing sudden or appreciable temperature variations of the
developing bath.
In any case it is volume of developing solu-
desirable to use a comparatively large
tion so that the reaction products may
be considerably diluted, thereby influencing the
effective concentration of the solution a minimum amount. The sensitometric strips
should be agitated in the solution so that fresh solution is constantly presented to their
surfaces. Rocking the trays or tanks has been found beneficial and produces fairly
uniform Brushing the surface of the strip with a camel's-hair brush is another
results.
very effective means of removing exhausted developer from the surface of the strips
but is probably not so reproducible as rocking the trays, since different workers handle
the brush strokes differently.
—
Density Determinations. With the test strips exposed to a series of known expo-
sures and developed under specified and controlled conditions, it now remains to
evaluate in some appropriate manner the response of the photographic material (the
amount of silver deposit) to the stimulus (exposure). Visual inspection of the silver
deposit is For quantitative work, the magnitude of the silver deposit
unsatisfactory.
corresponding to the various exposvires on the strip is determined optically by the
amount of light which the photographic material transmits or reflects. In the case of
negatives, the transmission of the material may be used; for printing papers, the
amount of reflected light determines the density.
—
Fundamental Definitions Used in Sensitometry. Before we can discuss the deter-
mination of density properly, it is essential to establish certain definitions. To do
this, let /o be the luminous flux incident upon the negative. It the luminous flux trans-
mitted through the negative, T the transmission of the negative, its opacity, and D
its density. Then, by definition.
T = (11)
u
O = h (12)
It
D = logio = logio
Y = logio
Y ^ -logic T (13)
To a first approximation, D is proportional to the amount of silver deposited per unit

area.
Similar equations may be derived to apply to printing papers as well as to nega-
tives. the luminous flux reflected by the white paper having no exposure and
If /o is
Ir is the light flux reflected from the paper having a deposit of silver whose density is
D, then
There is
D = logio
m
I V-
nothing in the preceding equations which leads one to suspect that the
(14)
application of these formulas would not give definite and precisely reproducible results.
Fig. 6. Polar diagram illustrating the scattering of light in passing through a photographic
film.
That such is not the case depends upon the fact that in passing through the developed
silverimage of a negative, the light beam is scattered, as shown in Fig. 6, so that the
determination of density and transmitted light flux depends upon the manner in which
the transmitted light flux is measured.
Scattering of Light by Negative. —To study in greater detail the significance of the
scattering of light, suppose /o in Fig. 7 represents a narrow pencil or beam of light inci-
dent upon the photographic negative to be measured for density. In passing through
the negative, part of the transmitted directly through the film A part of the
beam is ;
light is it passes through the film, and emerges at some

also scattered or diffused as
angle from normal. If we investigate the intensity of the transmitted rays as a func-
tion of the angle or direction from the point where the normal rays emerge, we find
that we can construct a polar diagram as shown in Fig. 7. The lengths of the vectors
represent the intensities of the light in that direction. Obviouslj^, a three-dimensional
vector plot is obtained, although, for simplicity, only a two-dimensional drawing is
shown in the plane of the paper. The outline or envelope of these vectors shows the
manner in which the emergent light is distributed as a result of partial diffusion of the
normal ray Iq.
By means of this diagram it may be seen that the value of the transmitted light
will depend upon the manner in which it is measured, and consequently several values
of density can be obtained.
If we measure all the light transmitted through the negative, i.e., if we determine
all the light in the envelope (by means of an integrating sphere, for example), as shown
in Fig. 8, we obtain what is known as diffuse density.
The light transmitted through a negative may be measured by means of an inte-
grating sphere and radiant-energy detector. The integrating sphere consists of a
hollow sphere whose inner surface is covered with some coat of diffusing and reflecting
material. The film is placed in contact with a small aperture in the integrating sphere,
the aperture being small compared with the dimensions of the sphere. Thus the film
and aperture are sensibly a portion of the spherical surface of the integrating sphere.
—
Fig. 7.- Polar diagram illustrating the scattering of light in passing through a photo-
graphic film. The relative intensity of the emerging beam in any direction is proportional
to the length of the arrows in that direction.
The detector may

be a phototube and associated electrical circuit, a thermocouple,
bolometer, or similar
device. Preferably a nonselective indicator should be
used. Direct rays from the aperture are prevented from reaching the indicating device
by means of a shield, and only that energy coming through the aperture which has
been reflected by the spherical walls of the integrating sphere affects the indicating
device or detector.
If now, the film is placed very close to the aperture, as in Fig. 8, so that it forms a
portion of the wall of the integrating sphere, the transmitted rays normal to the film,
Fig. 8. —
By measuring all the light Fig. 9.— By measuring only that por-
passing through the negative, the diffuse tion of the light passing straight through
density is determined. the negative, specular density may be
determined.
as well as the diffused rays coming through the negative, will be collected by the
integrating sphere and determine the reading of the indicating device.
will
Diffuse and Specular Density. —
The value of the density computed from the inci-
dent and emergent light in this case is known as "diffuse density." It is based upon
measurement of the total transmission of the negative (both normal or undeflected, as
well as diffused light) and will give the smallest possible value of density. The meas-
urements made on the basis of diffuse density are appropriate for contact prints, since
contact prints use all the transmitted light.
If now the film is removed a considerable distance from the aperture, as in Fig. 9, so
that the only rays passing through the aperture are those which are transmitted by
—
the negative without diffusion, the value of density obtained from such measurements
willbe higher than the diffused densit5^ The reason for this is that in this case not all
the transmitted light is used to actuate the indicating device; the diffuse component
does not affect the indicating device at all, or only slightly. Density determinations
based on such measurements are known as specular-density measurements. The
magnitude of the difference in determinations of diffuse and specular density will
depend upon the size and shape of the grains in the emulsion, grain-size frequency
distribution, thickness of the layer, number of developed grains per unit area of the
layer, and similar characteristics of the film.
the negative has some intermediate position from those mentioned above, some
If
intermediate value of density will be determined. Density determinations made in

some such manner as shown in Fig. 10,
where the normal rays as well as some of
the diffused rays are effective in actuating
, the indicating device, are known as inter-
mediate Obviously an indefinite
densities.
number of intermediate densities may be
determined, depending upon the relation of
Fig. 10. —
Intermediate density may the film and the aperture of the integrating
be determined from measurements which sphere
make use of the specular as well as some r^^^
oi the diffused rays of light passing
through the negative.
... re\2.tion between diffuse
density gives a measure of the discrepancies
and specular
,
.
methods of density determina-

of the various
tion. The ratio of the diffuse density, sometimes designated by D\\ to the specular
density D-[}, has been designated as Q by A. Callier who first studied this subject.
The quantity Q, which is defined to be
D\\
(15)
is known as Callier's factor coefficient or Q factor.

In general, Q may be expected to vary from 1.0 for grainless plates to 1.9 or more
for fast plates with appreciable grain. The value of Q is not a constant for a given
type of film or plate, however, but depends upon the density of the film or plate as
Table III. Measurements Showing Relation between Q and Density^
Diffuse density
well. Table III, taken from Jones, ^ shows the manner in which Q depends upon the
density of the negative.
Effective Density of Printing. —Since the conditions under which contact printing
is done make use of all the transmitted light, it evident that the most useful density,
is
or the effective value of density for contact printing is diffuse density. For all prac-
tical purposes the diffuse density may be used as the effective density values for contact
printing.
Unfortunately, the effective densitj^ of a developed film or plate cannot be so
readily specified for projection printing. The reason lies in the fact that projection
printing corresponds more nearly, in its optical system, to some intermediate value of
density which varies with the enlarging conditions. In some instances, however, the
conditions for projection printing may approach the conditions for specular
closely
density. They are generally nearer to specular than to diffuse densitj^. The effective
density of a developed negative for projection printing depends upon the optical
system used in the projection equipment.
Densitometers. —
Having exposed the sensitometric strips in a known and predeter-
mined manner and having developed them under standardized or known conditions, it
is now necessary to determine quantitatively the effects produced by the exposure.
This is done by nieasuring the amount of silver deposit per unit area or the density
of the negative. Such a measurement is made most readily with a special form of
photometer designed to measure the magnitude of the light transmitted by the silver
deposit on the film. Such a form of specialized photometer is called a densitometer,
or, if the area being measured may be limited to that of a small hole or slit, a micro-
densitometer or microphotometer.
There are various types of densitometers, operating on various principles. All
of them, however, make use of determinations of the radiation incident on a detector,
—
both without and with the negative whose density is to be determined in the path —
of the light beam.
All densitometers contain as fundamental features a source of light to provide
the measuring beam passing through the negative, a means of limiting this beam to the
desired area of the negative, and a means of comparing the brightness of this beam with
that of another (or a part of the same beam) which has not been made to pass through
any portion of the negative. The densitometer must, therefore, provide some means
for measuring the intensity of the Kght without the negative in one of its beams 7o
and the intensity of the same or an equal light beam with a portion of the negative in
its path / and must provide some means for comparing these two intensities. Thus,
essentially, all density (or transmission) measurements may be regarded as determi-
ning the difference between two different conditions.
Some detecting or indicating device is required to compare the relationship of
these two conditions. The comparison between the intensities of these two light
beams, which should haAê the same spectral distribution, can be made by visual obser-
vation. In this case, accurate and reproducible results can be obtained only when the
two light beams being compared can be placed side by side in an optical system and
when provision has been made for diminishing the intensity of the stronger beam con-
tinuously, bj^ known amounts and without changing its spectral distribution, until it
matches the intensity of the weaker beam. In densitometers which make use of visual
comparisons, a good balance can be obtained only if the two light beams are of the
same color. MoreoAêr, the judgment
of the operator enters into the determination
of the Because of the vagaries of human judgment over a
conditions of balance.
period of time, these subjective methods of measurement do not usually give svich
1 Jones, L. A., "Photographic Sensitometry," /. Soc. Motion Picture Engrs., 18, 324 (1932).
precise and reproducible results as measurements made with an objective detector such
as a phototube or thermocouple. This is especially true when the eye is subject to
fatigue. Avery important advantage of subjective determinations of density, how-
ever, is the wide range of light values over which the eye is sensitive. Another advan-
tage is that such systems may be less expensive than objective methods, since no
indicator need be incorporated in the densitometer itself.
In the case of objective densitometers, the indicating instrument may be a photo-
tube (either photovoltaic, photoconductive or photoemissive), a thermocouple, or
similar radiant-energy-detecting device. These detecting indicators may be selec-
tively sensitive to radiations of various wavelengths, as in the case of phototubes, or
may respond uniformly to radiations over a wide range of wavelengths, as in the case
of the thermocouple. In selecting an indicator for a densitometer, consideration must
be given to the wavelength-response characteristic of the detecting device, as well as
the frequency-energy characteristic of the luminous source, for the results obtained
depend considerably upon these two factors.
Subjective-type Densitometers. —The subjective or eye-matching densitometers are
usually modifications of some well-known type of photometer. Because of the simple
optical means which it provides for matching two beams of light and because of the
fairly high precision attendent with its use, the Lummer-Brodhun cube employed in
photometry is most frequently used as the method of comparing the intensity of the
two light beams. In order that variations in the brightness of the lamp may be
eliminated, it is common practice to use a beam-splitting device which produces two
optical beams from the same luminous source. The intensity of both beams will vary
together if fluctuations occur in the intensity of the light source, but the ratio of the
intensities of the two beams will remain unchanged. The principal variations in the
design of photometers of this type occur in the means used to diminish the intensity of
the stronger beam. Methods most commonly used for this purpose include absorbing
filters or wedges, rotating sectors, polarizing plates whose axes may be varied with
respect to one another, variable diaphragms, and variable distance between the detec-
tor or comparator and the lamp in order to make use of the inverse square law.
Objective-type Densitometers. —
The objective (or physical) tj-pe of densitometer
may be similar in manj^ respects to the subjective type of densitometer. The two
forms differ in one important respect, however, in that as a means of comparing the
two light beams, the human eye is replaced by some sensitive element such as a photo-
electrically sensitive device, a thermocouple, radiometer, or similar piece of physical
apparatus. This sensitive element is connected directly or through appropriate
amplifying systems to a deflecting device, such as a galvanometer, so that objective
comparisons may be made between the two light beams. Two advantages result from
the use of an objective indicator. In the first place, the results obtained are likely to
be more precise and reliable, since they do not depend upon the judgment of the
observer. Secondly, by making an appropriate choice in the selection of the sensitive
element and light source, it is possible to make measurements in portions of the spec-
trum to which the eye is insensitive.
Objective densitometers may be made in three types: (1) null instruments, (2)
deflection instruments, and (3) automatic-recording densitometers. The null type of
instruments are in general similar to subjective instruments in that the measuring
and comparison beams are balanced against one another. Their intensities are
brought to equality by reducing the intensity of the stronger beam until they are
matched, when the indicating device will read zero or some other reference value.
Null instruments are among the most precise types of densitometers which have been
constructed, since it is usually possible to balance out most, if not all, of the factors
producing irregularities or systematic errors.
In the deflecting type of densitometer, the difference in intensity of the measuring

and comparison light beams is measured directly by some deflection instrument, and
no effort is made to create equality between the intensities of the two beams.
Automatic-recording densitometers are elaborations of the null or deflecting type
of instruments. In place of the deflecting type of indicator, a recording pen is pro-
vided which makes a plot of the density as the position of the photosensitive material
under measurement is changed.
A wide variety of densitometers and microdensitometers has been described in the
literature for general photographic research and for such specialized branches of
photography as radiography, astronomical photography, spectroscopy, etc. A few
representative densitometers for general photographic work will be described, but for
Fig. 11. — Diagrammatic illustration showing the essential design of the Capstaff-Green
densitometer which makes use of the inverse-square law of illumination.
additional detailed information or for information on densitometers for specialized

applications, the technical literature should be consulted.
Capstaff-Green Densitometer.- —^The Capstaff-Green densitometer is of the subjec-
tive type and depends upon the inverse-square law for its calibration and for its method
of balancing the equality of the comparison and measuring light beams. A diagram
showing the essential elements of construction is shown in Fig. 11. This densitometer
consists of a light source which is split into two beams. One beam traverses the path
from lamp / to the reflecting mirrors M, M', M" and finally falls upon a partially
reflecting mirror M in the eyepiece H. The other beam travels directly from the lamp
/ through a diffusing screen S, upon which the negative to be measured is placed, and
thence to the partially reflecting mirror M. The lamp may be moved up and down on
a suitable carriage. It is driven by a steel tape passing over pulleys, the tape being
graduated to read density directly. The lamp is adjusted to its zero or reference
position with the negative removed until both fields of the mirror in the eyepiece are
equally illuminated. The negative is then inserted on the screen S and the lamp
again moved until a balance of intensity is obtained in the eyepiece, when density of
the negative may be read directly from the calibrations of the steel tape. Calibration
of this tape involves the inverse-square law.
Fig. 12. —Optical system of the Capstaff-Purdy densitometer manufactured by the

Eastman Kodak Company. The negative is placed on the stage, H, and light from the
lamp A is split into two beams. One beam passes directly through the negative to the
eyepiece, J, whereas the other travels from the lamp to the mirrors B, D, and F, where it is
reflected onto a split mirror G and then is reflected to the eyepiece J where a split field is
observed. When the wedge, W, is adjusted so that the two fields of the eyepiece match,
the density may be read off from the wedge calibration. The knurled screw, K, is used in
making adjustments for the reference position of the wedge.
—
Capstaff-Purdy Densitometer. The Capstaff-Purdy densitometer manufacturered
by the Eastman Kodak Company is an example of a subjective type of instrument
which depends for its indications upon a calibrated wedge. Figure 12 shows a diagram
^g --A-. >
-/ —
:.l-
-t^W~^\
\ / / ^ /
U-.
Fig. 13. — Side and panel views of the Capstaff-Purdy densitometer.
system of this densitometer, and Fig. 13 shows a schematic

of the essential optical
diagram of the completed device. Here again the light from the lamp A is split into
two beams. One of these traverses from the lamp A through a diffusing glass U (over
which the negative is placed) and then passes through a field-forming photometer
head. This latter consists of the partly reflecting, partly absorbing, mirror F and the
mirror G, which has a circular disk from which the silver has been removed so that the
direct rays from the lamp may pass through it. The other beam traverses the path
from the lamp A to the mirror B through a graduated wedge C, a second mirror D, and
finally impinges on the partially reflecting mirror F, where it is reflected to the mirror
G and viewed together with the direct beam from A. Equality of the direct and
reflected beams is obtained by rotating the calibrated wedge W until a portion of the
wedge having suitable absorption intercepts the reflected light beam. The match of
the two fields is made by looking through the eyepiece / and rotating the circular
wedge. The initial adjustment for zero density (when the negative is removed from
Fig. 14.
Fig. 14.— External view of Eastman transmission densitometer.
Fig. 15.— Optical parts as used in the Martens polarization photometer head. The
essential parts are: A, WoUaston polarizing prism; B, biprism for splitting the field;
C, analyzing Nicol prism; /, index pointer; Li, field lens cemented to Wollaston prism; L2,
eyepiece lens; 0, aperture for one field; 0', aperture for other field; S, scale.
the densitometer) is made by moving the position of the lamp slightly by means of the
key i?.
Figure 14 shows an external view of the completed instrument. The edge of the
wedge projects beyond one side of the case and may be rotated by the finger. The
wedge is made by copying on a photosensitive plate a circular wedge cast in gray-dyed
gelatin. Each such wedge must be calibrated against a standard before the densitom-
eter can be used to indicate density directly, and a suitable calibration scale must be
affixed to the circular wedge. The scale is read through a small circular window.
—
Marten's Polarization Densitometer. Another form of subjective densitometer is
the Marten's densitometer, which makes use of the variation in absorption of two polar-
izing prisms as their axes are rotated with respect to one another. A polarizing plate
or crystal, usually designated as a polarizer, is used for the production of a beam of
plane-polarized light. Another polarizing device, called the analyzer, is placed in
alignment with the polarizer. Through the relative rotation of the polarizer and
analyzer, the intensity of the light transmitted by the combination may be controlled.
Figure 15 shows the schematic diagram of the optical parts of the Marten's polari-
zation photometer head, and Fig. 16 shows the complete instrument, including the
arrangement of split-beam illumination. In Fig. 15, "two beams of light enter the
instrument through two circular apertures, and 0', each approximately 6 mm. in
diameter. Both of these beams are polarized by means of the Wollaston prism A,
which splits the light into two components, one of which is polarized in a plane per-
pendicular to that of the plane of polarization of the other. On the upper face of the
Wollaston prism is cemented a Fresnel biprism which forms the photometric field.
The analyzing prism C is of the Nicol type. The lens Li cemented to the lower face
of the Wollaston prism is a field lens, while L2 is the eyepiece lens. The analyzing
prism C is supported so that it may be rotated about the optical axis of the instrument,
its orientation being indicated by the index / reading on a scale *S, which remains in a
fixed position relatiAê to the Wollaston prism A. The photometric field as seen by
the eye placed at the exit pupil of the ejêpiece is circular in shape, divided along a
Fig. 16. —
Section diagram showing construction of Martens polarization densitometer.
The essential parts are: 1, lens for forming an image of subject, M
at apex of biprism; M,
light source diffusing plate; N analyzing Nicol prism; P, photographic plate to be measured;
,
p, prism for reflecting light from M

to eyepiece; q, prism for reflecting light from M through
photographic plate, P, to eyepiece.
diameter bj^ an image of the apex of the biprism B. The field thus consists of two
juxtaposed semicircular areas, the relative brightness of the two being controlled by a
rotation of the analyzer C. One half of this photometric field is illuminated by light
which enters the aperture 0, while the other is illuminated by light which enters the
aperture O'. If the densities of the two beams entering the instrument are equal, the
two halves of the photometric field will be of identical brightness when the index /
reads at 45 degrees on the scale S or at a similar position in each of the other three
quadrants of the graduated scale S. If an absorbing material is placed over one of the
apertures (either or 0') the two parts of the field will no longer be of equal brightness
but by rotating the analj^zer C the brightness can be restored. The relative brightness
of the two parts of the photometric field for any specified angular relationship between
the position of the analyzer and the polarizer may be computed by means of the
tangent-square law. Hence for any setting which has been made to equalize the
brightness of the two fields, after the insertion of the photographic density in one of
the two beams, the magnitude of that density may be directly computed."^
1 Jones, L. A., "Photographic Sensitometry," Eastman Kodak Co. (1934).
The instrument shown in Fig. 16 is usually referred to as the Marten's photometer

head, and in order to construct a satisfactory instrument for the measurement of
density, this must be associated with certain elements suitable for illuminating the
photographic density to be measured and for providing the comparison beam. One
arrangement for the provision of satisfactory illumination is shown in Fig. 16, in which
M represents a ground-glass diffusing surface illuminated to a relatively high level by
some external light source placed to the left of M
in the figure. The total-reflecting
prism p reflects light from M
through one of the apertures in the nosepiece of the
photometer head, thus serving to provide the comparison beam which illuminates
one-half the photometric field. A lens I, mounted as shown just below the nosepiece
of the photometer head, forms an image of M
approximately in the plane occupied by
the apex of the Fresnel biprism. A second total-reflecting prism g reflects light from
M through the other aperture of the nosepiece, thus illuminating the other half of the
photometer field. The photographic plate or film to be measured is placed in the
position as indicated at P. In this arrangement of the Marten's polarization photom-
eter, the illumination of the photographic deposit to be measured is by means of a
semispecular beam of Hght; hence the value of density approaches that of specular
density for the deposit in question. By placing a small disk of white pot-opal glass
immediately below P, be possible to obtain readings of diffuse density. In this
it will
case, it will, of course, be necessary to balance the illumination by the insertion of a

proper amount of absorbing material in the comparison beam reflected by the small
prism p. Under such conditions, it is somewhat difficult to obtain sufficient illumina-
tion to read very high densities with precision. The ground glass M
may, however,
be removed, and by using a light source of high intrinsic brilliancy and a properly
designed optical system, a high concentration of light flux may be obtained on the
opal glass directly underneath P; in this way more satisfactory results may be obtained
in reading high values of diffuse density.
Interpretation of Results. —
It now remains to interpret the results of the exposure,
development, and density-determining processes which we have gone through for our
sensitometric determinations. There are a number of ways in which the results of the
sensitometric process may be interpreted, but generally graphical methods of inter-
pretation are most useful and direct.
H —
and D Characteristic. The most important relation in photography, so far as
concerns the characteristics of photosensitive materials, is that showing the relation
between the exposure of the material and the resulting density of the silver deposit.
This relation is shown in Fig. 17 by means of the familiar characteristic curve or H
—
and D curves, named in honor of Hurter and Driffield early research workers in the
field of photographic sensitometry. This characteristic curve is obtained by giving
the photographic-sensitive material a series of graded exposures, the exposure of one
step bearing a known relation to that of the preceding and succeeding steps. The
density of each step in the developed silver image is then measured and is plotted
against the logarithms (to the base 10) of the corresponding exposures. Because of
the scales used, these characteristic curves are sometimes referred to as the Z)-logio E
curves. One reason for using a logarithmic scale for exposure is because large ranges
of exposure values are encountered, and this wide range could not be compressed con-
veniently into a linear scale. By plotting the density against the logarithm of the
exposure, it is found that the characteristic curve begins by curving upward from the
zero-density axis. An approximately linear region of the curve then usually fol-
lows, especially in the case of negative materials. The curve finally decreases in
slope and, after reaching some maximum value, generally decreases
in density for
extremely large values of exposure. These five regions are commonly known, respec-
tively, as the region of no exposure (AB), the region of under exposure (BC), the
region of correct exposure^ (CD) in which densitj^ is proportional to logio E, the region
of overexposure (DE), and the region of reversal (EF), since in this last region density
decreases rather than increases with increasing exposure.
In the case of many
photographic materials, it has been found experimentally
that a considerable portion of the H
and D curve is represented satisfactorily, within
the limits of experimental error, by a straight line. The linear relation between the
logarithm of the exposure and the density is of utmost importance in the correct
rendering of tone values in black-and-white photography and in the correct rendering
of both tone and color in color photography. For the correct proportional rendering
of the various object brightnesses in the negative, the camera exposure is usually
adjusted so that the straight-line portion of the Z)-logio E curve, i.e., the region
between C and D, is used. For the fulfillment of this condition the minimum density
3.5
2.0 1.0
Log
12
,0
3 4 5 6
Fig. -Typical D-lo E or H and D characteristic curve for photographic materiE

with important regions specified.
in the negative (corresponding to the deepest shadow in the object) must not be less
than that of point B, and the maximum negative density (corresponding to the highest
light in the object)must not exceed that of point E.
Latitude. —Projection
of the points C and D on the two rectangular axes determines
the range in density as well as the exposure range for which linearity between density
and log E exists. The exposure range for which this linearity exists is called the
latitude of the photographic material. Thus latitude is defined to be
E,
L = logio E. login Ex log.o pT (in logio E units) (16)
-C-l
E2
(in exposure units) (17)
Ey
1 The linear portion of the Z)-logio E curve is called the region of correct exposure because it is
usually desired to have the opacity of the negative directly proportional to the exposure. Thus the
u.sually desired condition is that for which = kE. Since D = A -\- logio O, the usually desired
condition requires that relation between density and exposure be
D = A + logio k + logio E = B + logio E

which condition is fulfilled by the linear region of the H and D curve.
Of course, it may sometimes be desired to introduce certain forms of distortion intentionally in
order to attain artistic or other desired effects. In this case, the straight-line portion would not neces-
sarily represent the region of correct exposure.
The latitude of a photographic material is closely related to the maximum contrast

which may be recorded on that material without distortion of tone rendering. For
proper tone rendering the maximum contrast Cmax of a photographic material may be
specified as the difference in densities between the extreme ends of the straight-line
portion of the H and D curve. If D2 is the maximum density corresponding to the
point D on the straight portion and Di is the minimum density on the straight portion
of the curve, the maximum contrast for correct tone rendition is
Cmax = Dz - Dl (18)
But D2 = A + -y logio Eo, and Di = A -\- y logio Ei. Consequently, the maximum
contrast may be expressed in terms of the exposure range, and latitude may be
expressed as
Ei
Cmax = 7 logiu E2 — y logio El = y logio ^ , (19)
= yL (20)
where L is expressed in logio E units. In these equations, 7 is the slope of the straight-
line portion of the D-logio E characteristic. Attention should be directed to the fact
that the L and y for a given photographic material depend upon the characteristics of
material as well as its development. For a given photographic material y depends on
development. The symbols Cmax, L, and y refer only to the straight-line portion or
linear region of the D-logio E curve; the extension and the application of these symbols
to the curved portions of the characteristic is unwarranted.
Gradient and Gamma. —The gradient or slope of the H and D characteristic is
another important factor in specifying the characteristics of photosensitive materials.

The gradient of the D-logio E characteristic is defined as the derivative
G= -^y-, j^
ddogio E)
= tan a (21)
^ '
where, as usual, dD represents a differential increment of density, d(logio E) represents

a differential increment of logio E, and a represents the angle between the character-
istic curve and the abscissa. In general the gradient is not constant. At the extreme
left of the curve, the gradient may begin with a finite value, in the region of under-
exposure, but builds up to a maximum value in the region of correct exposure repre-
sented by the straight line. Beyond the point D
the slope (gradient) continually
decreases in the region of overexposure until at the point E, representing the maximum
density to which the material may be processed, the gradient is zero. Beyond point
E the gradient is negative in the region of reversal.
For the straight-line portion of the curve the gradient of any single characteristic
curve constant and is usually defined in terms of the angle a which the line CD
is
makes with the abscissa. The slope of this straight line is designated as
n =
= trrff
dD =
/-I
ir -jTj
=T- tan a = y = constant (22)
d(logio E)
Since the region between D and C is constant, we may replace the differentials by
finite differences and write
^ ~ A logio E'
^^^^
Thus, if D2 and Di are the density differences corresponding to exposures of E2 and

El (in meter-candle-seconds), then so long as these two points Di-logio Ei and Da-logio
Ei fall on the straight-line portion of the curve, 7 can be calculated from the relation
(I>2 - D,)
(24)
(log! E. - logio El)
(25)
logio Ei/Ei
.\lthough 7 is given as the tangent of the angle a, it should be realized that the true
value of 7 cannot be determined by measuring (by means of a protractor, for example)
the slope of the curve. The reason for this is that the choice of the scales in the
graphical plot affects the slope of the curve as plotted but does not affect the relation
between the corresponding density and exposure values. From this last relation we
are able to calculate, for the straight-line portion of the curve, differences in density
produced by exposure increments, when 7 is known. Thus
AD = 7(A logio £) = Z)2 - Di = 7(logiu ~\ (26)
Inertia. —The extension of the straight line DC to the axis of density

defines the inertia of the photographic material. The inertia i thus represents the
Fig. 18.- -Family of i)-logio E curves for different times of development. The 7 cor-
responding to the development time T is specified for each curve.
minimum exposure which produces a deposit of silver, under the assumption that the
H and D is a straight line down to zero density.
characteristic
So far we have been considering a single D-logio E curve which, for purposes of
simplicity, has been somewhat idealized. However, it has already been mentioned
that the particular H and D curve for a given material depends, not only on the
photographic material itself, but also on the processing conditions. Furthermore,
certain of the idealized conditions which have been implicitly assumed do not always
occur in practice, and the deviation from the ideal case requires further study.
To study the effects of nonidealized conditions and of processing on the character-
istics of photographic sensitive materials, consider the family of and curves of H D
Fig. 18. These curves represent a series of Z)-logio E curves as might be obtained for
some practical photographic material. The region of reversal is not included in these
curves, as it is no practical importance.
of
The various individual curves of the family of Fig. 18 have been plotted for varying
times of development. The lowest curve is for a development time of 2 min., and the
highest curve represents development time of 15 min.
The finite density for very low values of exposure represents density due to
development and other types of fog. It is at once apparent, as might be expected,
that the fog density increases with the time of development. Although fog occurs in
all practical cases (it may be relatively low for certain types of emulsions), fog does
not contribute anything useful to the image but merely provides a deposit of silver
uniformly over the surface. For this reason the curves often published by manu-
facturers are "corrected for fog" by subtracting the amount of fog density — assumed
—
constant for all values of exposure ^from the measured density at any specified
3.0
2.0
1.0
infinity. The value of gamma infinit}' is of considerable significance in both the

practical and theoretical aspects of sensitometry.
The time-gamma curves are often useful in the processing of photographic mate-
rials. has already been indicated that a desirable relation between the density of
It
the silver deposit and the brightness of the image is attained for a value of gamma
equal to unity. Therefore, if a time-gamma curve for a particular type of photo-
sensitive material and developer is available, reference to the y-Td curve will indicate
immediately the development time required to give this value of gamma. The time-
gamma curv'ês for the same photographic material for two values of k are given in Fig.
19. The ultimate value of gamma attained, however, -/„, is shown as being the same
in both cases, although this is not always necessarily true.
If development proceeds in accordance with a simple law of physical chemistry,
as it does for many materials, at least approximately, it can be shown that, theoretically,
the time-gamma curve is related to the maximum value of gamma through the
equation
7 = T»(l - e-i^) (27)
where k = the constant of development;

t = the time of development;
7„ = the maximum value of gamma to which the photographic material can be
developed.
This equation holds for many tj'^pes of materials, although the validity of these
theoretical relationships in practice depends upon the degree to which the actual H
and Dcurve conforms with the theoretical or ideal familj^ of H and D curves.
this last equation, the value of y^ can be determined if we know the value of
From
7 which is obtained for a development time t, when development has been carried
on with a developer whose development constant is k. Thus
T« = :r^^ (28)
Often, however, the value of the development constant is not known with sufficient
precision to be useful in the above equation for the determination of gamma infinity.
In such cases 7« may
be determined from the measurements made on two density
strips, both of which have been processed together in the same solution, but for differ-
ent lengths of time. For these conditions, we have, for the first sensitometric strips
processed for time ti,
7, = 7=c(l - e-**i) (29)
and for the second strip developed for time t^,
72 = 7cc(l - e-^-.) (30)
If we process the second strip twice as long as the first strip, then t2 = 2ii, and the
equation for 72 becomes
72 = 7»(1 - e-^'^'i) = 7«[1 - {e-''h)^] (31)
Combining these two equations for 71 and 72, we obtain

72 — 71 -— n — kt ,
(32)
71
from which the development constant is found to be,
A- = 1 log, ( 'L\ (33)

t\ \72 — 71/
—
Certain development characteristics of any particular photographic material may

be deduced from the values of 7 and k. The following table is prepared from material
on this subject by L. A. Jones.
Table IV. Effect of k and y on

recent introduction of practical forms of color films also makes desirable a treatment
of spectral sensitivity of photographic materials.
A knowledge of the way in which sensitivity of photographic materials is dis-
tributed throughout the spectrum is of importance from the practical as well as the
theoretical points of view. In monochrome photography the spectral sensitivity of
the negative material completely governs the monochrome brightness of the colors
in the original image, although filters may be used to modify spectral characteristics
of the negative. The rendition of color in color photographic processes is determined
largely by the spectral sensitivity of the negative material. It is well known, for
example, that in black-and-white photography fairly pure red, orange and yellow
are rendered in about the same tone value as black with ordinary blue-sensitive mate-
rials. In the case of some panchromatic materials which have been rendered very
sensitive to the longer wavelengths of visible radiations, these same colors may be
rendered as almost white. The correct rendering of colored objects on the black-to-
white tone scale, which represents the entire discrimination gamut of the photographic
process, is conditioned almost entirely by the spectral sensitivity of the material.
It is evident, therefore, that a knowledge of the spectral sensitivity characteristic
of photographic materials which determines responses such as are mentioned above,
is of great importance wherever monochrome or color rendering of colored objects
is to be considered.
A brief outline of the historical development of the determination of spectral
sensitivity is given by Jones. ^
—
Methods of Determining Color Response. All the available methods used
for determining the spectral sensitivity or color response of photographic materials
involve the isolation of more or less narrow spectral bands. These bands are then
impressed on the photographic material under specified exposure conditions. The
response produced photosensitive material is exposed to these more or less
when the
homogeneous radiations then observed either qualitatively or quantitatively. For
is
this observation a wide variety of spectral instruments has been devised. Suitable
instruments include monochromatic sensitometers, spectrographs, tricolor tablets,
ratiometers, color charts, and filter assemblies. The methods for producing the
required spectral bands may be grouped into (1) methods and
dispersion radiation
(2) methods using filters and white methods make use of some
light. The dispersion
suitable dispersion element such as a prism or grating and may be roughly classified
into two types, depending upon what proportion of the spectrum acts on the photo-
graphic material at a given time. In one classification, only a narrow band of the
spectrum is exposed to the photosensitive material, and the type of instrument used to
provide the necessary narrow band of radiant energy is a monochromatic sensitometer.
In the other classification, which may make use of a spectrograph, the entire visible
— —
spectrum or a fairly large part of the spectrum may be used in exposing the photo-
graphic material. Since the method of operation is different and since the results in
these two cases are expressible in different ways, it seems desirable to give some
brief consideration to these two dispersion methods.
Dispersion ilethod Using Monochromatic Sensitometer. —
In the dispersion method
using a monochromatic sensitometer, radiation of high spectral purity as obtained —
—
from a grating, prism, or double prism is permitted to expose the photographic mate-
rial forvarying lengths of time, corresponding to varying exposvires. The time of
exposure is varied by some suitable mechanism, a satisfactory method being that in
which a slotted sector disk provides varying exposures when it is rotated. A mono-
chromatic sensitometer operating on this principle and described by Jones and Sand-
1 JoNiBS, L. A., "Photographic Sensitometry," Eastman Kodak Co. (1934).

vik^, makes use of a disk so cut as to produce 12 exposures, each of which is twice the
duration of the preceding one. The total range of exposures is 2048 to 1 for a com-
plete rotation of this disk. The absolute values of exposure are determined by the
velocity with which the disk rotates and the intensity of the energy impinging upon
the plate. The radiant energy acting upon the photographic plateis measured by
means same plane as that of the material being exposed.

of a thermopile placed in the
Except for the radiation-dispersion system and the greater sensitivity and refine-
ments necessary because monochromatic rather than heterochromatic radiations
are being measured, the monochromatic sensitometer is similar to the ordinary
sensitometer; the exposed test strips obtained are similar to those of the ordinary type
of sensitometer. The exposed strip is developed under standardized conditions, and
the densities corresponding to the various exposure conditions are determined in the
manner already described. Where it is necessary to study the effects of developing
conditions, a series of strips is made under identical exposure conditions,but the
conditions of development are altered as maybe required. With a series of such
strips, representing various conditions of exposure and development at any given
monochromatic radiation, the characteristics of the photographic material for that
radiation may be determined. By making other observations at different wave-
lengths, the complete wavelength-exposure-density characteristics of the material
may be determined. The results may be plotted in the usual manner as a family of
Z)-logio E characteristics or as gamma-development time curves except for the manner
in which the radiant energy of exposure is specified.
In the ordinary methods of sensitometry, exposure values are given in terms of
the meter-candle-second for a white light source. A white light source has no signifi-
cance in monochromatic sensitometry, so that some other unit of measurement is
needed. The unit of exposure which has been most widely adapted for this purpose is
the erg. Since the photographic material integrates more or less perfectly the energy
which falls upon it over a period of time, it is necessary, of course, to include the time
factor, and in expressing photographic exposure in energy units it is necessary to
multiply the rate at which energy falls upon the surface (radiant flux density) by the
time during which the exposure persists. Exposure, therefore, must be expressed in
terms of ergs (or other suitable energy units) per unit area.
The monochromatic sensitometric data may be plotted in the usual manner except
that curves for each monochromatic radiation will be obtained instead of a single set
of data corresponding to white light radiation. If several H and D curves are
plotted for varying wavelengths of monochromatic radiation, it will be found that the
Z)-logio E curves vary, depending upon the wavelength at which measurements were
determined. If families of D-logio E curves are available, the characteristics of the
photographic material may be plotted as a function of the wavelength of radiation.
The curve of Fig. 20 shows the gamma versus wavelength plot for varying develop-
ment conditions, whereas Fig. 21 shows a family of H and D curves, one curve being
determined for each of several wavelengths of monochromatic radiation.
With a set of data available showing density and gamma as a function of exposure,
developing conditions, and various monochromatic radiations, it is possible to deter-
mine the relative spectral sensitivity of the material. Several possible methods are
available for expressing spectral sensitivity. We might, for example, compute spectral
sensitivity in terms of the reciprocal inertia for variousmonochromatic radiation
measurements in much the same way as sensitivity for a white light source is specified
in the H and D system. We might define spectral sensitivity in terms of the energy
required to give a specified value of density (say unity) for a fixed time of development,
Jones, L. A., and O. Sandvik, Spectral Distribution of Sensitivity of Photographic Materials,
J. Optical Soe. Am., 12, 401, 484 (1926).
but the results in this case will not be directly comparable with those determined in
the first instance.
For theoretical purposes there is considerable argument for defining spectral
sensitivity in terms of the energy required to give a densitj^ of unity when development
1.6
1.4
^ 1.2
1^ 1.0
E
(B
as
0.4
Q2
300 400 500 600 700

Fig. 20. —Typical curves showing the variation of y with the wavelength of light, for the
development times indicated. The wavelengths of light are measured in millimicrons.
2.8
Z4
20
_^ 1.6
"w
c
0.8
0.4
-2.0 -1.4 -1.8 0.2 0.6 04 08

Log 10 E (ergs/cm 2;
Fig. 21. —
Z)-logio E characteristics of typical negative material, measured at four different
wavelengths, for identical processing conditions. In general the y increases with the wave-
length, and this fact has important practical considerations in color photography.
etric strip exposed to white light a gamma approximately equal to that at which the
material usually developed in practice.
is In Fig. 20 is shown a spectral-sensitivity
curve determined in this manner. This is for high-speed panchromatic motion-
picture film, the development time used being that which gives a gamma of 0.7 on a
white-light sensitometric strip.
"It should be borne in mind that the spectral sensitivity curve, when plotted in
accordance with the specifications given in this section, represents the characteristics
of the photographic material itself, quite apart from any consideration of the energy
distribution in the light source used."'^ The curve of Fig. 20 shows the spectral
sensitivity when used with a hypothetical light source emitting equal amounts of
energy at all wavelengths, and corresponding, therefore, to ideal white light. If it is
desired to determine the effective spectral response when used with some other light
source in which the spectral-energy distribution deviated from this equal-energy
distribution, it will be necessary to compute a new family of characteristic curves
showing the effective spectral sensitivity of the photographic material when used with
the desired light source. These effective spectral sensitivity curves may be computed
'ffrachbr
Neuiral
wedge^ ShuHer
/Condenser
' iSource
Fig. 22. —Optical system for wedge spectrograph for making determinations of spectral
sensitivity of films when used with specified light source. This method does not determine
absolute film characteristics, but relates them to the light source employed in making the
measurements.
from the spectral sensitivity for curves of an ideal white light source and the curve
of spectral-energy distribution of the light source actually used. The method of
determining spectral sensitivity by means of monochromatic sensitometers, although
precise, is tedious and time consuming.
Dispersion Methods Using Wedges with Spectroscopes. —
More rapid, although less
accurate, methods of determining the relative spectral response characteristics of
photographic materials have been devised in which a spectrum, such as that from a
prism or grating, is permitted to fall on a film after having passed through a neutral
density wedge of constant gradient. The wedge is so placed with respect to the
spectrum that it attenuates all portions of the spectrum equally well. This is accom-
plished by spreading out the spectrum in one direction and by placing the wedge so
that its density contours are perpendicular to the wavelength scale. Figure 22
shows the essential elements in such a wedge spectrogram method of determining the
spectral characteristics of emulsions.
The wedge spectrogram method has the advantage of speed and simplicity
and gives in graphic form good indications of the relative spectral sensitivity of
the photographic material. A typical wedge spectrogram is shown in Fig. 23,
' Jones, L. A., "Photographic Seiisitometry," Eastman Kodak Co. (1934).
from which wUl be seen that the transition edges are not sharply defined. By mak-
it
ing a series of successive positive and negative prints of the original wedge spectro-
gram, using photographic materials and developers producing high contrast, it is
possible to sharpen this edge to obtain a negative or positive in which this edge is
rather clearly defined. This procedure is seldom used, however, for it is customary
to inspect the results directly from the original wedge spectrogram, determining from
this visual inspection the relative sensitivity at various wavelengths. In the original
wedge spectrogram, the relative sensitivity will be indicated by the amount of silver
deposit and the extent of blackening of the negative; the examples shown are prints
made from original wedge-spectrogram negatives.
It should be noted that the results obtained in this case represent, not only the
spectral-sensitivity characteristics of the photographic material, but the combined
results of the photographic sensitivity and the spectral-energy distribution of the light
source. Thus, the wedge spectrogram represents the spectral photicity of the mate-
rial for the given light source and provides curves which are at variance with those
which may be obtained by methods using monochromatic sensitometers.
Typical wedge spectrogram for panchromatic material.
The wedge used over the slit in Fig. 22 has a linear and constant density gradient,
and therefore the distribution of radiation along the slit increases logarithmically
from one end of the slit to the other. The resultant envelope curves are thus logarith-
mic in form and cannot be compared directly with the curves obtained by mono-
chromatic sensitometric methods. It should also be kept in mind that, if the wedge
is not completely a neutral gray over the range of wavelengths for which the light
source produces radiations and the photographic material is sensitive, then the over-
all wedge spectrograms will be affected by the selective absorption of the wedge. For
wavelengths below about 450 mju wedges have appreciable selective absorption, so that
the apparent decrease in sensitivity of photographic materials at the short visible
wavelengths is partly due to selective absorption of the wedge.
Stepped wedges, rather than constant-gradient wedges, have also been used and
have been found to be useful where it is desired to make density measurements directly
from such spectrograms. If the wedge is removed completely, the density of the
silver deposit will give an indication of the spectral sensitivity of the photographic
material when used with the given light source. In this case, measurements of the
amount of silver deposit at various wavelengths by means of a microdensitometer
enable spectral-photicity curves to be obtained.
Selective Absorption Methods. — The spectral sensitivity of a photographic material
as determined by the methods of monochromatic sensitometry and by the usual
spectrographic technique is most conveniently and almost necessarily expressed
graphically, the usual mode being a curve showing sensitivity as a function of wave
length. It isalmost impossible to express the information relative to the spectral
sensitivity as derived by these methods in brief numerical terms. It is frequently
desirable to sacrifice some of the precision of the methods already discussed for less
precise methods in order to obtain a more simple specification expressible in a few

numerical terms of the spectral sensitivity of the photographic material. A common
numerical method of specifying the color sensitivity makes use of the relative sensitiv-
ity of the photographic material to a fairly wide range of wavelengths in a given region
of the visible spectrum. In order to isolate the desired regions of the spectrum, selec-
tive filters are commonly employed.
Probably the most widely used and the most useful method of this type involves the
use of three filters having such selective absorption characteristics as to divide the
spectrum into three broad bands, each having approximately the same range of wave-
lengths. In the ideal case a set of tricolor filters for this type of work might have
complete transmission between the ranges of 400 to 500 myu, 500 to 600 mû, and 600 to
700 ran, respectively, with very sharp cutoffs and complete absorption outside the
three transmission ranges. Such filters would not diminish the intensity of the light
in their transmission band because of the ideal transmission characteristics which
have been assumed. By exposing four test strips of a given photographic material
to a given light source properly, a tricolor specification for the spectral photicity of the
photographic material may be obtained. In order to do this, one of the test strips
should be exposed through each of the three tricolor filters, while the fourth strip
should be exposed directly to the light source without the use of any filter. The test
strips are processed in the usual manner, and the density of silver deposit on the four
strips is determined. The test strip for which no filter was provided will be the
densest, since all the spectral energy of the light source fell upon it. Let the density
of this test strip be Do. Let the density of the test strips be Di, Dz, and D3, for the
and red filters whose transmission bands are 400 to 500 ran, 500 to 600 mû,
green, blue,
and 600 m^, respectively. Then the tricolor sensitivity of the photographic
to 700
material (when used with the given light source) may be determined as follows:
^ = 5i (38)
^ = S2 (39)
^ = Ss (40)
In practice, of course, such ideal filters as have been assumed do not exist and do
not transmit unabsorbed all wavelengths in their transmission bands. Because of the
absorption in the transmission band, it is necessary to multiply the ideal factors or
sensitivities, as given above, by multiplying factors Ki, Ki, and i^s (each less than
unity), which factors represent the mean transmission of the practical filter in the
transmission region.
A typical such as might be used for determining the
set of filters for tricolor work,
tricolor sensitivity of photographic materials, are the Wratten No. 25, Wratten
No. 58, and Wratten No. 49 filters. The approximate factors for these filters are,
respectively, K\ = 0.8, Ki = 0.3, and K3 = 0.15. Consequently, if these filters are
used with the four test strips to give a specification of the tricolor sensitivity of photo-
graphic materials used with a given light source, the sensitivities may be expressed as
^-S^ (41)
^' = S, (42)
^ = Ss (43)
Here, as with the case of the spectral sensitivity determined by means of the wedge
spectrograph, the results obtained are the spectral photicity of the material, i.e., the
relative sensitivity evaluated according to the light source used in the measurements,
rather than the absolute sensitivity of the photographic material. However, it is
ordinarily the spectral photicity, rather than the absolute spectral sensitivity of the
material, which is of greater practical importance.
The method of determining the tricolor sensitivity of a photographic material
through the use of three filters which divide the spectrum into three approximately
equal broad bands may be extended, if desired, so that the spectral response at more
than three points may be determined. The procedure is the same as that already
outlined, except that more filters (usually "monochromatic" filters) are used to
determine the relative response at various wavelengths. Comparison with the test
strip for which no filter was used will enable the relative sensitivity to be determined
for the wavelength band which the filter transmits. The results obtained in this
manner can be expressed numerically, but the method becomes laborious and time
consuming and is not very precise.
A similar method of determining the relative spectral-response characteristic of
photographic materials is available through the use of progressive cut filters, which
may be used to isolate various regions of the spectrum for the determination of the
relative spectral response in the transmission range. The disadvantages of this sj^stem
are similar to those enumerated above. This method has been used where a mono-
chromatic spectrophotometer or a wedge spectrograph is not available but otherwise
has little practical use.
—
Speed or Sensitivity. By speed or sensitivity of a photosensitive material is meant
the amount of radiant energy required to produce a stipulated density or density
difference. It has already been mentioned that the characteristics of the Z)-logio E
curve depend to a marked extent upon the processing to which the photographic mate-
rial is subjected. For the complete specification of the H and D characteristics of a
photographic material, a family of Z)-logio E curves is required. Therefore it is
evident that no single numeric or "figure of merit" can completely and adequately
specify the characteristics of the material. Nevertheless, several difiêrent methods of
expressing sensitivity or speed by means have been developed and
of a single quantity
are more or lesswidely used in this country as well as in Europe. Because of the
fact that the true speed and sensitivity of the material depends upon the processing and
because the processing conditions in actual use frequently differ widely from those for
which the speed determinations were made, the absolute values of film speeds have
little significance. Relative speeds, as determined by the same manufacturer for
different types of emulsions of his manufacture, have somewhat greater significance.
Speed ratings of one manufacturer may not be comparable with those of another.
It should be pointed out that the comparison of various types of photographic
sensitive materials on a basis of speed or sensitivity is a problem which not only is
difficult but which has not yet been completely and satisfactorilj^ solved. Several
methods of determining speed or sensitiâty of photosensitive materials are available,
and each s.ystem has its advantages and shortcomings. In most of the systems the
speed rating is affected by conditions of processing, and this introduces complications
of a practical nature, tending to mitigate against too wide dissemination of speed
ratings by manufacturers who find themselves in a competitive field. Because of the
lack of any generally accepted and recognized standard of speed, manufacturers are
sometimes reluctant to give speed ratings of their photographic materials. Moreover,
the various methods of rating speed do not give comparable results, and for this
reason, the tables of film speeds which are published should be regarded merely as
qualitative and approximate.
Several methods for assigning to every kind of emulsion an arbitrary number to

its relative speed have been devised.
serve as an index of In each system the number
increases with the speed or sensitivity of the emulsion, but the different systems are
rather inconsistent and do not produce results which are comparable with one another
because of the different speed criteria used. The most widely used systems for deter-
mining sensitivity of emulsions are based on:
1. The threshold speed, which was the earliest method of specifying film or plate
characteristics.
2. Inertia speed, a later method introduced by Hurter and Driffield.
3. Latitude-inertia speed, which is coming more and more into common use.
4. Minimum useful gradient speed.
2.0
The Scheiner ratings are derived from the Scheiner type of sensitometer which
employs a sector wheel having a continuously graded, rather than a stepped, exposure
variation. The aperture of the original Scheiner sensitometer was bounded by a
continuous logarithmic curve arranged so that the maximum aperture was 100 times
as large as the minimum. A linear scale, divided from 1 to 20 in equally spaced
imits, was placed along the slot aperture, so that the 20 sensitometric steps corre-
sponded to a sensitivity or speed range of 100 to 1. This scale was placed between
the rotating sector of the sensitometer and the photosensitive material, so that the
images of reference cross lines, together with the Scheiner numbers, appeared on the
plate after exposure and development of the sensitometric strip. Because of this
arrangement the Scheiner speed scale consists of numbers in arithmetic progression
from 1 to 20, corresponding to a speed or sensitivity range of from 1 to 100. In the
Scheiner type of sensitometer the larger numbers represent denser deposits of silver
produced during exposure. The speed or sensitivity of the material was expressed
by the densest line or number which could be read. The relative sensitivity given
by any specified number in the Scheiner rating is 1.27 times as great as the sensitivity
represented by the next lower number in the Scheiner scale.
The Austrian Eder-Hecht speed is similar to the German Scheiner rating in that an
arithmetic progression of the speed numbers represents a geometric progression of
relative sensitivity or speed.The Eder-Hecht sensitometer consists of a continuously
graduated density wedge, behind which the photosensitive material is placed for an
exposure of specified intensity and duration. Across this wedge, lines representing
density contours are ruled. The lines are numbered so that the greatest density of
the Eder-Hecht wedge is represented by the largest numbers. The density gradient
of the Eder-Hecht wedge is stated by Jones to be 0.4 density units per centimeter but
the tablets are not very precise and discrepancies between wedge calibration is fre-
quent. If it is assumed that the wedge has a uniform density gradient, an arithmetic
progression of speed numbers represents a geometric progression of relative sensitivity
or speed. In this respect, at least, the Scheiner and Eder-Hecht ratings are similar.
However, the actual numbers used to designate the sensitivity of a particular film in
the two systems are considerably at variance.
Although the method of sensitometry which makes use of the minimum detectable
deposit of density is simple and requires no sensitometric measuring equipment, the
system is not a very satisfactory one and has several inherent and serious disadvan-
tages. The main objection to this system is that it is difficult to determine the
exposure for which a "just detectable" density is produced. Even if it were not
difficult to determine minimum detectable density, the shape of the D-logio E curve is
such that the point Es of Fig. 24 cannot be determined accurately. Furthermore the
speed rating is determined from the characteristics of the Z)-logio E curve at the foot
of the curve corresponding to underexposure. The ratings based on minimum
detectable density differences consequently do not give any information for the region
of correct exposure, nor do they give any information relating to the extreme upper
portions of the H and D curve. It is perfectly possible, therefore, that the minimum
detectable density may be due to fog rather than intentional exposure. It is also
possible for two emulsions having widely varying Z)-logio E curves to produce fog
density at the same minimum exposure. Thus, whereas the two films might bear the
same Scheiner or Eder-Hecht ratings, their D-logio E characteristics could easily be
quite dissimilar. The Scheiner rating system has found extensive use, especially in
Europe, despite its obvious disadvantages.
A modification of the threshold-sensitivity method which overcomes the difficulty
of determining the minimum detectable density is the Deutsche Industrial Normal
rating system. This is usually referred to as the DIN system. According to the
DIN system, the reference value adopted is the exposure required to produce a density
of 0.1, an opacity of 1.26 or a transmission of 0.79, represented by the point Ed on
i.e.,
the curve of Fig. 24 when the test strip is subjected to a specific development pro-
cedure. This criterion obviates the first objection to the Scheiner and Eder-Hecht
systems, since it determines the index from a precise, definitely specified and measured
density rather than from an estimation of barely perceptible fogging. In practice the
emulsion is exposed through a step wedge, which is a plate in which successive steps
differ in density by a constant amount. The various steps are numbered, and the
number corresponding to the step which produces a density of 0.1 is the DIN number.
Like the Scheiner and Eder-Hecht systems, however, the DIN system ignores the
general form of the D-logio E curve. The DIN rating is based upon data taken in the
region of underexposure. The speed numbers are determined through the use of
developing technique which gives the greatest film sensitivity.
Inertia-speed Ratings. —A considerable improvement over the threshold sensi-
tivity of specifying emulsion speedwas made by Hurter and Driffield, who suggested
that the speed of a photographic material could be specified satisfactorily in terms of
its inertia. Thus they adopted as their criterion of speed the exposure indicated by
the extension of the straight-line portion of the D-log E
curve to the axis of zero den-
sity, the corresponding exposure being the inertia of the photosensitive material.
By so doing, they took into account the shape of the H
and D curve in the region of
correct exposure. The exposure Eh of Fig. 24, corresponding to the extension of the
linear portion of the D-\og E curve to the exposure axis, is called the "inertia" of the
emulsion, and the inertia value is frequently referred to as i. Hurter and Driffield
proposed to specify the speed or sensitivity S by the relation
S =i (44)
where i = the inertia of the photographic material Eh',
k = an arbitrarily^ determined constant.

Hurter and Driffield originally chose the value 34 for k since, at the time they made
their researches, this figure gave speed values for practical materials which were
convenient in magnitude. However, other values for k have been used, the number
10 being in common use.
Hurter and Driffield used the inertia as a measure of film speed since they took this
point to be indicative of the beginning of the region of correct exposure and proper
tone rendition. The H
and D speed rating is, therefore, a system of numbers pro-
portional to the inertia values through the factor k. An essential difference between
the Hurter and Driffield system and the methods based on threshold speeds is that the
inertia is determined from measurements at several points on the curve, while in the
threshold or one-tenth-density systems, sensitivity is determined from a single observa-
tion. In this respect the H and D system is the more rational procedure since the
Scheiner, Eder-Hecht, and DIN systems ignore the linear portion of the curve.
However, the H
and D system gives no indication of the latitude or exposure range of
the photographic material.
Figure 25 shows how two emulsions could have the same threshold but different
inertia. Thus, according to the Scheiner system, both would have the same speed,
while, according to the H and D system, one emulsion would be much faster than
the other. On the other hand, the H and D system ignores completely the foot of
the curve. However, there are times when it is desirable to permit a portion of the
image to extend into this region. In the H and D system the relation of speed to
index number is linear, while in the Scheiner system it is not. Thus, 26° Scheiner
indicates a speed twice that of the 23° Scheiner, while 1300 H and D is twice as fast as
650 H and D.
The Watkins speed scale, like the H and D, is based on the inertia of the photo-
graphic material but uses for k the number 68
instead of 34 chosen by Hurter and Driffield
or the value 10 frequently used in the United
States. However, L. A. Jones (" Photographic
Sensitometry") reports that the Watkins con-
stant, as determined from measurements on
emulsions, is more nearly 50 than 68.
The Wynne system is another one of
several in which plate speed is specified in
terms of inertia and differs from the others in
the units selected for the specification of film
or plate speed. The numbers of the Wynne
Log.oE system are expressed in terms of lens aperture,
Fig. 25. —
D-logio E curves showing as indicated by the symbol F which precedes
that two emulsions might have the same
the Wynne speed number. The Wynne
threshold speed (as determined by the
point at which their curves reach the ratings are proportional to the square root of
abscissa) but quite different inertia the Watkins number multiplied by 6.4. Thus
values. The differences are due to the a Watkins speed of 64 corresponds to a Wynne
curvature of the toe of the curves.
speed of 51.2.
For many purposes and under many
conditions, the expression of speed in terms of
inertia is of great value. As long as all the straight-line portions of a family of
D-logio E curves pass through a common intersection point which lies on the logio E
axis, inertia and hence speed are independent of development time. Under such
Fig. 26. —
D-logio E curves with depressed common intersection point, illustrating
that the inertia speed of a film may depend upon the degree of development which it
receives.
conditions the speed becomes a very significant constant for the photographic material.
Unfortunately, the existence of a common intersection point lying upon the logio E
axis is frequently not found in practice. In most cases of normal development a
common intersection point is found, provided that proper corrections have been made
for fog. This intersection point very frequently lies below the logio E axis and in
relatively rare cases is located aboye that axis. for the moment that a
Assuming
common intersection point does exist, its coordinates may
be represented by a and b as
shown in Fig. 26, and it has been proposed to define the speed of the material in terms
of the coordinates of this point. Under such conditions it is evident that the inertia is
a function of gamma, and hence speed based upon inertia value will become a function
of gamma. A speed value of this nature can only be significant provided the corre-
sponding gamma value is specified. For the purpose of certain theoretical investiga-
tions into the nature of exposure and development, a knowledge of the coordinates
of the intersection point, as shown in Fig. 26, may be of great value, but it does not
appear to be very significant for the purpose of determining the practical speeds.
Another difficulty with this method of specifying emulsion speeds is that some
photographic materials do not have a common point of intersection for the various
D-logio E curves, and some materials —especially some positive printing papers^ —do
not have a very satisfactory straight-line relation between density and the logarithm
of the exposure. There is also a wide divergence in the relative shape of the curve
in the region of underexposure.
Latitude-inertia Method of Speed Determination. —
A modification of the inertia-
speed ratings, which is in reality another method of rating film speed, is the method
in which the speed is specified in terms of the inertia as well as the latitude of the
emulsion.
In the Weston system of film-speed rating, which has found wide acceptance in the
United States, the speed is determined from the D-logio E characteristic of the film,
processed to the value of gamma most frequently encountered in practice for that
particular type of film. As shown in Fig. 24, the Weston film-speed number S is given
by
S = ^-^^ (45)
where logio Ew, determined from the characteristic curve, is chosen to be numerically
equal to the gamma of the curve, i.e., logio E^.
Minimum Useful Gradient Speed. —Another method of specifying speed or sensi-
tivity is based on some minimum useful gradient or slope of the D-logio E characteristic
curve. When considered that the chief functions of a photographic negative
it is
material as used in practice is to reproduce as density differences the brightness differ-

ences existing in the object photographed, it seems logical to demand that the mini-
mum useful exposure be determined by some specified gradient of the Z)-logio E
characteristic.
A system has been suggested that allows for the actual usefulness of the upper
part of the region of strict underexposure as the Weston system does not and
the H —
and D does only accidentally but allowing for it in a manner that avoids the
dangers of the Scheiner and DIN systems. In this realistic approach to the problem
of speed rating, the measure of sufficient exposure would be that exposure for which
the rate of increase of density with increasing logio E first reaches a certain fraction
of the rate found in the linear portion. This fraction would be the fraction of the
proper contrast shown in the (strictly underexposed) deepest shadows, in an otherwise
perfect negative exposed to the predetermined minimum useful gradient.
The difficulty with such a system is in the matter of deciding upon the value which
is to be taken as representing the minimum useful gradient. According to Sheppard,
the minimum useful gradient will in general depend not only upon the negative but
also upon the positive aspect of tone reproduction, so that its fixation is not expressible
by a unique function of the negative material itself.
Nevertheless, the Eastman Kodak Co. has recently adopted a method of film-
speed rating based on minimum useful gradient. ^ This method involves drawing the
characteristic curve, and selecting the exposures at which the slope (or gradient) of
the curves is 0.3 that of the average gradient for a log exposure range of 1.5, the origin
of this exposure range being taken at the threshold value.
—
Comparison of Speed Ratings in Common Use. Before closing the subject of the
speed or sensitivity ratings of photographic materials, it may be well to compare the
ratings of the various methods in common use. Such a comparison between ratings
based on various modes of determining speed has no justification, from theoretical
considerations. But intercomparisons of the various film-speed ratings has some
practical utility, in these daj^s of elaborate exposure meters, when the
film speed is
given in one mode of rating and the exposure-determining device
based on some is
other system. The practical photographer is then faced with the problem of deter-
mining the method of transposing from one system to another.
Appendix B gives the comparative ratings of the more important film-speed rat-
ings in use at the present time. The data in this table may be considered to represent
average conditions fairly well. The characteristics of some particular emulsion in
question may be such as to prohibit use of this Appendix B for comparisons with any
degree of precision. Consequently, for any specific situation, the translation from
one speed rating to another can be used only as a rough approximation or as a guide to
the correct order of magnitude.
—
Some Practical Applications of Sensitometry. In its scientific aspects, photo-
graphic sensitometry is of considerably more importance to the manufacturer of photo-
graphic materials, the motion-picture laboratory technician, the astronomer, the
physicist, the color engraver, and the advanced worker in color photography than to
the commercial or amateur photographer. Yet even the least scientifically inclined
photographer makes some use of sensitometric principles when he makes a successful
negative or print, and a complete understanding of the significance and technique of
sensitometry will aid in making better photographs. It is the purpose of this section
to discuss some of the more practical aspects of sensitometry and the application of
sensitometric concepts to the making of photographs having proper monochrome
rendition of tone.
Characteristics of Negatives. —
It has been shown that the D-logio E characteristic
is one of the most important in specifying the stimulus-response relation of photo-
graphic materials, especially if we limit ourselves to a discussion of monochrome
photography. This characteristic may be used in a qualitative sort of way, to detect
defects in exposure or processing of negative materials. The methods for so doing
may be applied by anyone who has a proper understanding of the philosophical signifi-
cance of photographic sensitometrj'-, even though he does not possess measuring
equipment.
In exposing a negative, the relation between the brightness of the original subject
being photographed and the brightness of the film when viewed by transmitted light
has been reversed; it is for this reason that the film is called a negative. The brighter
the original subject, the darker (the more dense) will be the resulting negative, for the
same time of exposure. Similarly, the brighter portions of the subject will show up on
the negative as denser or more opaque portions in the representation of the original
subject. There is consequently some sort of correspondence between the brightness of
the elementary areas of the original subject and the opacities of the corresponding areas
as seen in the negative. In order that the negative may portray properly the original
subject, it is necessary that the brightness of the elementary areas of the original subject
be directly proportional to the opacity of the corresponding elementary areas as
1 Clark, Walter, The Problem of Film Speeds, Photo Technique, 1, 12 (1939).
photographed on the negative. If we designate by J? 2 the brightness of the brightest

part of the original image and by Bi the brightness of the darkest elementary area of
the original image and if we designate the opacities of the corresponding elementary
areas by O2 and Oi and the transmission by Ti and Ti, respectively, then we require
that the condition of proper photographic reproduction be such that
B2 AO2 = ~ (46)
and
B^ = AOi = (47)
Ti
where A is a proportionality constant. The brightness range of the original subject is
AB = B% — Bi, and the opacity range of the corresponding subject as photographed as

AO = AO1 — A0\. Therefore, the relation between the brightness range of the
original image and the image as photographs is such that
AB = A{a0) (48)
These relations show that for accurate rendition of tone values in monochrome, the
brightness and the brightness range of the original image must be rendered on the
negative as proportional opacities and opacity
ranges, respectively.
If we plot a curve of the brightness and opac-
ity of the original and photographed images on
rectangular coordinates, as in Fig. 27, we obtain
a straight line for the region of correct exposure.
But the brightness of the original image deter-
mines the exposure which is given to the photo-
graphic material so that we might, if we chose,
plot Fig. 27 with exposure as the abscissas rather
than the brightness. We would then have a Yiq. 27. —
Opacity of negative
graph showing a straight-line relationship between material as a function of the bright-
the exposure of the original image and the opacity êss of the subject being photo-
j. , , ,J , 1 graphed. The curve greatly re-
of the photographed image.
^^^^^^^ ^^^ ^^pi^^^ Z)-logio ^
Let us go one step farther and, mstead of characteristic,
plotting the exposure and the opacity, plot the
logarithms of these values on cross-section paper. The resultant graph would then
have as its ordinates logio 0, which by definition is the density, and would have
as its abscissas logio E. We find that this new plot is, consequently, merely the
straight-line portion of the H and D characteristic, and we may immediately draw the
conclusion that for properly rendering tone values the exposure and density relations
must be such that the entire image is photographed on the straight-line portion of the
H and D curve.
If is so chosen that all the brightness range of the original subject
the exposure
does not fall upon the straight-line portion of the curve, some distortion of tone
values will occur. If too small an exposure is given, the less bright portions of the
original image may be compressed in the density range required for accurate reproduc-
tion. This condition will be apparent to the photographer by the fact that the detail
is lacking in the shadows of the original subject (the less dense portions of the nega-
tive). On the other hand, if too great an exposure is given, the brightest portions of
the original subject may not be represented on the negative by their true proportional
differences in density. In this case, the practical photographer makes vise of sensi-
tometric concepts by saying that the high lights of the original image (the most dense
portions of the negative) lack detail. But if the exposure is correctly chosen and if the
brightness range of the original subject is such that the entire brightness range can be
photographed on the linear or portion of the Z)-logio E characteristic, then all tones of
the original image will be proportional to the density of the corresponding photo-
graphed image, and correct tone rendition occurs, so far as the negative is concerned.
We have now to investigate another characteristic of negatives. So far we have
been concerned only with the fact that true tone rendition requires that the brightness
of the elementary areas in the original image be reproduced on the negative by opacity
values which are proportional to the brightness of the corresponding area photo-
graphed or by density values which are proportional to the logarithm of the brightness.
We have not inquired into the absolute value of the proportionality constant A in the
previous equations, which is a measure of the contrast of the negative.
Suppose, first of all, that the opacity-brightness relations (or the density-log lo E
relations) are such that the brightness of an elementary area of a photographed image
is exactly equal to the brightness of the correspond-
ing area of the original image, i.e., that A = 1, in

Eqs. (46) to (48). Then the contrast or density
range of the negative will be exactly equal to the
contrast of the original subject. If, however, the
density range of the negative is less than this ideal

value, the original brightness in the subject is com-
pressed, and the tones in the negative are too
"flat." On the other hand, if the density range in
the negative is greater than the ideal case, the
Log 10 E
brightness of the original subject exaggerated in
Fig. 28. — Characteristic curve
the negative, and the negative is
is
said to be "too
of photographic materials. In con-
sidering true tone rendition by contrasty."
photographic methods, it is con- The contrast in negatives is its density range,
venient to consider only the hnear i.e., the range from the minimum or fog density to
region for which the density differ-
ence Kand latitude L apply.
its maximum density. If we wish to limit ourselves
to a consideration of the portion of the Z)-logio E
curve for which correct tone rendition occurs, then the density range is that corre-
sponding to the linear portion of the D-logio E curve. For this region of the curve,
we have from Fig. 17 the relation for contrast C:
C = AZ)= Z)2 - Z)i = 7(logio E2 - logio El) 7 log:o (49)

(I)
This last relation shows that the contrast AD is proportional to the 7 and to the expo-
sure range. So long as we stay on the linear region of the Z)-logio E curve, we may
use 7 as a measure of the contrast obtainable; the contrast actually obtained depends
upon E2 and E\ as well as upon 7, however.
It has already been shown (see page 181) that for any given photographic negative
material, the value of 7 depends upon the processing conditions. Specifically, it
has been shown that, for a given film and developer, 7 depends upon the time and
temperature of development. Therefore, for a given exposure range, we may control
contrast by the manner in which the negative material is developed (or by the value of
7 to which the material is processed).
The exposure and development conditions and their efJects on the characteristics
of negatives may be shown graphically as in Fig. 28. This curve enables us to bring
out a third point not already mentioned. In Fig. 28, the exposure range for the
straight-line portion of the curve is L. If logio £"111111 and logio Em&s. specify the mini-
mum and maximum values of exposure for the straight-line portion of the curve, then
L = log.o
f^ (50)
If now, the brightness range of the subject being photographed (A5) is greater than
L, then no matter how accurately the exposure of the negative is timed, some portion
of the brightness range of the original subject will fall on the curved portions of the H
and D characteristic and cannot be precisely and accurately reproduced, so far as
concerns tone value. Consequently, a third condition which must be fulfilled is that
the brightness range of the original subject must be equal to, or less than, the exposure
range R, corresponding to the straight-line portion of the negative.
On the other hand, if the actual exposure range or brightness range of the original
subject is small compared to the linear region of the photographic material, appre-
ciable variation in absolute exposure can be tolerated without loss of fidelity of tone
rendering.
We may now summarize the essential conditions which must be fulfilled to obtain
correct tone rendition of the original subject in the negative. Correct exposure is
required in order that the straight-line portion of the characteristic curve may be
image may
utilized or in order that the density of all tones of the original be recorded
on the negative proportional to the corresponding logarithm of the brightness of the
original image. Furthermore, the brightness range of the original subject should not
exceed the exposure range corresponding to the linear region of the D-logio E charac-
teristic. Finally, in order that all tones may be correctly rendered, it is essential that
the negative be properly developed. Thus we can hope to obtain true tone rendering
in a negative only by following three fundamental axioms: (1) the negative must have
a linear exposure range equal to or greater than the brightness range of the subject
it is desired to photograph in correct tone rendition; (2) the exposure must be correct,
so that the image will be reproduced through the use of the straight portion of the
D-logio E curve; and (3) processing conditions must be such as to produce a negative
whose y is unity. In the last case, it is customary to say that correct tone rendition
requires the negative to be developed to a gamma of unity, and such developing
procedure is a sufficient condition. For making the final print, however, it is not a
necessary condition, and so far as printing is concerned, this last requirement is
unnecessarily severe. But as applied to the negative, as an end in itself, the above
three conditions must be fulfilled if proper tone rendering in monochrome is to be
attained.
Characteristics of Positive Materials. —
In nearly all photographic applications, the
negative used merely as a means to an end. We are not accustomed to view pictures
is
in which the brightness ranges are transposed into density ranges. The usual pro-
cedure is to make another reversal of the photographed image by making a positive
or print. The process of making a positive (usually a print on paper) may be regarded
merely as making a negative of an image in which the brightness areas have been
reversed, i.e., that of making a negative of a negative. Considered in this light, it is
evident that the same type of arguments as have already been used for formulating
the conditions of correct tone rendition in the case of the negative, applj^ equally well
to the proper tone rendition in the case of positive prints. Largely due to inherent
differences between the characteristics of negatives and the corresponding character-
istics suitable for making positive reproductions, certain minor modifications may be
required.
In discussing positive printing materials, it is desirable to differentiate between two
types, so far as concerns the method by which the image is viewed. Certain positive
materials, such as motion-picture films and lantern slides, are transparent and are
consequently viewed by transmitted light. Such materials require little comment at

this time, since their characteristicsresemble those negative materials which have
already been discussed. They differ from negative materials mainly in that their
speeds are lower, and the maximum values of their gammas are usually higher than
those of negatives. Spectral sensitivity, latitude, grain, etc., of positive materials
may also differ from those of negative materials. The other classification of positive
materials includes opaque materials, such as printing papers, which must be viewed
by reflected light. Their characteristics are sufficiently different from those of nega-
tive materials to warrant some consideration at this point.
Printing papers of the bromide type, designed for making enlarged prints from a
negative, have emulsions which resemble those of negatives; consequently the D-logio E
characteristics are similar to those of negative materials. The density range and
sensitivity are somewhat more restricted than in the case of negatives, but, like nega-
tive materials, the gamma increases with the development time, although only to a
small extent.
The characteristics of chloride papers, which are most frequently employed in
contact printing, differ considerably from those of bromide papers. The gamma of
chloride papers is much less affected by the development time than the gamma of
bromide papers, and development extended beyond the time required to produce
gamma infinity acts so as to change the effective speed rather than the gamma of the
chloride material.
The chief differences between the characteristics of negatives and the correspond-
ing characteristics of printing papers are:
1. The printing paper is opaque, and consequently must be viewed by reflected
light.
2. As a consequence of the above, the blackness of the silver deposit is measured
by the reflection of light from the surface of the paper, rather than by passing light
through this material, and this density is spoken of as the reflection density.
3. The density range of printing papers depends to a large degree upon the surface
texture but is usually less than the density range of negative materials and is often
between 1.5 and 2.0.
4. The D-logio E characteristics of the printing-paper materials have a shorter
straight-line region than that of many negative materials. In some cases no linear
region may exist.
5. The gamma infinity of printing papers, especially chloride papers, is deter-
mined largely by the characteristics of the emulsion coating of the paper and, to a
relatively small extent, by the conditions of development.
6. As a by the selection
result of (5), variations in contrast of printing are secured
of a suitable grade of printing paper rather than through any conditions of processing
of printing papers.
The density of printing papers is defined in a manner analogous to that used for
negatives. However, since we must deal with refiected rather than transmitted light,
certain minor modifications are required in specifying the density of printing papers.
If /o is the luminous flux reflected from a perfectly white surface (such as magnesium
carbonate, which is frequently used as a reference) and if Ir is the light flux reflexjted
from the paper having a black deposit of silver, then the amount of light reflected by
the silver deposit or the reflecting power of the developed paper is
R=j- (51)
The density of the developed silver deposit is then defined as
D = log 10
(y) ^ ^^S" \e)
^ "l^Sio R
PHOTOGRAPHIC SBNSITOMETRY 201
which, except for the necessary changes required by the fact that we are dealing with
reflected light rather than transmitted light, is identical with the definition of density
already given by Eq. (13).
Just as the scattering of light in passing through a negative produces values of
density which depend somewhat on the conditions under which measurements are
made, so does the scattering of light from the surface of the paper cause similar
vagaries in the determination of the density of printing papers. The reflectance of
printing papers partakes of the characteristics of both diffuse and specular effects.
Therefore, the conditions under which density measurements are made, and especially
the angles at which the light strikes and is reflected from the paper, should be specified.
Furthermore, the surface texture of the particular grade of paper affects appreciably
the reflection coefficient R. The result is that, although equal amounts of silver
deposit per unit area should, theoretically, give the same density readings under ideal
conditions, this condition is not encountered in practice.
There are two fundamental characteristics of printing materials (so far as concerns
their sensitometric characteristics)which are of major importance in the making of a
proper print. ^ These are: (1) the contrast or the density range and (2) the exposure
range of the material.
The density range, by which is meant the range in density from the minimum (or
zero) to the maximum of which the paper is capable, is termed the contrast of the
paper. ^ Thus, if the maximum density of the paper is D2 and the minimum density is
Di, then the contrast (or density range) of the printing material is [as has been shown
in Eq. (18)]
C = AD = D2 - Di (52)
The density range, or contrast, of the printing material determines the maximum and
minimum blackness of the silver deposit on the print. For a given type of emulsion,
on a paper surface of specified texture, the density is a function of the exposure, as
given by the exposure-density characteristic of the printing material. But for a
given type of emulsion and a given exposure, the density obtained is affected by the
surface texture of the paper. The density range, or contrast, is important in that it
determines the range in tones, from black to white, which are to appear in the final
print.
The second important characteristic of printing materials is the exposure range
Er of the printing material. It is defined in much the same way as latitude for nega-
tive materials,
Er = logio E2 - logio El (logio E units) (53)
—
E
-pT (exposure units) (54)
and defines the range of exposure (exposure is defined to be ^ = It) corresponding to

the density range for which we may expect to obtain a deposit of silver when the print
is exposed.
The exposure range is of practical importance in that it determines the minimum
to maximum density range of the negative from which a satisfactory print may be
made. If we consider the negative as the original subject and if we consider that we
are "photographing" this negative (which we now consider as our original image),
1 There are, of course, other factors which may be taken into account for aesthetic, psychological,
or artistic reasons, but we are not concerned with these factors at this point.
* Perhaps it may be remind the reader that we are here concerned only with the sensitometric
well to
aspects of printing materials. The subjective evaluation of contrast, from the artistic, aesthetic, or
psychological point of view may not always agree with the sensitometric definition. But we are not
concerned here with subjective evaluations.
then the basic concepts which have already been discussed for the proper tone rendition
on the negative apply equally well for the case of positive or printing materials. We
have, of course, to transfer the term "brightness range of the original subject" into
"opacity range of the negative," but otherwise the concepts are the same, and need not
again be gone through at this point.
It is sufficient to call attention to the point that, in the ideal case, the exposure
range of the printing material must equal or exceed the opacity range of the negative
if we are to obtain a print which is an accurate, although reversed, reproduction of the
negative. Another necessary condition for ideal reproduction is that throughout

the exposure range a linear relation should exist between the logarithm of the exposure
and the density; in other words, we desire to work on the straight-line portion of the
Z)-logio E curve of the print as well as the straight-line portion of the D-logio E curve
of the negative.
Unfortunately, this is not a practical solution because of the limited exposure and
density range of printing materials. As a result of the short ranges of density and
exposure, the toe and shoulder of the Z)-logio E curve are employed in most printing
applications; a print limited to the straight-line region of the characteristic curve
would very likely be flat (lacking in contrast) and would be suitable only for subjects
in which the brightness range (exposure range in the case of negatives) was decidedly
limited.
Notwithstanding the fact that many papers have a very short linear region of the
D-logio E characteristics and certain papers may have no linear region, the concept
of the gamma, or slope of the straight-line portion of the curve, is a useful one to apply
in the case of printing or positive materials. To distinguish the characteristics of the
from that of negative materials, we shall use the symbol
positive or printing materials
7p to designate the gamma of the positive material, and 7„ to designate the gamma of
negative materials. This distinction between the slope of the characteristics of the
two types of photographic materials will be especially useful when we come to consider
the proper rendition of tone in the entire photographic process.
Because the Z)-logio E curves of many printing papers have a relatively short
linear region, the concept of jp is not so thoroughly intrenched as that of 7^ for negative
materials. Manufacturers do not specify the limiting values of 73, which may be
expected to obtain upon prolonged development, nor do they specify the density range
or the exposure range from which some conception of yp might be derived.
Printing papers are available having various values of exposure range and density
range, and these some measure an indication of the gamma of the
factors do give in
printing material under consideration. However, papers are not specified by the
manufacturers according to their sensitometric characteristics, except in a somewhat
roundabout mystical manner in which vague terms are employed. With sufficient
exposure, the density range of a printing material determined, to a very considerable
is
degree, by the texture of its surface. The exposure range

of papers is usually specified
by the manufacturers by such vague terms as "soft," "vigorous," or "hard," in
decreasing values of exposure range, or by some numerical system. Such designations
are hardly satisfactory from the sensitometric point of view. And yet the system
has worked apparently quite well. There seems to be little inclination on the part of
manufacturers to employ a more rigorous specification for their printing materials so
long as the average photographer does not demand more specific data.
Even though we maj^ not know the actual H and D characteristics of the printing
material we are employing, the concept of the D-logio^ curve is a useful one.
Through its use, we may prepare a chart of printing-paper characteristics, so far as
this relates to the accurate reproduction of the "image" of the negative. Such a set
of curves, as is shown in Fig. 29, is based on the assumption that we wish to reproduce,
° . G Z.^
° s s ^
o o c5 .S
2 fs S'tS-pZ
ô opL,
C3 .. .
-a
fi
5 S 3 S-^ « S
i-
OÔ Ah
bllpH
•w »t3 ft aij?
S « o C S^ g 2 « S « 2
03 ><
<u-r3
:3 ii
iJ r o >>n s o_ c S
ss ^3P- E S H S fe-SU >..5 o
i^HQS^£P§^-1.S£
=
as faithfully as possible, the images of the negative, except that they will, of course, be
reversed in tone. This diagram has been so prepared that by its use and by an analy-
sis of the print the photographer may determine errors which may have been made,
either in the exposure of the print or in selecting the type of paper for a given negative.
Tone Rendition. —In most applications of photography, the ultimate goal is a
positive print, either a transparency or paper print, in which the brightnesses of the
elementary areas of the original subject are to be reproduced in the positive print.
For correct rendition of tones in monochrome photography, the brightness of these
elementary areas in the final print must equal the brightness of the corresponding
elementary areas of the original subject or image. The final print is the result of two
reversal processes (the negative and the print), both of which have already been
discussed in some detail.
Let B represent the brightness of the original subject, and Bp the brightness of the
resultant print, the brightness varying with each elementary area from point to point.
Then if for all elementary areas Bp is exactly equal to B, the monochrome rendition of
the original subject in the print will equal the brightness of the original subject as
evaluated by the human eye, and perfect rendition of tone results. Because of the
limitations of photographic materials, this ideal condition is never completely realized,
although it may be approached more or less closely.
The exposure range of the negative En is proportional to B, and the relationship
between density and exposure ranges is then
— En
Dn = JnO-Ogio En logio in) = 7n logio ^:- (55)
In
where the inertia, or the exposure corresponding to the intersection of the straight-
in is
line portion of the Z)-logio E curve, extended to the zero density axis. But the density
range is also given in terms of the opacity range 0„, and the transmission range Tn is
given in terms of the relation
Dn = logio On = lOgia
(^) (56)
so that
D„ = logio On = logio (jt) = Jn logic -^ (57)
By taking the antilogarithms of both sides of the equation, we obtain
«» -
(r.) m- <->
If now, the negative is developed so that 7 = 1, then the opacity range of the negative
will be directly proportional to its exposure range.
In the printing process, the exposure range of the positive material Ep is inverselj^
proportional to the opacity range of the negative On. The opacity range of the posi-
tive printing material is given by
where the symbols have the same meaning as given above but refer to the positive
printing material rather than to the negative, as indicated by the subscript p. If
the positive material is printed in such a manner that 7p = 1, either through proper
development or by selection of the proper grade of paper, then the silver deposit on the
print will have an opacity range which is proportional to its exposure range. Since
=
the exposure range of the positive is obtained from the opacity range of the negative.
the print will give accurate monochrome rendition of the original image. The condi-
tion that 7p = 1 is a sufficient condition for the production of a print having proper
tone rendition, but it is unnecessarily rigid.
The opacity range of the positive material Op is
«•
<iy (60)
Similarly, the exposure range of the positive is a function of the opacity range of the
negative, as shown by the relation
(t)-(ir
Consequently, by substituting k{En/in)yn for Ep/ip in the equation for Op, the opacity
range of the positive may be expressed as
Op = ^(1^)^" = Kki^^Y""' (62)
Now the exposure range of the negative material En/in is in turn proportional to the
brightness range of the original image or subject so that, if this brightness range is
expressed by B^JBi, we have
= ^(1;) '^^
(1)
and finally
Op = KkM[^^ = (64)
(^)
This equation shows that the opacity range of the positive or print is proportional
to the brightness range of the original image raised to some power which is the product
gammas of
of the the positive and negative materials. So long as the product of the
gammas is unity, i.e., ynjp = 1, the absolute values of the individual gammas is of
little consequence. Therefore, if we have a negative in which the gamma is different

from unity, we may still obtain accurate tone rendition by so selecting the printing
medium that its gamma is such that the product will be unity. For example, if the
negativeis "flat" so that 7„ = K, then proper tone in the print may be obtained by
using a contrasty grade " of paper such that jp = 2. The product of the gammas will
'
'
be ypjn = X 2 = 1 and we shall have established the condition of proper tone

M
rendition.
Graphical Representation of Tone Rendition. —
Up to the present time, it has been
assumed that the straight-line regions of the D-logio E curves of both negative and
positive materials were the only portions used. This assumption does not conform to
practice, and in extending the representation of tone rendering in monochrome, it is
methods to show the effect of the various characteristics.
desirable to use graphical
Mathematical methods, which are both simple and accurate, can no longer be used
when curvature of the characteristics enters into consideration.
A method of representing the entire and essential concepts in the proper tone
by Jones, and that
rendition of the complete photographic process has been developed '
method is The method consists of using the second of four quad-

reproduced here.
rants to represent the brightness and brightness range of the original subject (the
resultant H and D characteristics of the negative exposed to the subject), the third
1 Jones, L. A., J. Optical Soc. Am., 5, 232 (1921); J. Franklin Inst., 190, 39 (1920).
quadrant for the resultant D-logio E characteristics of the developed positive material
printed from the negative, the fourth quadrant for the variation of the eye response
when viewing the subject and when viewing the positive-print reproduction, and the
first quadrant to compare the resulting visual sensation when comparing the positive
reproduction with that of the original subject. This diagram is shown in Fig. 30.
Starting from the scale of subject brightness (logio B scale) which determines the
exposure and exposure range, we find the H
and D characteristics of the developed
negative as given in the second quadrant. True tone rendition is obtained on the
Reproduction
Relative SubJec+iVe
Contrast Curve
— Actual
Positive characteristic J-—^/Negative characteristic
—
Fig. 30. Four-quadrant diagram illustrating the method of determining correctness
of tone reproduction. This diagram provides a method by which the final print can be
compared with the original subject; it does not take into account tone variations which may
be desired for aesthetic purposes.
straight-line portion of this curve. From the D-logio E curve of the negative, we
arrive at the same characteristic of the printing material (third quadrant) through the
making the positive. Here again, true tone rendition is obtained
process of printing or
over the straight-line portion of the characteristic curve of the positive material.
However, the curvature of the characteristics of the printing material are such as to
exaggerate, rather than compensate, for tone distortions occurring in the negative.
Finally, by viewing the positive or print by reflected light, we obtain the scene bright-
ness through the brightness characteristic of the human eye which translates the scene
brightness into visual sensations. By comparing the visual sensations thus produced,
with the subject brightness, we obtain the curve in the first quadrant, which represents
the distortion characteristics of the final print reproduction. If this characteristic is a
straight line, the reproduction is free from distortion, whereas the degree of distortion
is proportional to the curvature of this characteristic.

By studying the various steps represented in the four quadrants, we are able to
determine what change in photographic technique and processing is required in order
to minimize tone distortion.
Bibliography
Periodicals:
Mees, C. E. K., and S. E. Sheppard: Instruments for Sensitometric Investigations, Phot. J ., 44, 200
(1904).
and : The Sensitonietry of Photographic Plates, Phot. J., 44, 282 (1904). (Contains
excellent bibliography.)
Wallace, R. J.: On the Sensitiveness of Photographic Plates at Different Temperatures, Astrophys. J .,
28, 39 (1908).
Mees, C. E. K.: Effect of Humidity on the Sensitiveness of Photographic Plates, Astrophys. J., 40,
236 (1914).
Harbison, G., R.: Characteristics of Photographic Materials in the Ultraviolet, J. Optical Soc. Am., 11,
341 (1925).
Jones, L. A., and O. Sandvik: Spectral Distribution of Sensitivity of Photographic Materials, J.
Optical Soc. Am., 12, 401 (1926).
Harrison, G. R.: Instruments and Methods used for Measuring Spectral Light Intensities by Photog-
raphy, J. Optical Soc. Am., 19, 267 (1929).
TuTTLE, Clifton: A Recording Physical Densitometer, J. Optical Soc. Am., 26, 282 (1936).
Roberts, Creighton: Photographic Determinations of Film Strip Exposures, Am. Phot., 533 (1937).
Pitt, F. G. H.: Measurement of Specular Density, Phot. J., 486 (1938).
KoERNEB, A. M., and Clifton Tuttle: Standardization of Photographic Density, Phot. J., 739 (1938).
J. Soc. Motion Picture Engrs., 19, 739 (1937).
See also the many papers published in the Journal of the Optical Society of America and the Journal of
the Society of Motion Picture Engineers.
Books:
Hardy, A. C, and F. H. Perrin: "Principles of Optics," Chap. 11, McGraw (1932).

"Motion Picture Laboratory Practice," Eastman Kodak Co. (1937).
FoRSYTHE, W. E.: "Measurement of Radiant Energy," Chap. 8, McGraw (1937). (Contains excellent
bibliography.)
Neblette, C. B.: "Photography Principles and Practice," 3d ed.. Van Nostrand (1938).
CHAPTER VIII
EXPOSURE AND EXPOSURE DEVICES

By Bevekly DtTDLEY AND A. T. Williams
Exposiire. —
Theoretical Considerations. Two fundamental steps are involved in
the making of any picture by photographic processes which involve the use of silver
salts. In the first of these a "negative" is produced on which is recorded, in reverse
manner, the light and dark portions of the original subject. In the second step a
positive print is made by using the negative as the original object, and reversing its
tone shades so that the brightness of the various elementary areas of the print bear
some direct or positive relation to the brightness of the corresponding elementary
areas of the original object. In both steps, the process in which light falls upon the
sensitized photographic material is an important step and is known as exposure of
the photographic material.
In the final analysis, the positive print is the desired result. Any intermediate
steps, such as those involving the making of the negative, must be regarded as a
means to the desired end and, accordingly, should be treated in this light. Since the
final print is produced from the negative, it is evident that the characteristics of the
negative, which include its general or average density, its range of density, and its
tone gradation, will influence the printing time, range of density, and tone gradation
of the final print. For this reason it is essential to ascertain that the negative is
properly prepared in all respects; in this chapter, however, we shall be primarily con-
cerned with the proper exposure of the negative, leaving its subsequent processing to
later chapters. The manner in which the negative and the positive print are exposed
to light, the duration of the exposure time, the characteristics of the photographic
material, the spectral characteristics and intensity of the light source, the char-
acteristics of any filters which may
be used, are all important factors to consider in
arriving at the proper exposure which will produce the desired final results. This
chapter will be devoted to a consideration of these factors.
—
Photochemical Action Occurring during Exposure. The emulsions of photographic
materials consist of a layer of silver halide deposited on a transparent substance such
as gelatin or glass in the case of negative materials or on a paper base in the case of
positive materials. It is characteristic of the silver halides that, when acted upon by
light, they undergo some form of alteration so that the grains which have been
exposed to light may be converted into black deposits of metallic silver in the process
of development.^
A minimum amount of light, however, is required to effect the change in the grains
of the silver halide. If less than this amount of light fails to reach the emulsion, the
grains will not be affected, and consequently they cannot be changed into metallic
silver during development. As the quantity of light impinging upon the emulsion
increases beyond the minimum amount necessarj^ to produce a minimum observable
silver deposit, more and more layers of silver halide are exposed and are subject to sub-
' The exact physics underlying the production of the latent image in the emulsion need not concern
us here. There is no universal agreement as to the mechanism by which the latent image is produced,
and this point will not be discussed here.
208
^
EXPOSURE AND EXPOSURE DEVICES 209
sequent development. Consequently, the density of the silver deposit of the devel-
oped negative increases, at least within limits, as the amount of light falling upon
the emulsion is increased. The relation between the quantity of light falling upon
the sensitized material and the density of the silver deposit depends upon a number
of factors but is expressed by means of the D-logio E characteristic curve. The most
important of these factors are discussed in the chapter on Photographic Sensitometry,
which should be consulted for additional information on this subject.
—
Requirements for Correct Tone Reproduction. A scientifically correct print is one
in which the light intensities of the various portions of the print are proportional to'
the light intensities of the corresponding elementary areas of the original object.
Since the negative is a reversal of the light intensities of the original subject and also
that of the print, it follows that the opacity of the elementary areas of a scientifically
3 r
c
Q
10.000 lOQOOO E
4 5 Log,oE
Fig. 1. -D-logio E diagram illustrating correct tone rendition when the brightness range of
the subject does not exceed that of the linear portion of the curve.
correct negative must be proportionalto the light intensities of the corresponding

areas of the original object. In order that this condition may be fulfilled, the range
of light intensities of the original object must be so related to the characteristics of the
film, through proper exposure, that it corresponds to the linear portion of the D-logio E
characteristic curve. A similar condition must be fulfilled in making the print.
In addition to determining the exposure so that the linear portion of the D-logio E
characteristic curve is employed, it is essential that the photosensitive materials
selected for use have sufficient latitude to accommodate the brightness range of the
original object. Conversely, the latitude of a given emulsion is small, then, for
if
a scientifically correct negative, it is essential that this material not be used to photo-
graph objects which have a large brightness range.
An example will help to make these statements more clear. Let the curve of
Fig. 1 represent the characteristics of a film having a latitude of 100, i.e., the ratio of
the exposure at point C is 100 times that of point A, or the difference between logio E at
1 In the ideal case, which is not attainable where the print is viewed by reflected light, the intensities
of the print would be exactly equal to the corresponding intensities of the corresponding areas of the
object photographed.
^ See page 205 for treatment of correct tone rendition from the viewpoint of the characteristics of
photosensitive materials.
point C and logio E at point A is 2. If now we have an object whose brightness
range does not exceed 100 to 1, as indicated by the strip BRi, then it will be
possible to choose an exposure such that the densities of the negative will be directly
proportional to the brightness intensities of elementary areas of the original subject.
On the other hand, if we try to photograph on this same film a subject having a
brightness range of 10,000 to 1 as indicated by the strip BR«,
it will only be possible
to reproduce correctly the range from 100 to 10,000 units representing a range of 100 to
1. Greater light intensities than those represented by the point C will not produce
densities in the negative proportional to the brightness of the object. Similarly for
low values of brightness of the original subject, to the left of A, a correct relation
between brightness of the original object and density of the negative will no longer
be possible. The result is that between the points A and C we are able to obtain
correct tone reproduction; beyond these points tone distortion results.
Fig. 2. — If the brightness range of the subject being photographed does not exceed
the exposure range for which the Z)-logio E characteristic is linear, several exposures are
possible, all of which can give correct tone rendition.
The ratio of the latitude of the film to the brightness range of the object determmes
the necessary precision of the exposure. If, as shown in BRi of Fig. 1, the brightness
range and the latitude are equal, then there is only one possible exposure for which
correct tone rendition is possible, and this is represented as the mean exposure, given
by the point B. on the other hand, the brightness range of the original subject
If,
is much less than the latitude of the film, several different exposures will be possible,
each of which is capable of producing correct tone rendition. For example, if we are
photographing a subject having a brightness range of 10 to 1 on a film having a
latitude of 100 to 1, we may so determine the exposure that the brightness range occurs
between A and B, between B and C, of Fig. 2, or anywhere between these extreme
limits, e.g., D and E. We may, therefore, select as the mean exposure any value
between G and F and still obtain correct results. Since the exposure at G is 10 times
that at F,it is possible to make a 10 to 1 error in exposure and still obtain a negative
having correct tone rendition. In Fig. 1 such a range in exposure was not possible
because the film latitude and brightness range of the object being photographed
were of equal magnitude.
From evident that the following conditions must be fulfilled

this discussion, it is
may be produced:
in order that a scientifically correct negative
1. The brightness range of the original object must not exceed the latitude of the
photographic material; or, conversely,

2. The latitude of the photographic material must be at least equal to, and
preferably should exceed, the brightness range of the object being photographed.
3. The more nearly equal are the brightness range of the object and the latitude
of the photosensitive material, the more critical is the exposure which must be given to
obtain correct tone rendition.
4. If the brightness range of the object exceeds the latitude of the film, only a
portion of the scene will be reproduced with proper tone value; other portions of the
object will have tone distortion.
5. If the brightness range of the object being photographed is less than the latitude
of the film any one of several correct exposures may be used.

6. The greater the ratio of film latitude to brightness range of the object, the less
critical need be the exposure of the film.
Definition of Exposure. —The
altering of the silver halide grains by the photo-
chemical action of the light in order to produce a latent image is called exposure.
To a first approximation^ it has been found that the photochemical action taking
place during exposure obeys the reciprocity law of Bunsen and Roscoe. As an
application of this law to photochemical reactions, the exposure E may be expressed as
E = It (1)
where / = the intensity upon the sensitized photographic material;

of the light acting
t = the time during which this illumination is permitted to act on the photo-
graphic material.
For exposure to white light, which represents the usual conditions, the exposure is
measured in meter-candle-seconds. As indicated in the chapter on Photographic
Sensitometry, the light source has a spectral distribution like that of mean noon
sunlight, and the exposure time t is usually continuous rather than the integrated
effect of intermittent or chopped exposures.^ The equation shows that the exposure,
and consequently the photographic effect as measured by the density of silver deposit,
depends directly upon the intensity of the light source and increases the longer the
material is subjected to light rays. Because the exposure depends upon the time
during which the light acts on the film, the film is able to integrate the quantity of
light falling upon it. A practical advantage of this effect is that through sufficientlj^
long exposure it is possible to photograph objects which might otherwise not be
sufficiently bright to produce a photographic image.
The exposure not the only factor determining the photographic effect produced,
is
although it is a very important factor in this connection. The photographic effect,

by which is meant the density of the silver deposit, is determined bj' the characteristics
of the sensitive material and by the processing conditions as well as by the exposure.
These factors are related graphically by means of the Z)-logio E characteristic and
are discussed in the chapter on Photographic Sensitometry.
By means of the D-logio E characteristic curves, it is possible to determine the
density produced on a certain photosensitive material for given exposure and process-
ing conditions. Such curves provide a clue to what might be expected, bj^ way of
1 Careful investigations show that the reciprocity law is not exactly obeyed by photographic mate-
rials. Failure of the reciprocity law is not of serious consequence in most branches of practical photog-
raphy, and, for a first approximation, may be neglected.
^ If the film is exposed intermittently, it is found that the photographic effects are not the same as
when the film is exposed for the same time duration but continuously rather than intermittently.
-
photographic effect, when photographing an object with a camera and lens system.
However, the D-logio E characteristics are usually expressed in terms of density and
meter-candle-seconds. The illumination of the object being photographed is not ordi-
narily determined in meter-cancê-seconds, and even if this were possible, through the
use of properly calibrated exposure or illumination meters, the intensity of illumination
on the plate is vastly different from that of the original object because of the reduction
in size, the effect of the aperture stop, the focal length, and other characteristics of the
lens system. To make maximum use of the sensitometric concepts and to under-
stand fully the various and numerous factors which enter into exposure, it is desirable
to provide the connecting link which relates the exposure, as given in the sensitometric
sense of the term, and the brightness of the object as this may be determined by
measurements with an exposure or illumination meter. It is proposed to construct
this connecting link based upon theoretical considerations for two reasons: (1) An
L(l+q)
<-- |X|=|L[Cl+c^)-f^]|— ->
Fig. 3. — Optical system of a camera showing axial rays. The luminous intensity, /',
of the point P' on the photographic plate can be expressed in terms of the luminous intensity,
I, of the point on the subject, P, and the characteristics of the lens system.
understanding of the theory of exposure provides an excellent basis for understanding

the practical treatment which is to follow; (2) the relations and equations which are
derived from theoretical considerations are required for a full explanation of the use
of exposure tables given in another section of this chapter.
—
Image Brightness as a Function of Optical System. It is now necessarj'^ to estab-
lish the connecting link by which the brightness of the image on the photographic
plate may be determined from the illumination of the original object being photo-
graphed. This link involves the optical system of the camera, which, so far as
exposure is concerned, includes the iris diaphragm, the bellows extension, a filter
(if one is used), and the shutter, as well as the lens system proper.
Let Fig. 3 represent the lens system of the camera, in which a point object P,
whose luminous intensity is /, produces an image object of itself P' with luminous
intensity I' on the photographic plate. The iris diaphragm or aperture is repre-
sented as being at A. The principal planes of the lens are represented as lying at PP
and at PP', while the entrance and exit pupils are designated as being at NP and XP,
respectively, and the principal focal lengths are L and L'.
The point P may be may
be illuminated by reflected light. In
self-luminous or
either case it will illuminate the entrance pupil of the lens NP with an intensity
inversely proportional to the square of the distance between P and R, the latter being
in the plane of the entrance pupil, and directly proportional to its luminous intensit.y
/. Let the distance between P and R be X. Then the intensity of light falling upon
the entrance pupil will be proportional to I/X^. The distance may be considered X
as being made up of two components. One of these is the distance from P to the
interior principal focal lengthL, which distance is given by —L/M where is the linear M
magnification produced by the lens system. The negative sign is required because
of the inversion of the image. The second component of the distance is the X
distance LR from the plane of the principal focus to the plane of the entrance pupil.
Since the principal-focus and the entrance-pupil planes are never very far removed
from one another, the distance LR may be expressed by L{1 + q) where 9 is a small
positive or negative decimal. Neglecting the negative sign required because of the
image inversion, the distance from P to R may be expressed as
X=L[{l+q)+^] (2)
The intensity /' of the light at the point P' is proportional to the cone whose half
angle is 6. The maximum diameter of this cone at the exit pupil is determined by
the area of the aperture, which is given by
where d = the diameter of the aperture.

The cone of light emerging from the exit pupil comes to a focus at P' and produces
an image of P whose size is proportional to the linear magnification of the system M.
The intensity of the image at P' is inversely proportional to the area of the image.
But the area of this image is
« = -4- (4)
so that /' is proportional to 4/TrM'.

image at P' is reduced by absorption and reflection
Finally, the intensity of the
by the separate elements of the lens system. Of the light incident upon the lens,
some is absorbed, but a greater part is reflected from the lens surfaces, especially if
these are uncemented. The quantity of the emerging light is always less than that
incident upon the system and is proportional to the incident light and the trans-
mission of the lens system T. Consequently I' is proportional to T.
Having discussed briefly the separate factors which influence the intensity of
the image, we may now combine the separate effects. Thus, for an object P on, or
very near to, the optical axis of the lens system, the intensity of the image is
^^^
Xâ
where fc is a numerical constant depending upon the units of measurement. By sub-
stituting for A, X, and a, the values already determined, and by simplifying, the
expression becomes
^''^
IL'[M{1 +q) + ipj
Since g is a small fraction, little error is introduced if it is neglected, and for practical
purposes the above equation may be simplified to
This equation gives in the most general form the connecting Hnk relating the intensity
of the image and that of the original subject, so far as the lens system is concerned,
provided that the object and image are not far removed from the optical axis of the
lens. For objects considerably off the optical axis, and especially when the view angle
is large, the intensity of the image at a corner of the plate may vary considerably from
that given by Eq. (7).

By definition the /-number of a lens is the ratio of the focal length to the diameter
of the aperture. Thus we may substitute / for L/d in the above equations, where /
represents the /-number of the lens for a specified diameter of aperture d. When this
substitution is made, we obtain
^^^
/' = (8)
P{M + 1)'
^
which is, perhaps, in its simplest and most practical form. This equation states that
the intensity of the image is proportional to the intensity of the original object,
proportional to the transmission of the lens system, inversely proportional to the
square of the /-number, and inversely proportional to the square of the linear mag-
nification plus one.
—
Image Brightness as Function of Filter. A filter is frequently emploj'êd in pho-
tography to increase contrast, to produce desirable pictorial effects, or to distinguish
between tone rendition of various colors. The property inherent in all filters is
absorption of a portion of the spectrum to which the photographic emulsion is sen-
sitive, and it thereby decreases the effective intensity of illumination on the pho-
tographic material. Because of this reduction of luminous intensity, the exposure
must be increased. The filter factor, for a particular filter, light source, and pho-
tographic emulsion, is a measure of the required increase in exposure and is also a
measure of the extent to which it reduces the quantity of light reaching the photo-
graphic material.
If the filter factor is F, the intensity of the light passing through it^ is inversely
proportional to the filter factor or to 1/F. We may consider the effect of the filter,
as well as that of the lens system, in determining the intensity of the image for the
filter and lens system
/' = H^ (a\
—
Exposure Time and Film Speed. The sensitivity or speed of a photographic
material is an important factor in determining the exposure required to produce a
given photographic effect. Various methods of determining and specifying the speed
of photographic materials are in use and are described in the chapter on Photographic
Sensitometr3^ It is sufficient to say that in all the common methods of specifying
film speed, the larger numerical units indicate the faster or more sensitive emulsions,
i.e., those requiring the least exposure to produce an image of given density. This
may be seen by comparing the speed numbers in the various systems with the relative
exposure as given in column 1 of the table of film speeds. Appendix B.
The various film-speed systems are not based on the same fundamental use of the
D-logio E cunê, and the film-speed numbers do not progress uniformly in the various
systems; in some cases the speed numbers progress proportionately to the relative
speed, in others they do not. It is possible, however, to devise a relationship between
' In speaking of the transmission of light through a filter it must be remembered that a true filter
does not provide equal absorption for all wavelengths to which the photographic material is sensitive.
Strictly speaking, it is therefore improper to deal with the intensity of light passing through the filter
without considering the spectral distribution of the light and the spectral transmission of the filter.
These factors are implicitly taken into account, however, in the determination of the filter factor.
—
the various film-speed numbers, as given in Appendix B, although such relations are to
be regarded as being, at best, rough approximations. If Sa is some arbitrary or rela-
tive film-speed or film-sensitivity number (as given in column 1 of Appendix B) and
Sn is the film speed or sensitivity in the n system of rating, then the various film-speed
numbers will be related to the relative sensitivity by the equations given in Table 1.
Table I. Equations for Various Film-speed Relations
Film-
Film-speed system
Weston
American H and D {k — 10)
European H and D
Watkins
Wynne
Burroughs- Wellcome
American Scheiner
European Scheiner .
Eder Hecht
DIN
Eastman*
obtain this same opacity with another film having a speed of Weston 24, our equations
show that, if the exposure time is the only variable, this must be reduced to Hoo sec.
to produce the desired effect. If we had chosen the Wynne system instead of the
Weston system in this example, the exposure time in the second case would have been
>ôo sec, because in this system doubling the speed number quadruples the exposure or
requires only one-fourth the exposure for the same photographic effect.
Correlation of Factors Affecting Exposure. —
We are now in a position to correlate
allthe factors affecting the exposure of the film. The exposure given to the film in
the camera is E = I't where /' is given by Eq. (9). Therefore the exposure of the
film in the camera is
^ = ^'^' ==
FpiM + irs.
(1^)
which is now related to the exposure It in meter-candle-seconds as given by the H

and D characteristic curves.
If we arbitrarily select some exposure Eo for which we determine the values of
exposure meters, exposure tables, or other exposure conditions in terms of other refer-
ence values of light intensity 7o, filter factor iô, lens transmission To, aperture stop /o,
magnification Mo, exposure time to, and film speed So, than the reference exposure
becomes
p _ T'f'
lokToto
Jô- loh- FofoHMo + irSo
^^^^
In order that identical photographic effects may be obtained, it is necessary that

E = Eoso that
IkTt lokToto
^ ^
FP{M + lYKnS FofoKMo + lyS^ ^
From this relation we obtain, by dividing by the left-hand side of the equation.
This relation will be found invaluable for determining the exposure conditions for
some unknown conditions when the exposure for other reference conditions are known.
This equation can be especially helpful in extending the use of the exposure tables,
given in a later section of this chapter, beyond the conditions for which they now
apply. In practice Mo<Kl, Fq = 1, and To/T is always 1 for the same lens system.
Thus Eq. (17) may be reduced to the more practical form
= OS)(T)(t)<T)<'" "' <'''

' +
Since Eqs. (17) and (18) are in the form of ratios between known and unknown
conditions, it does not make any difference in what units the factors are expressed, so
long as both factors in the same parenthesis are expressed in the same system. Thus
both S and S^ must be expressed in the same speed system. This may be Weston,
H and D, or Watkins. But the equations do not apply if So is expressed in H and D
and in Weston figures.
;iS
The equations may be manipulated by simple algebra to determine any of the

other factors which may be desired.
As a somewhat extreme but complete example of the application of these exposure
equations, consider the following problem in which it is assumed that all the
factors represented by letters having zero subscripts are known and the exposure is to
be calculated for entirely different conditions.
Suppose we know from experience in copying a photograph full size (Mo = 1),
when the brightness is 100 candles per sq. ft. (/o = 100), the film speed is Weston 16
(So = 16), and the aperture stop is //8 (/o = 8), that the shutter speed is }4o sec.
(^0 = Mo)- No filter is used for the known conditions so that Fo = I. The trans-
mission of the lens will not usually be known, ^ but for the sake of argument, assume a
Tessar is used with a transmission of 85 per cent, so that To =^ 0.85.
Now suppose we wish to determine the shutter speed when we use a film whose
speed is Weston 20 {S = 20), an aperture stop of //5.6 (/ = 5.6), a filter whose factor
is 4 {F =4). Assume we use two identical lamps, instead of one as previously, so
that / = 2/o = 200. Suppose we use a lens with more glass elements than before,
so that the transmission may be taken as 68 per cent. Let us copy the photograph
double size so that = 2. M
By multiplying Eq. (17) by t, we find the time exposure to be
Substituting the values given above, we find
~ ^"^^ ^ "
^
To
1^ ^ yt) ^
ITJ lisj
(20) ^ ^ ^ [m)
(200) ^ L(i
I ( 1 + D^^J
li^'J
^ 0.68 4o^^''-
The value found is approximately 1/4.5 sec. so that }i sec. or }i sec. should be used,
depending upon the shutter speed available.
—
Exposure. Practical Considerations. In this section, it is proposed to discuss
in some detail and from a practical rather than a theoretical point of view, the various
factors which enter into and determine the exposure which must be given to the
photographic material. Fundamentally, as we have seen from theoretical considera-
tions, the important factors affecting exposure include: brightness of the object,
aperture stop or /-number, filter factor, shutter speed, film speed or sensitivity,
magnification of the image, and transmission of the lens system. From the practical
point of view, however, a number of these factors frequently require simultaneous
consideration in photographic practice. Thus, for example, the transmission of the
lens system, as well as the magnification of the image, is involved when supplementary
or telephoto lens are used or when only a single element of a doublet is used. Like-
wise the magnification of the image occurs in such practical matters as enlarging or
reducing the size of the image or in copying to size. The intensity and quality of the
illumination of the object is especially important when photographing outdoor sub-
jects by daylight, as the time of day, condition of the sky, and type of subject being
photographed influence the intrinsic brightness of the object.
Intensity and Quality of Light. —
The intensity and quality of the light reaching
the film from the object undoubtedly the most important consideration in deter-
is
mining the photographic exposure. In comparatively few cases, as in astronomical

photography, the objects being photographed are self-luminous. In this case only
the intensity and spectral distribution of the luminous source need be considered.
But where objects are illuminated by reflected light, as occurs in the great majority of
instances of practical photography, the magnitude and spectral reflectance of the
object must be considered as well as the intensity and quality of the light by which it
is illuminated. For bright objects, for which the reflectance is high, more light will
be produced at the camera lens from a given source of illumination than for those
cases in which the objects are dark and the reflectance is small.
' See p. 226.
In considering the reflection of light from objects, attention should be directed not
only to their reflection factor as determined by visual brightness but also to their
reflection characteristics as related to the spectral sensitivity of the film and the
spectral characteristics of the light source being used. A white light source has
approximately equal energy in all parts of the visible spectrum and, for practical pur-
poses, maj^ also be considered to have equal energy in all parts of the spectrum to
which the common photographic materials are sensitive. A white object photo-
graphed with white light will reflect much of the light into the lens, and the required
exposure will be relatively short.
On the other hand a colored object will reflect that part of the white light corre-
sponding to the color of the object and will absorb, more or less, colors of other por-
tions of the spectrum. For objects having the same apparent brightness or reflection
the photographic effect will be greatest for those colors to which the photographic
—
material is most sensitive in most cases, the blue end of the spectrum. Thus, for
example, of a red and blue object illuminated by white light and appearing equally
bright, the blue object will require the less exposure to produce a given density on the
film. The reason for this is that the film is, most probably, more sensitive to blue than
to red portions of the spectrum. This is certainly true in the case of "ordinary" or
orthonon materials whose sensitivity lies almost entirely in the blue region of the
spectrum; it is less true for orthochromatic materials which are sensitive to the blue,
green, and yellow. While panchromatic emulsions are sensitive to all visible colors,
maximum sensitivity is in the blue and green portions of the spectrum, although
they have good sensitivity to the yellow, orange, and red. For practical purposes,
the visual brightness of the subject may be used as an indication of the photographic
effect, especially since the majority of scenes contain objects or areas of neutral colors,
or colors having a wide range of spectral values. For fully panchromatic materials
which are sensitive to all visible colors, the visual brightness of the object may be
taken, for practical purposes, as an indication of the photographic effect.
The color of the light source must be considered in a similar way. A white object
illuminated by a blue light can only reflect blue light to the film. The required
exposure may be less than that of a white-light source of equal energy and of a white
object. A blue object photographed by a blue light maj^ produce approximately
the same photographic effect as the white object illuminated by blue light of equal
energy, because in each case the amount of blue light reflected is approximately the
same. But a red object illuminated by blue Ught will absorb most of the light,
reflecting little to the film, and in this case a comparatively long exposure must be
given to produce a negative of specified density. It may happen that no matter how
great an exposure is given, the object cannot be successfully photographed vmder these
conditions. The rules by which the spectral characteristics of the film, light source,
object, and filter (if one is used) affect exposure can be stated mathematically ^ but
need not be considered in a practical treatment of the subject of exposure.
Broadly speaking, the more intense is the light by which an object is photographed,
the greater will be the exposure and the resulting density, all other factors remaining
unchanged. If a given or specified exposure is desired and the intensity of the light
is increased, then the shutter speed will have to be increased, the aperture will have to
be decreased (larger /-number), or some other factor will have to be altered in order to
compensate for the increase in light. There are some exceptions to this general state-
ment, however. A certain minimum amount of light must strike the film before the
latent image is impressed on the emulsion; if less than this exposure is given, the grains
of silver halide are not altered in the process of development. On the other hand, for
1 Portions of this subject are treated in greater detail in the chapter on Light Filters.
—
very large exposures —much larger than are encountered in ordinary practice —the
density of the silver deposit may
no longer increase as the exposure is increased.
From Eq. (18) we may derive the following practical formula which indicates the
light intensity required when various factors are changed. Thus
is the most general case likely to occur in practice. Equation (20) refers only to the
intensity and not the spectral-energy distribution of the illuminant.
As an example of the application of this equation, suppose, as reference conditions,
it is known that, for a light intensity of 100 units (/o = 100), an aperture stop of
//8 (/o = 8), and a film speed of Weston 20 {So = 20), the required shutter speed is
J^5 sec. (to = Ms) when we are photographing a beach scene with a yellow filter
having a factor of 5 {F =5). It is desired to know what light intensity would be
required for the same shutter speed (t = 3^5) when the same film is used {S = 20) but
when the aperture stop is//4 (/ = 4). For photographs of this type the magnification
is so small that it may be neglected and we may consider that = 0. Furthermore, M
since the same lens is used in both cases, To — T, and consequently {To/T) becomes
unity. Substituting these values into Eq. (20) the required illumination is found to be
/ = 10o(^)(^)2(29ô) X 5 = 125 (21)
so that the light required is not changed appreciably from its original value.
—
Aperture Stop or f-number. The aperture stop or /-number is defined as the ratio of
the principal focal length of a lens L to the diameter of its exit pupil d, or
/ = ^ (22)
For example, a lens whose principal focal length is 8 in. has an aperture 1 in. in
if
diameter, the /-number is //8. For a given lens the /-number varies as the diameter
of the iris diaphragm is changed. This diameter determines the amount of light
reaching the film. By varying the /-number, the amount of light and consequently
may be controlled. It is customary to mark the lens system
the exposure of the film
with a /-numbers each of which gives twice the exposure of the next highest
series of
number. Since the exposure is proportional to the square of the /-number, for the
exposures to be doubled the /-numbers must progress in sequence according to •\/2.
Table II. Progression of English and Continental Aperture Systems

Continental System English System
//1.6 //1.4
//2.3 f/2.8
-
//3.2 //4
//4.5 //5.6
//6.3 //8
//9 //ll
//12.5 //16
//18 //22
//25 //32
//36 //45
//50 //64
//72 //90
There are two methods of marking /-numbers in common use as shown in the
Table II. In each case the exposure given by any stop is twice that of the next larger
stop. The /-numbers engraved on a lens usuall,y follow either the English or the
Continental /-markings quite consistently, although some deviation from this practice
—
frequently occurs for the largest aperture ^the smallest /-number. For example,
many lenses are marked in the English system but have a maximum aperture of
//4.5 rather than //4.
From Eq. (18) we obtain, for the most general expression for the aperture stop, the
expression,
As an example of the application of this relation, suppose exposure tables show that
the proper exposure is Hs sec. {to = ^5) at an aperture stop of //8 (/o = 8) if the
film speed has a rating of Weston 16 (^So = 16). If we use a film having a speed of
Weston 32 {S = 32), a filter having a factor of 4 {F =4), and choose an exposure
time t = }^ sec. for identical conditions of illumination (/o = I), what will be the
required aperture stop if the magnification may be neglected (M = 0) ? Substituting
values in Eq. (23), we find
'
/ = 8 X 1 X \f^ X Ô
V#-'^ X 1 X -r
4
= 12.6 (24)
72 5 J^
If the lens is marked with an aperture of //12.5, this should be used, otherwise an
aperture of //ll is likely to be nearest to the correct value. Intermediate /-number

apertures can be obtained by setting the index of the iris diaphragm at a position
intermediate between two markings. For all practical purposes //12.5 would lie
about one-third the distance from// 11 and //1 6 and so on.
Filter Factor. —
The purpose of filters is to absorb light of certain portions of the
spectrum, thereby modifying the quality of the light reaching the negative. This
modification of the quality of the light may be desired for technical or artistic reasons,
but it always acts to reduce the amount of light reaching the film from that which
would reach it if the filter were not used. In general, it may be said that the more
dense a filter is, the more light it absorbs, and consequentlj^ the longer must be the
—
exposure time other conditions remaining unchanged ^to produce a given film —
density.
But the color of a filter, or, more correctly, its spectral absorption, is also important
in determining the increase in exposure occasioned The more
by the use of the filter.
light which a filter absorbs to which the film is sensitive, the greater will be the filter
factor, and the greater will be the increase in exposure required as a result of using the
filter. A filter absorbing blue light may appear yellow or orange to the eye and may
seem to be, visually, as dense as a blue filter which has its principal absorption at the
red end of the visual spectrum. But it is quite likelj^ that the yellow filter will have
the greater filter factor and consequently will require greater increase in exposure
than the blue filter. The reason for this is that the film is usually more sensitive to
blue than to red light, so that the yellow filter will cut out more effectively the light
acting on the film than will the blue filter. It should be remembered that the filter
factor is not a constant for a given filter but depends upon the spectral absorption of
the filter (which is constant), the spectral sensitivity of the film, and the spectral-
energy distribution of the light source used. Consequently the filter factor will change
as the filter used with different films or light sources.'
is
From Eq. we can determine what effect the filter has on aperture stop, shutter
(18)
speed, film sensitivity, or light intensity, etc. From this equation we find that
1 See chapter on Light Filters for further discussion of this point.

Ordinarily this equation is of little practical importance, although occasionally it
may be found useful where a neutral-density filter is advantageous in cutting down

the light without affecting the other quantities involved, as may sometimes be neces-
sary when photographing bright sources of illumination.
For example, let the reference conditions be So = 16, io = Ko sec, and /o = 16.
It is desired to determine the filter factor for a neutral (gray) filter when the Weston
film speed is /S = 40, the aperture is/ = 4, and the shutter speed is i = Ho sec. The
magnification, change in light, and transmission through the lens may be neglected.
The required filter factor is then
Ho ^40
F=^X^^XI^]
Ho 16 iW-=40 (26)
If a neutral-density filter is used, it should have a transmission of Jô or a density of
D = logio ^ = logio 40 = 1.6 (27)
This equation cannot be applied to filters having selective absorption unless the spec-
tral characteristics of the filter are correlated with those of the light source and fiilm
in arriving at the desired result.
Shutter Speed. —The shutter speed may have two important functions in photog-
raphy. Usually its most important function is to determine the quantity of light
reaching the film by establishing the time during which the through the
light passes
lens to the photographic material. Its other function is to limit the time of exposure
so that the relative motion between a moving object and its background does not
produce a blur on the negative. These two functions of the shutter are entirely
separate and distinct, although it may happen that the shutter speed for obtaining one
of the desired conditions is also that for obtaining the other.
Since these two functions are distinct, it is necessary to determine them separately
for the exposure and sharpness of image desired. It is then necessary to select the
most suitable shutter speed and to adjust the aperture, if necessary, for the film speed
and prevailing light conditions. If the shutter speed required to stop motion is longer
than that required to give adequate exposure, the shutter speed determined for proper
exposure should be given. On the other hand, if the shutter speed required to stop
motion is less than that required to give proper exposure, the shutter speed should be
used which will prevent blurring, and the /-number should be decreased to that value
which will produce the desired exposure.
In order that the apparent motion of a moving object may be eliminated in a
photograph, it is necessary that the shutter speed be sufficiently rapid that no appreci-
able motion of the object is apparent while the shutter is opened. The actual exposure
time required to stop motion will depend upon the focal length of the lens, the distance
between the camera and the moving object, and upon the speed of the moving object.
It will also depend upon the direction of motion with respect to the camera, for a
slightly longer exposure can be given, for a specified velocity of travel, if the object is
coming toward or is receding from the camera rather than moving directly across the
field of view.
Table III indicates the longest exposure times which may be regarded as being
satisfactory to stop motion for the conditions stipulated. Faster shutter speeds may
be given if unusually sharp negatives are desired, but light conditions, fUm, speed,
aperture stop, and other matters affecting exposure must be taken into account to
ascertain that the film is not underexposed. Slower shutter speeds should not be
given unless some blurring of the image is tolerable.
—
Table III. Shutter Speeds Required to Stop Motion on the Photograph

specifying film speed, the larger numerics indicate the faster (more sensitive) materials,
those requiring less exposure to produce a given density on the negative.
i.e., All
other factors remaining constant, the quantity of light reaching the film may be
reduced more and more, for a given density, the higher the speed of the film, provided
the speed numbers are all in the same system of measurement. The speed numbers
in the various systems do not progress in the same proportion as film speed increases,
however.
So far as concerns the determination of exposure, the film-speed number has its
principal value in connection with exposure meters which are calibrated in one of the
various systems. It may be presumed, therefore, that, when a film and an exposure
meter are both marked in the same system of film-speed units, the exposure conditions
calibrated on the exposure meter will apply directly for the film marked in that system.
Frequently it happens that an exposure meter is calibrated for one system of speed
rating, whereas the film speed or sensitivity is given in another system. By means of
the film-speed conversion table (see Appendix B), it is possible to determine approxi-
mately the equivalent speed of films in the various systems and, from the appropriate
conversions, to make use of the dissimilar ratings of the film and meter calibration.
In making such conversions, however, it must be remembered that the various speed
systems may have been based on fundamentally different methods of measurement
and that the equivalent conversions are determined empirically from measurements
on a large number of films. Thus, while the conversion factors given represent aver-
age values, it is quite possible that some particular emulsion may not fit average
conditions, and in such instances the conversion equivalents may be considerably in
error.
The spectral sensitivity of the film has an important bearing on the exposure.
Panchromatic materials are sensitive to all visible light but have maximum sensitivity
to blue light and decreasing sensitivity throughout the rest of the visible spectrum.
However, the sensitivity even to red light is sufficient that no difficulty will be encoun-
tered when objects of various colors are photographed or when lights of various colors
are used for purposes of illumination. Orthochromatic materials, which are insensi-
tive to the red and possibly orange portions of the visible spectrum, require longer
exposures in yellow or orange light than panchromatic materials having the same
daylight sensitivity. Ordinary or orthonon materials are sensitive only to the blue
region of the visible spectrum, so that it may be quite impossible to make photographs
with red or orange light, no matter how long an exposure is made. It is because of
the change in spectral sensitivity that most films are now given two film speed ratings.
One of these is a rating for light of daylight quality, having approximately equal energy
in all portions of the visible spectrum. The other film speed is given for illumination
by tungsten lamps operated at temperatures at about 2800 to 3000°K. For photo-
flash and photoflood illumination, in which the lamps operate at temperatures of
3200 to 3300°K., an appropriate film-speed rating will usually be somewhere between
the dajdight and the tungsten film-speed rating, although, if there is any doubt, the
rating for tungsten lamps should be used.
If we know as reference conditions the aperture stop /o, the shutter speed to, the
film speed So, and the intensity of illumination /o for certain exposure conditions, we
may determine new values of aperture stop /, shutter speed t, film speed, and intensity
of illumination / for a properly exposed negative. From Eq. (18) we have
* - ^"^G-.)'(i)(T)(Y)(^^ + "' (=«»
As an example, suppose an aperture stop of //8 is required for certain conditions

when the film speed has a rating of Weston 8 and the shutter speed is Jô sec. If the
light doubled, and a shutter speed of Ko sec. is used with an aperture stop of //16,
is
what the required film speed? The magnification and transmission factor may be
is
neglected, and no filter is used. From these conditions we find that (So = 8, F = 1,
_/(,= 8, / = 16, U = Ho) * = Ko, and la/I = 0.5, since the final illumination I is
twice the initial illumination 7o. From these values we obtain, from Eq. (30)
5=8Xlx(fyx(|i)xl=8 (31)
SO that a film of thesame speed is suitable.

—
Exposure with Supplementary Lenses. Sometimes supplementary lenses are used
to increase or decrease the equivalent focal length of a lens. Since the addition of the
supplementary lens does not change the engravings of the /-numbers, which are a
measure of the diameter of the aperture, but does change the focal length of the lens,
the supplementary lens changes the effective /-number of the combination so far as
this is a measure of the light-collecting power of the lens system. Consequently the
exposure is altered from that required when the supplementary lens is not used, at
least so far as the engraved /-numbers may be taken as an indication of exposure.
The manner in which the actual exposure must be modified because of the change in
focal length when a supplementary lens is used may be easily determined. Let Eo be
the exposure which is required for a given set of light conditions when the focal length
of the lens is Lo and the diameter of the aperture is do. Let E be the exposure required
when the supplementary lens is used with the regular lens, so that the focal length of
the combination is now L. The diameter of the aperture stop, as indicated by the
engraved /-numbers remains unchanged and is therefore do. Then the engraved
/-number will be
/o = ^ (32)
whereas the true /-number of the combination will be
Thus for a given aperture the /-number

is directly proportional to the focal length of
the combination lens system. In terms of the exposure required without the supple-
mentary lens, the exposure required when the supplementary lens is used will be
E - E.(jy = iS.(A)' (34)
Sometimes the magnification which the supplementary lens produces will be given
rather thanits effect on the focal length. The /-number of the combination of this
case will be
/ = /o(M + 1) (35)
in terms of the engraved /-numbers and the magnification M, whereas the exposure
will be
E = EoiM + 1)2 (36)
in terms of the magnification and the exposure without the supplementary lens.
As an example, suppose we have a lens of 15-em. focal length with a maximum
/-number of 4.5. Then the maximum aperture will be do = Lo/fo = 15/4.5 = 3.33
cm. If we use a supplementary lens which makes the combined focal length equal to
25 cm., then the maximum /-number will be / 25/3.33 = 7.7 cm. The exposure
willbe
E
m Eo = 1.662^0 = 2.76^0
or two and three-fourths that of the exposure without the supplementary lens. If a
(37)
supplementary lens were used which decreased the focal length of the combination, the
/-number would be reduced and the exposure with the supplementary lens would be
less than that required without it.
In order to reduce to the minimum the mental labor involved in calculating expo-
sures when making enlarged or reduced photographic images, Table IV has been
prepared. This table shows the increase in exposure which is required for various
magnifications from Koo to 100 in column 2. In the third column, the ratio of the
increase in exposure to that required for copying natural size is given.
—
Exposure with Single Elements of Lenses. When a single element of a doublet is
used rather than both elements (as in convertible lenses), the focal length of the single
element is increased beyond that of the complete lens. So far as the exposure is
concerned, the situation is very nearly the same as if a supplementary lens were used
to increase the equivalent focal length. Consequently the remarks made under the
paragraph above apply equally well here.
—
Exposure with Telephoto Lenses. The function of a telephoto lens is to produce
large images of distant objects with relatively short bellows extensions. A telephoto
Table IV.^ — Relative Exposure for Enlarging or Reducing Size of
lens consists of a positive doublet lens, such as are found in all good cameras, behind
which is placed a compound negative lens at approximately half the distance of the
focal length of the positive element. The telephoto lens may be constructed as a
complete lens system, in which case fixed magnification is obtained, or it may be made
by adding the negative element to the existing camera lens. In the latter case the
size of the image is variable, since image size depends upon the separation between
the two elements, which separation in turn is variable.
Fixed telephoto lenses are focused in the usual way, and no difficulty is encountered
in determining the exposure. The procedure is the same as determining the exposure
forany ordinarj^ lens, since the equivalent focal length and aperture stops are specified
by the manufacturer.
For telephoto lenses having variable focus, the determinations of exposure and
magnification are not so simple as in the case of fixed-focus lenses. If Lp is the focal
length of the positive lens element, L,, is the focal length of the negative lens element,
M is the linear magnification obtained, and d is the bellows extension, the equivalent
focal length of the combination is
Lf = MLj, (38)
and the magnification obtained is
M = 1
^
+ Lin (39)
The equivalent aperture stop of the telephoto lens /e in terms of the aperture stop
marked for the positive lens element fp is
/. = Mfp = fp{l + £) (40)
It should be noted that for any given magnification the equivalent aperture of the
telephoto lens is alwaj^s M
times the aperture stop of the positive element.
For example, if we have a 15-cm. positive lens with an aperture stop of //5.6, a
negative lens of 8 cm., and the bellows extension of 24 cms., the magnification is
M = 1+24^ =1+3=4 (41)
The focal length of the combination of lenses is
L/ = 4 X 15 = 60 cm. (42)
and the maximum aperture
/e = 4 X 5.6 = 22.4 (43)
When the equivalent aperture stop is determined, the telephoto lens may be used
the same as any other lens and the exposure is determined with tables and exposure
meters in the usual manner.
—
Absorption and Reflection in Lenses. The amount of light transmitted through a
lens depends not only upon the /-number and quantity of light incident upon it but
also upon the amount absorbed in passing through the individual elements and that
reflected from its various surfaces. The light transmission decreases as the number of
elements of a lens increases, so that for a given aperture stop a simple lens may easily
transmit more light than a more complicated and more highly corrected lens. Thus,
so far as light transmission at a given aperture is concerned, a meniscus lens may
transmit more light than a Tessar or Plasmat, and consequently may be a "faster"
lens. Since the amount of light transmitted through the lens determines the exposure,
it is apparent that all lenses do not produce the same exposure under identical light
conditions and when used at the same aperture. It is, of course, true that the loss of
.. —
light in a lens is not serious in the majority of cases arising in practical photography
and that the latitude of film is sufficient to render absorption and reflection effects of a
lens negligible in most cases.

On
the other hand, the absorption and reflection of light which occurs in lenses is
important for four practical reasons. Loss of light may be of considerable importance
in those cases where very short exposures must be given under very unfavorable light
conditions. Secondly, a lens of simple construction may actually transmit more light
than a more elaborate lens of greater aperture (smaller /-number). Since the price of a
lens is roughly proportional to its maximum aperture, it may actually happen that a
simple, inexpensive lens having an /-number of //2 is actually faster than

a more complicated and expensive lens having an aperture stop of //1. 5.
If speed is the only consideration, the less expensive lens may very easily be
the better buy. In the third place, the fact that not all lenses have the same
transmission at the same aperture stop gives support to the recommendation of expo-
sure-meter manufacturers that the exposures determined from the meter may have to
be altered in certain individual cases and that correction factors may have to be
determined for each lens or camera. Finally, reflection of light from the surfaces of
the individual glass components results in scattered light which decreases the contrast
of the negative and may produce a dull print where a sparkling contrasty result was
expected.
Table V. Absorption and Reflection of Cemented and Uncemented Lenses
Syntor lens Dagor lens
Lens surface
Percentage of Percentage of
Percentage of Percentage of
transmitted transmitted
incident light incident light
light light
First... 100.00 94.53 100.00 94.51

Second. 93.91 88.77 93.71 93.68
Third.. 88.77 84.75 93.48 93.47
Fourth 84.55 80.72 92.65 88.81
Fifth... 80.72 77 06
. 88.81 86.12
Sixth . . 76.88 73.39 84.37 84.36
Seventh 73.39 69.38 84.19 84.16
Eighth. 68.93 65.16 83.43 78.86
In general, as may be seen from Table V,^ more light is lost by reflection from
uncemented surfaces than is lost by transmission through a glass component. The
loss of light at cemented surfaces due to reflection is generally negligible. It should be
noted that the Dagor consists of four uncemented elements, whereas the Syntor con-
sists of six cemented pieces of glass. Both lenses were marked as having a maximum
aperture of //6.8. But the Syntor transmits about 83 per cent as much light as the
Dagor, and so far as light efficiency is concerned, the Syntor at//6.8 is equivalent to
the Dagor stopped down to f/7.5.
Ex-posiire for Near-by Objects. —
When the lens is extended beyond its infinity posi-
tion for photographing objects near-by, the /-number engraved on the lens is no longer
an accurate index of the light-gathering power of the lens, and consequently the indi-
1 Compiled from data given on p. 81, Neblette, "Photography — Principles and Practice," 1st ed.
cated /-numbers lose their meaning in relation to the required exposure. The equiva-
lent /-number and exposure under such conditions are given by Eqs. (35) and (36),
respectively, in terms of magnification obtained. They may also be given in terms of
the lens characteristics.
Let Lo be the principal focal length of the lens, i.e., the focal length for an object
at infinity,and let L be the equivalent focal length when the bellows is extended for
photographing near-by objects. Also let /o represent the aperture marked on the lens
and / represent the actual /-number. Then the actual /-number when the bellows is
extended, as for copying, is
/=/o(^) =/o(M + l) (44)
whereas the exposure required is
E = eJ—Y = Eo{M + 1)2 (45)
where Eo is the exposure required under the same conditions but with the lens at its
infinity position.
For example, suppose we know that an exposure of %5 sec. is required at aperture
of //4.5when a lens of 15-cm. focal length is set at its infinity position. It is required
to know the equivalent /-number and exposure when the lens-to-plate distance is
increased to 30 cm. From the above equations involving focal lengths, we find the
equivalent /-number to be
/ = 4.5 X 3%5 = //9 (46)
—
Methods of Determining Exposure. There are three possible methods of determin-
ing photographic exposure: (1) estimating or guessing at it on the basis of past experi-
ence; (2) using exposure tables, calculators, or guides; and (3) using exposure meters.
Estimating or guessing light values is extremely difficult because of the self-adjust-
ing features of the human eye by which the iris automatically adapts the eye to light
levels over a wide range. The use of exposure tables, calculators, or guides is of some
assistance, but nevertheless experience is required to judge whether the light is intense,
bright, or cloudy-bright. Furthermore, the eye cannot see "light" having wave-
lengths shorter than 400 mju, and it is the wavelengths below those that the eye cannot
see to which the photographic materials are usually most sensitive. Exposure meters
are generally preferred to the previous methods outlined. There are three general
types of exposure meters: (1) actinometers, based on the use of sensitive paper which
darkens upon exposure to light, (2) visual exposure meters which measure reflected
light through the medium of the human eye, and (3) photoelectric meters, capable of
measuring either direct or reflected light by means of a photoelectric cell and a sensitive
electric-current meter. The construction, use, advantages, and disadvantages of
these various types of meters will be considered in greater detail in a later section of
this chapter.
Relative Success Obtained with Various Exposure Aids. —
The success which may
be expected from the use of these various exposure devices depends upon their intelH-
gent use and an understanding of their operation and limitations. It is reported ^ that
Milbauer has found that the percentage of correct exposure given by these devices is
as shown in Table VI. While these exact figures may not be supported by other
observers, especially since the manner in which the results were obtained is not
specified, it is safe to assume that the figures given by Milbauer are reasonable and at
least approximately correct. Presumably these figures apply to amateur photog-
1 Fot. Ruiidschau, 74 (No. 20), 348 (1937).
— 8
2
3
raphers, for professional photographers should certainly be able to determine exposure

correctly,even without any aids, more than 45 per cent of the time.
—
Economic Justification for Exposure Meters. If we adopt Milbauer's figures as
given in Table VI, it is possible to arrive at some conclusions regarding the economic
justification of photographic exposure aids.
Table VI. Correct Exposure Obtained with Various Exposure Aids

Percentage of
Exposure Device Correct Exposures
Exposure tables 45 .
Slide-rule devices, circular calculators, etc 47 .
Visual-type exposure meters, carefully used 87 .
Photoelectric exposure meters 97 .
By discarding exposure tables for exposure calculators of the slide-rule or disk

type, it is possible to increase the number of properly exposed negatives from 45 to
47.2 per cent, a gain of 2.7 per cent. If a visual type of instrument is employed, the
gain in correct exposures jumps from 45 to 87.8 per cent, representing an increase of
32.8 per cent. Good visual-type exposure meters are available in the United States
for less than $3, and if their use assures that an additional 33 per cent of the negatives
which are taken will be properly exposed, the meter will have paid for itself by the
time $10 worth of film has been exposed.
On the basis just outlined, the use of a photoelectric exposure meter cannot be
economically justified so easily because of the greater expense of these meters and the
fact that the maximum possible improvement remaining is only 12.2 per cent. But
the use of a photoelectric exposure meter will enable 52.3 per cent more films to be
correctly exposed than exposure tables, and 10.5 per cent more than are correctly
exposed with visual exposure meters. If $20 is assumed to be the price for a photo-
electric exposure meter and that it will give an additional 52.3 per cent of correctly
exposed film than exposure tables, it will take a film expenditure of $40 to pay for the
meter. The 12.2 per cent improvement of the photoelectric type over the visual type
of meter is attained with an expenditure for the meter of an additional $17. The sum
will be amortized by a 12.2 per cent increase in properly exposed negatives after $139
worth of films have been exposed.
But an exposure meter merits consideration aside from the purely monetary aspect.
The picture is the final result that is desired, and one picture may well be worth the
cost of the meter in aesthetic value to the maker or commercially on the photographic
market.
Exposure Devices. Use of Exposure Tables. —Undoubtedly the best method avail-
able for determining the proper exposure of photographic materials under most condi-
tions (and formost branches of photography) is the proper use of the photoelectric type
of exposure meter. Although the prices of these units have been reduced considerably
in the past few years, they are still relatively expensive and are beyond the means of
some photographers. In such cases recourse may be made to visual exposure meters
or to exposure tables or calculators.
Reasonably extensive exposure tables are included in this chapter as an aid to
the determination of the correct exposure. Such tables must be used with judicious
discretion, and their use does not assure that proper exposure will always be attained.
They can give only approximate exposure values which, on the basis of experience,
have proved satisfactory for the conditions to which they apply. Unusual conditions
encountered in practical photography may frequently require that the photographer
deviate somewhat from the exposures indicates in the tables.
For convenience in use, the tables are divided into the following sections:
1. Black-and-white photography. This section includes much basic data
still
which is photography.
also applicable to other types of
2. Color still photography.
3. Black-and-white motion-picture photography.
4. Color motion-picture photography.

Within each group will be found representative, or basic, exposure data which may
be used as a guide for various lighting conditions including lighting by photoflood,
Mazda, and photoflash lamps, as well as by daylight.
—
Conditions for Which Tables Are Determined. -The basic exposures given in the
following tables are recommended as being approximately correct for the conditions
stipulated in the title; additional conditions for which the tables apply will be found
in the notes at the bottom of each table. In general, the tables are determined for
those film speeds, apertures, shutter speeds, and lighting conditions which are believed
to be most typical and consequently most frequently used. However, the exposure
tablesmay be extended to apply to other conditions not listed but which the photog-
rapher may elect to use for some particular reason or another. The tables of basic
exposure may be extended to apply to conditions other than the typical conditions by
making the necessary alterations for various film-speed ratings, apertures, shutter
speeds, and filters derived from Eq. (18).
In establishing the data for these exposure tables, it was desirable that some
method be adopted to express the speed or sensitivity of the various types of emulsions
which might be used in practice. Because of the soundness upon which the method is
based, the excellent results which practical photographers have achieved using it, its
rather extensive adoption in the photographic field, and the comparative ease with
which the photographer can obtain speed ratings of a wide range of emulsions, the
Weston film-speed rating has been chosen as the standard in the determination of the
exposure tables.^ The table of film-speed ratings given in Appendix B will assist
the photographer in determining the speed of the film used.
Tables for Black-and-white Still Photography. —Listed among the tables giving
basic exposure data for monochrome photography are a number of tables which
still
apply equally well to color or to motion-picture photography. They are included here
since it is intended that this section give as much fundamental data on exposure as
possible. The tables in other following sections of this chapter apply to those special-
ized cases where the specific type of photography demands a somewhat different treat-
ment of exposure than can be given here.
Table VII gives the relation between the aperture (in both the / and the uniform
—
systems U. S.) and the relative exposure. The table may be used to convert an
exposure with any given aperture to the exposure time required for an entirely differ-
ent aperture, by forming a simple ratio. For example, suppose the tables of exposure
indicate that the proper basic exposure is to = Jô sec. at an aperture /o = 8, but that
we desire to find the exposure for an aperture / = 5.6. The relative exposure for
/ = 8 is 64, whereas for / = 5.6 it is 32. Since the aperture is increased in size, a
smaller exposure time will be required and will in fact be ^%4, times Ko or /4o sec.
The absolute values of numbers in the third column have no significance, and were
chosen so that all figures would be greater than unity. The numbers have significance
1 The photographer may make conversions to other methods of film speed, if he chooses, by means
of the table of relative speed values given in Appendix B. However, it is recommended that the factors
enumerated in Speed or Sensitivity, p. 190, be given careful and thoughtful consideration before the
tables are converted to other film-speed ratings, as the systems by which film speed is determined vary
widely. In any case the use of the Weston speed ratings is to be preferred to other speed ratings when
using the exposure tables in this chapter.
—
only as indicating the relative exposures between the various apertures, as indicated
in the example above.
Table VIII gives basic exposure data for the photography of outdoor subjects in
daylight. For purposes of simplicity, this table has been reduced to the minimum
amount of essential data which requires consideration and consequently should be
used as a guide rather than as providing exact data. It is suitable, without correction,
for clear days when the sun is shining unobscured and for films having speeds of Weston
24 to 48, and it applies for the larger part of the day. The table is supplemented with
footnotes outlining the conditions for which the table applies and giving data on
extending the range of the table.
Table VII. Relation between Apertures and Relative Exposure
Aperture
factor 3/1.5 = 2, so that for taking a picture in New York at 5 p.m. in June, the correct
exposure time would be 3^ sec. if Ho sec. were correct for the exposure at 10 a.m.
Table X gives basic exposure data for indoor photography using daylight only.
Like Table VIII it has been reduced to the simplest possible form, and consequently
should be regarded as being suggestive rather than providing exact data. It may be
used for films having speeds of Weston 10 to 20 without correction. The tables are
calculated for that part of the day in which the intensities of daylight are greatest. If
desired. Table X may be corrected with the data provided by Table IX.
Table VIII. —Exposures for Black-and-white Still Photography in Daylight
(Weston Rating—24 to 48)
—
Table IX. Showing Variation of Exposure Due to Changes op Light during

THE Day
Lati-
tude
—
Table X. Basic Exposures for Black-and-white Still Photography,

Indoors: Daylight
(Weston Ratings— 10 to 20)
—
Table XI gives the exposure data for photofiood lamps, having various types of
reflectors, for various distancesbetween lamp and the subject. The table is devised
for only one photofiood lamp; if two, three, or four lamps are used in the same reflector,
the exposure times may be reduced to one-half, one-third, or one-fourth of the time
specified for the single lamp.
Table XI. ^Table of Basic Exposure for Black-and-white Still Photography

Using Photoflood Lamp
—
4. Distance between Lamp and Subject. —

If lamps are used at varying distances from the subject,
the exposure time for each lamp, separately, should be determined. The resultant exposure may then
be calculated by determining the reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of the separate exposures.
For example, if one No. 1 lamp is 4 ft. from the subject, and one No. 2 lamp is 6 ft. from the subject,
the exposures at //16 are J^ and Ji sec, respectively. The resultant exposure time is then
htt Vo-XH ^0 1 «».
ti + u yi + Vi
It should be noted that the resultant exposure time will always be less than the shortest exposure for
any given single lamp.
—
5. Reflectors. No very specific data can be given for those cases in which reflectors are used,
because the shape and surface of the reflector have large effects on the light beam which cannot be
determined unless the reflecting system is fairly completely specified. In such cases it is best to deter-
mine the proper exposure by means of an exposure meter. However, as a rough and approximate
guide, the exposures given in Table XI may be considered as being approximately correct for the types of
reflectors ordinarily used. This statement is based on experience and empirical relations rather than
scientific facts and applies to the majority of reflectors for photographic use. It does not apply to
spotlight reflectors where the rays are collimated into a very narrow beam, in which case a shorter
exposure may be appropriate.
Table XII. Exposure for Black-and-white Still Photography, 100-Watt

Mazda Lamps
—
Table XII gives recommended exposures for artificially lighted subjects for various apertures, types
of reflectors, and distances between lamp and subject.
1. Film Speed.— Table XII is based on an assumed film speed for tungsten of Weston 10 to 20. For
other film speeds the required exposure time is inversely proportional to the Weston rating of this film.
2. Aperture. — The exposures for various apertures are given, but conversion may be made for other
apertures, if this is desirable, by Eq. (23).
3. Number of Lamps. —
Table XII is based on the assumption that one 100-watt lamp is used, having
a clear or white-frosted, rather than daylight, bulb. If daylight bulbs are used, the exposures will have
to be increased for the same lamp rating, because of the filtering action of the bulb. For lamps of other
power ratings than 100 watts, the exposures given should be multiplied by 100/ PF, where W
is the power
consumption of the lamp used, in watts.

If several lamps at varying distances from the subject are used, the resultant exposure may be
found from the individual exposures required for each lamp. If the exposure time required tor one lamp
is <i, and that required by another lamp, ti, the net or resultant exposure is given by
titi
h + ti
4. Subject. —
Table XII is based on average- or medium-colored subjects. If dark subjects are
photographed, the exposure should be increased. The exposure may be decreased if light-colored
objects are being photographed.
5. Reflectors. — No very specific data can be given for those cases in which reflectors are used,
because the shape and surface of the reflector have large effects on the light beam which cannot be deter-
mined unless the reflecting system is specified. The values given may be regarded as correct for average
conditions, however.
Table XIII. Exposures for Still Black-and-white Photography with

Photoflash Lamps
Photoflash No. 10 lamp No. 20 lamp No. 75 lamp
Type of
None Paper'' Metal* None Paper* Metal* None Paper* Metal*
reflector
Distance,
lamp to Aperture Aperture Aperture
subject, ft.
f/25
10
15
20
30
50
—
Table XII shows basic exposure data for ordinary incandescent lamps operated at
normal voltages which result in a lamp life of approximately 1000 hr. The use of
clear or frosted lamps, rather than blue "daylight" lamps, is assumed. The table is
calculated for a lamp having a power-consumption rating of 100 watts, but the correct
exposure for lamps of other power rating TT' may be determined by multiplying by
100/W. The table applies to portraits and light-colored interiors. For darker
subject matter the exposures should be increased; exposure should be decreased for
lighter than average subjects.
Table XIII gives the proper aperture when photo flash lamps are used at a specified
distance from the subject. The table is based on the assumption that the shutter will
be opened throughout the duration of the flash; if synchronized flashes are used, one
stop larger than is indicated should be used.
Exposure data for flashlight powders is given in Table XIV, although photoflash
lamps have almost entirely superseded the use of flashlight powders. The table gives
the basic amount of flashlight or magnesium powder suitable for use with a film having
a speed or sensitivity rating of Weston 24 to 48.
Table XIV. Exposure with Flashlight Powders

(Weston Ratings—24 to 48)
—
EXPOSURE AND EXPOSURE DEVICBS 239
/o. The exposure for any having a Weston speed of 24 to 48 will be found in
film
Table XV for the aperture / at which the photograph is made. This table is suitable
for use with black-and-white or color photography so long as proper correction is made
for film speed and the light employed is suitable for color photograph}^
Table XV. Use of Diaphragm Aperture in Determining EIxposure

—
group A. If the sky is slightly cloudy an exposure of Ko sec. at //16 is required.

But, since the permissible shutter speed is Hoo sec, we shall have to increase the
aperture to obtain correct exposure at Jôo sec. If we are using a film having a speed
Table XVI. Exposure for Outdoor Photography at Night

Aperture
Subject //2 //2.8 //4.0 //5.6 //8 //ll //16 //22 //32
Exposure time
Shop fronts, brightly lighted 4 s 8s

Illuminated grounds, or buildings
with interior illumination 8s
Open street scenes, without near
dark objects 15 s
Open street scenes, without dark

near objects, snow-covered
ground or wet pavements 10 s
Street scenes with near dark objects 30 s
Street scenes with near dark ob-

jects, snow-covered ground or
wet pavement 20 s
Buildings with floodlight illumina-
tion only 30 s
Floodlighted open street scenes

without near dark objects 1 m
FloodUghted street scenes, with
near dark objects 2 m
—
Table XVII. Exposure for Moving Objects
2-in.-focal-length lens 5-in.-focal-length lens
Objects Objects
Objects Objects Objects Objects
moving moving
moving moving moving moving
Speed, obliquely obliquely
Typical subjects directly across directly across
m.p.h. across across
toward field of toward field of
field of field of
camera camera view
view
Exposure time, sec.
0-1 Landscapes, sea scapes, street

groups M
2 Slow-walking pedestrians
3 Walking pedestrians K2
4 Fast-walking pedestrians Ks
Slow cyclists Ms
Slow vehicles in heavy traffic Mo
10 Cyclists, trotting horses Ho
15 Slow street traffic Veo
20 Automobiles (city traffic) Mo
30 Automobiles M25
40 Automobiles Hso
60 Trains, automobiles M50
80 Fast trains Moo
100 Airplanes Moo
—
Table XVIII. Exposures for Still Color Photography in Daylight

(Weston Ratings —
4 to 8)
—
Table XIX. Basic Exposure for Color Photography with Photoflood Lamps
—
(Weston Ratings 4 to 8)
—
The apertures suitable for photography with photoflash lamps when the shutter is
opened during the Table XX. If synchronized flashes are used, the
flash is given in
next larger aperture (next smaller /-number) should be used.
Table XX. Exposure for Color Photography with Photoflash Lamps

(Weston Rating —
4 to 8)
—
Table XXII gives basic exposures when the illumination is from photoflood lamps.
Tables for Color Motion-picture Photography.— Table XXIII gives basic exposure
data for color motion-picture photography in daylight, whereas Table XXIV gives
similar data for photoflood illumination.
Table XXI. Exposures for Black-and-white Motion-picture Photography

IN Daylight
—
Exposure Devices. —
Exposure Calculators. Exposure calculators in the form of
.sliding scales or disks which may be rotated with respect to other marked scales,
usually cover a wide range of light conditions, film speeds, aperture, shutter speeds,
and sometimes give additional factors affecting exposure such as filter factors.
Table XXII. Basic Exposure for Black-and-white Motion-picture

Photography, Photoflood Illumination
—
These calculators are usually designed for daylight and cannot be used for artificial
light unless special scales for artificial illumination are provided. The scales are
designed to take into account the various light conditions of the sky, type of subject,
film speed, time of day, time of year, and even geographic latitude.
For a given amount of information, calculators are usually somewhat more compact
than tables and, since a particular series of settings may be obtained for a given specific
Table XXIII. Exposures for Color Motion-picture Photography in Daylight

(Weston Ratings — 10 to 20)
Table XXIV. —Basic Exposure for Color Motion-picture Photography,

Photoflood Lamps
(Weston Ratings — 10 to 20)
Actinometers. — Of historical interest, although seldom used any more, are actinom-
eters which determine the "actinic value " of the light by determining the time required
for a piece of photographic printing-out paper to darken to a standard tint. Most
POP materials are insensitive to the yellow, orange, and red portions of the spectrum
and are therefore more suitable for use with "ordinary" negative materials than with
orthochromatic or panchromatic materials.
When using an actinometer, it should be held in the shadiest area of the scene where
full details are desired. It should be directed toward the light, and the time for the
incident light (that which falls upon the object or scene) to darken the sensitive paper
to a standard tint should be measured.
The Watkins and Wynne actinometers are made in watch form, and by means of
paper to darken can be translated into expo-
scales the time required for the sensitive
sure values. While many actinometers have appeared on the market, the Watkins
and Wynne have been accepted as standards of this type. Since they measure the
light falling upon thescene, certain corrections are necessary for scenes of abnormal
reflectance. These corrections, which are furnished with the meters, vary from Ko to
1}4 times the indicated exposure. Actinometers have an advantage of being small
and inexpensive. It is sometimes difficult to determine when the photographic paper
is exactly the same tint as the comparison standard, but the proper tinting time can
usually be determined with an error of less than 100 per cent, and such error can be
tolerated in black-and-white photography because of the wide film latitude which is
available in modern films. A disadvantage is that under low light conditions an
appreciable time is required for the sensitive paper to reach the same tint as the
standard, thus requiring considerable time to obtain exposure data.
Visual-type Exposure Meters. — Visual types of exposure meters may be divided into
three broad classes: (1) photometer devices by which the brightness of a scene is-deter-
mined from a comparison with a calibrated incandescent lamp whose brilliance may be
measured or estimated in some manner, (2) wedge-extinction types in which the
exposure is determined by varying a graduated neutral-density wedge until shadow
detail disappears, and (3) stepped-wedge devices whose steps are lettered or numbered,
the dimmest letter which can be discerned being taken as an indication of the inte-
grated light intensity of the scene. The wedge is usually a piece of celluloid or glass
coated with a gelatin dye of varying density so that it varies approximately from
transparency to opaqueness. When using visual-exposure meters, care and sufficient
time must be taken to allow the eye to accommodate itself properly in order to obtain
correct meter settings or readings. Unlike the actinometer, visual exposure meters
measure reflected light.
Photometer devices operate essentially on the same principle as that of an optical
pyrometer. The brilliance of a lamp filament is matched with the brightness of the
scene as seen through an optical finder. To make the indications dependent only
upon the intensity of the lamp filament and not on its color, both scene and filament
are usually viewed through filters which transmit a narrow band of wavelengths. The
temperature of the filament may be estimated by determining the power taken by the
lamp from a small filament lighting battery. The lamp temperature is usually adjust-
able by means of a variable resistance in series with the lamp. Several years ago the
Bell and Howell Company manufactured such a photometer exposure device, but this
instrument has been superseded by photoelectric exposure meters. The Bell and
Howell photometer contains a small electric bulb and dry cell connected together
through a self-contained rheostat. The meter is directed at the object or scene, and
the rheostat set so that the lamp filament can be clearly seen. The rheostat is then
turned, slowly dimming the filament, stopping just at the point where it blends with
the subject so that the filament cannot be seen. By means of scales on the photometer
the correct exposure can be determined for various types of films and plates.
The Zeiss Diaphot exposure disk is an example of the wedge-extinction type of
meter. It consists of a rotating disk carrying a continuously variable optical wedge,
together with a window for observing shutter speeds. The scales of shutter speeds are
contained on a fixed disk which also contains a small eyepiece traveling over the
circular wedge. The eyepiece contains a blue filter to destroy sense of color and
give visual indication of light intensity only. In operation the photographer looks
through the eyepiece to the subject. The wedge is rotated until shadow detail just
disappears, when the correct exposure is indicated in the window of the rotating
number.
»•
corresponding numeral or letter. The dimmest figure which can be read is taken as
the appropriate "light value" for the conditions under consideration. The outer
telescoping tube is usually provided with a series of scales which relate the light values
as seen through the instrument, the film speed, the shutter speed, the aperture, and,
sometimes, filter factors. The proper exposure may usually be determined with a
simple setting of a ring which may be turned or slid relative to the fixed scales attached
to themain tube.
Since the operation of this type of instrument depends upon a subjective estimate
of the dimmest figure which can be read, it is necessary that the sliding tubes
be adjusted for proper focus and that the eye become
accommodated to the light at which readings are taken.
It is usuallj^ recommended that no readings be taken
until the operator has looked through the exposure
device for at least 5 sec, allowing this time for eye
accommodation.
These visual exposure devices are simple, inexpen-
sive, small, convenient in operation, and robust. They
are usually superior to photoelectric devices for low
values of light intensity where the ordinary photoelectric
devices are insensitive. A properly made and calibrated
and intelligently used visual exposure meter will find use
in almost any photographic activity. The principal
disadvantages of these instruments are that they are
subjective in operation, thereby introducing human
errors, are relatively slow in affording a reading, and
some types are improperly calibrated.
The relative calibration of several visual exposure
meters was determined from the calibrations attached
to the meter, and it was found that at least some of
these visual meters are poorly or carelessly designed. A t !(,. (i. - ]ê^\l \ iftual
>-î
light value as determined by the meter might give a exposure meter with focusing
correct exposure for one aperture and shutter speed, eyepiece. This meter has a
but the same light value might be off several hundred blue filter and viewing screen
covering the average field of
per cent when used with different apertures or shutter
view, which enables the pho-
speeds. This error occurs in the printed scales attached tographer to obtain a goodldea
to the instrument and is in addition to any errors of of what his photograph will
absolute exposure which may result from incorrect look like and at the same
ti°^« ^^^^^les him to deter-
manufacture of the stepped wedges. It may be ex-
, , -n , r •
e mme exposure.
pected that some error will occur when fractions of a
second or minute are rounded off to simple rather than awkward values. Such errors
should not exceed 25 per cent, however, and a 25 per cent error is negligible for most
photographic purposes.
Table XXV
shows the values of relative exposure for various apertures and the
exposures for these apertures as indicated by several popular types of visual exposure
meters. It was arbitrarily assumed that the exposures were correct for an aperture
of //2.8. This was the largest aperture common to all instruments, but any other
aperture might be considered as "par"; the only effect would be to shift the errors to
some other aperture. Assuming the exposure for the//2.8 aperture to be correct, the
exposure time for other apertures was calculated and compared with that indicated by
the meters, as shown in the table. The errors were also tabulated.
It will be observed that for the first type of meter, a very small and simple vest-
pocket type, the errors become cumulative because of the manner in which the progres-
—
sion of apertures was chosen relative to that of the exposure time. The second
exposure meter reaches a constant error for small apertures but also results in relative
errors for large apertures, also because of the manner in which the progression of aper-
tures was chosen. The third instrument was designed so that the apertures
and shutter speeds progressed in proper sequence, and the result is that nowhere does
it produce any serious errors due to this cause. Errors of 50 per cent might
be expected from inexpensive instruments of this type and would probably produce no
great harm for amateur work.
Table XXV. Comparison of Some Visual Exposure Meters

Photoelectric Exposure Meters. —The photoelectric type of exposure meter, when

properly used, the most precise type of exposure device available. It gives an indi-
is
cation of light conditions on a scale and is devoid of subjective estimates which intro-
duce additional human errors. It is not well suited to use where the light intensity
is low, largely because of the low output of
the photoelectric cell, and it is the most expen- .^
sive type of exposure instrument generally

available. When properly used and within the
range of light intensities for which it gives a
positive indication, it is unusually satisfactory.
The photoelectric type of instrument con-
sists essentially of a barrier-layer type of
photoelectric cell and a sensitive direct-current
measuring instrument. The barrier cell may
consist of disks of copper and copper oxide in
contact, or of iron and selenium. When
such a combination of elements exposed is
to light, electrons are released resulting in a

current flow both in the photoelectric cell and
the external circuit. This current will flow
so long as light falls upon the sensitive surface.
If this external circuit consists of a galvanom-
eter or a sensitive d.-c.meter a deflection of
the meter will be obtained and the meter can
be calibrated to indicate the amount of light
falling on the photoelectric cell, or the scale
can be calibrated in exposure values. The ^'^\ ® î,^^TTf '
^^^
^"^cP^ .
sure meter using the Weston nlm-speed

J .
.
,
current flowmg depends upon the type of system and calibrated in foot-candles,
materials used in the photoelectric cell, but
for any given cell the current is approximately proportional to the area of the cell
and to the amount of light falling upon its sensitive surface. Consequently,
for a given cell, the meter may be calibrated in terms of some convenient illumina-
FlG. 8. —Weston Model 650 exposure meter, calibrated in candles ]jer square foot.
tion units. A peculiarity of the barrier type of cell is that it converts, directly and
without the assistance of batteries, luminous flux into an electric current. Conse-
quentlj^, since no batteries are required, such photoelectric exposure meters may be
made quite small and compact. Moreover, so far as is known, there is no deterioration
of the barrier-layer type of photoelectric cell, so that the life of a photoelectric exposure
meter appears to be limited only by physical damage. By means of a calculator or

tables the meter readings can be translated into exposure values. When a photo-
electric exposure meter is directed at a scene its indication depends upon the average
brightness of the area taken in by the meter. The angle subtended by the diameter
of this area, having its apex at the exposure meter, corresponds to the view angle of a
camera and is usually referred to as the acceptance angle of the exposure meter. This
acceptance angle is governed by the location of the cell with respect to the case or by
the use of baffles over the photoelectric cell.
Operation of Photoelectric Exposure Meters. —It is a characteristic of photoelectric
exposure meters, as well as of other types of exposure devices, that the integrated or
"average" illumination upon the subject is the quantity which is determined by the
instrument. But from the photographic aspect the subject is composed of areas of
different color and luminous intensity, and it is these differences in intensity (and in
color photography, the differences in color) which it is desired to record on the photo-
graphic plate. Since the subject maj^ consist of varying areas of dark and light sub-
jects, it becomes evident that the integrated light may not result in the best exposure
value. This may be made more clear by means of an example.
Suppose we have a checkerboard of alternate white and black squares which we
wish to photograph in such a manner as to reproduce most nearly the original image.
From the discussion on page 204 of the chapter on Photographic Sensitometry, it is
evident that the exposure should be such that light reflected from the white areas
should provide an exposure for the negative falling on the straight-line portion of the
D-logio E curve. Similarly the light reflected from the black squares should be such
as to produce an exposure which will fall upon the straight-line portion of this same
characteristic. When an exposure meter is used to determine the exposure, the meter
will read a value of illumination (as a result of light reflected from the checkerboard)
which is the integrated sum of the white and black areas. A single reading rather
than two (one for the black squares and one for the white squares) is obtained, much
the same as if the entire cardboard were gray in tone. Of course, this integrated meter
reading serves some purpose since it tends to prevent gross over- or under-exposure,
but the method of measuring average light or obtaining an average exposure value is
not always a certain method of obtaining correct exposure data (see page 257 which
explains methods of using exposure meters).
Two inherent have been encountered in the above example, and each
difficulties
may be overcome with intelligent use of the exposure meter. These have to do with:
(1) the angle of view throughout which the photoelectric exposure meter is effective,
and (2) the fact that the indication of the meter is due to the average brightness of the
object or scene included within the acceptance angle of the meter.
The acceptance angles of most photoelectric exposure meters on the market at
the present time are too large, as many of them exceed the angle of view of the typical
camera lens, which is approximately 60°. This means that all the light within a cone
whose angle is 60° ( ± 30° from the axis) has an effect upon the photoelectric cell, but
because of reflectance of light by the glass over the cell and the surface of the cell, the
loss of light at oblique angles is appreciable. Therefore all exposure meters tend to be
quite selective to the center part of the scene. Consequently, if it is desired to obtain
readings of light or dark areas independently of the integrated light value of the entire
scene, it is necessary to make the readings with the exposure meter sufficiently close
to the subject so that the desired area to be measured, but no other area, falls within
the 60° cone. For example, if the light intensity of a person's face is to be determined,
the exposure meter should be pointed at the face and should be not more than about
a foot from the face when the reading is taken. The reading obtained will indicate
the average value of the light reflected from the face, which may be quite different
from that reflected from a dark suit.
The acceptance angle of the majority of meters on the market today is entirely too
large, so that the meter indications are affected by light from areas which are consider-
ably outside the picture area. Large acceptance angles are therefore objectionable
from the viewpoint of the photographer since the meter must be more carefully used
to prevent erroneous readings. The manufacturing cost of a photoelectric exposure
meter is governed quite largely by the acceptance angle, as large angles permit the use
of considerably cheaper galvanometers because more current is available from the
photoelectric cell resulting from the increased area from which the light is accepted.
—
Methods of Limiting the Acceptance Angle. The acceptance angle of an exposure
meter may be controlled by any method which will restrict or prevent oblique light
from reaching the photoelectric cell. One method is to locate the photoelectric cell
deep into the meter case so that the case itself acts as a baffle. This method is used to
a large extent in the meters made in Europe but, owing to lack of space within the
meter case, the amount of baffling obtained is so small that the resulting acceptance
angle is entirely too large. Some meters such as the Mini-Photoscop exposure meter
mount the photoelectric cell on an angle (approximately 45° from the vertical plane)
and also utilize a mirror mounted so that the cell and mirror form an angle of 45°.
This method quite definitely limits the acceptance in the vertical plane but is not very
effective in the horizontal plane, the theory being that the elimination of excessive
sky and foreground light is adequate. Other meters such as the Weston, Metrovick,
Helios, etc., utilize a mechanical baffle over the photoelectric cell. These mechanical
baffles usually consist of either thin plates latticed together or solid or laminated
thin plates containing a number of holes, the ratio of the width to the depth of the
individual holes being the factor which governs the acceptance angle. The General
Electric exposure meter utilizes a mechanical baffle but is different in actual construc-
tion from the above meters. Instead of using a relatively thin plate containing a
number of holes, this meter has a sliding baffle of appreciable depth (1.4 in.) and
contains a single hole (1.53 by 0.74 in.) for the light to enter. This baffle when not in
use forms a protective cover for the entire meter.
Polar diagrams (Fig. 9) show the acceptance angles of a number of exposure
meters. It will be seen that while all the meters are more selective to light at normal
incidence, many of them are affected too much by oblique light which would be far
outside of the view angle of most cameras.
Scale Calibrations.— Meters having scales calibrated to be direct reading in either
/-stops or shutter speeds are quite convenient to use provided the same type of film or
plate is always used and also if the same /-stop or shutter speed is used at all times. It
should be obvious that, if a scale is calibrated in /-numbers, it can be direct reading
only for definite combinations of shutter speeds and film speeds; or if the scale is
calibrated in shutter speeds, it can be direct reading only for certain combinations of
/-stops and film speeds. Also, while the combination of /-stop and shutter speed indi-
cated may be correct as far as exposure is concerned, it may not be a usable combina-
tion, since the /-stop may be incorrect in order to obtain sufficient depth of focus, or
the shutter speed may be too slow to arrest motion.
Because of these limitations the trend in exposure meters now is toward using scales
with either arbitrary scales, as on the Weston Junior and Cine Meters, Mini-Photo-
scop, etc., or with scales calibrated in fundamental units, such as the General Electric
meter which is calibrated in foot-candles or the Weston Universal which is calibrated
in candles per square foot. These meters are extremely flexible tools as the scale cali-
brations are independent of film speeds, /-stops, or shutter speeds. By means of a
calculator which is an integral part of these meters the scale readings can easily be
translated into a series of exposure values, the choice of any combination depending
upon whether the shutter speed must be fast enough to stop motion or whether con-
siderable depth of focus is desired.
Characteristics of Photoelectric Exposure Meters. —Table XXVI gives the essential

operating characteristics of the more important photoelectric exposure meters avail-
able in the United States.^
Desirable characteristics of exposure meters of this type include: (1) approximate
equality of horizontal and vertical acceptance angles, (2) long scale, (3) high sensi-
tivity, (4) accommodation to wide range of /-numbers, (5) accommodation to wide
range of film speeds, (6) accommodation to wide range of shutter speeds, and (7) scale
calibrated in arbitrary units which are proportional to light intensity or, preferably, in
terms of photometric units.
The polar-sensitivity characteristics of a number of photoelectric exposure meters
are shown in Fig. 9.
20 10 10 20
Fig. 9. —
Polar diagram showing the relative sensitivity of a number of photoelectric
exposure meters for light coming from the angles indicated. The zero angle is, of course,
the optical axis of the meter. The letters refer to the various exposure meters as follows:
B, Bewi; E, Electrophot (Rhamstine) G, General Electric; H, Helios; M, Meltrovick; MP, Mini-
;
Photoscop; P, Photar; S, Sixtus; Wi, Weston Universal 650; Wi, Weston Junior 850; Wi, Weston
Cine 819.
The significance of the subscripts is given as follows:
h, horizontal plane; vf, vertical plane, foreground; vs, vertical plane, sky.
Methods of Using Photoelectric Exposure Meters. Brightness-range Method. —

Fundamentally we desire to expose the negative, so that the light intensities from the
various areas of the scene being photographed will make use of the straight-line portion
of the D-logio E characteristic. This means that the exposure of both the brightest
part as well as the darkest part of the scene will fall on the linear region of the D-logio E
curve. The range between the lightest and darkest light values of the scene is termed
the brightness range, and if this does not exceed about 125 {i.e., if the brightest
area is not more than 125 times as bright as the darkest area), it is usually possible
to make an exposure on modern films so that the straight-line portion of the curve
is used. The method by which this is accomplished is known as the brightness-range
method.
To use this method, the readings of the meter should be numerically proportional
to the light intensity reaching the meter, rather than in /-stops or arbitrary letters or
figures. The light refiected from the brightest portion of the scene as well as that from
the darkest portion of the scene is independently measured. The ratio of these two
readings determines the brightness range of the scene being photographed. The
geometric mean of these two readings is then taken as the light reading for which the
exposure should be made. An example will make this clear.
1 A more complete table of characteristics of photoelectric exposure meters appears in Photo Technique,
1, No. 1, June, 1939.
Suppose the brightest part of the scene measures 500 candles per sq. ft. and the
darkest part measures 5 candles per sq. ft. The geometric mean of these readings is
the square root of their product, or VS X 500 = -\/2500 = 50. Thus the reading
50 should be taken as the most suitable light value for which to determine the exposure
time for the given aperture and film. On some meters the geometric mean of the two
readings maj^ be determined by properly marked scales and Umiting marks, as in the
Weston Model 650 Universal exposure meter.
Darkest Object Method. —Since the range of scene brightness does not often exceed
about 128 (which particular figure is chosen because only an approximate value is
required and this one is a power of 2), it is often quite satisfactory to measure the
brightness of the darkest object or the darkest shadow in which detail is desired, if
these can be approached sufficiently closely to be measured and are not below the
sensitivity of the exposure meter. This light reading may then be multiplied by 10,
and this reading can be taken as the best compromise for determining the proper
exposure for the entire scene.
For example, suppose that the darkest shadow measured 5 candles per sq. ft. as
before. The proper exposure for the entire scene, according to the darkest object
method would be 5 X 10 = 50, which should be used for determining the shutter speed
or aperture from the calibration of the meter.
Brightest Object Method. — Sometimes the sensitivity of exposure meters is not
sufficiently great to permit an accurate reading to be obtained by the "darkest object
method." In such cases the brightest object method may be used, which is similar to
that just described. In the brightest object method, the brightest object in the scene
is measured. The reading thus obtained is divided by 10 to obtain the best meter
reading for which to determine the exposure.
Suppose, for example, that a sheet of paper happens to be the brightest part in the
scene being photographed, and that the meter reading is 650 foot-candles. The meter
reading of 65 may then be taken as that most suitable for determining the camera
adjustments by means of the tables attached to the meter.
Both the brightest object and the darkest object methods depend upon the assump-
— —
tion which is usually true ^that the brightness ratio of the scene does not greatly
exceed about 100 to 1. If the brightness range is much greater than this, the latitude
of the film may be inadequate to permit exposure of both the bright and the dark
objects simultaneously on the linear region of the H and D curve. In such cases a
compromise must be made if correct exposure is to be obtained. It is then expedient
to determine which portion of the scene (light or dark) is of greater interest and to
ascertain that the more important part is properlj^ exposed, at the expense of the less
important portions. Thus, for example, if a bright sheet of paper is the dominant
subject in the entire scene, the brightest object method would ordinarily be the pre-
ferred method of the two. If a dark suit is to be properly photographed in the scene,
the darkest object method is to be preferred.
Average-brightness Method. —
Where it is inconvenient or impossible to measure the
light value of the darkest object directly, then the average values of the entire scene
can be measured by directing the meter toward the center of the scene. In this
measurement it is preferable to have as little sky included as possible. For example, if
buildings with reasonable foreground are to be photographed with open sky overhead,
then the meter should be directed slightly downward, so that the imaginary 60° cone
area covered by the electric eye does not extend into the skj- area.
Substitution Method. — When the brightness of a dark-colored object in the shade is
very low so that it cannot be measured with accuracy on the instrument, or possibly
not at all, its approximate value may often be determined by the following substitution
method. The method is especially suitable for auxiliary use with the darkest-object
method.
Make
a measurement of the same or similar object in the sunlight or other bright
location where a readable indication can be obtained on the meter. Then replace this
object with a sheet of white paper or white handkerchief and make a second reading on
this. The ratio of these two readings will give the ratio of the reflectance of the paper
to that of the object. Remove the paper, and place it in the position of the object
whose reading is desired (and which is below the reading of the meter) and make a
measurement from the paper. Divide this reading by the ratio previously formed to
obtain the light value of the desired object.
For example, suppose the reading obtained on a similar object in a brighter location
is 2 and the reading on the paper or handkerchief in the same location is 20. The
ratio of these readings is20:2 or 10. If now we obtain a reading of 1 from the sheet of
paper placed upon the subject whose light value is desired, the reading from the desired
subject will be Ho- It should be realized that this method is in certain cases a con-
venient approximation. It is most successful where no appreciable differences of
color between the two objects being measured are incurred. For example, if the light
is to be determined for dark-green foliage, it is best to make the ratio test between the
paper and brightly lighted foliage, rather than between the paper and, let us say, red
flowers.
Incidentally, these methods meter are equally
of using the photoelectric exposure
applicable for those cases in which a visual exposure meter employed.is
Coordination of cameras and meters is of considerable importance in order to

obtain correct exposure. No meter or camera is perfect, and the calibration errors in
both will probably, bear an inverse ratio to the purchase price. This statement is
based upon tests made on many meters and cameras. Unfortunately it is not as sim-
ple to test and readjust an exposure meter or camera as it is to test and readjust a
watch, however, if with a particular meter or camera you obtain consistent under-
exposure or overexposure, the effect whether due to the camera or meter can be cor-
rected by changing the film-speed setting. For example if consistent underexposure is
obtained when using a film or plate rated at 23 Scheiner or 24 Weston then the rating
should be decreased to, perhaps, 20 or 21 Scheiner or 16 or 20 Weston depending upon
the extent of underexposure. This method of correction does not necessarily mean
that the film or plate is incorrectly rated, but the method of changing the speed ratings
merely offers a simple way to correct for incorrect exposures which may be due to
incorrectly timed shutters, incorrectly calibrated diaphragms, or for the type of
developer used, etc. «
The actual aperture value depends upon whether the diaphragm is being opened
or closed. For example, tests on many cameras showed that the /-stops not only
varied in actual calibration but were dependent on whether the /-stop desired was
approached from a smaller or larger opening. For example, if the diaphragm was
moved from //3.5 to //8, the aperture would be larger than if the diaphragm was
moved from //16 to //8. These errors are larger on short-focal-length cameras such as
miniature and cine cameras than on the long-focal-length cameras because of the much
smaller actual aperture. It was also found that these errors were considerably greater
in the low-priced cameras. It is therefore recommended always to set the /-stop
from the same direction, which will result in the same aperture at all times for the same
/-stop calibration.
When using an exposure meter, it should be appreciated that it is a photographic
tool and likeany tool the more knowledge of it and the more experience you have with
it, the better it will serve you. There has been and probably will continue to be much
data published regarding the use of exposure meters for special applications. The
majority of these data can be summarized as follows:
1. Measure the brightness of the principal area in the scene, the face for portraiture
work, the principal building if taking a street scene, etc. Convert this reading into
exposure values according to the instructions furnished with the meter. If the
particular scene is extremely contrasty and details in the shadow and high-light areas
are desired, then measurements should be taken of these two areas and a geometric
mean value of exposure chosen.
2. For highly specialized work where special lighting and certain types of pictures
are required, it may be necessary to develop a special technique in reading and inter-
preting the meter readings into photographic exposure. For example, on a certain
type of setup it may be noticed that either over- or underexposure is consistently
obtained. This may be due to any number of things such as the quality of the Ught
being considerably different than that used in determining the film-speed value, camera
calibration or meter calibration may be incorrect, etc., but, by considering the exposure
meter, not as an infallible tool, but as a useful practical tool, corrections can be
artificially made by altering the rated film speed value to correct for consistent over-
or underexposure.
Bibliography
GooD^v^N, W. N., Jr.: The Photronic Photographic Exposure Meter, J Soc. Motion Picture Engrs., 20,
.
95 (1933).
Lakst, M., and B. Rubin: A Practical Method and Photometer for Controlling Exposures in Photog-
raphy, J. Soc. Motion Picture Engrs., 21, 155 (1933).
Harrison, G. B.: Photoelectric Exposure Meters, Phot. J., 74, 169 (1934).
McKay, H. C: Making the Most of Exposure, Am. Ann. Phot., 1935.
Goodwin, W. N., Jr.: Weston Speed Ratings and How Obtained, Am. Phot., 32, 538 (1938).
CHAPTER IX
PHOTOGRAPHIC LIGHT SOURCES .
By Beverly Dudley
Definition of Light.^ —-The various ways in which the term light is used make it
desirable to formulate definitions so that a common basis for discussion may be

provided.
Scientific Definition. —Because
of the manner in which the term light is associated
with subjective stimuli, extremely difficult, if not impossible to frame an entirelj^
it is
satisfactory and scientific definition of this term. We may, however, devise a reason-
ably satisfactory definition which will be useful for many purposes. Thus light may
be defined as the radiant energy having wavelengths of from 400 to 700 mî.^ These
limits are approximately those for which the human eye is sensitive, so that the
definition given above includes only those radiations which may be expected to
produce, in the normal person, a visual sensation.
Physiological Definitions. —
Physiologically, light may be defined as that radiant
energy which, impinging upon the eye, travels through the cornea, aqueous humor,
crystalline lens, and vitreous humor, successively, ultimately falling on, and passing
through, the retina until it reaches the sensitive rods and cones where, in normal eyes,
a photochemical reaction is set up leading to the excitation of the nerve endings.
Psychological Definition. —
Psychologically, light may be defined as the stimulus
to the eye which, in a normal person, results in sensations in the brain, permitting the
perception of visual form, intensity, color, perspective, and size.
Photographic Definition. —
In a broad sense "actinic" light, i.e., that light which is
capable of affecting photographic materials, may be defined as the radiant energy of
such wavelengths as are capable of producing a latent image on a photographically
sensitized film, plate, or emulsion. It is evident that the range of wavelengths of
"actinic" light will depend upon the spectral-sensitivity characteristics of the photo-
graphic material. For panchromatic materials the range of wavelengths may be
considered to be from about 350 to 700 mju which corresponds fairly well to the range
for which the human eye is sensitive. For orthochromatic materials, the upper limit
may be taken at about 600 m/x, whereas for orthonon or noncolor-sensitive materials,
the upper limit may be approximately 540 mî. For special purposes, photographic
materials may be sensitized to other wavelength ranges; "actinic light" for such
materials will, necessarily, have wavelength limits different from those listed above.
—
Nature and Characteristics of Light. At the present time there are two theories
concerning the nature of light, coexisting side by side. These are the wave-motion
theory, which is useful in explaining such phenomena as reflection, interference, refrac-
tion, diffraction, and polarization; and the quantum theory, which explains the more
recent advances in X
rays, radiation, and photoelectricity. The fact that two theories
are required adequately to express the characteristics of electromagnetic radiation
results from the inability of the human mind to conceive of more than two methods by
which energy can be transferred. One of these is by the actual transfer of matter
1 Millimicron is abbreviated rtiy.. For other units used in measuring and specifying light wave-
length, see Chap. II, page 11, and Chap. X, page 293.
261
—
itself, and the other is through the medium wave motion. When our knowledge and
of
insight into the physical nature of light are more highly developed, it is reasonable to
believe that a single theory of light shall be developed which will embrace the experi-
mental evidence and theoretical considerations which are now included, separately, in
the wave motion and the quantum theories.
According to the wave theory, light may be regarded as an electromagnetic
disturbance propagated in a hypothetical medium (called the ether) as a transverse
wavei with a velocity of c = 2.99796 X lO^" cm. per sec. or approximately 186,300
miles per sec.
In any wave motion, the relation between the velocity of propagation c, the fre-
quency number of alternations or vibrations per unit time) v, and the wavelength
(or
(or distance from a point on one wave to the corresponding point on the next adjacent
waves) X, is c = Xj'. Light in the visible region extends from wavelengths of from
V/s/b/e specirum
o
o
LO
o o
o o oo ooo
VD 1^ CO o
o m/i
Wave-
length (X)
Frequency(f)30 20 10 9 8 7 6 5 3X10 '"^Cycles

per second
Fig. 1. —Wavelength-frequency relationship for the visible and adjacent spectrums for
light traveling in free space.
400 to about 700 m/i, so that the frequency of visible light may be expected to occur
within the range of approximately 7.5 X 10^* to 4.3 X 10'* cycles per sec. as shown in
Fig. 1. The color of a given light depends upon the frequencies or wavelengths of
which it is composed, as well as the magnitude of the energy at these frequencies or
wavelengths.
Light of only one frequency or a very small range of frequencies is said to be mono-
chromatic and results in a sensation of a single pure or spectral color. When more
than one frequency is present, the light is said to be heterochromatic, but the unaided
and untrained eye does not usually distinguish between monochromatic and hetero-
chromatic radiations in the visible spectrum. Pure monochromatic light of a single
frequency does not exist, although it may be very closely approached. White light
consists of approximately equal intensities of all frequencies within the visible spec-
trum. Consequently, by properly combining colored lights, it is possible to produce
white light.
By permitting light to fall upon a smooth surface, the direction of propagation
of the light may be altered, and the light is reflected from the surface. If the reflecting
surface is highly polished and smooth, the reflection taking place is regular or specular
and is sharply defined. In this case the angle of incidence of the light to the perpen-
dicular of the surface always equals the angle of reflection. If the reflecting surface
is rough or coarse in comparison to the wavelength of light, the angles of incidence and
reflection for the beam as a whole may not be equal or may be only approximately
equal. This type of reflection is called "diffuse reflection," and the beams are not
sharply defined as in specular reflection. Diagrams illustrating specular and diffuse
reflection are shown in Fig. 2.
I A transverse wave is one in which the displacement occurs perpendicular to the direction of
propagation.
PHOTOGRAPHIC LIGHT SOURCES 263
Light impinging upon a medium is dispersed in three ways as shown in Fig. 3.

Part of the light may be reflected, as already explained, or, if the medium is trans-
parent, much of the light may be transmitted through it. The rest is absorbed in
passing through the medium and is dissipated^ ultimately making its appearance in
the form of heat.
IncicJerrf beam Refleci-eol beam
Smooth, po/ishec/
surface
Speculoir or Regular Reflec+ion
^,E-hchec/ or
^/ granular surface
Diffuse Reflec+ion
Fig. 2. -Diagrams illustrating specular reflection from polished surface and diffuse reflection
from surface which is irregular compared with dimensions of light waves.
Incident beam Reflected rays
Transmitted rays
Fig. 3. —
In passing through a transparent medium, some of the light rays are reflected,
some are absorbed, and the rest are transmitted through the medium. The rays are bent
in passing from two mediums having different indices of refraction.
The any material medium is less than the velocity in free space.
velocity of light in
Therefore, if which is traveling through a vacuum is made to pass through a
light
transparent medium, its velocity will be decreased. If the incidence is perpendicular
or normal to the surface of the medium, the only effect will be a slowing down of the
velocity of light while passing through the denser medium. However, if light impinges
on the denser medium at some other angle, the relative change in velocity of propaga-
tion through the denser medium will result in a bending of the beam. At the surface
of the two mediums the direction of the beam will change, and the light is diffracted.
In passing out of the denser transparent medium into free space again, the velocity
of propagation will be increased. Consequently, the light wave will again be refracted
but in a direction opposite to that of the first refraction.
Ordinarily natural light vibrates in all possible directions perpendicular to its
direction of propagation. However, it is possible to restrict to a single plane the
transverse displacement of the wave, and light vibrating in this manner is plane
polarized.
Like sound or water waves, light waves curl around obstacles in their path, but
because of the tremendous size of any physical object which we can observe compared
to the wavelength of light, this effect is so very slight as to be practically nonexistent.
Therefore we customarily regard light as being rectilinearly propagated, i.e., as travel-
ing in straight Lines.
curve at
Visibilii-y Visibilify curve for
very low light levels, norma/ lighi levels
mm
(
41
I.O
0.8
'm 0.6
>
0.4
0.2
350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750

Wavelength in Millimicrons
Violet I Blue iGreenlYellowlcPn^'jRed
Fig. 4. — Relative visibility of the normal human eye at normal and greatly reduced light
levels, showing the Purkinje shift.
According to the quantum theory, electromagnetic radiation (of which light is an

example and forms a small portion of the total range of possible and available electro-
magnetic radiation) is always emitted and absorbed in discrete quantities. The unit
of radiation is the quantum or photon. When one of these quanta is absorbed, the
energy of the quanta manifests itself as radiant energy or waves which may have their
wavelength in the visible region so as to produce light. The subject of quantum
theory is beyond the scope of this book and is not essential for an elementary under-
standing of photographic principles.
The eye is not uniformly sensitive to all wavelengths (colors) within the visible
spectrum, which extends from about 400 to 700 m/x. For a given amount of energy
(light intensity) at the red end of the spectrum, the eye is relatively insensitive. The
sensitivity of the eye increases as the wavelength is shifted from the red, through the
red-orange, orange, orange-yellow, yellow, and for moderate light intensities finally
reaches a maximum for the average human eye in the yellow-green region. Beyond
this point of maximum sensitivity, the sensitivity of the eye decreases as we progress
through the green, blue-green, blue, blue-violet, and trails off in the violet region. It
issafe to say that probably no two human eyes are exactly alike in their sensitivity or
response to colors, but for the average normal human eye, the relative sensitivity as
a function of wavelength (color) is given by the curve of Fig. 4. The maximum
sensitivity of the eye is seen to occur at 554 mju at normal levels of illumination.
When the luminosity of an observed object is considerably reduced beyond that
ordinarily used, there is a gradual shift in the visibility curve toward the shorter
wavelengths, and the shape of the visibility curve undergoes minor modifications.
For extremely low levels of illumination, the maximum sensitivity of the eye occurs at
507 m/x in the green portion of the spectrum, instead of at 554 m^ in the yellow-green
part of the spectrum. Practical application is made of this Purkinje shift of the
visibility curve with variation in illumination, in selecting safe lights which are
employed when dealing with sensitive panchromatic materials. Since the eye is most
sensitive to green light at low illumination levels, the safe light is made green so that
10 10 10 I 10 10^ lO-" 10'^ 10^ 10^

Field Brightness in Candles per Sq,. Meter
Fig. 5. —
Relative sensation of the normal human eye plotted against the logarithm of
the stimulus (field brightness). If the Weber- Fechner law were obeyed, this curve would
be a sloping straight line instead of being s-shaped.
less light can be employed and thereby lessen the chance of fogging the photographic
material.
Two other characteristics of the eye are important in photography, especially
in motion-picture photography. These are the sensitivity of the eye to flicker and the
persistence of vision.
The eye does not respond instantly to a sensation stimulus; when the stimulus is
removed, the eye does not respond immediately. The eye will require about 0.01 sec.
to perceive the stimulus and will retain the sensation of light for about 0.05 sec. after
its cessation. The values given depend upon the general level of illumination and the
flicker rate but are approximately correct for average conditions encountered in
practical motion-picture photography.
If flicker at constant frequency occurs in a light source or in the level of illumina-
tion, it may be quite annoying. The fhcker frequency which is least objectionable
varies with the general level of illumination and the least perceptible difference in
brightness between the bright and dark images. However, flicker is usually most
objectionable between about 3 and 10 cycles per sec. If the flicker is such as to cut
off the light entirely (as in the case of motion-picture projection), the highest frequency
at which fhcker is just apparent is called the "critical frequency." For a field bright-
ness of 1 candle per sq. m., the critical frequency is 30 cycles; it is about 38 cycles at
10 candles per sq. m., 22 cycles at 0.1 candles per sq. m., 15 cj'^cles at 0.01 candles per
sq. m. and about 12 cycles at 0.001 candles per sq. m. These figures illustrate the
importance of taking into consideration the general brightness of the image on the
screen in determining optimum shutter speed.
The eye has a wide adaption to light stimulus and is sensitive over a wide range.
When the relative sensation of the eye is plotted against the logarithm of the stimulus
(logarithm of field brightness in candles per square meter) as independent ordinate, an
s-shaped curve results, covering the tremendously large range of from 0.001 to 10^
candles per sq. m. as shown in Fig. 5. The fact that relatively little change in sensa-
tion results from a large change in stimulus (when static conditions are assumed)
indicates how unsuited the eye is as a substitute for objective types of instruments in
determining light values.
—
Production of Light. Visible light may be produced on a practical scale in two
ways: (1) by increasing the temperature of the source until it is incandescent, i.e.,
until some of the energy radiated falls within the visible region of wavelengths; and (2)
by conduction of electricity through gases. The first of these methods is represented
by the familiar tungsten fUament lamp. Mercury-vapor lamps, neon signs, and
sodium-vapor lamps are among the more common examples of the production of Ught
by means of gaseous conduction.
In incandescent sources, light is produced by passing current through a fine wire
contained in a glass enclosure which is either evacuated as completely as possible of
the residual gases or is thoroughly evacuated after which an inert gas at low pressure is
introduced into the enclosure. The purpose of the inactive gas is to increase the life
of the lamp and to prevent the blackening of the enclosing bulb.
Other incandescent sources include the flames of candles, kerosene lamps, Wels-
bach mantles, gas burners, etc. In a popular sense a flame is a gas burning in air.
The production of the flame is, however, not confined to a gas burning in air but is a
phenomenon observed when any two gases undergo combustion accompanied by the
evolution of light and heat, as when hydrogen burns in chlorine to produce hydrogen
chloride. The luminosity of flames depends, in a complex manner, on a number of
factors. In general, however, it may be said that: (1) the luminositj^ of a flame is
dependent upon, or is influenced by, the glowing of solid matter, such as carbon, heated
to incandescence; (2) the luminosity is increased by increasing the pressure of the
burning gas; and (3) the luminosity is increased by raising the temperature of the
burning gas.
In producing visible light through the use of gaseous conduction, the most common
method is to fill, with a gas or vapor, a glass tube having metallic electrodes at its ends
and applying a voltage between these electrodes. The voltage must be sufl^cientlj^
high to break down the gas molecules and produce ionization together with radiation
in the visible spectrum. Radiations outside of the visible region are also usually
produced as well but are of no importance for purposes of illumination.
—
Light Spectra. If the white light from the sun is analyzed, as by passing it through
a prism or reflecting it from a finelj'- ruled grating, it will be found to be composed of a
continuous band of all the visible colors: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and violet.
Light from an incandescent lamp will also form a continuous band of colors when
analyzed, but since this form of light is yellow rather than white, the Colors from an
incandescent lamp (operated at temperature which will result in a useful life of the
lamp of about 1000 hr.) will be weaker in the green, blue, and violet regions than is
the case with the white light from the sun. If we pass the light from a mercury-vapor
or neon lamp through a prism, it will be found that the light produced is analyzed into
its component parts but that the color distribution obtained is not at all continuous;
in fact, only a few colored lines will be observed.
The spreading out of a complex light into a range of spectral colors is known as
analyzing the light, and the range of colors is known as the spectrum. When the range
of colors is continuous, as in the case of analyzed sunlight, the spectrum is continuous.
When only certain lines appear, as when gaseous-conduction light sources are analyzed,
the spectrum is discontinuous. The spectrum shows what colors (or light wave-
lengths) are present in the original light source. If the intensity of the energy at the
various wavelengths is measured, a spectroradiometric curve can be plotted which

shows in graphical form the relative or absolute intensity of the energy of which the
beam is composed, as a function of wavelength. Such spectroradiometric curves are
200
500 550 600

Wave length (m/i)
Fig. 6. —
Relative energy at various wavelengths for incandescent bodies at various
temperatures. The spectral-energy curve for daylight is shown by the dashed line, and
is closely approximated, over most of the visual region, by a body having a color tempera-
ture of 5500° K.
of considerable importance, scientifically, in the investigation of the characteristics of

light sources.
In a continuous spectrum all wavelengths within a given spectrum band are present
to extent, and the relation between the wavelength and the energy of the light
some
source at that wavelength may be indicated by means of a continuous curve. Figure
6 shows the spectroradiometric curve for daylight at the earth's surface as well as for
tungsten lamps operated at various temperatures.
In a discontinuous spectrum, energy may not be present for all wavelengths
within the limits of the spectrum band, lack of certain wavelength lines being made
apparent by a dark field. Such a spectrum is known as a "line spectrum," as com-
pared with the continuous spectrum of the sun or incandescent lamps, for instance.
In the curve of a line spectrum the presence of energy of a given wavelength is indi-
cated by a vertical line whose length represents the relative or absolute intensity of the
energy at this given wavelength. Figure 7 shows a line spectrum for a hot-cathode
neon lamp.
Sometimes we may have
a combination of the continuous as well as the line
spectra, as when from a mercury-vapor lamp and an incandescent lamp are
light
analyzed simultaneously. Such a spectral curve unites the properties of both the
continuous and the discontinuous spectra.
The radiometric curves for various types of light sources are of importance in the
scientific and technical aspects of photography since the density of the image on the
negative depends not only upon the characteristics of the film or plate, together with
a filter, if this is used, but also to a very marked extent upon the characteristics of the
light source employed in making the exposure. This subject will be treated at greater
length in following sections in this chapter.
—
Photographic Effects of Light. The fundamental action of light impinging upon
a photographically sensitized material is to produce, after the necessary processing, a
deposit of finely divided metalhc silver which appears black by either transmitted or
reflected light. The blackness or opaqueness of this silver deposit is termed the
density of the photographic material. The density of the silver deposit depends, in a
25
20
cl5
c
10
0.5 0.6 0.7/1

A.
Fig. 7. —Line spectrum showing the relative intensity of the various Hnes in the spectrum
for aneon lamp. Practically all of the energy is in the red and orange part of the visible
band.
rather complicated manner, on several factors, among the most important of which
may be mentioned:
1. The intensity of the light source to which the photographic material is exposed.
2. The spectral-energy distribution of the light source.
3. The sensitivity or speed of the photographic material exposed to white light.
4. The spectral sensitivity of the photographic material.
5. The manner in which the exposure is made, i.e., whether the exposure is made
continuously or intermittently.
6. The total duration of the time of exposure.
7. The processing conditions which the photographic material undergoes subse-

quent to exposure.
The effects of most of these factors upon the density of the photographic material
have been discussed in the chapter on Photographic Sensitometry. In this chapter
it is proposed to discuss, briefly, the first four factors listed above, since they are inti-
mately associated with light sources, and a knowledge of their effects will facilitate a
further discussion of the characteristics of light sources suitable for photography.
Density Dependent upon Light Intensity. —

Suppose we have an optical bench upon
which is mounted, at one end, a photographic plate behind a shutter which is arranged
amount of time, e.g., t sec, but shuts off all

to let light through to the plate for a given
light from reaching the film except when it is open. Let a convenient light source,
such as an incandescent lamp, be arranged before the shutter in such a way that the
distance between the film and the light source may be varied at will. It is assumed
that the light source is maintained constant in intensity and spectral-energy distribu-
tion. ^ This may be accomplished by operating the lamp at sufficiently low tem-
peratures (not more than 2400°K.) and by maintaining the temperature of the lamp
constant. The most convenient way of maintaining constancy of the luminous
output is to maintain the voltage across its terminals constant.
Under the conditions assumed, exposure of the photographic plate will only take
place during the time the shutter is open, and during this time the illumination on the
plate will depend upon the intrinsic brightness of the lamp with its associated filter as
well as the distance between the lamp and the photographic plate. If the lamp is
rated at k candle power and the distance between the lamp and photographic plate is
D, then the Light intensity on the photographic
plate will be E = It
Log,oE = Log,ol+Log,ot
(1)
£)2 For t = constant
If tthe time during which the shutter is open,
is
Log,oE- A + LogioL
the exposure of the plate may then be defined as
kt_
E = It ^ ^^
Z)2
(2)
By keeping k and t constant, the exposure given

to the photographic plate may now be made to ^ Log,ol
depend only upon the intensity
upon the photographic plate /.
of light falling
Fig.
of typical 8. —Characteristic
negative materials, showing the man-
If we give different sections of the photo- ner in which the density depends upon
graphic plate different exposures by varying the the intensity of illumination for con-
stant exposure time (constant shutter
distance D
for each successive exposure and
. speeds).
then determine the density of the silver deposit
after the film is properly processed, we may determine the manner in which
the density depends upon the intensity of the light source to which it was
exposed. If such a series of exposures is made, the densities are measured and plotted
against intensity /, the results will give the typical characteristic curve shown in
Fig. 8. From this curve it will be seen that: (1) for extremely low values of illumina-
tion, only a small silver deposit occurs corresponding to the fog density of the material;
(2) for increasing values of illumination, additional deposits of silver occur; (3) for a
considerable range, the density is proportional to the logarithm of the illumination; (4)
but reaches a maximum density after which (5) the density

this proportionality fails
decreases for extremely large values of light intensity. In practice, this last region,
corresponding to extremely large values of exposure, is of no practical use; the most
important part of this characteristic is the linear region for which the density is pro-
portional to the logarithm of the light intensity, so long as the shutter speed is main-
tained invariable.
Effect of Sensitivity of Photographic Material. —The sensitivity of a photographic
plate may be, and is, expressed in a rather wide variety of ways.^ Because of the
1 For simplicity and consistency with sensitometric practice, let it be assumed that the spectral
radiation of the lamp is modified by means of filters so that it closely approximates that of mean
noon sunlight.
^ See p. 190, Chapter on Photographic Sensitometry.
dissimilarity of the methods employed to express the sensitivity characteristics of

photographic materials as well as the dissimilar numerical units employed, it is
difficult to make any quantitive statements concerning the relation between the
density of the silver deposit and the sensitivity or speed of the photographic material.
In several common methods of expressing film characteristics the sensitivity or speed
is a measure of the minimum exposure which would just produce a deposit of silver
if the D-logio E characteristic (as shown in Fig. 8) were a straight line. All the methods
of determining the speed or sensitivity of photographic plates are alike in that the
higher numerics of any given system of speed notation represent the more sensitive
or the faster emulsions. Consequently, it may be said that, for a given light source,
the density of the deposit will tend to increase as the speed number in any given (
system of the photographic materials is increased. But it is not possible to determine,
from speed ratings alone, what the ratio of the densities will be for two films exposed
in a given manner but whose speeds are given in different methods of rating. Thus
it may be assumed that, for a given light source exposed to a plate for a given time, a
denser deposit of silver will be obtained for a photographic material having a speed of
500 H and D than for one having a speed of 100 H and D. Conversely, a denser
deposit for identical exposure and processing conditions will be obtained for material
having a rating of 26° Scheiner than for one having a rating of 18° Scheiner. We
cannot, however, make any statements as to the density due to a given exposure
between films of 500 H and D and 26° Scheiner or of 100 H and D and 18° Scheiner
without making measurements on the processed films.
—
Effect of Spectral Characteristics of Film and Light Source.- In color photography
and in monochrome photography where colored objects must be photographed so that
the final print shows the image in black, white, and shades of gray which are propor-
tional to the luminosities of the various portions of the original subject, the spectral
characteristics of the light source and of the photographic material are of considerable
importance.
The spectral-sensitivity characteristics of the photographic material must be
studied together with the spectral-energy distribution of the light source, for both
characteristics enter into the correct tone rendition of the colored image. It is
possible to study the spectral characteristics of either the film or the light sovirce alone,
if we maintain constant the characteristic of the other factor. But in any event it is
essential that the spectral characteristics ofboth of these two factors be known.
Let the spectral distribution of energy intensity in a Ught source be represented
by the symbol J\, and let the spectral sensitivity of the photographic material be desig-
nated by the symbol S\, where both J\ and S\ are continuous functions between their
upper and lower wavelength limits, which theoreticall.y are zero and infinity. Then
the photographic intensity of the light soiirce, whose characteristics are specified
by J\, when used with a photographic material whose spectral characteristics are
specified by S\, is given by
=x'^'^JxSxdX (3)
The equation for the photographic intensity may be represented by the area under a
curve whose boundary is determined by the boundaries of the curves representing the
spectral characteristics of the film and the light source.
For those who may not be mathematically minded, the following illustrative
examples may be more enlightening than the above equation. Let Fig. 9 represent
the relative spectral sensitivity of several photographic materials, as indicated, and
let Fig. 10 represent the relative spectral-intensity distribution of three common light
sources employed in photography. Since we shall be concerned only with the relative
spectral characteristics, all the light sources have been plotted with their intensity at
560 m/i taken as unity.
Knowing the characteristics of the light source and the film, it is now possible to
determine the relative photographic effects of the light sources on a film of specified
1.0
0.8
B
^0.6
% 0.4
C
<o
0.2
300 400 500 600 700 800

Wavelenglh in Millimicrons
Fig. 9. —
Relative spectral sensitivity of typical photographic materials. Curve A
represents the sensitivity of panchromatic material; curve B, orthochromatic materials;
and curve C, noncolor-sensitive materials.
characteristics when a
definite exposure is given. This photographic effect is known
as "photicity" analogous to luminosity in visual effects. The preceding equa-
and is
tions indicate that we are to multiply, wavelength by wavelength, the sensitivity of

the film bj^ the spectral-energy distribution of the light source; the area under the
180
160
140
±120
f 100
QJ 80
>
J 60
IX
40
20
of exposure to sunlight, the density of the negative

is proportional to the area under
these curves, apparent that the panchromatic material is, in effect, considerably
it is
more sensitive than the other two photographic materials. The peaks of sensitivity
0.7
0.6
0.5
o0.4
« 0.3
I 0.2
0.1
:
small extent is the increased photicity due to increased sensitivity of the peaks of their
spectral curves.
Figure 12 shows curves plotted for the orthochromatic material whose character-
istics are given in Fig. 9, but when used with three different light sources. The curve
of smallest area is that obtained when a tungsten lamp at a temperature of 2360°K. is
used to expose the film. The intermediate curve is that obtained with a photoflood
tungsten-filament lamp, whereas the curve with the highest peak is that for sunlight.
These curves show that, for a photographic material whose spectral sensitivity is that
given by S\ of Fig. 9, the sun produces the greatest photicity; while photoflood lamps
are next. Tungsten-filament lamps at 2360°K. (a temperature commonly used in
photographic sensitometric work) produces the least photographic effect for the photo-
graphic material selected. The resultant photicity curves would be different for
photographic materials having other spectral-sensitivity curves. From an examina-
tion of the film and light-source curves, it would appear that the photographic effect of
the sun and of the photoflood lamps would be about equal for the panchromatic mate-
rials, although a curve would have to be plotted to test the accuracy of this statement.
It should be pointed out that Figs. 9 and 10 are plotted in terms of relative spectral
sensitivity, and relative spectral-energy distribution, respectively. Consequently
the photicity curves are relative and are to be used only for comparisons between two
or more materials plotted in the same figure. The curves could, of course, be plotted
in some definitely established units, but this is not necessary for illustrative purposes.
Classification of Light Sotirces. —
^Light sources for photographic purposes may be
divided into two convenient classifications: (1) natural light sources whose inherent
characteristics of intensity, time of occurrence, time of duration, and spectral char-
acteristics are entirely out of the control of human beings; and (2) artificial light
sources whose characteristics are very largely under human control and are, conse-
quently, much more convenient and flexible than natural light sources.
—
Natural Light Sources. Natural light sources may be divided into the following
groups
1. Astronomical:
a. The sun
6. The moon
c. The stars and planets
2. Meteorological:
a. Daylight, resulting from sun shining on the earth's atmosphere
b. Lightning
c. Aurora borealis
3. Luminescent materials
Of these natural light sources, only sunlight and daylight (which results from the
sun) are of sufficient importance to be generally used for ordinary photographic pur-
poses. For special purposes, especially scientific work, some of the other sources may
be used, but their use is relatively infrequent.
—
The Sun. The spectrum of the sun is continuous. Light from the sun is closely
approached by that of an incandescent source operating at about 5600°K. The spec-
trum of the sun as received at the earth's surface, is modified by the scattering and
absorption of the earth's atmosphere. Absorption and scattering produced by
particles in the atmosphere are the principle causes for this modification. Scattering
and absorption increase as the sun approaches the horizon, since for this condition,
the rays reaching the earth travel through a much longer atmospheric path than when
the sun is at the zenith. The intensity of the sun's rays reaching the earth depends
not only upon the time of day but also upon the time of year and the latitude of the
observer. Changes in the spectral distribution of the light of the sun are easily observ-
able throughout the day, the apparent reddening of the spectrum near sunrise or sun-
set being caused by the absorption of the shorter wavelengths as the rays pass through
longer paths of the earth's atmosphere. Because of the wide ranges which take place
in the intensity and spectral distribution of the sun's rays as they reach the earth, it is
evident that it is impossible to speak of "sunlight" (for any given particular condi-
tion) as representing a suitable standard of luminous intensity.
Although the radiant energy from the sun, at any given time, cannot be used as a
standard, it does provide, however, one of the most convenient and practical of lumin-
M U U
Month
FiG. 13. -Solar illumination for each month of the year, and for various periods of the day,
as determined from measurements made at Washington, D. C.
ous light sources. Numerous measurements on the spectral distribution and intensity
of the sun's rays which reach the earth have been made, and the mean or average
value of these measurements are well known, do not vary, and consequently may be
used to specify "mean noon sunlight." Thus, mean noon sunlight as measured at
Washington, D. C, is often used as a standard and as a comparison for other light
sources.
Mean noon sunlight illumination for various times of the year and day at the
surface of the earth at Washington, D. C, is given in Table I. This table represents
measurements made with the sun shining unobscured on a cloudless day. The solar
illuminationis shown graphically in Fig. 13. The curves are plotted in terms of hours
from noon, instead of in terms of local standard time. Thus the curve marked 2
applies for conditions at 10 a.m. or 2 p.m. standard time while the curve represents
noon data.
The manner in which the relative luminous energy from the sun varies throughout
the dayis shown in Fig. 14. These curves are plotted on a relative basis, with noon
sunlight for each month taken as 100 per cent, but, as 100 per cent for the various curves
represents different values of absolute radiant energy, Fig. 14 should not be used in
such a manner that data from one curve is transferred to or compared with data of
another curve. These sets of curves show, for example, that at 9 a.m. (or 3 p.m.) the
light from the sun in October (or February) is about 82 per cent of its value at noon
for the same months, and therefore gives some indication of the increase in exposure
which should be allowed if photographs are made several hours before or after noon.
It is not correct to interpret these charts to indicate, for example, that the light from
the sun at 4 p.m. (or 8 a.m.) in June will be equal to that at 9 a.m. in October because
100
90
^
80
70
:p60
D
§ 50
i_
_g
to 40
•^30
—
insensitive). For orthonon or noncolor-sensitive materials which have a peak of

sensitivity at the blue end of the spectrum, it may be impossible to make photographs
early in the morning or late in the afternoon except by means of excessively long
exposure.
Moonlight. — Since the light from the moon comes to the earth as light reflected
from the sun, it follows that the intensity of moonlight is very much weaker than that
of sunlight. Moonlight varies cyclically every 28 days, as well as throughout the
night and during the year. As a source of luminous intensity for photographic pur-
Table I. Solar Illumination at Normal Incidence. Latitude 42°N. East of

Mississippi River. Cloudless Sky^
—
Meterological Light Sources. —

Of the meterological sources of light, skylight or
daylight is by most important for photographic purposes. Approximately
far the
one-fifth of the total illumination on a clear day is due to light from the sky (which,
of course, results from the scattering of sunlight in the earth's atmosphere), rather
than direct sunlight itself. For a cloudy, overcast sky in which the sun is not visible,
the illumination on a vertical surface is almost independent of the direction of this
surface and that of the sun. For a clear day, however, the illumination varies con-
siderably with the angle between the sun and the vertical surface, for in this case direct
sunlight enters into the consideration of the total or net illumination.
Table II shows the illumination from daylight for various conditions, whereas
Table I shows the illumination due to direct sunlight. The total illumination may be
estimated from these tables. For a clear day the net illumination is the sum of these
two illuminations. On cloudy days with the sun obscured, the net illumination is that
due to daylight and is given in Table II. For other conditions, some suitable propor-
tion of the two components of the net illumination should be used.
Artificial Light Sources. —
Artificial light sources may be classified for convenience
according to the type of spectra they produce, or the purity of the emitted spectra.
For special types of photographic work (especially in scientific photography) such
classifications may be useful. However, for ordinary photography a somewhat
arbitrary classification, based largely upon the apparatus employed to produce the
light, appears to be generally more useful and will be employed in this section.
Table II. Illumination from Sky Light, Lumens per Sq. Ft.'-
On vertical surface, whose angle with sun is <p

Solar On hori-
altitude, zontal
surface
:
Light sources for practical photographic work may, accordingly, be classified as

follows
1. Incandescent sources (electric lamps and flames)
2. Arcs
3. Gaseous-discharge devices
4. Transient light sources
Incandescent Electric Lamps. —
At the present time, incandescent electric lamps are
probably the most important and most frequentty used of all sources of artificial light.
This is largely due to their convenience and cleanliness in operation, the production
of a continuous spectrum of desirable energy distribution, their stability and relative
constancy in use, the convenient methods of control of modeling and lighting which
they permit, and, finally, the reasonable cost of installation, maintenance, and opera-
tion. Compared to gaseous-discharge lamps, incandescent electric lamps are ineffi-
cient producers of light, but for most purposes this relative inefficiency is overbalanced
bj' the desirable spectral characteristics, the low cost, and especially the convenience
of the incandescent lamps.
The radiant energy emitted from an incandescent source (whether incandescent
lamp or flame) produces a continuous spectrum. The total radiant flux, as well as the
spectral-energy distribution, is dependent upon the temperature of the incandescent
body. Consequentl^y, the temperature of incandescent bodies has an appreciable
photographic effect, and for precise sensitometric or photometric work, must be main-
tained within narrow limits. In the case of incandescent electric lamps, the temper-
ature may be most conveniently determined by controlling the voltage across the
lamp terminals or the current flowing through the filament.
—
Types of Incandescent Lamps. Incandescent lamps may be classified according
to the type of material out of which the filament is constructed, such as carbon, tan-
talum, or tungsten. According to this classification, tungsten-filament lamps are by
far in greater general use than any of the others. According to their evacuation,
incandescent lamps may be classified as vacuum lamps or gas filled. In the vacuum
lamps, the air and absorbed gases have been removed, and a high degree of vacuum
is required, whereas in the gas-filled lamps a small amount of inert gas is admitted
after the lamp has been thoroughly evacuated. The inert gas, which is usually
nitrogen, is introduced to reduce evaporation from the filament. Reducing evapora-
tion lengthens the life of the lamp and reduces the blackening of the bulb. Small
lamps are still of the vacuum type, but practicallj^ all 110-volt lamps of 50 watts
or high-power rating are now gas filled.^
Characteristics of Incandescent Lamps. —
The resistance characteristics of carbon-
filament and metallic-filament lamps differ markedly. As the voltage is increased, the
resistance of the carbon-filament lamps, which was initially high, decreases; for the
metallic-filament lamps, the initial resistance is low and increases as the voltage is
raised.
The life of most incandescent lamps is rated at 1000 hr.. although for particular
purposes the life may be either increased or decreased. The life of the lamp depends
upon the diameter of the filament and the temperature at Avhich it is operated. Slight
increases in operating voltage above the normal value result in substantial increases
in the operating temperature and considerable reduction in life. On the other hand,
reduction of the operating voltage below the normal value increases the life but reduces
the operating temperature and the luminous output. The spectral-energy distribution
is also changed as the voltage is varied, more of the energy being in the red when the
voltage is reduced and tending toward the blue as the voltage is increased.
1 A good summary of the characteristics of incandescent electric lamps is given in the "Standard
Handbook for Electrical Engineers," McGraw.
While in general a life of 1000 hr. may usually be expected for well-made American
lamps intended for general illumination, ^ the lamps for motion-picture production
service have a rating of from 15 to 500 hr.; lamps for projection and stereopticon
service are rated at either 25 or 50 hr., and those for spotlight or floodlight service are
rated at 80 hr. or, more usually, at 200 hr. of life in the 110- to 120-volt sizes. Photo-
flood lamps for photographic service are operated at much higher temperatures than
lamps intended for general illumination and have a rated life of from 2 to 15 hr.
150
/F E/ /P
140
130
120
it] 110
I 100
90
^ 80
70
fe 60
50
70 3 90 \00 110 120 130 140
Per Cent of Normal Voltage
Fig. 15. —
Operating characteristics of incandescent lamps in terms of per cent of normal
operating voltage. The curves are designated as follows: /, current consumption; P,
power consumption; E, efficiency; and F, light output.
The essential characteristics of operation of incandescent lamps are: (1) the

efficiency or lumens per watt, (2) the light output in lumens, (3) the power consump-
tion in watts, and (4) the current consumption in amperes; all of which are functions
of the voltage at which the lamp is operated. The average characteristics and proper
voltage of operation may be obtained from the manufacturer, but these characteristics
will change as the operating voltage is varied. The manner in which the character-
istics of incandescent lamps depend upon the operating voltage has been studied by
Barrow and Meyer^ at the National Bureau of Standards, and the following data are
summarized from their paper.
1 Cheap incandescent lamps of Japanese manufacture which have been on the American market are
frequently found to have short life, relatively low luminous output, and higher power consumption than
the equivalent American product. While it may be difficult to determine definitely the cause for these
characteristics, it is not unlikely that these result from inadequate exhaust procedure.
^ Barrow and Meyer, Characteristic Equations of Vacuum and Gas-filled Tungsten Filament
Lamps, Research Paper 502, Bur. Standards J. Research, vol. 9 (1932).

:
Let E be the efficiency, F the light output, P the power consumption, and I the
current consumption for any voltage V at which the lamps are operated. Also, let
Eg, Fq, Po, and /o be symbols representing the same concepts when the lamp is operated
at the recommended voltageFo, which is assumed to be the normal voltage. The
lamps operated at a voltage V, in terms of the known characteristics
characteristics of
when the lamp is operated at normal, rated voltage Fo are given by the following
equations
=
-(!)
—
Table IV. Characteristics of Lamps for Photographic Purposes
Light
Oper-
Power
ating Bulb
Type rating, Type of bulb
volt- size
watts
age
voltage V in terms of its rated life Lo when operated at its rated voltage Vq. This
equation for the life of the lamp is
y^-i
(8)
^(r.)
For the large user of illuminating incandescent lamps, power consumption and the
cost of power may be an import-ant economic factor. If the cost of power as well
as the cost of the lamp plus its installation charge is known, the most economical
operating voltage can be determined. Let c be the cost of one lamp plus its installation
charge, in cents, and let h be the cost of power in cents per kilowatt-hour. Then' the"
most economical operating voltage Ve for a lamp of rated power Po and rated voltage
W is
M
1
"6Po(B2
"{' c{B, - B,)
(9)
where the values of Bn are those given in Table III. In general, the most economical
operation will usually be found to be obtained at a voltage sUghtly above rather than
at or below the rated voltage. Of course, if the lamp is operated at some voltage other
than its rated voltage, its life, luminous output, and other characteristics will be
affected in accordance with the equations given above from the paper by Barrow
and MeAêr.
Photoflood Lamps. —
Incandescent lamps may be operated at considerably higher
than their normal voltage for 1000-hr. operation. The main effects of this overvoltage
operation are: (1) considerably greater light output is obtained, (2) together with a
shift in spectral distribution toward the blue end of the visible spectrum (both factors
of which are advantageous from the photographic standpoint), (3) the normal life
of the lamp is greatly reduced, and (4) the temperature of the filament and the con-
taining glass bulb is raised, sometimes to such an extent that the use of such lamps may
require unusual methods of handling, ventilation, and fire protection. The photoflood
lamps commercially available for photographic purposes are of this overvoltage type.
If used in such a manner as to have a life of 1000 hr., their rated voltage would be 64
instead of 110 volts. The filaments of such bulbs must be heavier than the filaments
for bulbs operating at normal temperatures in order to insure a life of even a few hours.
are advantageous from the photographic standpoint. These advantages are obtained
only at a considerable loss of life, however.
Because of the short life of photoflood lamps, it is economical to operate them at
their full rated luminous output only during the time exposures are made, and to make
focusing and other camera and light adjustments with the lights operated at reduced
voltage. Three methods of accomplishing this result are shown in Fig. 16. At (A)
a resistance R is placed in series with the lamp, and a switch is connected across R.
While making preliminary adjustments, the switch is opened, which reduces the
current flowing through the lamp, and consequently requires that it operate at lower
temperature and at lower light output. When the switch is closed, the lamp operates
at its full luminous output. It is convenient to have the lamp operate at one-half of
Siv/f-ch
wwww^
Res/sfor-R
H0-120 volts
k Lamp
110-120 volts
s Lamp
Lamp
11 0-120 volts
Alternating current
Lamp
Autotrans former
—
Fig. 16.- -Three circuit diagrams illustrating methods which may be used to reduce
the voltage across photoflood lamps when not required for making exposure, thereby
increasing the hfe of these lamps. A and B may be used with a.-c. or d.-c. circuits, but C
can only be employed with a.-c. circuits.
itsnormal operating voltage, and, in order that this may be accomplished, it is neces-
sary that R be of the proper resistance and have the proper power rating to carry the
current taken by the lamp when operated at reduced output.
Because the resistance of incandescent lamps is not constant but varies with the
type of filament and its temperature, it is not possible to use the simple application
of Ohm's law for computing the resistance R. The manner in which Ohm's law may
be applied to this and similar problems, in which varying resistances are involved, is
outside of the scope of this book but may be found in any good text on electrical engi-
neering. We prefer merely to give the results; Table VI shows the resistance and
power rating which will be required for one of each of the three commonly available
photoflood lamps. If n lamps are used in parallel instead of only one, the resistance
given in the table should be divided by n and the power rating should be multiplied
by w, in order that the resistor may meet the electrical requirements of the circuit.
—
The power rating given for R is the minimum safe value. Some resistors, especially
the vitreous enameled type, operate at high temperature at their rated power. In
such cases using a resistor of two or three times the power rating specified (but of the
same resistance) will fulfill the electrical-circuit requirements and permit the resistor
to operate with smaller temperature rises.
The circuit shown in Fig. 16B is useful where two identical lamps are used. The
double-pole double-throw switch puts the lamps in series for operation at low light
intensities and places them in parallel when full light output is obtained. The current
taken from the line when the lamps are used at full output is the sum of their indi-
vidual currents at full output, i.e., if two No. 2 lamps are used, the total current
drawn from the line will be 8.7 amp. When the lamps are in series, the current taken
from the line is about two-thirds of the rated output for any one lamp, or about 3 amp.
for the two No. 2 lamps in series. The switch, wiring, and fuses must, therefore, be
able to carry at least twice the current of each lamp used, or at least 9 amp. in the case
used for purposes of illustration.
A method^ output of lamps (ordinary Mazda as well as
of controlling the light
photo flood lamps) over a wide range of light intensities when alternating current is used
is shown in Fig. 16c. An autotransformer^ is used to vary the voltage applied to the
lamp. The line is connected to the two fixed terminals of the autotransformer, while
the lamp is connected between one fixed terminal and the varying arm. In com-
mercially available autotransformers, the voltage across the lamp may be adjusted
smoothly from zero to its full value so that the light output also varies smoothly. In
certain models these autotransformers also act as voltage-step-up transformers and
supply voltages in excess of the line voltage. This is frequently a valuable feature
where ordinary Mazda lamps are used, since it enables greater than normal light out-
put to be obtained, but with a decrease in life. It is not recommended that photoflood
lamps be operated above their rated voltage as the increase in light output would be
obtained by a considerable decrease in life, which is already quite short.
Several sizes of photoflood lamps are available commercially. Their electrical
characteristics are given in Table VI.
The high temperature at which the filaments of these lamps operate causes the
glass bulb to become hot enough to scorch paper or cloth which may come in contact
Table VI. Electrical Characteristics of Photoflood Lamps Operating

AT Normal and Half-normal Voltage
lighting, and care should be taken to ascertain that the wiring is adequate to carry
the current required by the lamps. House circuits are usually wired and fused to
carry currents not in excess of 15 amp. Consequently if this current is to be exceeded,
it will be necessary that several lamps be operated from separate circuits so that the
safe rating of any circuit is not exceeded.

Carbon ^ res.—The carbon arc is still used as a source of luminous radiation for
photographic purposes, but the convenience of incandescent lamps and gaseous-
discharge lamps, together with their more quiet operation, are responsible for the fact
that incandescent lamps are displacing carbon arcs.
The electrical characteristics of the carbon arc are quite different from those of
incandescent lamps. The resistance of the arc decreases as the current increases,
which in turn further decreases the resistance. In order to prevent a disruptive
1.0
1
1 1
0.9
0.8
^0.7
o
? 0.6
^ O.B
.^0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
region of 2700 to 3000°K. In spectral distribution, the carbon arc resembles the
photoflood lamp. Since the light is a closer approach to white than that produced by
incandescent lamps, no filters are required unless they are also required with a source
of sunlight. The photographic effects of carbon arcs are similar to those of sunlight as
shown in Fig. 17.
In order to modify their spectral characteristics, the carbons are frequently drilled
lengthwise and are subsequently filled with a core of inorganic salts. Thus the white-
flame arc used for photographic purposes has a core of rare-earth fluorides. Because
this core material modifies the spectral radiation of the arc and increases the intensity
of the line and band spectra as compared with the continuous spectra due to incan-
descence, to make any definite statements as to the photographic effec-
it is difficult
tiveness of various types of carbon arcs. Spectra produced by specially processed

carbon electrodes may usually be obtained from the manufacturer. ^
—
Enclosed Metallic Arc. -Enclosed arc lamps with metallic electrodes and known as
Pointolite or Tungsarc are commercially available and are suitable for photographic
purposes. ,
The lamp consists of tungsten electrodes in an
° "^ " evacuated bulb containing a pool of metallic mercury
vapor. A filament bridges the tungsten electrodes, and,
when the voltage of about 40 volts is applied to the tube,
the filament becomes incandescent, thereby vaporizing
the mercurj^ so that within a few seconds an arc forms
between the two tungsten electrodes and the current rises
to about 30 amp. The characteristic of the transformer
jjj^g supplying the lamp must be such that as the arc current
Ig
j?jQ_Light output ^^ established the voltage across the lamp will fall to
of typical photoflash lamp about 10 volts. This voltage is sufficiently low as to
as a function of time. The practically extinguish the filament. The spectrum pro-
total duration of the flash
^^^^^ continuous and is largely that of the incandes-
-^
is of the order of about >2o . ^ , i-, ,
gg(._ cence of the tungsten electrodes, but a discontmuous

spectrum of mercury is also present.
Transient Light Sources. —
Under the heading of transient light sources are included
those devices which are intended to provide an intense flash of light for short duration
for making photographic snapshots. Usually these transient light sources can be
used only once, but experimental work is in progress to provide a "flash-flood" lamp
which may be flashed as often as desired. The most common of these transient light
sources for general photography are photoflash lamps and flashlight powders, although
for special purposes, especiallj^ scientific photography, luminous gaseous-discharge
lamps and spark discharges are also of interest.
Photoflash Lamps. —
A very convenient and effective source of luminous intensity
for making photographs with an exposure of about }4 5 sec. is the photoflash lamp,
which is available in several sizes. These lamps consist of a glass bulb containing a
filament, metallic aluminum, and oxj'gen. The metallic aluminum maj' be in the
form of thin (0.00004 cm.) foil or fine ribbons or wires, crumpled inside the glass envel-
ope. The lamps have a standard Edison screw base, and operate at a voltage from 3
to 115 volts. Thus the lamps may be used in the ordinary house lighting circuit or
may be flashed bj- means of several dr_v cells. When the current is turned on, the
filament becomes incandescent and ignites the aluminum in the oxygen, producing a
quick, brilliant flash lasting from about 0.03 to 0.06 sec. The characteristics of the
luminous output as a function of time are shown in Fig. 18. The temperature of the
flash is approximately 3o00°K., although at the peak this temperature may be
'
The spectral characteristics of various carbon arcs have been given in the National Bureau of
Standards Scientific Paper 539.
— .
exceeded. Table VII shows the relative photographic effects, in various portions of
the visible spectrum, of daylight and photoflash illumination.
Table VII. Relative Photographic Effects for Various Emulsions and Light
Sources
Relative photographic effect'
Plate Photoflash lamp Daylight
Red Yellow Green Blue Red Yellow Green Blue
Blue-sensitive plate. . . 30 15 30 160 30 10 25 180

Isochromatic plate. . . . 30 30 30 160 30 20 30 180
Orthochromatic plate.. 30 20 30 180 30 15 30 180
Panchromatic plate I . 180 80 30 100 90 40 30 180
Panchromatic plate II, 70 60 50 120 40 40 140
Panchromatic plate III 90 50 40 120 30 30 160
1 From Philips Tech. Rev., vol. 1, no. 10, (1936).
The light output of photoflash lamps is given in Table VIII. One of these lamps
produces a maximum intensity of about 360,000 candles, which is about twice that of
a 50-kw. tungsten lamp whose luminous intensity is about 166,000 candles, measured
perpendicular to the plane of the filament. The spectrum is largely continuous
although some superimposed lines of aluminum are present.
The photoflash lamp is quiet in operation and does not produce any smoke or
objectionable odors, vapors, or gases since the combustion is confined entirely to the
interior of the glass bulb. Of course, when once used, the aluminum is changed to
aluminum oxides and the filament is usually burned out, so that the lamp can no longer
be used.
It is sometimes found that photoflash bulbs operated at low voltage (3 volts is
common) fail to flash. This is probably due to lack of contact between the filament
and the crumpled aluminum. Such bulbs may be used on high-voltage circuits,
however, and will then perform satisfactorily. It has been found that when several
photoflash bulbs are used in the same reflector, igniting one lamp will serve to set off
the other lamps. For this reason, it has sometimes been suggested that only one lamp
in a group need be connected to the source of current. Such a procedure may be
entirely satisfactory for portraiture or similar types of photography where the subject
is relatively motionless and the shutter is opened during the entire duration of the
flash. However, the practice of flashing several bulbs by contact is not to be recom-
mended in those cases where the shutter is synchronized with the photoflash lamps,
as the bulbs do not all flash at the same time. Consequently, the shutter may be
closing before the "contact flashed" lamps actually ignite.
Bulbs have been known to explode while being flashed. The resulting shattering
of glass can be dangerous. To safeguard against exploding lamps, photoflash lamps
have recently been manufactured with a disk of colored salt painted on the bulb or
the stem. These disks have one color in an absolutely dry atmosphere of oxygen but
change their color in the presence of the moisture of the atmosphere. If any cracks
or air leaks occur in the bulb, this salt changes color and indicates that the lamp is
defective and may explode. Such lamps should not be used.
—
Photoflash lamps cannot, of course, be tested on line voltage or on batteries which

pass sufficient current to heat the filament to incandescence. By passing very small
current through, the lamp, insufficient to produce incandescence, a sensitive micro-
ammeter or milliammeter in series with the filament will show a deflection if the fila-
ment circuit is continuous and the bulb is suitable for use. Another method which
has been used is to use a battery circuit with a high resistance relay in series with the
lamp filament. relay contacts can be made to operate a lamp in another circuit
The
if the filament of the photoflash lamp is intact.
When using photoflash lamps, the camera shutter may be opened temporarily
while the lamps are flashed, after which the shutter is closed. A much more con-
venient arrangement, and one which may be used where the general level of illumina-
Table VIII. Characteristics of General Electric Photoflash Lamps^

Reflectors. —The
light produced from Hght sources may frequently be used much
more effectively a reflector is used with it. The reflector does not produce any
if
more light than is generated by the light source, but directs it to the desired position
where it may be used more advantageously. Reflectors may be used at the light
source, in which case they are most efficient, or may be used near the subject being
photographed, where their use gives flexible control over modeling and light contrast.
Where sharp shadows are desired or are at least not objectionable, smooth, polished
reflectors of the specular type may be used, but where "soft" diffused lighting is
desired, etched, hammered, or diffuse reflectors are more suitable. The degree of
rX-
Plane Re-Flec+or Conicoil Ref lec+or
Spherical Ref lec+or Paroiboloicl Ref lec+or

Loimp 01+ Focus Lamp a+ Focus
Ina'deni ra\/s Re flecied rays
Fig. 19. —Incident and
reflected rays for various shapes of specular reflectors, showing
approximately how the reflected beams are spread.
diffusion may be increased by placing diffusion screens of tissue paper, linen tracing
paper, ground glass, opal glass, or similar material in the path of the light rays.
The effectiveness of a reflector used in conjunction with a light source depends
upon: the shape of the reflector, (2) the material out of which the reflector is made,
(1)
and (3) the surface treatment of the reflector. Figure 19 shows a diagrammatic
representation of a light source used with polished specular reflectors of certain com-
mon forms, together with the net light beams produced. From this diagram it is
evident that the plane reflector is most suitable for producing a well-diffused
flat
source, whereas the parabolic reflector produces a sharply defined beam. Other
forms of reflectors shown produce intermediate effects between these two extremes.
The material out of which the reflector is made as well as the polish of the surface
determine the amount of incident light which is reflected from its surface. Table IX
gives the reflection factors as a function of wavelength for several polished materials
from which reflectors are constructed. The figures in this table represent the fraction
of incident light which is reflected with unity as the ideal limiting figure. It is desir-
able that the reflection factors for a given material be as near unity as possible and
that they do not vary with wavelength. The nearer the approaches
reflection factor
unity, the more efficient is the reflector. Constancy of reflection factor throughout a
wide range of wavelengths is desirable in order that selective reflection may be avoided
and so that reflected beam has the same spectral distribution ("color") as the light
incident upon its surface.
Table X gives the

reflection characteristics of several materials suitable for use as
diffuse reflectors. Included in this table for purposes of comparison are the character-
istics of black velvet (frequently used as an excellent light-absorbing medium) and
black carbon in oil.
The effectiveness of commercially available reflectors for photographic purposes
depends greatly upon their shape and the materials out of which they are constructed.
As a rough approximation, however, it may be said that with conical reflectors made
of white paper, the exposure need be only one-half of that required when no reflector is
Table
used. When polished metal reflectors are used, the exposure may be reduced to about
one-fourth of that required when the sa;me light source is used without a reflector.
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:
J. Optical Soc. Am., 19, 267 (1929).

Millar, P. S.: Safeguarding the Quality of Incandescent Lamps, Trans. Ilium. Eng. Soc. (_N. Y.), 26,
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of the Photoflash Lamps, J. Optical Soc. Am., 24, 195 (1934).
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30, 178 (1935).
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167 (1935).
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CHAPTER X
LIGHT FILTERS
By Beverly Dudley
THEORY OF FILTERS
As used in photography, filters are employed to alter the manner in which radiant
energy (usually visible light) affects photosensitive materials. This alteration may
be desired for artistic effects, to reduce the amount of necessary retouching, to increase
contrast, or for registering photographically certain radiations at the exclusion of other
radiations. The effects obtained by the use of filters depend, not only on the charac-
teristics of the filter, but also on those of the photosensitive material and the source
of energy affecting the photographic film.
Effects of Radiation. —
Most forms of radiant energy occur as electromagnetic
waves in which the vibrations are transverse or perpendicular to the direction of
propagation of the wave. Figure 1 is intended to represent electromagnetic waves,
such as those of light. The direction of propagation is indicated by the horizontal
Amplifude = max. displacement

Fig. 1. -Diagram illustrating the properties of light waves.
arrow, the displacement of a particle due to wave motion is indicated by the vertical
arrow, the displacement being zero when the wave crosses the zero axis OP. The
amplitude of the wave is the maximum displacement from the reference axis OP. A
complete wave is one vibration, such as j4S or CD., and is measured from any point
to the next successive corresponding point moving in the same direction and having
the same displacement from the reference or zero axis OP. The distance between
successive corresponding points in one complete vibration, such as AB ox CD, is one
wavelength and is usually measured in meters or submultiple portions of the meter.
It is often symbolically designated as X.
Radiant energy produces different chemical, physical, physiological, psychological,

and photographic effects depending upon two wave characteristics. One of these
characteristics is the amplitude or intensity of the radiated electromagnetic waves; in
general the degree or extent of an effect produced is directly proportional to this ampli-
tude or intensity. The other characteristic responsible for the different types of effects
produced is the wavelength or frequency of the radiant energy. Wavelength is the
292
— >
LIGHT FILTERS 293
length of one complete wave, measured from the corresponding portions of two succes-
sive waves; frequency is the number of complete waves passing a given point in a given
time, the second being usually taken as the standard time interval. If c is the velocity
atwhich electromagnetic waves travel, the relation between the wavelength X and the
frequency / is given by
c=A (1)
from which
(2)
and
x = 5 (3)
The velocity of light in vacuum has been measured by Michelson to be 2.99796 X

10^° cm. per sec. or 186,284 miles per sec. with a probable error of about 1 part in
95,000. For ordinary precision c can be taken to be 3 X 10^° cm. per sec.
Angstrom Units
o o o o o
o o o
C> C> O lO) <^
°'
<^
°'
g- A °B C S-D E S-F G °-H
Infra
red Red-Orange-Yellow-Green-Blue-Violet
5°
3^-
.' 3 0.2,-' l-_i
U
k
— Limits of human vision -v
Panchromatic film >
<- Ortho film —
-* Ordinary film ^
-*
Special films
sensitivity -^
Range of photo cell
Fig. 2. —Wavelength chart, illustrating the range of sensitivity of the human eye, and
various types of film emulsions.
Figure 2 shows the values of wavelength and frequency for various types of radiant
energy. For visual and photographic effects the most important range of radiations
are those lying between 400 and 700 myu* in wavelength, since this range forms the
visible spectrum. Wavelengths of from 200 to as much as 1200 m/x can be recorded
on photographic plates commercially available, although the range of useful sensitivity
of most photographic materials is from about 380 to 540 m/x for ordinary noncolor-
sensitive or orthonon materials, 380 to 600 m^ for orthochromatic materials, and 380
to 700 m^t for panchromatic materials. Radiations between 275 and 315 m^ produce
sunburn; the X-ray region extends from 30 to 0.01 m/x, and radio waves may have a
wavelength of from less than 1 cm. to 25,000 m.
Since any device producing radiant energy nearly always produces radiations of
several wavelengths or a band of wavelengths rather than at a single isolated wave-
* The wavelength of electromagnetic radiations is usually measured in meters (m) or submultiples
of the meter. For radio work the meter is the standard wavelength unit although with recent advances
in very short waves the centimeter (0.01 m.) is sometimes employed. For shorter waves, still smaller
units are employed.
The micron, which is one-millionth part of a meter (10~s m.), is sometimes used for the unit of
wavelength, although this is still too large a unit to give convenient numerical figures when dealing
with wavelengths of visible light. For visible light, a common wavelength unit is the millimicron,
which is one-thousandth of a micron, or one one-thousandth-millionth part of a meter (10"' m.).
Another unit often used in the visible spectrum is the angstrom unit (lO'i" m.) which is equal to 0.1 m^-
The symbol for a micron is ^; for a millimicron, m/t; for a centimeter, cm; for a meter, m; and for
an angstrom unit A. Therefore, l/i = 1000 m/j = 10,000 A. = IQ-* cm. = lO-s m.
length or frequency, energy sources frequently produce spurious or undesired fre-

quencies as well as those which are desired. For example, sunlight is responsible for
the highly desirable phenomenon of daylight, but because at the earth's surface sun-
light also contains radiations as short as 290 m^, it produces undesirable sunburn.
A group of waves constitutes a spectrum. If waves of all possible wavelengths
between two limits are present the spectrum between these limits is said to be con-
tinuous; if some of the possible waves between the wavelength limits of the spectrum
are absent, the spectrum is said to be discontinuous or may be referred to as a line or

band spectrum. The energy-wavelength charac-
A~ Continuous spectrum
teristics of a spectrum may be represented graph-
ically by means of a spectroradiometric diagram
in which the wavelength (or frequency) of the
waves is represented by the abscissas and the
energy is represented by the ordinates in rectan-
gular coordinates. The spectroradiometric
diagram for a continuous spectrum is a continuous
curve (Fig. 2>A) whereas that for a discontinuous
or line spectrum is a series of lines, each of which
represents the energy at the corresponding wave-
length (Fig. 3B). The energy- wavelength (or
B~ Lr'ne spe ctrum
spectroradiometric) characteristic of radiated
energy is of primary importance in studying the
effect of light and other radiations upon photo-
graphically sensitive materials and the charac-
teristics of filters.
The alteration of the characteristics of the
lightemitted by a light source before it impinges
upon a photographically sensitive material can
^ be accomplished by means of reflecting or trans-
FiG. 3.— Continuous (A) and line
\B) spectrums for two hypothetical
jîtting filters. A reflecting filter is one which
n .^ , , en- •, ,i
I'eAects the radiant energy falhng upon it, the
.
light sources giving very nearly the

same visual and photographic ef- change in the spectroradiometric characteristics
fects. The intensity, J, is plotted of the light occurring during reflection and being
against wavelength, X, in arbitrary ^^g ^^ selective reflection of this type of filter.
A transmitting filter is one in which the spectral-

energy distribution of the light is altered by passing light through the filter, which
must obviously be transparent although it may be (and usually is) colored.
In this connection it may be useful to distinguish color mediums having different
properties. For convenience, these mediums may be grouped into pigments, dyes, and
colored glass. Although differing considerably in their physical form, the two latter
mediums are optically similar and consequently may be considered together. The
pigments are opaque to light and materials containing pigments can only act as filters
through the use of reflected light. Dyes and colored glasses, on the other hand, are
partially or largely transparent for a substantial part of the visible spectrum and
may therefore be used as filters by transmitting light through them. Thus the pig-
ments act because of selective reflection, whereas dyes and colored glasses make use of
their property of selective transmission; both have selective absorption.
All whether operating by reflected or transmitted light, are effective because
filters,
of selective absorption, i.e., the manner in which energy of some wavelengths is more
greatly absorbed than energy of other wavelengths, the portion of the energy not
absorbed being reflected by, or transmitted through, the filter. Thus selective absorp-
tion might be said to be the fundamental characteristic of all filters. However, since
LIGHT FILTERS 296
practically all filters are transmitting filters and operate by altering the spectral
energy of the light passing through them, we may, for all practical purposes, consider
selective transmission to be as fundamentally important as selective absorption. This
is especially true when we consider that for transmitting filters, selective transmission
and selective absorption are merely two different aspects of the same physical opera-
tion of energy absorption.
—
Properties of Filters. We shall be concerned almost exclusively with filters
operating by virtue of their property of selective transmission, and, unless otherwise
stated, the term filter will refer to a transmitting, rather than a reflecting, type of
material.
The inherent characteristic of such light filters is that, throughout the spectral
region for which they are effective, the absorption (or transmission) of the radiant
energy through them in this spectral region varies with the wavelength (or the fre-
quency) in some nonuniform manner. For some wavelengths most of the radiation
passes through the filter with little absorption or surface reflections; for other wave-
lengths most of the radiation (or light) is absorbed in the filter itself with comparatively
little reflection or transmission. Some reflection always takes place at the polished
surfaces of a light filter; likewise some absorption is always present for all wavelengths.
For these reasons, no light filter can be theoretically perfect. However, in well-con-
structed filters the losses due to reflection and absorption (except in the region where
absorption is desired) can be made sufficiently small (about 10 per cent in the best
cases) as to be of little practical importance. This is especially true at the red end of
the visible spectrum; blue filters are generally much less efficient.
The selective transmission characteristics of filters indicate that there are some
wavelengths within the spectral region for which the filter is effective, or for which the
absorption or attenuation of the energy is small. For these wavelengths, the emergent
energy will be a large portion of the incident energy. For other ranges of wavelength,
the transmission of the filter will be small (the absorption or attenuation will be high),
and the emergent radiation will be greatly diminished in its intensity or amplitude
from that incident upon the filter. For this range of wavelengths, the filter absorbs
energy. The transition from the transmission range to the absorption range is more
or less gradual.
filters, it is, perhaps, worth while to
In speaking of the selective transmission of
call attention to a common the assumption that a colored material
misconception, i.e.,
transmits only a narrow range of wavelengths in the immediate vicinity of the domi-
nant color. This is seldom true.
The wavelength at which the filter fails to transmit the incident radiation is known
as the cutoff wavelength. Since the cutoff wavelengthdetermined from the meas-
is
urements of the incident and the emergent radiation intensities, the cutoff wavelength
will depend upon the sensitivity with which the incident and emergent energy is deter-
mined. For this reason the cutoff wavelength is sometimes difficult to determine
precisely, especially if the cutoff characteristic (the transmission in the region near the
cutoff wavelength) is not sharp or abrupt.
The radiant energy which is incident upon but not transmitted by the filter is
reflected to a comparatively small extent, and absorbed to a much larger extent, the
absorbed energy reappearing as heat. The energy absorbed by the filter, as well as
that reflected, cannot be utiUzed effectively for photographic purposes and is con-
sequently wasted. The use of a filter is therefore inherently wasteful of the light
available for photographic purposes. A corollary of this statement is that, from the
physical standpoint, filters are inherently inefficient devices, although they may
be highly effective in carrying out the intended alteration of the spectral distribution
of light striking the photosensitive material. Fortunately, filter efficiency, per se, is
seldom of importance and can usually be neglected for practical purposes if longer
exposure time for a given aperture is not objectionable.
For certain applications in which the filter is used in connection with and in close
proximity to the light source, as in some forms of colored stage lighting, the filter maj^
be required to dissipate a considerable amount of heat. The intensity of the radiant
energy is sometimes very high in such applications, and if any considerable portion of
the spectral region must be blocked by the filter, thereby appearing as heat, the
physical and optical characteristics of the filter may easily change with aging. The
transmission characteristics may be altered, the filter may become brittle and break
easily if a gelatin filter is used, or the filter
may even be scorched. Fortunately, where
filters are used for the more common pho-
tographic purposes, these extreme con-
siderations of power dissipation are seldom
important.
Since the essential property of a light
Wavelength- filter is its transmission as a function of
wavelength, it is apparent that the effec-

tiveness of the filter can be evaluated only
by a spectral analysis of the filter-trans-
uju. > mission characteristic. Such spectrora-
diometric characteristics are determined
(UlX Di
experimentally by measurement and are
expressed, usually, by means of a table or
Wcivelength
graph. Figure 4 shows the energy incident
upon, and that emergent from, a certain
filter for the light produced by an incandes-
fe'^ 80
cent lamp. The ratio of the energy curves
e'^ 60 of the incident to the emergent radiation
5 §40 results in the curve T\, or the transmission
fe E 20 characteristic of the filter.

4- 1—
Wavelength-A.
Effect of Thickness of Filter. —
Although
for photographic purposes light filters are
Fig. 4.— Effect of filter on light source. nearly always made from gelatin or glass,
The top curve represents the spectral char- the thickness of which is not determined, or
acteristic of a light source such as that of an
incandescent lamp, while the bottom curve susceptible to change, by the user, it can
represents the transmission of hypothetical be shown that the filter-transmission
filter. The manner in which the filter characteristics depend considerably upon
alters the characteristics of the incandescent
the thickness of the filter. For certain
light is shown in the middle curve
scientific branches of photography, e.g.,
metallography, liquid filters are often employed in which the light passes through a
glass tank or cell containing a colored or selective absorbing liquid which alters the
spectral characteristics of the light. When such filters are used, the user has a fairly
wide latitude in which to select the thickness of the filter medium and can, therefore,
alter the characteristics of the filter by controlling the thickness of the filter cell or
tank. In such cases it is necessary to know the manner in which the filter charac-
teristics change with the thickness of the filter medium.
According to Beer's law, the ratio of the radiant energy transmitted through the
filter to the incident radiant energj' for radiation transmitted through a homogeneous
medium is an exponential function of the thickness of the filter. This means simply
that for equal increments of increase in the thickness of the filter, the transmission is
LIOHT FILTERS 297
cutdown by the same ratio or the same percentage rather than by the same definite
amount.
Another term for the transmission of an object is its transparency; other terms
must now also be introduced. The opacity Ox is the reciprocal of the transparency or
transmission T\, or
Ox = (4)
Y^
The optical density is defined to be the common logarithm of the opacity, or from the
relation between opacity and transparency, density is the common logarithm of the
reciprocal of the transparency. Thus
D\ = logio 0\ = logio jT = — logio T\ (5)
The apparent cutoff and the transparency or transmission curves change with
variations in thickness of the filter. In specifying the transmission characteristics
for filters, it is therefore evident that the thickness of the selective absorbing medium
must be given before the complete filter characteristics are specified.
should be noticed that no attention has been paid to the reflection losses at the
It
surface of the fUter. Such reflection losses depend upon the quality of polish of
the filter surfaces, the angle of incidence of the light, and the index of refraction of the
filter medium. They are usually small enough to be neglected without appreciable
error.
—
Use of Several Filters.^ Sometimes a filter transmission characteristic is desired
which cannot be accurately or adequately fulfilled by any known dyed gelatin,
colored glasses, or liquids. In such cases it is sometimes possible to obtain a close
approach to the desired transmission characteristic by using two or more filters
simultaneously, one in back of the other so that the light must pass through all fUters
in succession. The transmission of this combination of filters, t\, is the product of the
transmission characteristics of the separate individual filters Tx, T'^, etc. If we have
three filters in use at the same time, the transmission characteristic of this combination
in terms of the separate filter transmission characteristics will be,
rx = T'^T'iT"^ (6)
The transmission characteristics of the individual fUters are usually expressed

graphically or by means of a table from which a transmission curve may be con-
structed. If the curves for the three are available, the above equation gives
filters
the over-all transmission for the three used one behind the other simultaneously.
filters,
It is evident that the over-all transmission characteristic is obtained by multiplying

the transmission of the individual filters, wavelength by wavelength. Since the
transmission of any filter can never be greater than unity (and can be unity only in the
case of an absolutely perfect filter having zero losses), it follows that the use of several
filters behind one another will give an over-all or net transmission for the filter system
which will be successively smaller the greater the number of filters employed. For
this reason the light available for photographic work is effectively diminished and a
longer exposure required; so it is desirable not to use more filters than are necessary
to produce the desired spectral transmission characteristic. In practice this number
seldom if ever exceeds two. Other objections to the use of more filters than are abso-
lutely essential result from multiple reflections from the surfaces of the filter and
dimunition of optical quality as the number of filters is increased. Exception to this
statement may be made for optically prepared filters intended for uses of this type,
but the average photographer seldom encounters such cases.
Filter Factor. —
The filter factor is not an inherent property of the filter alone which
can be specified once and for all. Instead, the filter factor depends upon its spectral-
transmission characteristics, the spectral characteristics of the source of radiant
energy with which the filter is to be used, and also upon the spectral sensitiveness of
the film upon which the modified light acts. Of these factors the only one which is
inherently a property of the filter itself is spectral transmission of the filter. As the
two other factors vary, the filter factor will change.
—
Graphical Construction Showing Action of Filters. Before interpreting the theory
of filters, it be well to consider some fundamental principles relating to radiation,
will
filter transmission, and the spectral sensitivity of the photosensitive material.
100
c
LIGHT FILTERS 299
the filter is used will be somewhat as indicated by curve C, which is the same as curve
B except that its ordinates have all been multiplied by the "filter factor." By
using the G filter and increasing the exposure by the proper filter factor, we have
actually increased the density of the silver deposit on the film between 565 ray. (where
the C curve crosses the A curve) and have decreased the density below 565 mix.
The photographic operations taking place and illustrated graphically in Fig. 5 can,
perhaps, be better understood if we consider the efi'ect on the density of a developed
panchromatic material having the characteristics given by the third curve when a
photograph is made of a white or gray (nonselective absorbing) surface which is
illuminated by mean noon sunlight. For an exposure such that the linear region of
the H and D curve is employed, the density of the negative (as a function of wave-
length) will be given by curve A when no filter is employed. Since we are not here
concerned with color separation, this exposure will result in a uniformly dense negative
whose density we shall call Z)i. If we make another photograph of the same subject
with the filter but with the same exposure as in the original case, the density of the
second negative will be less than that of the first negative because those wavelengths
below 550 m. are considerably attenuated or entirely blocked from affecting the
photographic negative. In this case the density of the second negative will be desig-
nated as Di. However, if we make a third photograph of the nonselective surface
through the filter but this time multiply the exposure by the exposure factor of the
filter, the developed negative will have the same density Di as the original photograph.
It is assumed that the processing conditions are the same in all cases.
It is therefore evident that the use of a filterchanges the density of the developed
negative as a function of wavelength or color, as is immediately evident by comparing
curves A and B of the bottom graph of Fig. 5. From the explanation in the preceding
paragraph it will be seen that the exposure factor for the filter is effective in tending to
keep the density of the developed negative independent of the manner in which the
filter alters the spectral distribution of density deposit, thereby making more certain
that the straight-Une region of the H and D characteristic is utilized. It may there-
fore be said that, in a general way, the filter alters the spectral response of the negative
to the stimulus of the light source and object being photographed whereas the filter
exposure factor represents an increase in the exposure which is required in order that
the region of correct exposure of the H
and D curve be maintained when some of the
light removed by the filter.
is ^
Curve A at the bottom of the chart determined by multiplying together for

is
each wavelength from a = 350 m/x to =

712 mju the relative intensity of the sun-
/3
light J\ and the sensitivity of the photosensitive material R\. Curve B is determined
for the same wavelength limits by multiplying together J\ from the top curve, the
filter transmission T\ of the middle curve, and the spectral characteristics of the
panchromatic material R\ of the bottom curve. Thus we have illustrated graphically,

the essential operations involved in determining filter factors for a given set of condi-
tions. Since the middle curve (representing filter-transmission characteristic) will
be the only one of the top three curves which will remain constant for a given filter
and either the top curve will change for a different light source or the third curve will
change for a different film emulsion, it is apparent that there is no single "filter
exposure factor" which applies under all conditions for a given filter; this filter
' In this discussion it has been assumed that an ideal uniform

nonselective absorbing medium has
been photographed. In practice this is seldom, if ever, the case. The photography of images of vary-
ing colors and tone depths will produce an imaged (rather than a uniformly dense) negative. In such
cases the results are not so simple as outlined above, and the effects of selective absorption of the filter
and that of the filter exposure factor cannot be considered independently of one another. Yet the
general conclusions given above hold true with secondary modifications.
—
exposure factor also depends upon the light source and the film. For this reason two
filterexposure factors are usually given for the most common light sources, one for
daylight and one for tungsten illumination.
Having worked out a graphical explanation for filter exposure factors, we now
propose to reinterpret the preceding section in less technical terms more familiar to the
average photographer.
When a light filter is used in combination with a given light source and photo-
graphic film, the time of exposure must be increased if the film is sensitized for rays
corresponding to those colors which the filter absorbs. (In this, as well as the pre-
ceding discussion, no account is taken of loss of light by reflection from the surfaces of
the filter or of absorption by the glass plates, cement, etc., except as these factors enter
into the over-all transmission characteristic of the completed filter.) This increase
in exposure is most necessary when the colors (wavelengths) absorbed by the filter
are those for which the photosensitive material is most sensitive. The magnitude of
the increase in the exposure which is necessary when a filter is used, may be said to
depend upon the transmission characteristics of the filter. In a broader and less
accurate manner, it may also be said that the filter exposure factor depends upon the
color of a filter, for the color is entirely dependent (in the visible spectrum, of course)
upon the absorption of the filter.
—
Items Affecting Filter Expostire Factor. The increase in exposure required when
a used depends upon the density of color of the filter, since this determines the
filter is
amount of absorption for a given color (wavelength). Thus, for example, although
all yellow filters absorb blue light, a dense- or deep-yellow filter absorbs more blue
than a light-yellow filter if both filters have spectral-transmission characteristics of the
same shape but different magnitude. Consequently the deep-yellow filter would
have a greater filter exposure factor than the pale-yellow filter. (This effect is not
shown on the set of curves, but might easily be indicated by means of another fiilter-
transmission curve having less transmission at all wavelengths than the G filter
representing a deeper or darker filter).
Another factor influencing the exposure through a given filter is the sensitiveness
of a film for particular colors. If, for example, a film is relatively sensitive to all
visible colors, as panchromatic films are, the filter exposure factor for a yellow filter
which absorbs only the blue will be much less than if the film were of the ordinary
(noncolor-sensitive or orthonon) variety and sensitive almost entirely to the blue rays.
Thus, when used with a daylight source of light, the Wratten No. 8 or K2 filter has an
exposure factor of 12 for ordinary or orthonon materials but a factor of 2.5 for ortho-
chromatic and of only 2 for fully panchromatic materials.
A practical consideration in photography is the time of day in which outdoor
scenes are taken. As daylight contains more blue-violet at noon than in the morning
or later afternoon, the increase of the exposure time will be greater at noon than in the
morning or the afternoon for a yellow filter. This statement refers only to the
increase in exposure due to the filter factor; in practice the luminous intensity at noon
is much greater than in the morning or afternoon, so that the absolute exposure is
likely to be less than in the morning or afternoon. Similar fluctuations in spectral

(color) distribution are caused by the seasons, as well as by the time of day, and by
atmospheric conditions also. In general, where yellow filters are used, a good prin-
ciple to follow is to increase the filter exposure factor the more blue the light source is
and the less the film is sensitive to colors other than blue.
It is, therefore, impossible to state the correct increase of exposure time for every
light condition or even for every filter, and when attempts are made to indicate filter
factors, it should be understood that these factors are approximate and may require
some deviations, depending upon the characteristics of the light source and film.
LIGHT FILTERS 301
Unless otherwise stated, it may be understood that filter factors are given for white
light of the quality of mean noon sunlight.
The medium in which the dye is contained (in gelatin filters) also has an influence
on the filter factor. The more transparent this medium is,the less will be the increase
in exposure attributable only to the use of the filter for a given degree of spectral
correction. Thick gelatin films, as well as films made of celluloid (improperly or
insufficiently purified gelatin), may require a much greater increase in exposure time
than properly prepared gelatin, cemented gelatin, or glass filters. In the case of glass
filters, or gelatin cemented between glass, the absorption of the glass and some-
filters
times of the cement will affect the filter exposure factor. The glass from which filters
are made should be perfectly transparent and without the green tint which is fre-
quently seen when the edges of glass plates are viewed. Nor is it sufficient that the
edges of the glass plates be transparent rather than green, for, by adding compensating
color ingredients, the glass may be made to appear white; however, the added ingred-
ients provide additional absorption, so that, while presenting a neutral appearance and
a neutral absorption at all visible wavelengths, the glass is not so transparent and
efficient asmight be desired. For cemented filters the increase in exposure can be
reduced through the use of purest dyes and gelatin, colorless glass, and the clearest and
most highly refined cement. Similar requirements are imposed on glass filters. For
these reasons it is best to purchase filters properly made by a reputable manufacturer
where the highest quality of work is being done.
TYPES OF FILTERS
Although the subject of is, properly, that type of device which modifies
this section
the spectral-energy distribution of the radiant energy affecting the photosensitive
material, there are other optical accessories in photography which do not have as their
main purpose the modification of the spectral distribution of energy. Nevertheless,
the use and construction of some of these optical accessories are so closely related to
the use and construction of real filters that they will be considered here. Therefore,
it will be found that this chapter embraces: (1) filters, for changing the spectral-energy
distribution of the light reaching the photographic material; (2) polarizing plates, for
modifying the polarization of the light transmitted through the lens and only inci-
dentally modifying its spectral-energy distribution; and (3) "special effects" plates,
such as diffusion disks and supplementary lens attachments, whose purpose is to
modify the optical system of the camera without appreciably affecting the spectral-
energy distribution curve of the incident light.
—
Types of Filters by Construction. In practice, the substances that are used for
filters (or mediums) are of five kinds: glasses, gelatins, colored liquids, dips and
color
varnishes, and sprays. However, only the first three of these color mediums are of
importance in photography, and of these three, colored liquids are seldom used
except in certain scientific work.
But these various mediums are made up for practical use in several forms and may,
therefore, be classified by construction as:
1. Dyed gelatin sheets.
2. Dyed gelatin sheets cemented between glass plates or disks.
3. Glasses, whose absorption is determined in the mix by metallic salts.
4. Colored liquids in transparent containers.
Each of these forms has its own inherent advantages and disadvantages, and all
are used to some extent in photography.
Dyed gelatin filters are obtainable in a wide range of colors or spectral-transmission
characteristics. As supplied commercially for photographic purposes, the dyed-
gelatin sheets are available in thickness of a few thousands of an inch, and up to
10 by 14 in. They are the least expensive type of filter but often fade, particularly
when exposed to high temperatures. After some use they become hard and brittle
and are then easily broken. Gelatin filters are easily marked with dirt or grease from
the hands and are difficult to clean, especially, since because of their softness, rubbing
their surface is likelj^ to scratch them. They are sufficiently thin that, when used
alone, filter gelatins do not appreciably alter the focus of the photographic lens system.
For temporary work, they are highly satisfactory, principally because of their low
cost and wide range of available transmission characteristics, although they are
unsatisfactory in a humid atmosphere.
The dyed cemented between glass have the advantage over colored glass in
gelatins
that the gelatin makes available a wide range of spectral-transmission characteristics.
Furthermore, the filters are not so fragile as the gelatin sheets alone and can be more
easily handled and cleaned. The price for cemented filters is considerably higher than
that for the gelatin sheets and is comparable with the price for colored-glass filters.
Glass filters are by far the most permanent in their spectral-transmission character-
isticswhen once made. But colored-glass filters are not yet available with such a
wide variety of spectral-transmission curves as dyed gelatin; the colors desired are
often difficult to control in the glass melts, and the final filter characteristics depend
to a considerable extent upon the processing of the glass. They are practically
unaffected by temperature, within reasonable limits. They are much more robust
than dyed-gelatin sheets but are considerably heavier and are, of course, subject to
cracking and breaking.
Colored liquids in transparent containers are useful in scientific work where the
photographic equipment does not require portability. A wide range of dyes in
solution can be obtained, and by varying the thickness of the dye-containing cell,
the density of the filter can be controlled quite .easily. Such liquid-cell filters are
heavy and bulky and are difficult to keep clean; there is also the danger of spilling the
liquid. But where these disadvantages are of no serious consequence, the liquid-cell
filters, particularly because of their flexibility have much to recommend them. The
spectral-transmission characteristics for substances in solution for the construction
of liquid filters are listed for a wide variety of substances in the International Critical
Tables, and also in Spectroradiometric Investigations of the Transmission of Various
Substances, hy W. W. Coblentz, National Bureau of Standards, Scientific Paper 418.
—
Types of Filters by Optical Excellence. ^Light filters are usually available in not
more than three different types or grades, so far as optical excellence is concerned;
in many cases, the manufacturer provides only one grade. The best filters are made
of heavy glass, ground and polished optically plane with both surfaces parallel, or are
made of thick glass plates cemented to dyed gelatin, the cemented filter likewise being
ground and polished with optically flat, plane surfaces. They are expensive but are
finished with the same care as are high-quality lenses and are suitable for the most
exacting requirements.
Light filters of very good commercial quality, perfectly suitable for amateur and
even commercial work (except that of the most exacting requirements), are available
in thinner glass or cemented gelatin and glass. These filters are not so highly surfaced
as the optical flats and are not recommended for use with lenses having a focal length
greater than about 10 in., especially if a large aperture is used. The majority of
filters for amateur work and the less exacting commercial work are in tliis grade of
excellence.
A third quality of light filter, available from at least one manufacturer, is made of
colorless glass optically imperfect with gelatin cemented between the plates. While
not recommended for use in photography where the filter is in the direct path of the
image rays, this grade of filter is suitable for visual work on such scientific applications
LIGHT FILTERS 303
as photomicrography or spectroscopj^ where the filter is placed in the path of a dis-

persed beam of light. The essential feature of filters for this service is their spectral-
transmission characteristics and not their excellence from the optical standpoint.
—
Graduated Color Filters. Most photographic filters are uniform in color or have
thesame spectral-transmission characteristic in each and every part of the filter.
With such filters the light reaching all portions of the film is modified in its spectral
characteristics in its passage through the filter.
Sometimes, however, it is desired to modify the spectral characteristics of the light

reaching only a portion of the photographic film and to leave unchanged the spectral
characteristics of the radiant energy reaching the other portions of the film. In such
cases graduated filters are employed in which the density varies in some systematic
manner. The most common types of graduated filters are the sky filters in which one
—
portion of the filter is colorless or, perhaps, has a slight amount of coloring whereas —
another portion of the filter is fairly heavily colored yellow (for orthochromatic mate-
rials) or green (for panchromatic materials). The transition between the colored
and colorless sections is usually gradual, and the colored portion of the filter may be
of one density or may increase in density as one leaves the colorless portion. Some
filters of this type are continuously graded from a pale to a deep hue at opposite ends
of the filter.
Such graduated filters are true filters in the sense that at least a portion of the
filterprovides selective absorption, although another portion may not. Such filters
are often known as "sky filters" or "cloud filters" since they are used extensively to
absorb blue, thereby permitting greater contrast to be obtained between blue sky and
the white clouds. These sky filters must be used either before or behind the lens
system in the camera; if placed between the lens components where the rays converge
to a point in passing through the filter, only a small spot on the filter is used, and
instead of varying the spectral absorption for the image rays striking various portions
of the film, the filter is likely to act as a neutral-density filter, merely increasing the
exposure time without providing the desired tonal correction.
When graduated filters are used, care must be taken to ascertain that the filter is
properly orientated with respect to the original subject and the image on the fUm in
order to produce the desired effect. Some sky filters are marked by the manufacturer
to indicate which is the top of the filter. In sky or cloud filters, the blue rays are to
be absorbed by the filter, and since the blue rays come from the sky (top of the camera)
and produce an image on the bottom of the film (image on film is upside down), the
yellow portion of the sky filter should be at the top of the lens board.
In the case of graduated filters, (especially those which may be adjusted by the
photographer) it is difficult, if not actually impossible to give suitable "filter exposure
factors" since these factors depend not only upon the spectral characteristics of the
light source, film and filter, but also upon what portion of the filter is used, and the
manner in which color gradation appears in the filter. In many cases, no increase in
exposure is required for a sky or cloud filter; in other cases the exposure must be
increased several times. It is best to determine these filter exposure factors from
experience, using the data provided by the manufacturer as a guide.
Polarizing Agents as Filters. —Although strictly speaking, polarizing agents are
not light filters, except possibly accidentally or incidentally, recent progress in the
manufacture of large-size polarizing gelatin screens (which are usually cemented
between glass plates and surfaced and polished the same as filters) has led to the use
of polarizing agents in photography in much the same manner as light or color filters.
The use of these polarizing agents for controlling or modifying some of the properties
of light makes them more nearly allied in their use and construction to filters than to
any other piece of auxiliary equipment.
Before considering the use of polarizing agents as modifiers of the image rays
affecting the photosensitive material,it is well to obtain some idea of the nature of
light-wave motion, and the action of polarizing agents in general. ^

Light may be considered an electromagnetic wave motion, in which the vibratory
motion occurs at right angles to the direction of propagation. Such waves are called
transverse waves. Figure 1 represents a transverse wave in which the displacement
of the wave motion takes place only in the plane of the paper. When the wave
motion takes place in a single plane, as in Fig. 1, the wave motion is said to be plane
polarized. Ordinary light is considered to be composed of beams of plane-polarized
light in which the vibrations occur in all possible directions perpendicular to the direc-
tion of propagation. That is to say, for ordinary light, the vibrations of a transverse
wave occur in all possible directions in the plane perpendicular to the direction in which
the light beam travels. It is, of course, difficult to represent, diagrammatically, the
Fig. 6. — Three
light waves, vibrating in different directions. The left-hand diagram
illustrates how
these waves might look as they pass the observer, while the right-hand
diagram illustrates how they would look when viewed "head on." Through the use of
polarizing plates, with optical axes aligned, only one of these vibrations, such as a-a could
be transmitted.
precise state of affairs which theory and experiment indicate takes place at any one
particular instant of time. The best explanation of ordinary nonpolarized light is to
consider it to be composed of a great number of polarized waves which follow one
another in such rapid succession that, over any interval of time for which light effects
can be recorded, vibrations in all directions perpendicular to the direction of travel
are equally represented. Figure 6 will indicate in an elementary and simplified man-
ner the type of process which occurs. For simplicity a ray of ordinary light will be
considered to be composed of three plane-polarized light rays, c, 6, and c, the plane
of polarization of each of these rays being different from that of the others. For
simplicity it will be assumed that the amplitudes of the three plane-polarized waves
are all equal. Then, if we looked at the composite light wave as it passed by us and
were able to see the wave motion of the separate individual plane-polarized waves, the
effect would be somewhat as indicated by the left diagram. On the other hand, if we
could see the vibrations of the three plane-polarized beams as they come directly
to us (or, e.g., as evaluated by a photographic plate) separately and individually,
the effect of the three plane-polarized waves would be somewhat as indicated at the
right which is an end projection. Actually, of course, ordinary light is composed of
many more plane-polarized waves and the net picture is much more complicated
than is indicated here, although the same fundamental principles apply.
In Fig. 6, the horizontal line is the zero axis and the waves are assumed to be
traveling from left to right. The distance from this zero axis represents the wave
displacement. The waves h and c appear to have less amplitude than wave a because
1 A fairly extensive treatment of this subject may be found in Chap. 29 of " The Principles of Optics,"
by A. C. Hardy and F. H. Perrin, McGraw.
LIGHT FILTERS 305
we are looking at them at an angle rather than perpendicularly. In the right hand
part of Fig. 6, the lines represent the amplitudes of the three individual plane-polarized
waves and all are of equal length.
A polarizing agent has the property of transmitting through it transverse waves
vibrating in only one plane; other transverse vibrations are partially or completely
all
absorbed by the polarizing device. Therefore, if a polarizing device is placed in the

path of a beam of light which has transverse vibrations in all directions, the light
emerging after passing through the polarizing agent will be found to vibrate in only
one direction normal to the plane of propagation. The property of polarizing agents
to transmit light vibrating in one transverse direction but not in others is due to the
proper orientation of many minute crystals in these polarizing devices.
The action of polarizing plates can be explained by analogy by considering the
polarizing plates to be constructed in the form of a grating of parallel bars. Wave
motion in such a direction as to be parallel with the bars will suffer no obstruction
and will readily pass through them. On the other hand wave motion perpendicular to
the bars will be effectively blocked.
Many surfaces produce a greater or lesser degree of plane polarization by reflection,
rather than by transmission. Light, as from the sun, which is polarized in all direc-
is more or less plane polarized after being
tions perpendicular to its direction of travel,
reflected from the surfaces of such as glass, wood, linoleum, etc. The
insulators,
extent of this plane polarization which occurs in such surfaces depends upon the angle
of the light incident upon the surface and is a maximum for many surfaces when the
incident light strikes the reflecting surface at angles between 30 and 40°. The plane-
polarized light reflected from such surfaces is largely responsible for objectionable
glare. the extent of the plane-polarized light can be reduced, the objectionable
If
glare or reflections can likewise be reduced or eliminated.
If two polarizing plates are used one behind the other, the amount of light trans-
mitted through them will depend upon the relation of the optical axes of the two
plates. If the two polarizing agents are so aligned that their optical axes and the
direction of the polarizing crystals are in the same direction, maximum light will be
transmitted through the combination. The first crystal will, of course, cut out those
rays which are polarized in directions other than that corresponding to its own polar-
izing structure. However, since both crystals are aligned so that their crystals are
oriented in the same direction, the second crystal will act only in such a manner as to
polarize light which already comes to it plane polarized; its affect on the light passing
through it will therefore be simply that of absorption, as shown in Fig. 7.
However, if the second crystal or polarizing agent has its optical axis rotated with
respect to that of the first crystal, the amount of light passing through the combination
will depend upon the angles between the optical axes of the two crystals. If this
angle is zero, maximum light is transmitted; if this angle is 90°, no light will be trans-
mitted in the case of perfect polarizing agents. For intermediate angles, intermediate
amounts of light will be passed. Therefore, by using two polarizing agents, one of
which may be rotated with respect to the other, we have a means of controlling the
total amount of light passing through the combination; we have also provided a means
of limiting the directions in which the transmitted rays are capable of vibrating.
—
Use of Polarizing Plates in Photography, In photography, polarizing crystals or
plates are usually used singly for the purpose of reducing glare or reflections of the
desired image. In most cases, elimination or reduction of reflections results in a more
pleasing photograph and often permits effects to be obtained which would otherwise
be very difficult or even impossible. The polarizing material is mounted in circular
cells which slip on over the lens mount. These cells are arranged so that they may
be rotated about the central axis of the camera in such a manner as to reduce the
plane-polarized light (from flooring, windows, etc.) causing undesirable glare or

reflections. Although the use camera lens is often
of polarizing plates in front of the
effective in reducing some undesirable reflections, it is most effective for glare and
reflections within a fairly narrow angle around 35° from the central axis of the camera.
It is not a cure-all for all reflection and glare troubles.
The commercially available polarizing disks give an appearance of being a fairh^
dark-gray color. These disks cut down the amount of light being transmitted through
them. For this reason the exposure time must be increased when these disks are used.
The exposure will probably be two to five times that required when no polarizing
filter is used, although the factor provided by the manufacturer of such devices should
be used in determining the increase in exposure.
K
K
rx —
X * #-
fx
Fig. 7. —Unpolarized light,
N
coming from the extreme left, is polarized to vibrate in a
vertical plane after passing through the first polarizing plate. When the polarizing axis
of the second plate is rotated with respect to that of the first, more or less light is permitted
to pass. When the axes of the two plates are at right angles, no light passes through the
second plate.
With cameras having ground-glass screens, the polarizing filter is placed over the
lens and rotated about its own axis until the desired effect is obtained. In the case
of reflex cameras having a taking as well as a viewing lens, the effect of the polarizing
filtercan be seen bj^ placing this on the viewing lens, and rotating until the proper
effect is obtained. The polarizing filter is then transferred to the taking lens without
changing its angular rotation, and the exposure is made in the usual way, except for
increase in exposure. For cameras having an eye-level or reflecting type of view
finder, the lens can be held up to the eye and rotated about its own axis until the
desired reflections are reduced to a minimum. The filter is then placed over the lens,
without rotating it, and the exposure made. Polarizing filters for photographic use
are provided with marks indicating the direction in which the crystals of the polarizing
material are aUgned; the relative position of these marks may be used to indicate
whether the polarizing filter has been turned or not. For those cameras in which
focusing is accomplished by rotating the front lens component, the focusing must
obviously be completed before the polarizing filter is attached to the lens. Depending
LIGHT FILTERS 307
upon the type of camera and view finder, one of the methods outlined above can be
used inapplying the polarizing filter.
Neutral-tint Density Filters. —
Although not filters in the sense that they alter the
spectral-energj^ distribution of the light passing through them, neutral density disks or
plates are similar to filters in their general use and construction. These devices are
graj"^ in appearance since they are made to have as nearlj^ as possible the same absorp-
tion for all wavelengths in the visible spectrum. For this reason, neutral densitj^
filters show no selective absorption in the visible spectrum, which is the characteristic
of all true filters. The purpose of these devices is to absorb all colors equally well, and
•they may be obtained in various densities. They are used to cut down the amount of
light when it is not desirable to use a smaller aperture which would increase the depth
of focus. Neutral density filters are also sometimes used with tricolor filters to cut
down the amount of light when certain filters are used, so that all three of the color
filters may have the same exposure factors. They are also frequentlj^ used for extend-
ing the useful range of optical pyrometers and for other optical systems where the
intensity but not the spectral distribution of the light must be altered.
Neutral density filters may be made by dyeing gelatin with several djês to produce
equal absorption throughout the entire visible spectrum. Sometimes neutral density
"filters" are made by depositing a thin film of metal (by a sputtering or sintering
process) on a plate of glass. Silver, platinum, and aluminum are frequently used for
this purpose. For rough work, satisfactory neutral density filters may easily be made
by cementing a piece of uniformly exposed and developed negative between plates of
glass. Such a filter scatters the light much more than a dyed gelatin filter; moreover,
it is difficult or impossible to obtain uniform absorption over any appreciable area of
exposed and developed photographic fUm. A further source of trouble is that the
developed film or plate may not be a neutral density filter; if it becomes stained during
development or fixing, it is likely to show selective absorption. ^ In spite of these
difficulties, such simple developed-fiJm neutral density filters are often quite suitable
for certain classes of work.
In photographic work, neutral densitj^ filters are used, like true filters, before (or
behind) the lens system of the camera. When used for spectroscopic and other uses
where the purpose is merely to cut down the intensity of the light, these filters may be
placed at anj^ suitable point in the path of the light beam. Neutral density filters
may be obtained in a wide variety of sizes, either square or round and mounted or
unmounted. The Wratten dyed-gelatin neutral density filters are available in
several density values, and complete sets may be obtained in which the density of the
filters progresses in decimal, logarithmic, or percentage laws of transmission.
Neutral-tint Wedges. —Similar to the neutral-tint density filters described above
are the neutral-tint wedges, which maybe of the stepped or continuously variable
types. In the former case the wedge is divided into several sections, each of which is
uniform over its entire area, but each area of which has a value of transmission different
from adjacent areas. These stepped wedges are usually constructed so that succes-
sive steps in the wedge represent equal increments of densitj^ or equal steps in trans-
mission or absorption. In the continuoush' variable tj'pe of wedge, the transmission
at one end is high, whereas at the other end it is low; the transition from one to the
other usually taking place gradually, and uniformly.
1A nonselective absorbing deposit of a developed negative may be obtained by using a developer
suggested by Sheppard and Travelli, at the Vllth International Congress of Photography, and con-
sisting of
p-Aminophenol hydrochloride 7J^ g.

Sodium carbonate (anhydrous) 50 g.
Water to make 1000 cc.
—
Supplementary Lens Attachments. Ordinary supplementary lens attachments
are not filters at all, although their construction and mechanical use makes it desirable
to consider them along with filters, since they are used in the same manner as filters.
Such supplementary lenses usually fall into two classes: (1) those intended to increase
the effective focal length of the lens system thereby, at the same time narrowing the
field of view; and (2) those which decrease the focal length and increase the angle of
view. The first class of supplementary lenses reduces the speed of the lens system since
the focal length is increased for any given aperture. Conversely, the second class
of supplementary lenses increases the speed of the lens.
Supplementary lenses which increase the focal length of the lens system are some-
times called portrait lenses; those which decrease the focal length are sometimes
referred to as wide-angle, copying, or reproduction lenses. A set of supplementary
lenses usually costs but a small fraction of the cost of the lens system in a camera, and
their use provides a lens system having several focal lengths and angles of view.
These supplementarj'' lenses are usually mounted in metal cells which slip over the
camera lens, or are held on the camera lens by means of a metal-spring holder.
Special-effects Equipment. — A wide variety of lens accessories is available under
this name including diffusion disks for giving a soft diffused effect without making the
image out of focus; fog plates for making negatives possessing the appearance of being
taken in heavy fog; duplicator disks, in which one-half of the disk is opaque and the
other transparent and permitting (by rotation of the disk) exposures of half of the film
at a time for trick effects, etc.
CARE, MOUNTING, AND CEMENTING OF FILTERS

Care of Filters. —When properly constructed, surfaced, and polished, filters are of
as high quality as optical lenses, and should be given the same careful consideration
accorded to a good lens. When not in use, the filters should be kept in a substantial
case or other suitable container which will keep the individual plates separated from
one another and in their proper place. By keeping filters in their proper container,
the chance of getting them dirty, scratching the surfaces, or otherwise marring their
optical properties will be minimized, and the plates will always be ready for use.
Filters should be kept in a dry place at normal room temperatures and should be pro-
tected from strong light, ultraviolet, infrared, heat, and similar radiations. Although
colored-glass filters are not ordinarily harmed by these radiations, the above pre-
cautions are especially necessary for certain gelatin and cemented gelatin filters which
are subject to change in their transmission characteristics with aging and which are
frequently unstable to heat and strong light. Excessive heat is likely to soften the
Canada balsam in cemented filters, and, if this occurs, the definition of the filter will
most probably be ruined. Plain gelatin films, without protective glass, should be kept
flat by placing the films in a clean white envelope or between sheets of soft paper and
pressing between parallel surfaces, as the leaves of a book.

Cleanliness is necessary in handhng filters as well as in handUng lenses, and this is
especially true in the case of gelatin films because of the difficulty of cleaning the sur-
faces should theybecome soiled. Filters not mounted in cells should be handled only
by holding them by their edges or corners; they should not be grasped with the fingers
covering a portion of their surface. Some filters are protected at their edges with
binding tape, and this provides a satisfactory, if somewhat narrow, means of holding
the plates.
—
Cleaning Filters. ^Like lenses, filters should be cleaned by brushing their surfaces
with light, fine tissue paper, lens tissue, or a camel's-hair brush. If the filters become
so dirty that brushing does not suffice to clean them, they may be moistened slightly
LIGHT FILTERS 309
by breathing upon them and rubbing the surfaces with lens tissue, after making certain
that all the grit has been removed from the surfaces. Solid glass filters can be cleaned
by rubbing the surface with lens tissue dampened with denatured alcohol. This
procedure is not recommended for cemented filters as alcohol is a solvent for Canada
balsam; moreover the alcohol may cause the gelatin to swell if it reaches the cemented
edges, thereby destroying the desirable optical properties of the filter. Under no
circumstances should cemented gelatin filters or gelatin films be washed in water,
alcohol, or other liquid. Gelatin films may be cleaned by laying one surface down on a
clean sheet of paper placed on a hard fiat surface and rubbing the upper surface with a
soft material,such as flannel or preferably lens tissue. The surfaces of gelatin film
scratch very easily, and there is, therefore, a hmit to the amount of cleaning which
may be done by this method. Should it be necessary to cut gelatin film, the film
should be protected by placing it between two sheets of thin paper, and the three
thicknesses should be cut simultaneously with sharp scissors or a sharp edge such as a
razor blade. If dull scissors are used, the gelatin may chip and flake, especially if it is
brittlefrom age.
Mounting of Filters. —can be used in several positions on the camera, the
Filters
position determining the method
of mounting. They may be used before the lens,
behind the lens, or immediately in front of the film. Although filters of mediocre
quality can be used if placed in this last position, this form of mounting has the dis-
advantages of requiring a filter as large as the film on which the latent image is
formed, and defects in the surface of the filter or specks of dust on its surface show up
on the negative. Filters behind the lens do not have these disadvantages but are
inaccessible. Before-the-lens filters are accessible for change and need be only slightly
larger than the lens barrel diameter. This form of mounting is almost universally
used at the present time.
The position of the filter affects the focusing of the lens on the film, and this fact
must be taken into consideration where sharp negatives are required. If the filter is
placed before the lens, the plane of sharp focus will be slightly moved back from where
it is without the filter. For many cases, such as landscape photography, this change
in focus is not important, especially if the filter is very thin, as a gelatin film. But
where the sharpest images are required, as in copying line drawings, focusing should
be done with the filter in place. Since filters always cut down the amount of light and
since it is often difficult to focus with colored light, the use of "dummy" filters is
frequently resorted to. Dummy filters have no appreciable selective absorption, but
alter the image rays through the camera in the same way the usual filter does. There-
fore focusing can be done with such a dummy with ease, and the desired filter can
replace it when is being made.
the photograph
When the placed on the back combination of the lens, the plane of sharp
filter is
focus with the filter in place is moved forward by about one-third the thickness of the
filter, so that focusing must be done with the filter in place. If the filter is placed
immediately in front of the photographic be negligible
plate, the shift in focus will
when a gelatin film is used. But if used in a holder
a thick glass or cemented filter is
in front of the plate, the bellows extension must be shortened by the thickness of the
filter. If this is not done, the image will be properly in focus on the filter and not on
the photographic plate.
Filters may be mounted on the camera lens in two general methods. A verj''
convenient way, especially for the amateur photographer having a small number of
filters of the same size, is to have the fUters mounted in circular metal cells which slip
on the camera lens. However, when a filter is to be used with several lenses of differ-
ent size, it is usually more satisfactory to use square filter plates and to support these
in a frame or holder fitting over, or held just in front of, the lens. Circular cells, as
well as other filter holders, should be designed to hold the filters against the lens
secureh- but without pressure.
—
Cementing Filters. It is impossible for the average photographer having no optical
measuring devices and but little technical knowledge of the design of optical parts to
construct high-quality filters for photographic purposes; such filters had best be
purchased. Certain instances do arise, however (for instance, that in which a filter
is to be used in the path of a beam of dispersed light, as in photomicrography), where
the optical qualitj^ of the filter is secondary to its spectral-transmission character-

istics, and for such cases cemented filters can be made which will answer the purpose
satisfactorily.
Such cemented as their main optical apparatus, the gelatin films, such
filters use,
as are available from the Eastman Kodak Co. and known as Wratten gelatin films.
These are available about a hundred different spectral-transmission characteristics
in
and densities and be an adequate selection for almost any photographic purpose.
will
It is also essential that good-quality cover plates be used. Plate glass of selected
qualitjs free from striae, bubbles, or other defects, is generallj^ used for protecting the
gelatin film. Glass which, when viewed along the edges with white-light illumination,
has green color is not suitable for good-quality filters, as this glass has appreciable
absorption at both ends of the visible spectrum. Normal white glass (as distin-
guished from glass which is made to appear white by adding decolorizers) should be
used, as the decolorizers merely introduce additional absorption in the green portion
of the spectrum, thereby making the entire glass approximately neutral. Glass
which has been made white by the addition of decolorizers might be used, but the
efficiency of the filter and the filter exposure factor will be affected.
Canada balsam is the most common cement for optical parts. This is a mixture of
turpentine and resins and is used in its natural condition. Canada balsam is a thick,
viscous, yellow fluid, having much the appearance of honey. A good grade of filtered
balsam will be required for cementing optical parts.
All cementing operations should be carried out in a dust-free room. The Wratten
gelatin film will be found to be clean when purchased, but the glass plates, which should
be the same size as the gelatin film or slightly larger, should be thoroughly cleaned by
washing in potassium permanganate to rid them of grease and then washing in clean
hot water. The plates may be dried by evaporation or may be dried with a soft
cloth, if care is taken to remove all lint before beginning the cementing operation.
The Canada balsam may be used at ordinarj^ temperatures; it may also be thinned
by adding turpentine or alcohol. However, a much more satisfactory^ method is to
use the balsam without the addition of other ingredients, thinning the cement by
heating the balsam slightlj' in a hot water bath. When the balsam is thinned suffi-
ciently by the application of heat, a drop is placed in the center of one of the glass
plates bj^ means of a stirring rod, and the gelatin film is placed on top of this spot of
cement. The gelatin should then be flattened down, making sure that no bubbles are
left between it and the glass plate. Provided they are clean, the fingers may be used
to flatten the gelatin to the glass plate, especially if protected by lens tissue. A drop
of cement is then placed on top of the gelatin and the top plate is pressed down,
making sure that all air bubbles are excluded. It is important to use sufficient
cement so that some will flow out on all edges; too little balsam will ruin the job as
more cannot be added. Not a little technique and skill are required to perform these
operations satisfactorily, and good results cannot be obtained consistently; there is
bound to be some spoilage if any quantity of work is undertaken.
When this sandwich has been prepared, it should be pressed together. There will
probably be a decided tendency for the plates to slide upon one another. This may
be counteracted by holding the edges in place and binding the sandwich of glass-gela-
LIGHT FILTERS 311
tin-glasswith thread. After being bound in this manner, the filter is set away, under
pressure, to dry at ordinary temperatures for about 2 weeks. When the filter is
thoroughly dry, the pressure and then the thread are removed. Any Canada balsam
which may have hardened on the surface of the plates can be removed by rubbing the
surface of the plates with a cloth dampened with alcohol, but no alcohol must be
allowed to get at the cemented edges. The edges of the filter should be protected to
prevent the entry of liquids which might injure the cemented joint.
FILTERS IN PHOTOGRAPHY
In selecting photographic use, several factors should be considered.
filters for
Among these are: (1) optical excellence required, (2) spectral sensitivity of the film
\ised, (3) distribution of spectral energy in illuminant, (4) effect desired in the finished
photograph, (5) service for which filter is to be used, and (6) cost. The first and fifth
of these items will determine, to a very large extent, the cost of the filter. For com-
mercial work where the filter must be of the highest grade and where it will probably
be used frequently, the matter of cost is relatively unimportant, and a glass or
cemented gelatin filter of the highest optical quality will be required. For practically
all amateur work, a good-quality glass or cemented gelatin filter will be quite satis-
factory. For experimental or temporary work, or where the filter is used infrequently,
the plain uncemented gelatin often meets the optical requirements quite well, although
structurally gelatins leave much to be desired.
As has already been mentioned, the over-all characteristics of the photographic
image will depend, in its tone or color value, upon the spectral characteristics of the
film, the light source, and the filters, and proper consideration must be given to these
factors when selecting filters for a given purpose. For example, when reproducing
colors in their correct monochromatic tonal value, a yellow filter for orthochromatic
and a green filter for panchromatic films will usually prove to be as good a selection as
any for most common light sources. On the other hand, for certain types of color
film exposed by light from incandescent lamps, a photometric bluish filter is required.
For other types of work and for special effects, such specialized booklets as "Photog-
raphy of Colored Objects" and "Wratten Light Filters," published by Eastman
Kodak Co., should be consulted, especially with respect to the spectral-transmission
characteristics of commercially available filters.
Classification of Photographic Filters. —While not possible to cover in detail

it is
the use and application of the several hundred commercially available, those
filters
filters which have photographic importance may be divided, according to their spec-
tral-transmission characteristics, into several well-defined groups. The filters falling
into any group perform the same general function, the various groups repre-
single
senting different functional attributes. These groups may be classified as follows:
—
Compensation or Equalizing Filters. These filters provide partial absorption in
parts of the visible and near-visible spectrum for the purpose of providing a certain
compensation or equalization of all colors in their effect on the photographic film.
Because most photographic materials have their greatest sensitivity in the ultraviolet
and blue end of the visible spectrum, compensation filters often have their greatest
absorption in this region. Most yellow filters for black-and-white photography are
compensation, equalizing, or correction filters.
Contrast Filters. —
Contrast filters provide virtually complete absorption for certain
colors in the object being photographed.
Selective or Separation Filters. —Selective or separation filters, in indirect color
photography using color-separation films or negatives, are used to decompose the
visible spectrum into the three colors (the primary red, green, and blue or their com-
plementary colors) for making the three separation or partial images.
—
Monochromatic Filters. Monochromatic filters transmit only a narrow band of
wavelengths, completely or nearly completely absorbing the remainder. Conse-
quently, when viewed by transmitted light, they usually appear as a pure color.
Monochromatic filters are used in scientific photography (especially in spectroscopic
photography) but ordinarily are not used in general photography.
—
Safe Lights. ^Light filters used for darkroom illumination are known as safe lights.
A characteristic of safe-light filters is that they provide total or large absorption for
that portion of the spectrum for which the photosensitive material being processed is
sensitive, transmitting the rest of the spectrum for the darkroom illumination. For
panchromatic materials (which are sensitive to practically all the visible spectrum),
the best compromise is to use a safe-light filter transmitting radiations at the green
portion of the spectrum. Of course, the green light transmitted by such a safe light
will affect the panchromatic film, since it is sensitive to green light. The advantage
of using this green filter is that the eye is most sensitive to green light when the
luminous intensity is low, so that for a given visual effect less light can be used if it is
green than if it is of some other color.
It will be noted that the classification given above is based upon the shape of the
spectral-transmission curve with reference to the material or purpose for which the
filter is to be used. This is quite logical, for it is the spectral transmission as given
by the shape of this curve which is of primary importance in the use and application of
a filter. There are, of course, other methods of classifying filters, as, for instance,
according to their apparent color when white light is transmitted through them or
according to their use, based on their position in the optical circuit (e.g., as taking
filters and safe lights) rather than in their function as varying the spectral-energy
distribution.
—
Compensation or Equalizing Filters. Perhaps the most common types of filters in
photographic work are those filters which are intended to alter the spectral-energy
distribution of the light source in such a manner as to give a monochrome print (in
black-and-white photography) in which the various shades in the print are propor-
tional to the visible luminous effect produced by the colored original image. To
accomplish this effect, it is necessary that the brightness of the colors in the original
image be reproduced in accordance with their effect on the human eye, as indicated in
the standard visibility curve.
It is evident that only panchromatic materials can give results in which the black,
gray, and white tones are accurately proportional to the visibility of the original
subject; other types of film emulsions are deficient in their sensitivity at the red,
orange, or yellow parts of the spectrum, so that these colors are rendered too dark in
the final print.
Certain green filters (such as the Wratten XI and X2) are compensating filters
intended to provide as accurate tone correction as is possible in monochrome photog-
raphy. Yellow filters, such as the Kl or K2, are also compensation filters which
provide an approximation to proper tone values, when used with orthochromatic
types of materials, by cutting down the effective sensitivity of the film to the blue end
of the spectrum.
Other examples of compensation filters are those used in photometric work.
With the greater general use of color films, such photometric filters are also sometimes
recommended to enable a film intended for use with one type of light source, e.g.,
mean noon sunlight, to be used with another type of light source (such as incan-
descent electric lamps).
—
Contrast Filters. If two colors which produce very nearly the same luminous
effect to the eye are photographed on a panchromatic negative and a black-and-white
print is made, it will be found that these colors have nearlj' the same tone value.
—
LIGHT FILTERS 313
While these colors were easily distinguished in the original because of their difference
in predominant wavelength, the result in the final print is unsatisfactory because,
since we cannot reproduce in color, we must depend simply on shades of gray to
indicate proper tone values. To indicate the difference in color which we see in the
original, it is necessary to produce a contrast between these two colors in the black-
and-white print. When this is done, the accurate tone rendition of the original image,
as evaluated by the visibility curve of the human eye, is, of course, destroyed, but the
effect obtained is usuallj^ much more desirable, notwithstanding.
To produce monochrome contrast between colors, it is necessary to photograph
the image so that one of the colors will produce a darker print (or lighter negative)
than the other. When it becomes necessary to make use of that form of distortion
known as increasing the color contrast, it is usually customary to reproduce the red
and orange colors lighter than the corresponding green and blue colors of the same
visibility. To accomplish this contrast in photography, we may make use of the
practical rule which states that to photograph a color in black and white so that the
print of it appears lighter than the original image, a filter should be used which is of
the same color as the image. Conversely, to reproduce a color in the final print
darker than it appears in the original, use a filter complementary to that color. The
filter should absorb light of the color to be rendered dark.
The following table will give an idea of the colors of the filters which may be used
to render certain colors lighter or darker. For purposes of illustration Wratten
filters suitable for the purpose are also listed.
Table I. Filters for Producing Colors Lighter or Darker
To render subject To render subject

lighter, use darker, use
Color of subject
Color Examplei Color Example'
Red Red 29, 25, 15 Blue green 47, 58

Orange Orange 15, 25 Blue 47
Yellow Yellow 15, 25 Indigo blue 47
Yellow-green . . Yellow-green 11 Violet 35, 30
Green Green 58, 15, 13 Red 27, 25
Blue-green .... Blue-green 47, 58 Red-orange 29, 25
Blue Blue 47 Orange-yellow 29, 25
Purple Purple 47 Green 58
Magenta; pink Magenta 29, 25 Green 58
Numbers refer to Wratten filters.
As examples of the use of contrast filters may be mentioned the use of a red filter
(Wratten No. 25 or No. 29) for photographing blue prints, which without such a filter
would give a gray and white result lacking in detail and contrast. The red Wratten
No. 25 filter also finds application in photographing furniture where it is desirable to
show the wood grain; the Wratten No. 15 filter is also useful in this application.
Selective or Separation Filters. —
In accordance with the theories of Wunsch,
Young, and Helmholtz and first demonstrated by Maxwell, three-color photograph}^ is
based upon the fact that a colored image may be constructed by superimposing in
register three partial (or separation) images, each of which is colored one of the three
primary colors, red, green, and blue. The partial images are made bj^ splitting the
color of the original image into three groups of primary colors by means of filters.
Two methods of three-color photography are possible, and both are in common use:
the additive process and the subtractive process.
In both processes the purpose of the taking filters is to split up the light reflected
bj' the colored image into the three-component primary colors. If the final color
print or transparency^ is to be an accurate reproduction of the original colored image,

any filters suitable for making the partial-image negatives must fulfill certain require-
ments, both as regards optical requirements and spectral characteristics.
Optically, the three separation filters which are to be used together for color-
separation photography must be accurately surfaced and polished and for the highest
qualitj' work must be matched as a set. This requirement is essential to insure that
the partial negatives are all exactly the same size, so that they will permit trans-
parencies or prints to be made which will register accurately when superimposed upon
one another in the final result. If precise color-separation work is to be undertaken,
it is probably desirable to purchase the separation filters as a set rather than to pur-
chase the filters separately and individually at various times. Unless experimental
work is in progress, it is unwise to use tricolor separation filters together which are
not recommended by the manufacturer to be used as a complete set. It is also
desirable that all three filters in a tricolor filter set be of the same manufacture unless
the user is sufficiently conversant with color-separation work as to be willing to
accept the risk and expense of mistaken judgment.
The spectral-transmission curves for separation filters for three-color photography
should have low and uniform absorption in the transmission range, complete absorp-
tion outside the transmission range, and cutoff characteristics as sharp and abrupt
as possible. The spectral-transmission characteristics of the three filters should
overlap only slightly or not at all; the spectral characteristics of some filter sets recom-
mended for color-separation work show definite gaps in which certain wavelengths
in the visible spectrum are not transmitted by any of the three filters.
Bj' making the absorption low in the transmission region, the exposure factor
for the filters will be reduced to a minimum. Uniform absorption in the transmission
region assures that no discrimination will be given to any of the spectral colors passed
by the filter. Tricolor filters should have abrupt cutoff characteristics to assure
that the color of the final result will be as nearly as possible independent of the abso-
lute exposure, although depending upon the relative exposure through the three tri-
color filters. The matter can be comprehended more clearly by reference to Fig. 7.
Assume that a set of ideal tricolor taking filters have spectral-transmission charac-
teristics as shown in Fig. 7A. The blue filter will then pass wavelengths between 400
and 500 myu without absorption but will be completely absorbing for wavelengths
outside this region. Similarly, let the transmission range for the green filter be from
500 to 600 mM and that for the blue filter be from 600 to 700 m^. Then negatives
made through the use of these ideal taking filters will show the three primary colors
sharply differentiated, each primary color being passed by its corresponding taking
filter, and only by this filter.
If instead of the theoreticallj^ ideal taking filters of Fig. 7A, we have a set of tri-
color filters as shown in Fig. 75, the situation is quite different. In the latter case
lightfrom the colored image is not split into three well-defined primary colors. Because
of the gradual cutoff characteristics, anj' one filter may transmit more than one
primary color. As was true also in the case of Fig. lA, the relative exposures through
these three filters must be proportional to the relative exposure factors, of the three
filters. But because anj^ filter of Fig. IB transmits primary colors outside its own
primary color region, a proper color balance in the final result will be obtained only
for one definite exposure; for other exposures of the partial negatives, the fidelity of
color reproduction in the final result will be inaccurate even though the proper relative
LIGHT FILTERS 316
relation between exposure and filter exposure factors is maintained. In other words
with having transmission curves such as shown in Fig. 8fi, the color of the final
filters
result depends, not only upon the proper relative exposures and filter exposure factors,
but also upon the absolute exposures given to the three partial negatives. The
difficulties of obtaining satisfactory practical results are considerably greater in the
latter case than in the former.
One point concerning sharp cutting filters should be noted in passing. Ideal
filters, such as are indicated in Fig. 7A, fail to distinguish between monochromatic
hues lying within the transmission band of a given filter. If, for example, we had two
monochromatic sources of equal energy, one at 420 m/i and the other at 480 mju, both
would be passed equally well by the tricolor blue filter, and, if. the photosensitive
400 500 600 700 mju

(a)
700 m/i
Fig. 7.— Wavelength-transmission characteristics of ideal (a) and actual (6) filters as used
in three-color photography.
material were equally sensitive to radiations of 420 and 480 m^, it would be impossible
to distinguish between these two monochromatic colors in the final color picture.
This condition is seldom of appreciable practical importance in photography because
no colors in dyes or pigments with which we deal are purely monochromatic; pure
monochromatic colors are seldom obtained, and then usually with inconvenience or
difficulty. Another, but less important reason why this state of affairs is not of much
practical concern is that practical taking filters do not approach the ideal character-
istics of Fig. 7A very closely.
—
Monochromatic Filters. ^These are sharp cutting filters which are usually used
with gaseous-discharge luminous sources. The transmission band of these filters is
usually sharp so that, when used with certain gas-discharge devices producing a
discontinuous spectrum, certain desired lines will be transmitted, whereas other lines
will be absorbed. Such monochromatic filters are not of importance for general
photographic work but are useful in certain scientific applications of photography.
Sometimes sharp-cutting monochromatic filters are employed to indicate by visual

examination the tone reproduction which will occur in black-and-white photography.
For this application, the filter must be sufficiently sharp so that colors in the original
subject are practically indistinguishable. The transmission region may lie anywhere
in the visible spectrum, although there some advantage in putting it near the yellow,
is
where the eye is most sensitive. The Wratten No. 90 viewing filter is intended for
this use, and while it is possible to distinguish between reds and greens, these colors
are so dulled as to give sensibly a yellow visual image of varying luminosity.
—
Safe Lights. Optical requirements on safe lights are practically nil except that the
safe-light filter should transmit as much
of the visible spectrum as possible, provided
the photographic sensitive material not sensitive to radiations of these wavelengths.
is
In practice, ^he manufacturer of photographic materials usually specifies the type of

filter and gives some indication as to the intensity of illumination which can be used
with the various types of film and paper emulsions.

Filters for Commercial Work. —
Where commercial work is being done, the selection
of filters should be that which will provide maximum utility and flexibility with a
minimum investment. Practically all subjects encountered in commercial photog-
raphy can be treated adequately with modern photosensitive materials with less than
a dozen filters. Those filters which have been found to be most useful are the Wratten
(or equivalent) Kl, K2, XI, X2, F, G, E, A, B, and C5, or Nos. 6, 8, 11, 13, 29, 15,
23, 25, 58, and 47, respectively. For those who do not care to obtain a full set of
photographic filters, the A, G, and K2 filters will probably prove most satisfactory
for general work.
The Kl filter is a light-yellow filter which gives some color correction with ortho-
chromatic materials without increasing the exposure time unduly. It is useful where
some color correction must be obtained with the least increase in exposure time.
The K2 is a stronger yellow filter and gives better correction but requires a longer
exposure than the Kl. Like the Kl, the K2 filter is intended for use with orthochro-
matic materials.
The XI gives correction with panchromatic materials when used with daylight
whereas the X2 is suitable for panchromatic materials used with incandescent luminous
sources. They are not recommended for orthochromatic materials.
The F is a strong red filter for contrast work, copying blueprints, screen-plate
analysis, or for haze cutting or infrared photography.
The G filter is a strong yellow-orange filter with sharp cutoff for contrast work,
strong accentuation of clouds, telephotography, furniture, copying yellow faded
matter, and general landscape photography.
The E filter is a general contrast red filter.
The A, B, and C5 are used in color-reproduction work. The A is a red, the B a
green, and the C5 a blue-violet filter.
The spectral-transmission characteristics of these and other filters are shown in
"Wratten Light Filters," published by the Eastman Kodak Co..
Filter Characteristics Summarized. —
In this chapter we have discussed some of the
more important and have mentioned some of the uses of vari-
characteristics of filters
ous kinds of filters. Considerably more might easily be written concerning the uses,
and particularly the artistic uses, of light filters in photography. But there are many
articles available in the literature on this subject, and, where artistic considerations arc
involved, it is impossible for a technical reference book to be of much value.
A table of filter factors for various makes of emulsions and filters will be found in
Appendix D. While every effort has been made to make this list as accurate as pos-
sible, such a listing can be taken only as a guide. The results given in Appendix D
are to be used with proper judgment of the factors already enumerated in this chapter.
LIGHT FILTERS 317
-•
Bibliography
CoBLENTZ, W. W.: Light Filters Whicli Absorb All of the Infrared, Bur. Standards Bull. 9 (1913).
Brady, E. J.: The Development of Daylight Glass, Trans. Ilium. Eng. Soc. (N. Y.), 9, 937 (1914).
CoBLBNTZ, W. W.: Spectroradiometric Investigations of the Transmission of Various Substances,
Scientific Paper 418, Bur. Standards J. Research, 16, 267 (1921).
Jones, L. A.: Light Filters for the Isolation of Narrow Spectral Regions, /. Optical Soc. Am., 16, 259
(1928).
HoBBiE, E. H.: Glass for Protection from Infrared Radiation, Trans. Ilium. Eng Soc. {N. Y.), 28, 058
(1933).
Rawlings, S. O.: Color Filters with Special Reference to Their Use in Photography, Phot. J., 84, 295
(1934).
Taylor, A. H.: Spectral Distribution of Mercury in, Common Ilkiminants, Gen. Elec. Rev., 37, 414
(1934).
Gibson, K. S.: A Filter for Obtaining Light at Wavelength 560 m/i, J. Optical Soc. Am., 26, 131 (1935).
Filter Factors for Zeiss Ikon and Carl Zeiss Filters, Zeiss Mag., .June, 1937, p. 114.
Gage, H. P.: Glass Color Filters for Special Applications, J. Optical Soc. Am., 27, 159 (1938).
Backstrom, H., and A. Bostrom: Polarized Illumination \\'ith Polarizing Screens in Front of Lenses,
Am. Phot., 32,153 (1938).
Books:
" Wratten Light Filters," Eastman Kodak Co. (1938).
Hardy, A. C, and F. H. Perrin: "Principles of Optics," McGraw.
"Photographic Filters and How to Use Them," Ver Hahn Pub. Co., Hollywood, Calif.
"Jena Colored Optical Filter Glasses for Scientific and Technical Purposes," Jena Glass Works, Jena,
Germany.
"Lifa Light Filter Handbook," Lifa Light Filter Works, Ausburg, Germany.
'Photography by Polarized Light," Eastman Kodak Co.
CHAPTER XI
DEVELOPERS AND THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT
By D. R. White and J. R. Weber
The development of the latent photographic image a necessary and important
is
step in current practical photography. The origin of photography antedates the

knowledge of developers and processes of development, but the original methods have
been practically completely supplanted by procedures using development as a step on
account of the greatly increased photographic efficiency so obtained. A few photo-
graphic materials are still used without developers, notably printing-out papers,
which, as their name suggests, are exposed until the image is visible. The reactions
involved are directly induced by the action of the exposing light. Greater photo-
graphic efficiency results, in general, from smaller exposures, designed to produce
only a latent image, itself invisible, with subsequent development and fixation to
transform it into a permanent visible image.
There has been much speculation concerning the nature of the latent image, but
experimental work to determine its nature is very difficult, and no theory yet advanced
has secured imopposed acceptance. Study of development has had to proceed in
spite of this lack of knowledge of the latent image developed. Much empirical
data have been obtained and some theoretical relationships have resulted from years
of experimental work devoted to this study.
Two classes of procedures have resulted and are recognized under the names
"chemical" and "physical" development. The final images produced are not
chemically distinguishable, but the course followed is primarily different in the source
of the silver finally deposited as the image. In chemical development, the more
important method, the silver halide of the emulsion supplies the silver for the final
image. This is probablj^ through an initial solution of the halide bj^ the developing
solution, followed at once by reduction and deposit of the silver on nucleuses forming
the latent image. In physical development, the developing solution itself contains a
soluble silver salt which deposits or plates out, as reduced by the developing agent,
with the nucleuses from the latent image guiding the location and magnitude of the
deposit. This type of development can be carried on even after fixation, though it is
quite obvious that chemical development is impossible then.
With either tj^pe of development, the fundamental problem is to obtain a differen-
tial deposit of silver in such manner that at each point it is at least approximately
proportional to the intensity of the latent image at that point. If this were achieved,
there would be no deposit where there had been no exposure. In practice this clear-
cut case is not attained, as there is in general an over-all veil or fog not accounted for
by the exposure given. Developers differ much in their differential action. Only
those developing agents and formulas are of general importance which are capable of
a high degree of discrimination in their action.
In addition to the basic role of development just discussed, i.e., the production of a
visible image from the latent image, developing solutions are sometimes used which
produce other effects at the same time. For some purposes it is desired to harden
the gelatin of the emulsion localh' where the silver is deposited. This has been
318
DEVELOPERS AND THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT 319
accomplished commercially by the use of pyro developers with little or no sulphite.

The resulting differentially hardened, gelatin layers have been used for various pur-
poses, probably the most important of which is the production of relief images used as
matrices for printing by dye-imbibition processes. A second supplementary effect
sometimes sought and of growing importance is the deposit of a colored compound
along with the silver image. Special developer formulas are in general required, but
the resulting silver and dye images can be used for many purposes, and such dye
images, with the silver removed, are of rapidly increasing importance in the processes
of color photography.
CHEMICAL DEVELOPMENT
Inorganic Developers. —The history development has shown the
of photographic
use of a few inorganic chemical agents as developers. and for a number of
Prior to,
years after, 1851, ferrous oxalate was the common developer. This developer was
prepared at the time of use, by adding one part of a 25 per cent solution of ferrous
sulphate to three parts of a 25 per cent solution of neutral potassium oxalate, with
constant stirring. The reddish mixture produced can be used without bromide as a
developer.
Other inorganic agents suggested as developers include solutions of sulphurous
acid which develop weakly and produce much fog. Copper ammonia oxalate and
sodium, potassium, and hydrogen peroxides in alkaline solution have also been
suggested.
An energetic inorganic developer which works without much fog, unless develop-
ment is prolonged, is sodium hydrosulphite. A developing formula using such an
agent has been recommended as follows:
Sodium hydrosulphite 20 g.
Sodium bisulphite 30 g.
Potassium bromide 7 g.
Water to 11.
Development time should not exceed 3 min.

While ferrous oxalate was still in use at the turn of the century, organic developing
agents were fast replacing it, and today the use of inorganic compounds as photo-
graphic developers has practically disappeared.
Developers with Organic Reducers.— Experience has lead to a very definite basic
pattern for developing formulas in common use. Following this pattern, modern
developers consist of
Organic reducing agent or agents
Preservative
Accelerator
Restrainer
Compounds are also added for special purposes which do not fit in the four classi-
fications given, and at times one compound functions in a dual role resulting in less
compounds than the four classes listed. Instances of both types of variation will
appear in the subsequent pages.
Organic Reducing Agents.—Chemically speaking, all developing agents are
reducers, i.e., they are themselves readily oxidized and hence tend to reduce com-
pounds with which they come in contact. Considered without complete analysis of
detail, the development process takes into solution the halide from the original silver
halide and furnishes an electron to the positively charged silver ion, resulting in the
deposit of metallic silver. The reactions in the solution which permit and complete
the chain of changes eventuate in the oxidation of the developing agent and the
C H
.accumulation of a halogen compound. Thus used developer contains oxidation

products of the reducing agent and greater halide content than fresh solutions.
Not all reducing agents are developers. Many such compounds lack the power to
discriminate between exposed and unexposed silver halide and thus lack that prime
—
requisite of a photographic developer ^the ability to transform a latent to a visible
image.
While considering differentiations of this type, the role of the gelatin or other
carrier of the silver halide should be mentioned. Silver halide precipitated from
aqueous solution can be reduced by ordinary developers, independent of light exposure
of any kind. Thus the characteristics normally associated with the latent image do
not control such reactions even with reducers which are developing agents in the
generally accepted sense of that term. It appears, therefore, that the gelatin or other
carrier of the silver halide is of basic importance and pla^ys a cooperative role in pro-
viding the conditions favorable to development of the latent image to a visible image,
as distinct from indiscriminate reduction of the entire silver halide present.
In many cases, this differential action is primarily a rate or time effect. If per-
mitted to act long enough, virtually all the silver halide will eventually be reduced.
Normal developing conditions are designed to avoid such effects, but even within these
regions there is a marked difference between the rate of development of fog and
density resulting from exposure. Commonly the increase of exposure density with
time is less rapid as development progresses. On the other hand, it is quite generally
true that fog builds up more and more rapidly within corresponding limits of develop-
ment times.
From these considerations, the developer appears in its true role as a differential
reducer, acting prefei'entiallj' to produce a visible image from an original latent image
before the entire pattern is lost in fog.
In 1851 pyrogallol, or pyro, was discovered to be capable of developing the latent
image. In 1880 the second organic compound to have developing action was dis-
covered in hydroquinone. From then on the developing action of a large number of
organic compounds has been recorded.
Generally speaking, it was observed that photographic developers were, to a large
degree, the colorless or reduced forms of dyes or dye intermediates. A compound
which would oxidize these compounds to their colored state would itself be reduced.
Thus silver halide would oxidize pvrogallol to its yellow-brown oxidation product, and
the silver haUde would at the same time be reduced to metallic silver.
Almost without exception up to very recent times, all organic photographic
developers have contained benzene as the nuclear structure. The structure of benzene
is thought to be the ring
H
h
\
H— / C—
H— C—
H
which is represented as
for the sake of simplicity.

By removing some of the hydrogen atoms, chemical radicals and groups can be
substituted into the benezene nucleus. Thus phenol represents the substitution of
one hydrogen in the ring by means of a hj^droxyl (OH) group: •
OH
/\
Phenol
This is also known as hydroxybenzene. Aniline represents the substitution of an

amino (NHa) group in the ring forming:
NH,
Aminobenzene
All the organic developing agents in use today are derivatives of one of the above two
basic agents.
The substitution of two hydrogen atoms by means of the hydroxyl group produces
1 : 4-Dihydroxybenzene (hydroquinone)
and the substitution of three hydrogen atoms of benzene by hydroxjd group produces
OH
OH
1:2: 3-Trihydroxybenzene (pyrogallol)
OH
The relative positioning of the substituent groups and the kind of substituent has
a decided influence on the relative activity of the agent as a photographic developer.
Thus
OH
1 : 3-Dihydroxybenzene (resorcinol)
OH
is not a developer, while
OH
AoH 1 : 2-Dihydroxybenzene (pyrocatechol or catechin)
isan energetic developer.

Developing agents belonging to the class in which the hydrogens of the benzene
nucleus have been substituted by hydroxyl groups are known as "polyphenols."
One or two chlorine or bromine groups may also be substituted in the hydro-
quinone structure, yielding
OH
CL
Chlorohydroquinone (Adurol of Hauff)
OH
and
OH
BR
Bromohydroquinone (Adurol of Schering)
OH
Another, and by far the largest, group of photographic developers are the "amino-
phenols" formed by substituting both hydroxyl (OH) and amino (NH2) radicals into
the benzene nucleus. The simplest and one of the oldest developers of this group is
OH
4-Aminophenol (p-aminophenol)
NH2
Since both hydrogens of the amino group and of the benzene nucleus of the amino-
phenols may be further substituted, a large number of derivatives of this basic member
of the group are possible, thus
OH
p-Methylaminophenol
NH—CH.,
isthe base for metol which is usually sold in the form of sulphate salt.
One of the hydrogens of the amino group of p-aminophenoP may be substituted
—
by the carboxymethyl group ( CH2COOH) with the production of
In organic chemistry the prefix letters o, m, and p, are used respectively for ortho-, meta-, and
1
para- compounds. These prefixes indicate the position of the substituted atoms. The numbers from
1 to 6, in clockwise rotation beginning at the top are also used to indicate the position of the substitute
atoms, groups, or side chains. Thus, when the substitution products of benzene have the substituent
atoms, groups, or chains on adjacent carbon atoms, they are called "ortho-compounds," and the
substituent atoms, or groups are said to be in the ortho or 1 2 position.
: When the substituent atoms or
groups occupy the 1:3 position, the chain is called a "meta-compound." When the substituent atoms
or groups occupy the 1:4 position, the chain is called a "para-compound." The following diagrams
give the names, structures, and positions of xylene which was chosen for illustrative purposes.
m-Xylene p-Xylene
CH3 CHs
5 ^CHa
:
OH
p-Hydroxyphenyl acetic acid
NH—CH2COOH
This developer is also known as p-hydroxyphenyl glycine, or shortened to "glycine."
Substitution of an amino and a hydroxyl group, para to each other, into benzyl
alcohol or hydroxymethyl benzene, produces
OH
CH2OH
p-Amino-o-hydroxybenzyl alcohol (Edinol)
NH2
By substituting a methyl group in the benzene nucleus, methyl benzene or toluene
is formed
CHs
Further substitution by hydroxyl and amino groups produces
CH3
lOH
5- Amino-2-hydroxy toluene (p-amino-o-cresol)
NH:
\/
This agent is credited as being the Monomet developing agent and also as one of the
original metols.
The substitution of a single amino group in the benzene nucleus produces
NH,
Aminobenzene
which is not a developer. While the substitution of a second amino group yields
diaminobenzene, in which, if the substituted amino groups are opposite (para) to each
other, the now well-known fine-grain developing agent
NH2
1 :4-Diaminobenzene (p-phenylenediamine)
NH2
is produced. If the amino groups are located adjacent (ortho) to each other, the lesser
known fine-grain developer
< C
NH2
1 : 2-Diaminobenzene (o-phenylenediamine)
is formed.
Two amino and one hydroxyl group may be substituted into the benzene nucleus
with the formation of
OH
NHo
2 4-Diaminophenol
:
NH.2
which marketed in the form of the hydrochloride salt as Amidol.

is
substituting another benzene ring for one of the amino hydrogens of p-amino-
By
phenol, the p-hydroxydiphenylamine developers are formed:
H
^—< >0H
which were marketed as developers under the trade name of Duratol.

The product resulting from the substitution of a hydroxy phenyl group for one of
the amino hydrogens of p-aminophenol, which is designated as
H
H0< > —N — >0H 4:4'-Dihydroxydipheny]amine
appeared in the photographic developer market as Pyramidol.

Another class of developing agents is found in hydroxy-substituted benzidine or
H2N<^^ y\ \XH-2 4:4'-Diamino-o-hydroxydiphenyl
OH
which appears to be the Diphenal developer of prewar days.
Instead of the amino group, ring structures may be substituted for a nuclear
hydrogen of phenol or aniline. Examples of these ring compoimds include
H. H2
/ \NH
O Morpholine
Ho H2
H2 H2
C—
/ \NH
H2C Piperidine
\ /
G—
H2 H2
C
:
H2 H2
C—
HN
/
NH Piperazine
C—
H2 H2
which yield the following developers
H2
is not a developing agent, while
OH
1 : o-Dihydroxynaphthalene
OH
is in the class of slow developing agents.
To increase their solubility, the sulphonic acid group, HSO3 is introduced into the
naphthalene structure. Thus
NHo
OH
l-Amino-2-naphthol-6-sulphonic acid
HSO;
isthe well-known Eikonogen whose developing action is quite similar to pyrogallol

while having the additional advantage of longer life than pyro.
The introduction of two amino groups, in conjunction with a solubilizing sulphonic
acid group, into the naphthalene ring produces
NHo
HO3S
1 :4-Naphthalenediamine-7-sulphonic acid
NH.
whose developing action is somewhat similar to the analogous p-phenylenediamine.

When one — CH — group of naphthalene is replaced by nitrogen, quinoline or its
isomer, isoquinoline, is formed:
Quinoline Isoquinoline
N^
Further substitution of nuclear hydrogens of quinoline by hydroxyl or amino groups,

or both, yields another class of photographic developing agents. Thus
OH
:4-Dihydroxyisoquinoline
N 1
OH
develops exposed silver halides to produce both metallic silver and the leuco form of an
orange-red dye which can be converted to the colored form by mild oxidizing agents.
The developing action of the tetrahydroquinolines has long been known. An

example of the earlier developers of this class is
l,2,3,4-Tetrahydro-8-hydroxyquinoUne
OH H
while recently the amino derivative
H.
HoN H.,
6-Amino-l,2,3,4-tetrahydroquinohne
H2
\/\n
H
has been suggested as a fine-grain developing agent.
—
Combinations of Developing Agents. Various phenols, aminophenols and
phenylenediamines have been combined to produce, for instance,
OH
Metoquinone
Lumiere and Seyewetz
F. P. 325,385, (1902)
The combination of 1 mole of chlorohydroquinone with 2 moles of the base of

metol
OH NH,
OH Hauff
+ B. P. 11,306 (1896)
Starnes
B. P. 466,626
NHo
~
—
Table I. Organic Compounds Suggested for Photographic Development
Compound Discoverer Date
Polyphenols
Pyrogallol von Regnault & S. Archer 1851

Hydroquinone W. Abney (Eder, Aus. Hndbh., 1903,
322) 1880
Pyrocatechol Eder &
Toth, Phot. Korr., 1880, 191 1880
Chlorohydroquinone Hauff, Phot. Korr., 1897, 396 1897
Bromohydroquinone Schering, D.R.P. 117,798 1897
2:3-Dichlorohydroquinone Sobering, D.R.P. 117,798 1897
2:3-Dibromohydroquinone Schering, D.R.P. 117,798 1897
Toluhydroquinone
Ethyl gallate Lumi^re & Seyewetz, B.J. Phot., 1897,
665 1897
1 :4-Dihydroxy-2-acetophenone Lumiere & Seyewetz, B.J. Phot., 1897,
665 1897
1 :2:3-Trihydroxy-4-acetophenone Lumiere & Seyewetz, B.J. Phot., 1897,
665 1897
I:2:6-Trihydroxy-4-benzophenone LumiSre & Seyewetz, B.J. Phot., 1897,
665 1897
2:3:4-Trihydroxy-acetophenone Lumiere & Seyewetz, B.J. Phot., 1897,
665 1897
1 :2 :6-Trihydroxyphenyl-4-phenyl-ketone Lumiere & Seyewetz, B.J. Phot., 1897,
665 1897
Pyrogallol-dimethylaniline Bayer, B.P. 10,721 1901
Pyrogallol-piperazine Bayer, B.P. 10,721 1901
Pyrogallol-quinoline Bayer, B.P. 10,721 1901
Pyrooatechol-dimethylamine Bayer, B.P. 10,721 1901
Hydroquinone-triacetoamine Bayer, B.P. 10,721 1901
Pyrogallol-methylether-monoglycollic acid. . . . A.G.F.A., D.R.P. 155,568 1903
Pyrogallol-dimethylether-monoglycollic acid. . A.G.F.A., D.R.P. 155,568 1903
Pyrogallol-l-monomethylether Schultes, U.S. P. 2,017,295 1933
Pyrogallol-l-monoethylether Schultes, U.S.P. 2,017,295 1933
Monethyl-pyrogallol Stockelbach, U.S.P. 2,037,742 1934
Diethyl-pyrogallol Stockelbach, U.S.P. 2,037,742 1934
Mono-tertiary butyl-pyrogallol Stockelbach, U.S.P. 2,037,742 1934
2 :5-Dimethyl-hydroquinone K. & L. Schinzel, Das Lichtbild, Aus.
12/XI, 1936, 173 1936
2:o-Diethyl-hydroquinone K. & L. Schinzel, Das Lichtbild, Aus.
12/XI, 1936, 173 1936
2:5-Diphenoxy-hydroquinone K. & L. Schinzel, Das Lichtbild, Aus.
12/XI, 1936, 173 1936
2:5-Di-p-phenethyl-hydroquinone K. & L. Schinzel, Das Lichtbild, Aus.
12/XI, 1936, 173 1936
2:5-Dibenzoylainino-hydroquinone 'K.& L. Schinzel, Das Lichtbild, Aus.
12/XI, 1936, 173 1936
1 :3-Dimethoxy-2-phenol K. & L. Schinzel, Das Lichtbild, Aus.
12/XI, 1936, 173 1936
2:4:6-Triniethyl-l:3:5-Trihydroxybenzene. . . . K. & L. Schinzel, Das Lichtbild, Aus.
12/XI, 1936, 173 1936
2:5-Diphenyl-3:6-dibenzyl-hydroquinone Kodak-Schinzel, B.P. 498,869 1939
2:5-Diacetamino-hydroquinone Kodak-Schinzel, B.P. 498,869 1939
Aminophenols
4-Aminophenol Andresen, Farben-Industrie, 1888, 187 1888

5-Amino-2-hydroxy toluene Andresen, B.P. 1,736 1891
2 :4-Diaminophenol Andresen, D.R.P. 60,174 1891
— —

{Continued)
Aminophenols. (.Continued)
l:3-Diainino-4:6-dihydroxybenzene
—

(Continued)

—

(Continued)
Polyamines. — (Continued)
4-Amino-N-methylaniline-co-sulphonic acid
4-Ainino-N-ethylaniline-cj-sulphonic acid
4-Amino-N-benzylaniline-4'-su]phonio acid
— . .. .

{Continued)
Heterocyclics
o-Dihydroxyquinoline Lumiere & Seyewetz, (Eder, Jahrbuch,

1892, 93) 1892
p-Diliydroxyquinoline Lumiere & Seyewetz, (Eder, Jahrbuch,
1892, 93) 1892
o-Diaminoquinoline. . . Lumiere & Seyewetz, (Eder, Jahrbuch,
1892, 93) 1892
jB-Diaminoquinoline Lumiere & Seyewetz, (Eder, Jahrbuch,
1892, 93) 1892
o-Hydroxyhydromethyl-quinoline Lembach & Schleicher, D.R.P. 89,181 1895
o-Hydroxyhydropropyl-quinoline Lembach & Schleicher, D.R.P. 89,181 1895
o-Hydroxyhydroethyl-quinoline Lembach & Schleicher, D.R.P. 89,181 1895
o-Hydroxyhydrobutyl-quinoline Lembach & Schleicher, D.R.P. 89,181 1895
Tetrahydro-dihydroxyquinoline A.G.F.A., B.P. 371 1896
Tetrahydro-ana-amino-o-hydroquinoline A.G.F.A., B.P. 371 1896
Tetrahydro-o-hydroxyl-quinoline-ana-sulphonic acid A.G.F.A., B.P. 371 1896
o-Hydroxy-trihydromethyl-quinoline A.G.F.A., B.P. 371 1896
o-Hydroxy-trihydroethyl-quinoline A.G.F.A., B.P. 371 1896
o-Hydroxy-trihydropropyl-quinoline A.G.F.A., B.P. 371 1896
o-Hydroxy-trihydrobenzyl-quinoline A.G.F.A., B.P. 371 1896
o-Hydroxy-trihydrophenyl-quinoline A.G.F.A., B.P. 371 1896
o-Hydroxy-trihydroacetyl-quinoline A.G.F.A., B.P. 371 1896
o-Hydroxy-trihydrobenzoyl-quinoline A.G.F.A., B.P. 371 1896
o-Hydioxy-trihydromethyl-quinoline carboxylic acid A.G.F.A., B.P. 371 1896
l-Phenyl-2:3-diinethyl-4-sulphamino-5-pyrazolone. . Scheithn, U.S. P. 930,091 1909
1-Ascorbinic acid (Vitamin C) Mauer & Zapf, Phot. Ind 1935, 5, 1935
d-Ascorbinic acid (Isovitamin C) Mauer & Zapf, Phot. Ind 1935, 5, 1933
l-Phenyl-3-methyl-4-amino-5-pyrazolone I.G. Farb., B.P. 459,665 1937
l-p-Chlorophenyl-3-methyl-4-amino-5-pyrazolone. . . I.G. Farb., B.P. 459,665 1937
3-Ainino-4-oxo-2-imino-tetrahydrothiophene I.G. Farb., B.P. 459,665 1937
4:5-Diamino-2:6-dihydroxy-pyrimidine I.G. Farb., B.P. 479,446 1938
6-Hydroxy-2:4:o-triamino-pyrimidine I.G. Farb., B.P. 479,446 1938
2:4:5:6-Tetramino-pyrimidine I.G. Farb., B.P. 479,446 1938
2:5-Diamino-4-methyl-pyrimidine I.G. Farb., B.P. 479,446 1938
2:4:5-Trihj'droxy-6-amino-pyrimidine I.G. Farb., B.P. 479,446 1938
6-Amino-8-methoxy-l:2:3:4-tetrahydro-quinoline. . . I.G. Farb., B.P. 478,345 1938
Tetrahydro-quinoxaline I.G. Farb., B.P. 478,345 1938
6-Aniino-l:2:3:4-tetrahydro-quinaldine I.G. Farb., B.P. 478,345 1938
6-Amino-8-methoxy-l:2:3:4-tetrahydro-q>iinaIdine. . I.G. Farb., B.P. 478,345 1938
,')-Aminodihydro-2-methyl-indole I.G. Farb., B.P. 478,345 1938
6-Amino-benzothiazoline I.G. Farb., B.P. 478,345 1938
Aliphatic
rf-Aminoacetic acid ethyl ester I.G 1937
photographic developers. Hydroqiiinone, as a developer, is more understood than

any other agent, but there still remains much doubt as to the exact nature of the
reaction products of development caused when even this much-examined agent is used
in a developer along with alkali, sulphite, and bromide.
l:4-Dihydroxybenzene, or hydroquinone (hydrochinone or quinol), is slightly
soluble in cold water, very soluble in hot water, ether, and alcohol, and insoluble in
benzene. Developing solutions of hydroquinone are practically inert at temperatures
below 5o°F. The keeping quality is 3 or about one-third that of metol, according to
Strauss.
In developing action hydroquinone is slow but tends to build strong contrasts.
However, a minute trace of metol will accelerate the action of hydroquinone. The
dye safranine has also been observed to act as a catalytic agent in starting hydro-
quinone to develop. On the other hand, hydroquinone is exceedingly sensitive to
soluble bromides, producing high transparency in the slightly exposed areas, and for
this reason is an excellent developer for line copy work where pure black and white are
required.
Generally hydroquinone is used in combination with more active developing
agents, usually metol. When hydroquinone
develops gelatino-silver halide emulsions,
particularly the sulphite concentration is a minimum, the oxidation products of the
if
hydroquinone locally harden the gelatin wherever silver is produced. Use has been
made of this action to produce relief images which, being subsequently dyed, are used
to transfer dye images in color photography.
—
p-Aminophenol. In 1888 Andresen recommended ?>-aminophenol as a developing
agent and thus opened the way to the largest class of developers, the aminophenols.
A legion of derivatives of this basic agent have been suggested inasmuch as one of the
amino hydrogens can be readily substituted by alkyl, aryl, and heterocyclic groups.
The free base of p-aminophenol is only sparingly soluble in water, soluble in alco-
hol, arid insoluble in ether, while its sulphate, hydrochloride, oxalate, and tartrate
salts are readily soluble in water. The hydrochloride the extent of
salt is soluble to
3 per cent in cold water (60°F.), but this solubility is reduced to 0.3 per cent in a 5 per
cent sodium sulphite solution at the same temperature. The stability of a p-amino-
phenol developer is 9, or almost as great as that of metol, according to the Strauss
scale. The various
salts of p-aminophenol have appeared under the trade names:
Citol, Diutall, Kodelen, Energol, Freedol, Indianol, Kathol, Para, and Unal. The
free base of p-aminophenol forms the active ingredient in the Rodinal type of devel-
opers. Relatively large amounts of the salt dissolve in strong alkali, e.g., sodium
hydroxide, to form p-amino-sodium phenolate, which is the active developing ingre-
dient of the p-aminophenol developers. However, this compound is not very stable,
so a small amount of the base itself is allowed to remain in the developer, thus acting
as a preservative. The following is typical of various methods suggested for the
preparation of the Rodinal type of developer:
Dissolve 1 g. of potassium metabisulphite in 250 cc. of boiling hot water. When
dissolved, add 20 g. of p-aminophenol hydrochloride with constant stirring, and finally
add 60 g. of potassium metabisulphite. The mixture is stirred until all the meta-
bisulphite has dissolved. Then add, with constant stirring, 40 per cent sodium
hydroxide solution until the mixture gradually becomes clear. The addition of sodium
hydroxide must be stopped just before the last trace of the cloudj'^ precipitate disap-
pears. The solution is then made up to 400 cc. and stored in rubber-stoppered
bottles. For use the stock solution is diluted with 20 to 30 parts of water. The high
concentration of the stock solution is an advantage under some working conditions
and, in fact, is the major advantage of this type of developer. It has appeared also
under the trade name of Azol, Aetivol, Artinal, Kalogen, and Paranol.
p-Aminophenol develops rapidly but does not build up great contrast and tends to
produce less fog than most other rapid developers when development is carried out
with warm solutions; for this reason, p-aminophenol is largely recommended for use in
warm weather use.
tropical countries or for
Metol. —In 1891,
Bogisch observed the developing action of methylated-p-amino-
phenol and in that same year Hauff introduced metol as a developing agent. The
exact structural formula of the earlv metol is not certain and there is evidence to
indicate that the first inetol was p-methyl-amino-m-cresol. For a number of years
now, however, metol has been considered to indicate the sulphate salt of p-methyl-
aminophenol. This particular aminophenol salt has probably appeared under the
guise of more different trade names than any other developing agent; a few of these
trade names being Rhodol, Enol, Elon, Viterol, Scalol, Genol, and Satrapol.
Metol is soluble in water at 60°F. up to a concentration of 4.8 per cent and soluble
to almost the same degree in 5 per cent sodium sulphite solution. It is insoluble in
ether and alcohol, thus establishing one test of differentiation between it and p-amino-
phenol. The stability of metol, as a developer, is 10, the highest rating according to
Strauss. Like p-aminophenol, metol is a soft-working developer but the combination
with hydroquinone yields a developer which acts strongly on the weakly exposed
portions and also builds strong contrasts. Thus, by varying the concentrations of
these two agents, the metol working energetically even on the underexposed areas, with
hydroquinone which favors the more exposed areas, developers can be compounded to
take care of a wide range of desired results.
Metol will tolerate relatively large amounts of soluble bromide, in fact, metol
developers tend to produce fog unless some bromide is included in the solution.
Glycine. —
Instead of methylating one of the amino hydrogens of p-aminophenol,
Bogisch, in 1891, substituted one of the amino hydrogens, by means of methyl carboxyl
(— CH2COOH), to form p-hydroxyphenyl aminoacetic acid or glycine.
Glycine is practically insoluble in water, alcohol, and ether; thus it is distinguished
from the other commonly used developing agents. However, in a 5 per cent sodium
sulphite solution at 60°F., glycine will dissolve to a concentration of almost 13 per cent
by weight. As a developer it is slow acting but rather powerful. Its action resembles
in many respects the characteristics of some metol-hydroquinone (MQ) developers.
Even in the absence of soluble bromides glycine produces practically no fog. It yields
fine-grained silver images and has been recommended for this type of development,
either alone or in combinations, particularly with p-phenylenediamine. Glycine,
above all other developers in use today, offers more resistance to oxidation by the air
and thus is highly recommended for deep tank work. p-Hydroxyphenylglycine has
also been marketed as Iconyl.
—
Amidol. In the year 1891, Andresen introduced 2 4-diaminophenol as a
:
developer, under the name Amidol. Amidol belongs to a rather small class of develop-
ing agents which can develop in the absence of alkalies; in fact, Amidol will develop in
weak acidic solutions, but such development requires prolonged time. Amidol is
soluble to concentrations of almost 16 per cent in water at 60°F., but only to 10 per
cent in 5 per cent sodium sulphite solution at the same temperature. It is verj-
slightly soluble in alcohol and insoluble in ether.
Amidol the most energetic working developer in common use and is next to
is
pyrogallol in its instabihty. It builds contrast slowly and tends to produce heavy
fog when used in alkaline solutions. It will develop feebly in plain aqueous solution.
Generally the alkalinity supplied by aqueous sodium sulphite is sufficient to cause
Amidol to develop energetically, and the usual developers of this agent contain only
Amidol and sodium sulphite and usually a small amount of potassium metabisulphite.
It has sometimes been called the "teaspoon" developer since a teaspoon and a mixing
vessel are the only measuring means required to mix the developing solution; the
relative proportions of the developer being 1 part potassium metabisulphite, 4 parts
sodium sulphite, 1 part Amidol, and 200 parts of water. Because of its instability,
various agents have been recommended as preservatives, these include boric acid,
glycollic acid, lactic acid, and tin chloride.
In 1888 Andresen described the developing action of p-diaminobenzene or p-phenyl-
enediamine. Andresen found it necessary to use caustic alkali to obtain sufficient
gradation with p-phenylenediamine developers. In 1904 Lumi^re and Seyewetz

recommended this agent as a substitute for physical development to produce fine-
grain images particularly suitable for lantern slides because of the fineness of the
deposit and the pleasing tone of the image.
p-Phenylenediamine base is slightly soluble in cold water and fairly soluble in
5 per cent sodium sulphite solution. The hydrochloride salt is soluble in water and
insoluble in ether and alcohol. The dry developer exerts a rather foxic action on the
human skin, particularly so in the case of persons who are allergic to its constituents.
The fine-grain characteristics of p-phenylenediamine developers, noted as early
as .1904,have been widely applied in recent years for the development of miniature
films. This particular characteristic is due, in part, to the fact that the developing
energy of p-phenylenediamine is the least of those developing agents thus far evaluated
by the reduction-potential method. The second probable cause for the fine-grain
developing action of this developer is the solvent action exerted by the diamine on
silver halides.
Owing to its weak developing energy, developing agents of more energetic action
have been combined with p-phenylenediamine, either in the dry form or in the develop-
ing solution. These "booster" agents include: metol, Amidol, glycine, hydroquinone,
and pyro.
Early in 1900, p-phenylenediamine was marketed in this covmtry under the name
of Metacarbol.
—
Method for Identification of Developing Agents. The above developing agents
and a number of those mentioned previously are included in the scheme for their
identification, which was arranged by Plauman and given in Table II.
—
Reduction Potential and Velocity Constant. The many compounds which have
been found to be developers differ rather widely in their activity and power. It has
proved difficult to compare them completely, since some will develop under conditions
of temperature and alkalinity in which others are essentially inert, yet with change
of conditions, the relative activity may change considerably. To bring a measure of
order out of the complex situation, the concept of "reduction potential" has been
introduced as one measure of developing power or activity. Reduction potential is
measured by the ability of the reducer to overcome the restraining action of potassium
Ijromide. With some developers, those of low reduction potential, there is produced a
considerable reduction in density by the addition of a small standard quantity of
bromide. With others of high reduction potential there is less density depression by
a similar bromide addition. For purposes of numerical comparison, hydroquinone is
assigned a value of the reduction-potential scale.

1 in
Table III gives the reduction potentials found for a number of developing agents.
Another property which seems closely allied to, but not identical with the reduction
potential,is the rate of development, as represented by the "velocity constant" (see sec-
tion on Development Quantitatively Considered). In general, reducers having high

reduction potential also have high velocity constant, and, similarly, reducers of low
reduction potential have low velocity constants. In spite of this, as a general trend,
the literature indicates that small differences of reduction potential may not be repre-
sented by corresponding differences in velocity constant.
Preservative. —-Reducers of the type described are readily oxidized by the air
and provision must be made in the compounding and use of developing solutions to
guard against deterioration through such aerial oxidation. The organic compounds in
common use keep reasonably well in the dry state, but when damp or actually in
solution, deterioration may become very rapid. Pyro shows the greatest rate of
deterioration of the common reducers and consequently requires the greatest care,
but suitable storage and mixing procedures must be provided for all the reducers.
— )
Glass bottles tightly stoppered are suitable for storage of the dry powers when the
quantities involved are suitable. Tin cans, lined with good-grade clean paper and
taped to hinder the access of air and moisture, are also frequently used. Larger
quantities of some reducers, e.g., hydroquinone, may be stored in strong cardboard
containers where conditions are dry enough. The small user, wishing to preserve
relatively small amounts will probably find the storage bottle best, and the large
user will be guided by the shipping containers provided by the manufacturers.
Table III. Reduction- Potential Series

(Nietz-Tschibissoff)
Ferrous oxalate 0.3
p-Phenylenediamine hydrochloride, no alkali 0.3
p-Phenylenediamine hydrochloride, plus alkali. . 0.4
Methyl-p-phenylenediamine hydrochloride, no alkali 0.7
Phenylhydrazine <1.0
Hydroquinone 1.0
2-Hydroxyhydroquinone >1 .
p-Hydroxyphenyl glycine (glycin) 1.6

Hydroxylamine 2.0
Toluhydroquinone 2.2
Methyl-p-phenylenediamine hydrochloride, plus alkali 3.5
Benzyl-p-aminophenol <5.0
Dimethyl-p-phenylenediamine hydrochloride 5.0
p-Hydroxydiphenylamine <6.0
p-Aminophenol 6.0
Chlorohydroquinone ( Adurol-Hauff 6 0-7
. .
p-Amino-o-cresol 7.0
Dibroiuohydroquinone ^
8.0
p-Amino-OT-cresol 9.0
Dimethyl-p-aminophenol sulphate 10.0
Dichlorohydroquinone 11.0
Pyrogallol 16.0
Methyl-p-aminophenol sulphate (metol) 20.0
Bromohydroquinone ( Adurol-Sohering) 21.0
p-Methylamino-o-cresoI 23 .
2:4-Diaininophenol (Amidol) plus alkali 30-40

Thiocarbamide (Thiourea) 50 .
All developing formulas make provision for the preservation of the reducers, in
solution, by presence of a compound or compounds as preservative. The most com-
mon and most universally used preservative is sodium sulphite. It also has other
effects in the developer which will be noted later. The theoretical description of the
action of sulphite as a preservative not complete and unambiguous, but the fact
is
of its activity remains. From an elementarypoint of view its activity is probablj-

sufficient to consider it as a substance which itself may be oxidized to sodium sulphate
and is preferentially oxidized with consequent preservation of the reducer. In most
formulas the sulphite is present in three to ten times the concentration of the reducers,
and this is probably vital to the prolonged life of the solution, but even small quan-
tities of sulphite make relatively large differences to the initial rate of aerial oxidation
of reducers.
In some formulas bisulphite or metabisulphite is used instead of the sulphite
but in alkaline solution the result is essentially the same.
itself,
The simple description just suggested of the preservative action of sulphite does
not cover adequately all the facts, as hydroquinone, a developing agent, itself preserves
a sulphite solution.
Experience has shown that the presence of two reducers in a developing formula
frequently decreases the susceptibility of a developer to aerial oxidation. Metol
preserves Amidol when used together in suitable formulas. Hydroquinone preserves
metol particularly in nietol-hydroquinone-borax formulas. Hydroquinone represents

one of the most popular current cases of the preservative effect of the second reducer.
Experiments have shown that the primary function of the hydroquinone in the
formulas commonly compounded is that of preservative. Freshly mixed developer,
lacking the hydroquinone, shows relatively little difference in its activity from the
complete formula, but it is almost impossible to store it any length of time without a
decrease in its activity, whereas the complete formulas keep reasonably well.
A few other preservatives have been suggested and tested but are far less important
than sulphite. They include: acetone bisulphite; formaldehyde sodium sulphoxylate
(known as Rongalite C); Mannitol; Sorbitol; lactic acid; stannous chloride; and
glycollic acid. In a number of these cases, sulphite has been present also.
Other Effects of Sulphite Preservative. —
While considered usually as a preservative,
sulphite contributes greatly to the action of a developer in other ways. The usual
photographic developing agents do not act so rapidly and energetically in the absence
of sulphite as in its presence. Thus in spite of the fact that, as a reducing agent alone,
sulphite cannot develop a photographic emulsion, it plays an important part in that
development. In the brief description of the process of development given under
Organic Reducing Agents, mention was made of the fact that one over-all effect
of the development process is the increase of the halide content of the developing
solution. That does not take place simply as an increase in the ion content of the
solution and the sulphite is usually considered as the "halogen acceptor" which acts
in the cooperative way required to balance the system. It has also been suggested
that the sulphite itself can regenerate the original reducing agents from their oxidation
products, while it is itself oxidized to the sulphate. With some reducers, the sulphite
may form compounds which are more active as developers than the parent substances.
A second action of sulphite in a developing solution is its behavior as a silver halide
solvent. It is relatively simple to demonstrate the existence of this effect by analyti-
cal means, though the action is not rapid and large like the solvent action of hypo.
This solvent action has been suggested as a contributing cause of such fine-grain
characteristics as the usual metol-hydroquinone-borax negative developers possess.
The mechanism suggested for this action is this The surface of the silver halide grains
:
is dissolved by the relatively high sulphite content of these developers thus increasing
slightly their separation and decreasing the chance of clumping during development.
With the emulsions used on manj^ printing papers, the sulphite content of the devel-
oper is of importance as it influences the tonal quality of the final print. The size
of the particles making up the image is influenced by the solvent action of the sulphite,
and the resultant deposit may be "cold" and blue-black in tone or "warm" and
brown-black in tone.
Accelerator. —Experience has shown that developing agents increase in activity
as the alkalinit}^ increases. Thus the alkali in the developer has been termed the
"accelerator." A considerable range of alkalies has been used in different photo-
graphic developing formulas. Their primary difference lies in the alkalinity produced,
and there is little or no evidence of other or specific effect on the developer itself.
Such specific action has been sought in the attempt to determine whether or not one
alkali is better than another in'results produced. Considering the complex nature
of the reactions occuring, the possibility of such specific effects cannot be ruled out on
theoretical grounds but must be the subject of careful experiments. As the result of
such tests, the consensus is that the pH or alkalinity produced in the solution is the
prime control factor affected by the alkali.
This statement is not to be construed to mean that the choice of alkali is of no
significance, for there are various secondary effects of considerable importance. One
of these is the stabihty of the solution. If a low alkahnity is desired, (pH but slightly
greater than 7.0) it would be unwise to secure it bj- use of a small quantity of strong
alkali such as sodium or potassium hydroxide because relatively small quantities of

other chemicals, such as carbon dioxide from the air, could react with the hydroxide
and change the pH considerably. It is better to secure the low alkalinity by higher
concentration of weaker alkali. Of course, where high alkalinity, high pH, is desired,
the stronger alkalies must be used, but sufficient concentration is then used to avoid
rapid changes from introduction of small quantities of other agents. In some for-
mulas the solutions are actually buffered in the chemical sense of that term, to insure
maintenance of constant pH in the face of any factors which otherwise might normally
be expected to affect it. In many other cases true buffering action is not obtained,
liut a concentration of alkaU sufficient to prevent pH change from minor influences
is used.
Ammonia is iised as adeveloper alkali sometimes but its volatility militates against
its use where stability in solution is necessary. Ammonia is a solvent for silver
halides, particularly silver chloride, and this factor also limits its utility as an alkali.
Its use in developers is not widespread, though occasional!}^ special advantages have
been claimed from it.
A second factor sometimes determining the choice of alkali is the effect of its intro-
duction into the fixing bath. Sodium carbonate is the alkali most frequently used in
developing formulas, but at times bhsters are produced in enaulsions when transferred
from the alkaline developer to the acid fixer. This blistering is most apt to occur when
the processing is being conducted at adversely high temperatures and is due to the
formation of carbon dioxide bubbles from the reaction of the carbonate with the acid
of the hypo. Borates, phosphates, and compounds of that nature do not form
gaseous compounds under similar conditions and hence do not cause blistering.
Boron compounds, particularly^ in the form of borate ions, have been used as additions
to fixing baths to reduce sludging tendencies and increase the hardening life of the
bath. Accordingly, the choice of borates as alkalies for developers is a particularly
happy one, where suitable alkalinity can be obtained with them, not because of any
specific effect of borates on development per se, but as an advantage to the fixing bath.
One specific combination used in so-called "buffered borax" formulas should be
mentioned. That is the use of both borax and boric acid to secure the desired alka-
linity. The pH of the bath can then be varied by varymg the ratio of the two, giving
good control of developer activity without resorting to low concentration for low pH.
As borax alone does not give a very high pH, this combination cannot be used to
.secure rapid-acting contrasty formulas but is available for the slower softer ones fre-
quently needed in development of negatives.
Sodium sulphite itself is weakly alkaline, and hence a developing fornmla as simple
as sulphite and metol has been used upon occasion. It develops film but is rather
quickly exhausted.
In addition to the direct effect on reducer activity, the pH of the solution markedly
influences the swelling of the gelatin. Excessively high pH softens and swells the
gelatin to the point of damaging it. Specially hardened emulsions are required where
processing necessitates the use of the most extremely alkaline formulas. With ordi-
nary emulsions this softening sets a limit to the alkahnity which may practically
be used.
The pH of developing formulas cannot be judged accurately from the kind ami
quantity of alkah alone, but as a guide to the alkalinity which can be- obtained with
various alkalies, the following table has been prepared. Some of the compounds Hsted
are not alkalies in the chemical definition of the term, but in solution with the other
compounds, particularly .sulphite, reactions take place producing the necessary
alkalinit3\
— 7
The dates given are those of the earhest literature reference found for this com-
pound in photographic developers.
There are some other organic compounds representing addition products between
other aldehydes and bisulphites which have been mentioned to produce the alkalinity
needed in developers.
Before leaving the subject of alkalinity, one other specific effect should be men-
tioned, as it appears to have lead to some confusion. This is the effect on pH of the
organic reducing agents themselves. Some of these compounds as handled com-
mercially are in the form of salts which hydrolize in solution with resultant acid
reaction on the solution as a whole. Metol is one particularly common example. If
metol is added in increasing quantity to a typical borax developer formula, a point of
Table IV. Alkaline Agents for Development

Approximate pH
for Typical
Working
Conditions
Sodium hydroxide 13.0
Potassium hydroxide
Trisodium phosphate (1898) 12.0
Sodium carbonate 11.6
Ammonium hydroxide 10 .
Borax (1902) 9.2

Triethanolamine (1932) 10.1
Calgon (sodium hexametaphosphate and sodiuni phosphate (1936) 8.5
Acetone (1902)
Acetone-bisulphite or sulphite (1902)
Acetone-formaldehyde (1902)
Lithium hydroxide 10.5
Sodium aminoacetate (Pinakol Salt) (1903)
Sodium silicate (1902)
Formaldehyde (1890)
p-Formaldehyde (1890) or trioxymethylene
Hexamethylenetetramine (1890)
Formaldehyde-bisulphite compound (1890)
Trimethylamine (1898) 10 .
Lithium carbamide (1904) 9.0

Sodium metasilicate (Metso) (1935) 8.5
maximum activity is quickly reached such that higher concentrations show less activity
than the lower ones. When studied from the view of concentration alone, this
behavior is anomalous, but when pH's are determined, it is found that the pH has
dropped at the higher concentration, more than offsetting the increase of development
rate to be expected from concentration. If now the same experiment is performed
with the additional provision that the alkali be changed sufficiently to maintain con-
stant pH, the result shows the typical increase of activity with concentration so fre-
quentty associated with chemical reactions.
Restrainer. —
In an earlier paragraph it was emphasized that the ability of a
reducer to reduce exposed silver halide as distinct from unexposed halide is of primary
importance. This differential action is not alone a function of the reducer but is also
affected by the other ingredients of the solution and by the conditions surrounding
development as well as by the nature of the emulsion being developed. Of these
various factors, the last-named, i.e., the nature of the emulsion, is not within the scope
of this chapter, but the other two (developer constitution and procedure) are here
considered.
Experience shows that in the majority of formulas greater development differential
isproduced between exposed and unexposed silver halide when a restrainer is used.
The most common chemical for this purpose is potassium bromide and, less commonly,
.
fhloride or iodide. A simple picture may be painted of the action of bromine ions
as restrainers of development of a silver bromide emulsion. In this simple case it
appears probable that the bromine ions in solution from the potassium bromide
depresses the ionization of the minute quantities of silver bromide dissolving from
the emulsion grains, thus reducing the rate of reaction, i.e., the rate of production of
photographic density. This simple picture gives no key to the magnitude of the
effect nor does it give a basis upon which to predict whether or not development of
image would be more or less affected than development of fog. Experience shows that
in the majority of cases fog is restrained more effectually than image, thus increasing
the differential nature of development.
A more complex situation exists in many practical cases as numerous emulsions
consist of mixtures of at least two silver halides. Thus mixtures of silver bromide and
iodide and of silver chloride and bromide are frequentlj^ encountered. In all such
cases the chloride or the bromide predominates, as the iodide is never used commer-
cially to a large extent. The simple picture presented in the previous paragraph is not
adequate to describe completely the phenomenon, but the same sort of effects is
produced, i.e., fog is restrained more than image development.
When potassium iodide is used in the developer formula as a restrainer, the
restraining effect is somewhat increased, as silver iodide is much less soluble than either
silver bromide or chloride. Accordingly, when potassium iodide is used in a developer,
smaller concentrations are used than of bromide.
Sometimes a combination of bromide and iodide is used in a developer, and some
results of special interest have been achieved by properlj^ proportioning the two
compounds. When the developer is fresh, its action is restrained predominantly b^-
the iodide and secondarily by the bromide. As the developer is used repeatedly, the
iodide tends to replace the bromide in the emulsion passing through, owing to the
extremely low solubility of the former. Thus the iodide content of the developer is
reduced, while the bromide content is concurrently built up, and the reducers become
less active through use. When correctly proportioned, the tendency to increase in
activity owing to reduction of iodide content may be balanced against the decrease
of activity due to accumulation of bromide and exhaustion of the reducers, with a
resultant evening of developer activity throughout its life. In one such formula,
designed for positive motion-picture film, the iodide was present only to the extent
of Mo g- per 1., but this small quantity modified markedlj' the exhaustion character-
istics of the bath in the manner indicated.
Little has been said of sodium or potassium chloride as a restrainer, for, while they
have restraining properties, neither has received the sanction of widespread continued
use accorded potassium bromide.
Restrainers of the type discussed are primarily intended to decrease inherent
chemical or emulsion fog, i.e., the fog developed spontaneously. When development
is carried on under conditions such that the emulsion is permitted to come in contact
with the air while wet with developer, a fog is sometimes caused which is known as
"aerial " fog. This appears to be connected with the aerial oxidation of the developer
chemicals. Many desensitizers tend to prevent its formation. Because of this, the
suggestion has been made that this fog is due to chemiluminescence accompanying
the oxidation of the reducing agent by the oxygen of the air. In most photographic
processing an attempt is made to reduce to a minimum the exposure to the air of the
emulsion while wet with developer. This is usually the simplest and cheapest way
of avoiding such fog troubles. When this procedure is not sufficient, desensitizers may
be used either in the developer or as a preliminarj' bath. A number of such compounds
are known of which the most important are pinakrj'-ptol green, pinakryptol yellow, and
p henosa f ranine
Only small concentrations of these compounds

are required, typical concentrations
lying in the range from 1 part per 10,000 to
part per 100,000.
1
In addition to the inorganic restrainers and the organic desensitizers used for their
respective effects in the control of fog, a number of organic antifogging compounds
have been discovered. These compounds are not yet in common use in developers.
They include
Antifogging Compounds
2-Mercaptobenziminazole
5-Nitrobenziminazole
5-Chlorobenziminazole
6-Chlorobenziminazole
Aminobenzene
Thioacetanilide
Thioacetnaphthalide
Cysteine hydrochloride
Tetrazole
2,4-Thioketothiazolidine
These compounds are used in concentrations of 1 part in 10,000 to 1 part in 100,000.

In general they delay the initial appearance of the image and prolong the development
required.
Other Compounds Added to the Solution. —In addition to the four components
typically found in developing solutions, many other substances have been added to
secure special results. Some of these additional compounds will be considered
here.
Methanol. —
Methanol has been added to some solutions particularly those where
a high concentration of reducer is desired, as it is frequently possible to maintain a
higher concentration in solution with both methanol and water present than with
water alone. The gelatin of the emulsion swells less when methanol is present in
sufficient concentration than it does in the simple aqueous solution.
Sugar. —
Sugar has been used to reduce the rate of diffusion of the developing solu-
tions into the emulsion. Lower gamma may be obtained, and some have also
felt that finer grain resulted from its use. There is little evidence that the grain is
finer than would result from the lower gamma, i.e., developed to the same gamma.
There is little difference in graininess from the use of the sugar in the solution.
Citric Acid. —
Citric acid is used as a clarifier. It tends to prevent precipitation
of insoluble compounds from some types of hard water. Being an acid, its presence
tends to reduce the pH, and hence it tends to reduce the rapidity of development.
This requires its use in small amounts only.
Hardeners. —Various additions for developers have been suggested with a view to
hardening the gelatin during development. These suggestions have included chrome
alum, formaldehyde, and para-formaldehyde. Some success has been attained, but
there is a definite general preference to separate the permanent hardening of gelatin
from the developing bath. Very frequently this permanent hardening is provided by
a hardening fixing bath. At other times it is provided by a hardening stop bath
between development and fixation. Less commonly, it is obtained by use of a pre-
bath before development. For such use, dilute formaldehyde solution may be used,
but some workers have found undesirable fogging tendencies. This difficulty is by no
means and the method is applicable to some emulsions at least.
universal,
It issometimes desirable to keep the swelling of the gelatin to a minimum during
development, particularly when its permanent hardening is produced by either a
stop or fixing bath. This need most frequently arises in processing emulsions under
adversely high temperature conditions, and accordingly the term "tropical developer"
is frequently used to designate a formula in which particular provision is made to
avoid dangerous swelling even when processing at temperatures of 85°F. or over.

Sodium sulphate is the usual addition to accomplish this result, as it reduces the
swelling of the gelatin when present in relatively high concentration, 100 g. per 1. or
above. It tends to slow development somewhat, perhaps due to reduction of diffusion
rate, but that is a rather small price to pay for the additional safety from damage by
warm solutions. The sulphite of the developer itself has a similar tendency to
restrain swelling of the gelatin, though it appears less marked. However, the quan-
tity of sulphate required is less in the presence of high sulphite than with low sulphite
concentrations. The protection afforded the emulsion by sulphate-sulphite com-
binations is not permanent, hence hardening baths designed to impart permanent
hardening to the emulsion should be used after these "tropical developers."
Silver Halide Solvents. — The use of silver halide solvents has been proposed for a
number of purposes, the most extreme of which is combined development and fixation.
To secure this action a rather vigorous developer is required, as development must
proceed in spite of the simultaneous fixation. In concentrated fixing solutions,
fixation is often complete in 1 to 3 min. Such times are too short for development
under these conditions, so low hypo concentrations are used to permit sufficient time
for development. These methods, while possible, have not supplanted the use of
developer and fixer separately and are rather rarely used.
When less drastic effects are sought weaker solvents may be used. The effect of
the solvent action of sulphite was mentioned in the discussion of that chemical.
Attempts have been made to secure fine grain by the addition of other weak silver
halide solvents such as ammonium chloride and potassium thiocyanate. These have
met with some success, but the presence of a silver halide solvent does not by itself
insure fine-grain development.
Sometimes these silver halide solvents are used to modify the tone characteristics
of the final image. This image is normally made up of finely divided silver which does
not have any inherent color of its own but appears in tones of nearly neutral gray, as
xisually viewed. However, there is frequently a residual tone which depends upon
the particle sizes from which the image is built up. Fine-grain deposits usually tend
to show greater departures from neutral grays than coarser deposits, but the color of
the deposit has not proved an accurate measure of graininess for coarse grains maj^ be
mixed with others fine enough to give a tone to the deposit. This discussion of image
tone is given to suggest the probable mechanism of the action of silver halide solvents
in affecting image tone. The image tone is not primarily important in negatives,
though it has an effect there, as colored deposits frequently print as of greater contrast
than their visual appearance or densities would indicate. It is primarily important in
positives, paper prints, lantern slides, motion-picture prints, and the like.
In reversal work it is usually necessary to secure a pleasing tone in the final image,
and silver halide solvents are sometimes used to improve the tone quality by changing
it from a brownish-black to a neutral or blue-black quality. When used in the first
developer of a reversal process, the solvent probably dissolves the extremely fine grains
first. These grains are usually slow photographically and would otherwise remain to
form part of the final image, thus giving foggy or plugged high lights and a brownish
tone.
Blue-black Agents. —Other compounds have been found which affect the tone
quality of the final image. Presumably this is through an effect on the aggregation
of the silver of which the deposit is made.
"Blue-black" Agents
Quinine hydrochloride
Quinoline
Formocystine
2, 4, 6-Trimethylphridine
Triazole
Benzotriazole
Iminazole
2-Methylbenzoxazole
2-Methylnaphthothiazole
Pseudo-thiohj'dantoin
Diphenyhodonium nitrate
lodophenyl-phenyHodonium chloride
These blue-black agents are used in developers at concentrations around 1 part in
1000 to 1 part in 10,000. Like the antifogging agents, even a slight addition of these
agents retards the initial appearance of the image and generally prolongs the time for
complete development.
Additions for Fine-grain Development. — In the effort to secure fine grain many
other compounds have been added to developers. Work of this kind is particularly
difficult, as there is no universally accepted way of measuring graininess, and hours of
painstaking work must go into the evaluation of any change. It is not surprising
therefore to find disagreements between workers and even contradictory results in
repeated tests under supposedly similar conditions.
Opposed to the careful and painstaking work done by some, there are many evi-
dences of mysticism and wishful thinking in this phase of the literature of photog-
raphy. To illustrate the wide range of additions which have been tried, the following
list was prepared, covering additions suggested for p-phenylenediamine developers.
This list is presented without any attempt at judgment of the value of the suggestion
but only to show the range of materials.
Additions Suggested for Paraphenylenediamine Developers

Other reducing agents:
Metol
Hydroquinone
Pyrogallol
jo-Aminophenol
Pyrocatechol
Rubinol (alkyl-substituted pj^rogallol)
Resorcinol
Glycine
Alkali agents recommended:

Sodium carbonate
Lithium hydroxide
Disodium hj^drogen phosphate
Trisodium phosphate
Ammonium hj'droxidc
Ammonium carbonate
Potassium carbonate
Sodium metaborate
Acetone
Miscellaneous agents recommended:
Sodium sulphate
Sodium bisulphite
Sodium nitrite
Sugar
Xickel chloride
Nickel ammonium sulphate
Benzoic acid
Boric acid
Salicylic acid
Tannic acid
Potassium bromide
Pinakryptol green
Isopropyl alcohol
—
Two-solution Development Processes. In the discussion just concluded, develop-
ing formulas mixed as a single solution have been tacitly assumed. It is not necessarj^
to so compound a developer, as the ingredients may be divided into two portions. In
general the same compounds are used, and they fill the same roles in the development
process, but the reducer and preservative may be used as one bath with the alkali as
the other. When the bath is so divided, the emulsion is first soaked in one portion,
then transferred to the other for actual development. Thus, if the emulsion is soaked
in the reducer solution and then transferred to the alkali, onlj'^ a limited amount of
development is to be expected because of the hmited quantity of reducer present in
the emulsion. Successive, transfers back and forth from one part to the other have
also been suggested to secure and control the desired contrast, but none of these two-
solution methods have yet been widely used. Adequate control of single solution
baths has proved simpler.
—
Change Produced by Development. Macroscopically the change produced by
development is the formation of a visible silver image proportional, at least approxi-
mately, to the original latent image. Microscopically this consists of the reduction,
i.e., development, of silver halide grains. In general, except for fog, onlj^ those grains
develop which have been rendered developable by exposure. Exceptions to this have
been noted in the case of some grain clumps, where the whole group has developed from
an original exposure of some one grain. The silver grains produced bj^ development
bear a general resemblance to the parent halide grain, but there is no longer the sharply
crystalline structure of the original halide. Development appears to take place by
the deposit of silver at one or more centers or nucleuses, spreading from these until the
entire grain is developed.
Closely adjacent grains frequentty appear to fuse and form clumps much larger
than the individual grains in size.This clumping is one of the most important factors
in the graininess of the final developed image, and it is through control of this factor
that control of graininess is frequentlj^ sought. The use of sulphite and silver halide
solvents in the reduction of graininess bj^ separation of the individual graininess has
already been mentioned in the discussion of their functions in developers. The specific
effect of different reducing agents will be considered in the next section discussing
fine-grain developers. In present-day emulsions, the largest grains have dimensions
of only a few ten-thousandths of an inch, and if no element larger than this existed in
the finished image, graininess would rarely be a trouble with current practices.
.
The distribution of developed grains within an emulsion layer is frequently far

from uniform, though the layer is usually 0.001 in. or less in thickness. Variation of
exposure with depth is one factor affecting this distribution, and variation of develop-
ment with depth is another. This latter effect is probably less than the former, with
formulas in common use, but separation of the two is difficult.
The thickness of the final dry developed emulsion layer often varies because of the
removal of the bulk of the original silver halide in regions of low density and the reten-
Thus the final surface may show a
tion of the silver grains in regions of high density.
reliefpattern due to the volume differences introduced by processing.
Fine-grain Developers. —
The various efforts to produce fine-grain images center
primarily around control of grain clumping during processing. This is not the only
aspect of graininess, as three general phases are qualitatively recognized, though rarely
quantitatively separated. In ascending order of unit size, they are:
1 The effect of the individual silver grains. These are usually but slightly larger
than the elementary silver halide grains from which they were produced and conse-
quently become visible only at the higher magnifications.
2. The effect of clumping of the particles. Some of the factors affecting this very
important aspect of graininess have been mentioned, but they will be reviewed here to
bring them together.
3. The effect of nonuniform distribution of clumps. This is, perhaps, the least
definite of the effects.
Such separation into classes as has been practically attempted appears to be based
upon some measure of magnification at which graininess disappears, or appears to
match a standard graininess. At different levels of magnification the various effects
become apparent. It is the second effect, clumping of grains, which appears as of
greatest importance in current procedures.
In the discussions of sulphite and silver halide solvents in developers, it was pointed
out that an effect on graininess was sought through solvent action on the surfaces of
the grains which would tend to keep them separate and prevent clumping. This
effect is suggested as the primary mode of action of the common borax developer
formulas as fine-grain developers.
Much work has been done in the attempt to discover any specific fine-grain charac-
teristics which may inhere in various reducers. These attempts have been quite
generally unsuccessful, and no reducer has received wide credit as having fine-grain
characteristics except paraphenylenediamine. This has been recognized for many
years as having specific fine-grain characteristics. Two disadvantages have been
found to its use. It produces a dermatitis on some skins, but this is not a very serious
objection, since it is readily possible to avoid contact with the powder or the solution
by careful handling and use of gloves if needed. The second is more serious. Para-
phenylenediamine, used alone under conditions to produce minimum grain, does not
produce such high effective emulsion speeds as some other developers, e.g., the borax-
type developers. Development times are rather long, and attempts have been made
to obviate both disadvantages by use of additional compounds in the developer. The
greatest success appears to have been obtained by the addition of glycine as a second
reducer with the paraphenylenediamine. The rate of development is increased and
the effective emulsion speed is higher with practically no change in graininess.
The extremely wide range of additions which have been tried with paraphenylene-
diamine was noted in an earlier paragraph.
Some success has attended the efforts to secure fine-grain results with other
reducers. Various means of prolonging development have been tried. These have
included dilution of developer and reductions of pH and in a few cases, finer grain
has resulted. Greater success appears to have been obtained by the addition to
developers of ammonium chloride in relativelj'- high concentration. This was sug-

gested in 1904' with concentrations of 150 to 200 g. per 1. mentioned. The U. S. Pat.
2053515, issued in 1936, covers a fine-grain photographic developer comprising
metol-hydroquinone as developing agent and ammonium chloride in amount sufficient
to produce a fine-grain image.
In all attempts at fine-grain development, full advantage should be taken of all
conditions tending toward that end. Some workers have concluded that fine grain is
nothing but low gamma. This appears an oversimplification, but it is very generally
true that low contrasts contribute to fine grain. Similarly, overexposure usually
tends to increase graininess. Thus for minimum graininess negatives should be
developed to as low a gamma as consistent with the work, and the exposure should be
the minimum
necessary to give the detail required.
Development Quantitatively Considered. —
Quantitative studies of development
have been made to establish a basis for its theoretical consideration and for the very
practical purpose of control of processing. In using any new emulsion or developing
formula, it is necessarj- to choose a developing time which, under the conditions of
use, will give the contrast desired. Thus the quantitative study of development is
of basic theoretical and practical interest. This study may be carried out through
measurements of growth of either gamma or density as development proceeds.
When the study is based upon gamma, the attempt is made to determine the
relationship between gamma and time of development. It is usually possible to
express this relationship approximately through an expression of the form
T = T«(l - f-^'O (1)
where y = the gamma produced in the time t;

Y„ = the maximum gamma produced on prolonged development;
K =
the velocity constant, so called.
Figure 1 shows this type of equation, represented by the solid line, plotted to approxi-
mate actual experimental data shown by O's and the dotted line. It is at once evident
that this does not fit exactly and, in general, regardless of values of -/„ and chosen, K
only two points can be fitted. A noticeable difference between the two curves always
occurs at low values of t as the equation shows finite values of y at times shorter than
that actually producing any measurable effects.
The period before any measurable development occurs is called the "induction
period." It has no counterpart in the equation above, but a second, slightly different,
equation takes account of it. The equation
y = y„[l _ f-A-(/-(o)] (2)
may be made to fit three points of the experimental data and specifically allows for an
induction period through the term tn. This insures better fit than with the first
equation; but it should be considered as only an empirical representation.
The equations just given approximate the relationship between 7 and time of
development. If, instead of 7, the progress of development of density for a given
exposure is determined, the growth of density is found to be quite similar to
the increase in gamma. In many cases, the family of sensitometric curves represent-
ing the results of different development times have straight-line portions which, when
extrapolated, intersect in a point, called the tie point, which may be on or below but
rarely is above the D = axis. For the cases where a tie point exists and lies on the
D = axis, the growth of density of a point on the straight-line portion of the curve
may be represented by equations of the same form as those used for the growth of
1 LuMifcRE, A.. L. LuMifcRE, and A. Setewetz, Brit. J. Phot, 61, 866-867 (1904).
7. Thus there are two equations,
D = D„{1 - e-A'O (3)
and
D = DJX - e--^'^'-'o)] (4)
corresponding to the two similar equations for 7.

Where a tie point exists but is depressed below the D = axis, the equations may
be written in the form
Z> = £>„ - (Z)„ + D,)e-^t , (5)
and
D = D^ - {D„+ Do)e-K^*-'o) (6)
where Do is the magnitude of the depression of the tie point, and, as usual, the con-
sideration is limited to points on the straight-line portion of the sensitometric curve.
These equations are empirical in nature and difficulty will often be experienced
in trying toapply them to too wide a range of developing conditions, particularly if
emphasis is placed upon the very early stages of development.
In many cases the existence of a tie point is doubtful or definitely disproved.
Under each conditions the similarity here apparent between 7 and D equations will no
longer remain.
The practical value of any of these equations lies in the ability to use them to
interpolate or extrapolate from existing tests to other conditions.Thus, if we wish to
develop a negative to 7 = 0.9 and have tests showing the times required for, say,
7 = 0.7 and 7 = 1.0, interpolation is necessary to determine the correct time and may
be done by the evaluation of the first 7 equation. Of course, a worker who frequently
meets such problems as this relatively simple case will very quickly learn to estimate
correct times much more quickly than they can be calculated through the use of the
equations. The importance of the mathematical methods increases as processing
conditions are controlled more and more accurately, but for many amateur and com-
mercial procedures, high precision in interpolations of the type indicated is nullified
by poor technique and lack of the extreme care necessary to obtain reproducible
results.
Considerable effort has been spent in the attempt to learn the true nature of the
development process and to identify the various stages with corresponding constants
in the equations. Thus the time of penetration of the developer into the emulsion, the
invasion phase or induction period, is considered the counterpart of the ^0 of
the equations.
Diffusion of the developer and of products of development out of, the emulsion
in,
must play an important part, and some efforts have been made to trace the course of
development through these processes.
Adsorption theories of development have been advanced also, but none of these
attempts to study the development process has yet supplanted the much simpler
empirical relationships given above for practical interpretation of rate of development
data.
A mathematical study of sensitometric curves and development data has
brief
recently been published, ^ based upon approximations designed to represent statistically
emulsion conditions and development processes. The results obtained show unusually
good agreement between calculated and observed values. The mathematical forms
used depend upon many simplifying assumptions of a type which seem reasonable but
for which little direct experimental evidence exists. Hence the final fit may be viewed
I
Albersheim, W. J., J. Soc. Motion Picture Engrs., 29, 417-455 (1937).
either as evidence of the quahtative oorrectness of the assumptions or as the happy

choice of equations having reasonably correct form and enough constants to permit a
fit.
Bibliography
Matthews, J. H., andBarmeier: The Electro-potentials of Certain Photographic Developers

F. E.
and a Possible Explanation of Photographic Development, Brit. J. Phot., 69, 897 (1912).
Sheppard, S. E., and C. E. K. Mebs: Some Points in Modern Chemical Theory and Their Bearing
on Development, Phot. J., 45, 241 (1915).
Homolka, B.: The Latent Image and Development, Brit. J. Phot., 64, 81 (1917).
NiETZ, A. H.: Theory of Development, Phot. J., 60, 280 (1920).
Ermen, W. F. a.: Rodinal Type Developers, Brit. J. Phot., 67, 611 (1920).
Sheppard, S. E.: The Electrochemistry of Development, Trans. Electrochem. Soc, 39, 429 (1921).
Drucb, J. G. F.: Stabilizing Solutions of Amidol, Brit. J. Phot, 69, 81 (1922).
Wall, E. J.: The Alkalis in Development, Am.. Phot., 16,481 (1922); Brit. J. Phot., 69, 634 (1922).
Crabtree, J. I.: Photographic Methods of Testing Developers, Am. Ann. Phot., p. 184 (1922).
Sheppard, S. E., and F. A. Elliott: On the Theory of Development, Trans. Faraday Soc, 19, 353
(1923).
DxTNDON, M., and J. I. Crabtree: Fogging Properties of Developers, Brit. J. Phot., 71, 701, 719
(1924).
Sheppard, S. E., and Anderson: Equivalence of Sodium and Potassium Carbonates in Developers,
F. A.
232 (1925).
Brit. J. Phot., 72,
Davidson, L. F. Conditions Governing the Behavior of Silver Bromide Grain during Development,
:
Phot. J., 66, 230 (1926).

VON HiJBL, Metol: Quinol Developer, Phot. Rund., 63, 481 (1926).
Rabinowitsch, a. J.: The Mechanism of Development, J. Phys., 5, 232 (1934).
Reinders, W., and M. C. F. Beukers: Metol-Hydroquinone Development, Phot. J., 74, 78 (1934).
—
Weinland, C. E.: Paraphenylenediamine The Chemical, Camera (Phila), 49, 145 (1934).
Pand.\lai: Mechanism of Photographic Development, J. Soc. Chem. Ind., 54, 169T (1935).
Lehmann, E., and E. Tausch: Chemistry of Metal-Quinol Development, Phot. Korr,, 71, 17, 35 (1935).
de Langhe, J. E.: Theory of Photographic Developability, Z. vnss. Phot., 35, 201 (1936).
WiLLCOCK, R. B.: Concentrated Phenolate Developers, Brit. J. Phot., 83, 256 (1936).
Evans, R. M., and W. T. Hanson, Jr.: Photographic Development and the Latent Image, Phot. J.,
77, 497 (1937).
Murray, H. D.: A Theory of Photographic Development, Phot. J., 77, 388 (1937).
Evans, R. M., and W. T. Hanson, Jr.: Reduction Potential and Photographic Developers; The
Effect of Sulphite in Developer Solutions, J. Phys. Chem., 41, 509 (1937).
CHAPTER XII
TECHNIQUE OF DEVELOPMENT
By D. R. White and J. R. Weber
The two most important physical factors which influence the rate and course of
development are the temperature and the agitation of the solution. In addition to
these principal factors there are others also, each of which plays its part, having a
secondary influence on development. They include such factors as the position
of the emulsion layer in the developing solution and the effect of adjacent areas.
Most of the mechanisms introduced in photographic development have for their
object adequate control of temperature and agitation. Even when no special
mechanical aids are used, it is still necessary to adequately control them to secure
the results desired.
—
Control of Temperature and Effect of Variations. In common with so many other
chemical reactions, an increase of temperature increases the rate of development. The
rate of increase of activity with increase of temperature is different for different devel-
oping agents. A characteristic, named the "temperature coefficient," has been used
as the quantitative measure of the change of activity. This is defined as the ratio of
the development times required to produce equal density at two temperatures differing
by 10°C., which is, of course, a difference of 18°F. The values obtained range from
1.3 for metol alone, through 1.9 for pyro and metol-hydroquinone combinations, to
2.5 for glycine. In many charts and guides in practical use, the results are not
expressed in the form of the temperature coefficient. Most frequently the tabulations
are in the form of specific developing times for specific temperatures. In some cases,
the subject is covered more broadly by giving developing time ratios or percentages
such that, if correct time of development is known for one temperature, it may be
calculated for other temperatures. These values do not always agree with the ones
which may be calculated from the temperature coefficients given. This may indicate
that the temperature coefficient is a function, not of the reducer alone, but of a specific
formula. If this is true, the differences may be true ones, each applying to its own
specific case. On the other hand, the practical tables rarely cover as wide a range as
18°F. (10°C.), and hence the differences found may be only differences in the precision
of determination of the effect of temperature.
Table I gives the ratio of the developing time for temperature t to that at tem-
perature 65 °F., calculated on the basis of a temperature coefficient of 2.2.
These values, of course, cannot be in exact agreement with all the specific recom-
mendations for specific formulas, but they are a fair approximation of the general
trend of the recommendations for metol-hj'droquinone and p-phenylenediamine devel-
opers and may therefore be used in varying times to compensate for temperature
changes of such developers with reasonable certainty that the result will be satisfac-
tory for practical purposes. If the work is extremely exacting, temperature variations
should be avoided, or, if unavoidable, values fitting the specific conditions should be
determined.
It is not universally agreed that change of time can compensate for all the changes
introduced by change of temperature. This point is particularly strong in the con-
351
—
sideration of developers having more than one reducing agent, which will, in general,
have unequal temperature coefficients. Here it appears probable that one reducing
agent will be affected more than the other with consequent variation in the final result.
For small variations from standard temperature, time compensation for temperature
change may be used even in this case, though it may be impossible for large variations.
In view of all these factors, it is the best policy to hold developing temperatures
to standard values where good reproducibility and uniform high quality are required.
Many mechanisms and devices have been suggested to secure this desirable result
under the extremely wide range of conditions and equipment encountered.
Table I. Developing Time at Various Temperatures
Time at temperature /
i
TECHNIQUE OF DEVELOPMENT 353
Many professionals and most amateurs must work with less elaborate installations.
The refinements connected refrigeration with thermostatic control are

of properly
things to dream about but not to use. Ice cubes from the refrigerator take the place
of heat interchangers and thermostats. When cooling solution by such means, a water
bath should be used, with the ice in the bath, not in the developer. Of course, it is
somewhat quicker to cool with ice directly in the solution, but the dilution produced
by the ice as it melts is an uncertain and undesirable quantity.
Water baths are occasionally cooled by the cooling effect of dissolving crystalline
hypo. This is a hazardous method for photographic processes, as accidental splashes
of the hypo solution can spoil the developer or make clear spots in the emulsion.
—
Influence of Agitation of Developing Solution. The influence of agitation on the
course of development can most readily be visualized by consideration of the develop-
ment process as it actually takes place. The silver halide grains are embedded in a
binding agent, usually gelatin, which hinders diffusion of chemicals to and from the
solution. Thus, as development proceeds, there is a tendency for development prod-
ucts to collect locally and hinder development. At the surface of the gelatin layer in a
region of high density there is a corresponding increase in concentration of develop-
ment products due to diffusion from the layer when the body of the fluid is undis-
turbed. At a low-density region there is low concentration of these products as there
has been little development. If now the solution is agitated, the development prod-
ucts adjacent to the gelatin layers will be washed away and evenly distributed
through the body of the solution. This facilitates diffusion of fresh solution into the
layer and development products out of the layer. In the region of high density a
considerable increase of development is the result, but at the low density little change
results. This nets an increase in y., for agitated development.
Practically, it requires great care to secure reproducible agitation. Completely
stagnant development is practically impossible due to the mechanical requirements of
placing the film or plate in solution. Violent agitation is the other extreme, and it
has proved more practical to secure uniformity of development through agitation
than through either complete stagnation or specified intermediate agitation. This is
probably due to the fact that development does not increase indefinitely as the rate of
agitation increases but reaches a maximum or constant value, beyond which further
increase in rate of stirring is no longer effective. A few cases have been noted where
the most violent agitation tested even resulted in a decrease of development. No
entirely satisfactorj^ explanation of such a decrease of development with high agitation
has yet been found, but the initial increase of development with rate of agitation is
probably due to the difference in rapidity of removal of development products from the
surface of the layer into the body of the liquid. The limit for this effect would appear
to be that which would result from continuously supplying fresh developer to the
emulsion surface.
One factor influencing results under conditions of low agitation is this: The prod-
ucts of development are usually of greater density than the developing solution and
hence tend to sink under the influence of gravity. Accordingly it has sometimes
been suggested that plates or films should be supported face down in the developing
solution to secure optimum conditions for development: some mechanical devices have
been made to do this, and at the same time create high-circulation velocities close to
the emulsion surface. This procedure, carried to the limit by proper agitation, prob-
ably produces the maximum development which can be obtained from a given devel-
oper formula and film at any one temperature, since it appears that advantage is fully
taken of all the physical factors affecting the result. This system is rarely used, as
adequate results can usually be obtained by simpler means, a number of which are
discussed on pages 354-357.
—
Stagnant Development. As pointed out before, stagnant development is a limit
rarely if ever attained, but in many practical cases agitation is so slight that it con-
tributes little to the final result. Many classes of photographic materials are fre-
quently developed by these methods. They include roll and cut films, radiographs,
plates, and motion-picture film when handled on racks. Only the simplest
mechanisms are required as the emulsion is merely supported, at rest, within the
bath. The virtue of simplicity is marred by the fact that small residual effects inter-
fere with the uniformity of the results. Unless the bath has just been thoroughly
stirred, there are apt to be small thermal currents moving the developer enough to
cause streaks. If the film or plate is put in quietly and smoothly, air bells are apt to be
formed and cling to the emulsion, resulting in round white spots in exposed areas.
Again, with such careful introduction of the film into the developer, clips and hangers
are apt to leave marks from swirls and eddies which they cause in the solution. The
introduction of a second film near one alreadj' partly developed may cause streaks on
that for similar reasons. Vibrations of developing trays or tanks caused by machinery
not associated with the processing at all may set up enough developer agitation to
produce streaks and uneven development, particularly near holes in hangers or near
clips holding films.
The best practice, when this general type of development is to be used, includes:
1. Thorough preliminary stirring of the developer to secure uniform conditions.
2. Thorough agitation of the film or plate when first introduced to dislodge air bells.
3. Avoidance of all conditions leading to local streaming or agitations of the
developer.
—
Tray Developments. Hand Agitation. Many systems and procedures have been
devised to secure agitated development in the shallow trays used for so much photo-
graphic work. They range from the simple turning or moving of prints to elaborate,
accurately timed rocking and brushing cycles.
In the simpler schemes the agitation is secured by more or less random handling
of the films or prints. At times this is a definite program of moving the units from one
place in the tray to another. Sometimes this is combined with tray tipping to secure
greater agitation. With paper prints this is particularly practical, as the development
is usually carried out by inspection, and minor variation in the time taken to come to
the desired quality is not usually very serious.
This simple system is not adequate where accurately reproducible results are
required. Accurate sensitometric testing necessitates the highest possible precision,
and hence great efforts at development control have been made in sensitometric labora-
tories. Three classes of systems have been introduced to meet the requirements,
differing in their mode of agitation. The three depend upon (1) rocked traj^s, (2)
brushes, and (3) squeegees and agitator blades.
—
Rocked Trays. In using rocked-tray development for sensitometric purposes, a
definite, timed routine of rocking is usually set up. The trays used are customarilj^
deeper than the usual developing trays to permit steeper angles and thus secure more
violent washing effects as the developer sweeps across the emulsion surface. The fUms
or plates, as needed, are laid or fastened in the tray to hold them mechanically. A
typical cycle consists of tipping the tray to an angle of 30 to 45° in each of the four
possible directions, completed three times each minute, thus giving verj^ complete
agitation, and renewal of the developer in contact with the emulsion surface.
Attempts have been made to substitute mechanical rocking, for the hand system, but
these have been unsuccessful owing to the rather peculiar difficulty that the}'' were too
regular. Certain preferred paths tended to appear, with resultant systematic streak-
ing or unevenness. The slight irregularities of even the best hand systems appear to
be enough to eliminate these, and hence net a better result.
The complete timed system is rarely applied to practical pictorial photography,

but it is approximated in varying degrees. Tray rocking is sometimes accomplished
by a shelf tipping with attached pendulum as driver, and sometimes by direct manual
effort, but these are rarely carried to the extent frequently used for sensitometric
testing.
—
Brushed Development and Roller Squeegees. A second method for thorough and
complete agitation of developer during tray development substitutes the brushing
of the emulsion surface for the washing effect obtained by the tray-rocking procedures.
For purposes of reproducibility this also requires a timed routine of operations. The
brushing of the emulsion surface also introduces new hazards to the development.
The brush must be soft to avoid scratching the emulsion. It may introduce foreign
chemicals into the developer, as it is difficult to keep it thoroughly clean. These
troubles are not insurmountable and brushed development is one of the best methods
for securing uniform development within one development group. There is little or
no evidence that the final comparisons between successive developments will be better
than can be obtained by other means as that depends so greatly on other factors, such
as the precision of timing, correctness of temperature, similarity of batches of devel-
oper used, condition of fixer, temperature of wash water, and drying conditions.
This method of developer agitation is little used except in work where greatest
uniformity is required. This is much more commonly needed in scientific and sensi-
tometric work than in pictorial work.
Allied to the brushing method is the use of velvet-covered roller squeegee, rolled
over the emulsion surface. This replaces the sliding contact of the soft brush by the
rolling contact of the soft squeegee. The hazards are very similar, and its use similarly
limited.
Blade Squeegees. —
Windshield-wiper Methods. Functionally the purposes of any
of these agitation methodsis to secure frequent and rapid change of the developer in
contact with the emulsion. With this in mind, squeegees shaped like windshield-wiper
blades have been used with the blade nearly, but not quite, in contact with the
emulsion. As the blade is moved vigorously along, high turbulence is produced at the
emulsion surface giving the uniform high agitation desired. In some cases the velocity
of the moving blade has been made higher than the velocity of a wave in the tray of
developer. The result was very uniform development, but the technique was hard on
the surroundings, owing to splashing and slopping of the developer.
Mechanically, the guiding has been sometimes accomplished by setting the plate
or film in a recess in the bottom of the tray and then using a solid blade, rolling or slid-
ing over the recess which is made of su'ch depth as to give small uniform clearance
between the blade and the emulsion surface.

This system is also confined to work requiring a higher degree of development
uniformity than usually needed for pictorial purposes.
—
Mechanical Agitation and Circulation Systems in Tank Development. Aside from
mechanical devices primarily intended to mechanize the systems just described, there
have been many systems introduced to provide mechanically the agitation and circula-
tion necessary for agitated development. The details depend upon the type of work
being done, but in general they involve only a few basic elements. These are: (1)
motion of the emulsion and its support through the developer; (2) low-velocity circula-
tion, such as frequently associated with temperature-control systems; (3) high-velocitj^
jets and circulation; (4) squeegees. These systems have been brought to their greatest
technical perfection for work in and associated with the motion-picture industry, and
consequently the details given primarily describe methods and practices found there.
If the expense is warranted, these methods can be adapted to other photographic
products, but the large amount of film processed, which is handled in long lengths, has
resulted in specialized processing machinery not encountered in the other branches of

photography.
—
Moving Fihn. In mechanical handling of motion-picture film, one of the simplest
and most obvious procedures is to secure agitation by the progress of the film through
the solution. In fact, this agitation can only be avoided by rack and tank or various
of the reel methods of developing film and is always present in any continuous develop-
ing machine. The development produced has its own peculiar characteristics when no
other agitation is used. It is particularly subject to streaks, as unequal relative
velocities are often set up with resultant nonuniform agitation across the film width.
Development products tend to sweep back along the film, producing nonuniformity
of development. This is particularly marked in the case of sensitometric tests, where
the exposures progress systematically from one area to the next. In this case rela-
tively large differences can exist depending upon the placing of the exposure on the
film, low density or high density first. This sort of effect has lead to tacit standardiza-
tion in developing sensitometric exposures in this type of equipment. By common
consent the low density end is to lead in passing through the machine. With the
random distribution of densities in pictures, this effect rarely takes that form, but
sometimes there are trails of high or low density back of low- or high-density areas,
respectively.
This limitation of the quality produced by the method is closely allied to the too
regular agitation noted for mechanically rocked trays.Greater turbulence is usually
required.
Low-velocity Circulation. —
In addition to the agitation produced by the motion of
film through the developer bath, it is well-nigh universal practice to add a circulation
system which pumps the developer around through a feed or storage tank as well
as through the developing tank proper. The velocities produced by this system are
usually rather low, as its main purposes are control of temperature and use of a rela-
tively large bulk of developer to insure uniform quality. In designing such systems, it
is desirable to make the most of the agitation so set up and to adjust the system to
try to break up the tendency to produce streaks due to the film motion itself.
High-velocity Jets. —The low-velocity circulation is better than none but cannot
always be relied upon to eliminate streaks. As an extension of this basic idea, high-
velocity jets have been introduced to scour the surface of the film and break up the
streamline currents formed by the film motion. These jets are operated under the
surface of the solution to avoid aerial oxidation, and in general must be close to
the emulsion surface to secure the desired effect.
A variation of this idea, designed to develop plates or cut films uniformlj'^ has also
been suggested and tested. The bottom of the developing tray can be made double,
with small holes closely spaced drilled through the upper piece. A plate to be devel-
oped can be placed face down, supported a little above the tray bottom. Sufficient
developer is used to adequately cover the plate and a pump is employed to make each
hole direct a stream of developer against the emulsion surface. With some motion
of the plate to avoid areas of high development corresponding to each jet, very uniform
results were reported.
This, in conjunction with general circulation and film motion, is probable capable
of the most uniform results commercially obtainable today.
Squeegees. —Various designs of squeegees have been tested in the attempt to pro-
duce uniform development under developing-machine conditions. Fixed soft squee-
gees may be placed directly or obliquely across the line of film travel in contact or
nearly in contact with the emulsion surface. Thus they act as barriers to the devel-
oper set in motion by the film itself and reduce the tendency to streaked nonuniform
development.
Good results have been reported with this system, but it has not been used com-
mercially to the extent of the other systems mentioned.
—
Other Agitation Systems. For Laboratory Use. In search for uniform reproduc-
ible development for test purposes a few other specialized devices have been devel-
oped. One of these for which the best results are claimed utilizes a relatively slow
circulation for temperature control and a violent turbulence at the emulsion surface
produced by blades moving close to, but not in contact with the emulsion surface.
This mechanism is primarily designed for film, and arrangements are provided to hold
the test strips rigidly and accurately to provide uniform clearance between the emul-
sion and the agitator blade. This blade is driven by a reciprocating mechanism, and
the entire assembly is mounted in a thermostatically controlled bath. The film
strips are vertical and the capacity is limited by practical rather than theoretical
considerations.
The high degree of uniformity reported for an extended series of tests cannot be
entirely due to this machine but must also be due to precision control of procedures at
all other points in the test system.
In some test equipments the object is not entirely the attainment of highest theo-
retical perfection but is the simulation of commercial procedures, which, while they
may be known to be lacking in some respects, may be the controlling objectives from a
business viewpoint. Laboratory equipment designed to closely approximate com-
mercial machine equipment (in which the chief agitation is due to film motion) has
been designed, built, and used successfully. To bring this to a laboratory scale of
size and yet not limit the linear speeds which can be used, the film is formed in a
loop and driven around and around at any desired linear speed; no excessive bulks
of solution are required, and the equipment can duplicate reasonably well many
trade practices, yet be subject to the refinement of control needed for laboratory
work.
—
Producing and Reproducing Results. In a broad sense, there is no one standard
universally applicable by which to judge correct development. In an artistic sense
that development is right which gives the desired result regardless of custom, habits,
and normal criteria. In technical or scientific work there are usually rather narrow
limits within which results are accurate and satisfactory. In commercial operations
there are often photographic steps which must be controlled within narrow practical
tolerances to fit the photographic results to the needs of the other phases of the work.
The motion-picture industry is the greatest commercial user of photographic materials,
and great care must be exercised to maintain uniformity of development in order to
permit the full artistry of the director, the cameraman, the actors, and the actresses
to come through to the theater for the enjoyment of the public.
The final criterion of the success of all photographic development is the suitability
of the resultant image for its intended purpose. The logical extension of this state-
ment leads to the conclusion that the same emulsion may need to be developed different
ways for different purposes. As a corollary, no development can be judged com-
pletely for its correctness without knowledge of the purpose which is to be served.
When stated explicitly, these appear truisms, but failure to consider them in their
logical relationships is rather common. The question "Is this developed correctly?"
has no answer unsupported by other circumstance and condition. However, we live
in a world such that few of us are pioneers, and, fortunately, it is not often necessary
to start into uncharted seas of "correct" and "incorrect" development. In the
early stages of any photographic experience criteria by which to judge correct develop-
ment for the purposes involved are learned by necessity, to greater or less degree.
This initial information is usually imparted along with some specific test or method by
which to judge future developments.
Such methods may be divided into classes:

1. Inspection methods, with or without desensitization.
Image nearly developed.
a.
6. image appearance (Watkins factor).

Initial
2. Time-temperature methods (thermal system).
3. Sensitometrie and test exposure control.

Inspection Methods. —
Judging development by visual inspection of the image as it
progresses and grows is one of the oldest procedures of the art of photographJ^ It
was particularly necessary with the handicaps of emulsion variations and nonuniform-
ity under which the photographers of an earlier day labored. It is still an important
method for practical work, though the burden of processing control is shared by other
methods in many laboratories, particularly those using photography for scientific
purposes and those handling large amounts of bulk work. Progress in manufacturing
control of emulsion uniformity has been an extremely important factor in influencing
this trend.
Two separate lines of attack have been pursued in the use of inspection
methods development control. In one system, known as the Watkins factorial
for
method, development is based upon the experimental observation that for one emul-
sion and developer there is a constant ratio between the time to reach a given contrast
and the time of appearance of the image. This may be restated in the form
Time of development = time of appearance X constant
where the time development refers to the development time for some contrast
of
selected as suitable for thework and the time of appearance is the time between immer-
sion of the emulsion in the developer and first appearance of the image. The constant
is known as the Watkins factor and varies from emulsion to emulsion and from devel-
oper to developer. To operate this system adequately, the time of appearance of the
developed image must be carefully determined. This is relatively easy with slow,
noncolor-sensitized emulsions but becomes more difficult as the emulsion speed is
increased. This fact tends to direct the use of the method toward the slower emul-
sions, such as the paper, lantern-slide, and slower negative emulsions.
The second and older line of inspection control is based upon judgment of the
image as it approaches the density desired. It is subject to many of the limitations
encountered in the Watkins system but has many exponents. Experience is required
when changing from emulsion to emulsion, as the darkroom appearance of images
depends upon the emulsion used and not upon its contrast and density alone. It is
most readily applied to the slower emulsions where illumination levels may be higher
than with high-speed emulsions. It is most valuable in the hands of a thoroughly
experienced worker, where compensation in development is tolerable, and may lead to
better final results than absolute uniformity of treatment.
Desensitization Methods. —
Both of the methods enumerated above maj^ be modified
by the use of desensitizers with color-sensitized emulsions to permit more illumination
in the darkroom and hence better inspection facilities. Many compounds have been
found which have desensitizing action, but not all are suitable. Some produce fog
and others leave the latent image in such condition as to be particularly subject to
bleaching by darkroom lights used. Phenosafranine, pinakryptol green, and pina-
kryptol yellow are the most common desensitizers. They are not directly inter-
changeable, but any of them may be used in a separate bath prior to .development.
Some difficulty has been experienced in producing a stable developer with pheno-
safranine and hydroquinone in the same solution. No such trouble has been found
with pinakryptol green, and this compound appears as the one of the three most
available for use directly in the developer, as its presence was not foimd to influence
the exhaustion life of the developer. Pinakryptol yellow is not suited to this use, as
it is affected by the sulphite of the developer. A wide range of concentration has
been used in the various experiments conducted. A concentration of 1 part in 20,000
is intermediate in this range and may be considered fairly representative. The action
of a desensitizer is by no means instantaneous, and a minute or so must be allowed for
its effect to occur.
The reported in the literature do not show clearly whether or not a desensitizer
tests
has a specific action on development. No large effects on contrast or emulsion speed
are noted, where care has been exercised to avoid bleaching of the latent image by
bright inspection lights.
The action of desensitizers is presented as destruction of color sensitivity of color-
sensitized plates, and hence they are considered valueless with noncolor-sensitized
emulsions. The literature of desensitizers is not increasing so rapidly as it did a few
years ago, and this fact probably indicates a trend away from inspection methods of
development control. Actually negative emulsion speeds have increased markedly
and still appear to be on the increase as new products are manufactured and offered
to the trade.
—
Time-temperature Methods. The time-temperature method of development con-
trol, also known as the "thermal" system, is now widely recommended and used.
Its success depends upon uniformity of emulsions and developer chemicals available
to the photographer. Both factors are met through the present reliability and control
in chemical industries. Basically the method is built on the thesis that, starting with
a given emulsion and developer, control of the time factor will adequately govern
development, and, accordingly, successive exposures may be developed to the same
gamma by giving equal time of development. In many cases, compensation of
development time is introduced to allow for variation of the developer temperature
and for exhaustion and aging effects through repeated use. This, of course, requires
considerable preliminary information and rather complete study of developer and
development characteristics under practical conditions. Of course, it is not practical
for any one organization to try to cover all the variations of amateur and commercial
practice with all the widely different formulas available, but all the manufacturers in
the United States are recognizing and encouraging the time-temperature system of
development control by the development recommendation normally given, which
takes the form of a recommended time at a certain temperature in a specified formula.
Of course, this method of development control is not the panacea of all the ills
and troubles of development. In the discussion of agitation of developers, it was
pointed out that even reproducible agitation is difficult to attain, and, correspond-
ingly, specification of time and temperature alone is not complete. Some indication of
agitation must be included to be complete. No adequate description of agitation is
always possible, so the more exact phrasings of development recommendations usually
include something to the effect that exact times for a given contrast would have to be
determined by trials under the actual conditions to be used. For many purposes this
exactness is unnecessary, and the recommendation may be followed directly with
entirely satisfactory results.
Sensitometric and Test-exposure Control Methods. —
In that section of the photo-
graphic industry where the greatest bulks are handled, the motion-picture laboratories,
the development control is based upon standard test exposures of various kinds. Fre-
quently the standard is a sensitometric exposure, and the development is controlled
to produce a chosen gamma with the film going through at the time. Sometimes a
picture, produced in standard manner is used instead of the sensitometric exposure.
In this case the judgment is visual, to hold the picture quality to a satisfactorj^ match
of a more or less permanently fixed standard. In either case, development control
is based upon the results with these standard exposures. In these large laboratories
the customary procedure with developers for positive film is to maintain the developing
bath at an essentially uniform level of activity by the use of buck-up or replacement
solution as needed. The main bulk of developer is rarely changed. As temperatures
are held uniform, there are two ways of varying development, variation of time and
change of the rate of addition of make-up solution and overflow of spent
developer.
With baths for processing the original negatives, the situation is somewhat differ-
ent, as the developers are much less active and are more readily exhausted. The same
basic methods, sensitometric tests and standard pictures may be used, but the bathf^
are changed much more In general the footage of negative is much lower
frequently.
than that of positive, so the developing systems are not so large, and this procedure
is more practical than it would be with positive film.
Such methods are applied much less frequently when photographic materials are
processed in smaller quantities. The equipment to produce adequately standardized
exposures tends to be rather expensive, and the methods previously outlined usually
are relativelj^ more attractive. On the other hand sensitometric study of develop-
ment is almost necessary in the study of developing agents and formulas and in many
of the scientific applications of photography, regardless of quantity of material
handled.
Control Methods Chosen in Special Fields. —
It will be of some value to consider
the control methods chosen in some of the broad fields of photography, with some of
the reasons for the specific choice.
Prints and Enlargements. —
Prints and enlargements are typically developed on
an inspection basis. The amount of inspecting done will depend somewhat upon the
quantity and quality of work being done, being rather little in the cheaper amateur-
finishing stations and much more in the careful printing done for exhibit work. Often,
gross errors in printing exposure may be detected, when they occur, by watching the
time of appearance of the image, as any large deviation from the normal will show at
once an exposure error greater than tolerable for the quality of work being done.
Roll Films. —
With multiple-exposure units, such as roll films, no development
control of individual exposures has proved practical. Accordingly, either develop-
ment based upon inspection of the entire roll, to try to get the best for the entire
group, or time-temperature methods are most applicable. In many of the aids devised
for handling the 35-mm. film used in miniature cameras, no provision is made for
inspection, and hence time-temperature methods or, in the extreme case, trial expo-
sures are practically forced upon the users.
—
Cut Films and Plates. Cut films and plates are primarily single-exposure units
and hence may be treated individually if necessary. Accordingly practices vary
widely from place to place. Inspection methods are frequentlj^ used where suitable
illumination is provided. The United States manufacturers of such products normally
give their development recommendations in terms of formula and time-temperature
processing, as thatis about the only language by which to transfer development
information from one place to another without sensitometric controls. Accordingly,

many places handle their development on this basis. Sensitometric control of this
work is rare.
Radiographs. —
To the roentgenologist the photographic side of the process is only a
tool to be used to his final ends. He is not interested primarily in the photographic
side of the process, but needs uniform results from day to day. The darkrooms avail-
able are often lacking in space and conveniences necessary to an independent control
of development uniformity. Hence, time-temperature methods and developer-
exhaustion compensation charts find a wide use. Carefully carried out, these methods
appear to give greater uniformity of results than inspection methods, though these are
also widely used. Some difference of opinion exists as to the best method, and perhaps
there is no general answer. After all is said and done, there is the question of retakes,
and it may be best to make a fair quality radiograph by minor development compensa-
tion for an exposure variation, rather than to insist on hewing to the line of complete
uniformity of development, let the retakes be what they may. This is not written in
the spirit of condoning careless work, for pressure for quality is a continuous necessitj'.
No major changes of development time from standard can be tolerated without being
reflected in poor quality of some of the radiographs.
Motion-picture Film. —
The commercial methods of control are largely based upon
sensitometric and test-exposure control, as indicated before. Inspection methods
are in use in some of the smaller units. If many scenes are on one roll, individual
development treatment manifestly impossible, but the roll may be treated as a unit
is
to give the best average as judged by the experience of the worker.

—
Defects in Development. Many defects in the final pictures are traceable to
development difficulties. Some of these are similar to defects from other causes and
accordingly both will be mentioned with an indication of some of the distinguishing
characteristics.
White spots are produced by several different causes in processing, and, in addition
to these troubles, they may be caused by lint or dirt on the original emulsion surface
which frequently leaves enough of a shadow outline to be suggestive of the natui'e of
the particle causing the difficulty. White spots in a print caused by black spots in the
negative are usually readily identified by careful inspection of the negative.
Of the group traceable to processing, primarily development, the following are the
most common:
Ail- Bells. —Air bells are often formed as the plate, film, or paper is placed in the
developer. They take the form of small bubbles clinging to the emulsion surface and
may stay throughout the entire time of development unless dislodged by mechanical
means. They are more common in stagnant or weakly agitated developments, as
thorough agitation supplies the forces necessary to dislodge them. When motion-
picture film is developed by the rack and tank system, air bubbles are almost always
formed on the lower bar of the rack and are very apt to remain there for it requires
special care in agitating the rack to dislodge them. However, they may occur under
many other conditions of development.
When the air bell is not dislodged, the developer can penetrate under it only by the
relatively long path through the surrounding emulsion, thus effectively hindering
development in a small usually circular area under the bubble. The bubble is usually
dislodged in the fixer, and hence a small round clear area or white spot is formed.
Spots from, Hypo Dust and Drops. —
If a film is touched by splashes of hypo or by
small particles of dry hypo clinging to the emulsion, local fixation can occur before
development, with resultant clear areas. When the trouble is from a splash of
hypo solution, the drop shape is often outlined by the fixed area. The area affected
by this means may be large or small. Hypo dust settling on the emulsion surface may
remain there to cause local fixation in its neighborhood. The cure is, of course, to
prevent hypo reaching the emulsion surfaces. Some of the common practices leading
to this sort of trouble include:
1. Carelessness in handling emulsions wet with fixer.
2. Carelessness in cleanliness of hands after contact with fixer.
3. Permitting drops of hypo to dry on tables or tank edges with subsequent
possible transmission to the emulsion surface by direct contact or by draughts of air.
4. Permitting powder remaining from handling hypo at time of mixing fixer to
reach the film.
Oil Spots. —
When heavy enough, oil or grease deposits on the surface of the emulsion
will prevent both development and fixation. Sometimes with lighter deposits,
only development is effectively prevented but fixation occurs, leaving a clear spot
in the emulsion layer. Under still other conditions, there may be a central, unfixed
area outlined by a clear line where fixation but not development took place.
Of course, no one intends to let oil or grease come in contact with the emulsion
surface, but it has been known to happen in many different cameras and darkrooms.
—
Spots from Desensitizing Particles. Occasionally there are white spots due to desen-
sitizing dust particles reaching the emulsion surface during manufacture. These are
relativelj^ much less frequent in occurrence than those from the causes noted.
Many black spots in prints and enlargements can be traced to white spots in the
negative used. Black spots from other causes are not so common as white spots.
Pinhole Fog Îreos.—Protecting paper covers, supposed to be light proof, sometimes
have pinholes which produce local high fog areas. The cure is care in selecting mate-
rial for such protecting covers, even when they may be considered onl}^ temporary.
Static Marks. —
When handled rapidly, particularly under dry conditions, dis-
charges of static electricity are sometimes produced which may leave many different
tj^pes of marks. Some marks are easily recognized as branching or tree static, and
some are less distinctive as more or less sharply defined black dots. In these cases, it
is often difficult to distinguish these markings definitely from other possible causes
of black spots.
Emulsion Aging.—Si&c^ spots are sometimes produced by aging of emulsions,
particularly when in contact with paper and stored under conditions of high tempera-
ture and humidity.
Chemical Dust. —
Many chemicals have been found which produce black spots in
the final picture. All unnecessary contacts with dust, dirt, and chemical powders are
to be avoided because of the danger from such contacts.
These causes of black spots are not all associated directly with development.
As distinct from spots, with their many sources, other than processing, streaks
rarely have other cause than some processing irregularity, and most frequently this
lies in development.
The retarding effect of products of development act in several different ways to

cause streaks and irregularities of development.
—
Eberhard Effect or Mackie Line. If a dark area is adjacent to one of less density,
the products of development of the dense area diffuse out into the neighboring area and
retard development more there than at points more distant from the high density.
Thus the high-density area outlines itself with a line or band of reduced density. This
effect is modified somewhat by the position of the emulsion layer during development.
Thus, if the emulsion layer is horizontal in stagnant developer, a uniform effect all
around the dense area is expected. On the other hand, if the emulsion layer is vertical,
the effect may be more pronounced below dense areas than above, as the products of
development are, in general, heavier than the original solution and hence tend to set-
tle, affecting areas below the dense area more than above it. This may be traced as a
streak an inch or so long under some conditions of development.
The effect of uniform motion of an emulsion layer, such as that produced in many
motion-picture developing machines, has an effect very similar to that just outlined,
except for the fact that in this case it is no.t gravity but the motion of the film through
the viscous developer that tends to sweep development products back along the film
and thus modify the development. For regularly arranged exposures, such as
sensitometric test strips, this effect has been studied considerably, and considerable
difference found at times. As a result, sensitometric exposures used in motion-
picture laboratories are usually developed with the toe or low-density end leading.
These most noticeable under conditions such that there is a large density
effects are
difference between one area and its neighbor. They are less and less noticeable
as the density difference diminishes and as the developer agitation is increased. The
agitation evens out the development and makes it less subject to these local effects.
Irregularities of Agitation.-—-Uneven and irregular agitation can be produced in
many ways. When the developer is nearly stagnant, small temperature differences
may set up thermal currents sufficiently great to produce streaks.
As the agitation increases, disturbance due to this cause is less important, but
regular hues of rapid and slow flow may be set up with resulting uneven development
agitation. Holes in films and film hangers are a frequent contributing cause of streaks
due to systematic differences in agitation. Such holes may produce local turbulence
and agitation increasing development locally. An extreme case of this occurred when
some motion-picture film was being developed in a "Stineman tank." This tank held
the film in a spiral, wound on a form in a horizontal plane. The developer tray was
set in a water bath for temperature control, and this bath was agitated by a stream of
compressed air to insure uniformity of its own temperature. The resultant vibration
of the developer in the tray was enough to cause streaks from each sprocket hole.
These disappeared when the water bath was left completely stagnant during develop-
ment or when sufficient agitation was introduced by rotating the reel holding the film
to smooth out the uneveness due to the sprocket holes. Similarly, streaks on cut
films, developed in one of the common styles of developing hanger, can sometimes be
traced to the holes put in to lighten the frame and permit drainage of the solutions.
Reticulation. —
At times under unfavorable conditions of processing, the gelatin,
when it finally dries, is no longer smooth and even but is rough and presents an
orange-peel type of surface and, in the more extreme cases, a cracked appearance.
This condition is known as reticulation. It is usually caused by (1) solutions used
at too high a temperature, (2) too sudden changes in temperature going from solution
to solution, (3) too great changes of pH in going from solution to solution with con-
sequent rapid change in swelling of gelatin, or (4) unsuitably warm and humid drying
conditions. Care in selecting the working conditions and formulas to avoid the
hazards noted and to secure favorable conditions should result in avoidance of this
difficulty.
Formulas. —The choice of a suitable developing formula an essential part of
is
successful photographic work. Many different formulas may

be found in the litera-
ture recommended for very similar uses, with few comprehensive comparative tests
by which to judge their relative value. In the commercial field, when large bulks of
chemicals are to be handled, it is often necessary to consider the initial cost and useful
life more critically than necessary where the quantities in use are small. All these
factors make the evaluation and complete comparison of all possible formulas much
too broad and complex for fully detailed discussion. Accordingly, as a compromise
between uncritical listing of all formulas suggested and too broad generalizations, the
data are presented in the form of a limited number of typical formulas and tables
indicating the range of concentrations of the various developer ingredients representa-
tive of developers of the specific type under discussion. Of necessity there has been
a certain amount of arbitrariness in the selection of the individual formula listed as
typical. This should not be construed as meaning that other formula are not good,
but a complete presentation is, of course, impossible.
Developers for the Motion-picture Industry. Borax Negative Developers. Borax —
developers are used quite generally in the motion-picture industry for development of
picture negatives and variable-density sound-track negatives. The formula chosen
depends upon the emulsion type, the contrast desired, the degree of agitation used,
and the developing time considered desirable. The more concentrated and active
ords, developers are used which are much more active than the borax developers
just listed. This activity is secured by greater concentration and higher alkalinitj'.
The latter is probably the more important of the two factors.
Many considerations enter in the selection and use of such a formula. They
include:
1. Ability to give desired gamma in an economically short time.
2. Freedom from fog and veiling tendency.
3. Suitability of formula for prolonged maintenance of constant developer activity
by additions of buck-up solutions.
4. Freedom from tendency to stain.
5. Ability to produce pleasing tone quality in the prints.

6. Economy under conditions of use.
These limitations are more drastic than in the case of negative developers, as the
bulk development in the industry is the development of the positive prints, and
economy and uniformity of work are very necessary characteristics of the processing
procedures.
In this case, as in other cases, greater activity, when desired, is secured by increase
in alkalinity or in concentration or by decrease in bromide content. This last pro-
cedure not completely independent from a control point of view, since bromide goes
is
into the developer as a product of development, and hence developers which are used,
as these are of necessity, have appreciable bromide content; adding solution or buck up
is often mixed without bromide to keep the concentration down.
The alkalinity of the bath changes very little with use; consequently, most of the
aging effects are due to the exhaustion of the reducer and accumulation of products of
development.
Some silver in solution is usually found after the bath is old. This does not do
harm so long as it stays in solution, but sometimes it appears to contribute to
direct
dichromic fog or stain.
Formulas producing the highest contrast are used for title work where extreme
contrast is desired between the letter and the background. Economy often leads to
developing such films in the same solution as the picture prints, but when a difference
is made, it is in the direction indicated.
From elementary theory, variable-area sound records should also be developed to

a maximum difference in density between exposed and unexposed areas. However,
the advantage to be gained is often considered insufficient to warrant separate develop-
ing tanks and equipment.
Typical carbonate developers as used in this motion-picture industry are given in
Table III.
Developer No. 5 is typical of the positive formulas in use in the motion-picture
industry. Modifications are in use in some laboratories.
Developer No. 6 is more active than No. 5 and gives a higher contrast for the
same developing time.
Replenishing solutions are usually made with the same concentration as the original
but with all or part of the restrainer omitted, depending upon the balance sought
vmder actual operating conditions.
Portrait and Commercial Work. —
Through long years of work by many widely
separated individuals there has grown up a wide range of favorite formulas in this
class of work. It will not be possible to cover all the variations in this discussion.
Pyro-soda developers have been used for many years. They are most frequently
prepared by making three stock solutions, mixing and diluting them as needed for use.
The final developer oxidizes rapidly from contact with air and must be prepared just
before use for best results. Contrast characteristics of the final solution mav be
controlled by the balance of the amounts of the three stock solutions used in the
individual batch and by the dilution of the combination. Negatives with such
developers usually have a characteristic pyro stain, tending to give them a distinct
brownish tone. In extreme conditions this tone may be made heavy so that it will
stillremain after the silver js bleached out. Under ordinary conditions it is much less
apparent, though it still plays a part in printing, tending to increase the effective
printing contrast due to its brownish color more than it increases the visual appearance
of contrast. One accustomed to using this type of negative is apt to be disappointed in
results from a negative of similar visual quality made with developers not leaving this
stain image, as the prints from the latter tend to be less contrasty. The difference
is not such that it is possible to say that one is fundamentally better than the other
type of negative as both yield good results in the hands of experienced users.
Table III.-
No. 8 Metol-pyro Developer

Stock Solution, A
Metol 7 6 g.
. 1 oz.
Sodium bisulphite 7 5 g.
.
Pyro 30 . g.
Potassium bromide 4 2 . g.
Water to 1.01.
Stock Solution B
Sodium sulphite (anhydrous) 150 g
Water to 11.
Stock Solution C
Sodium carbonate (moiiohydrated) 90.0 g.
Water to 1.01.
—
Xuniber 10 is a more active developer than No. 9. Developing times may be

expected to be 4 to 6 min. at 65°F., tray development. The developer may be mixed
double or triple strength as stock solution and diluted appropriately for use.
Formulas with glycine as the reducing agent are also proposed for some classes of
work. They are not so commonly used as the others. One typical formula is
No. 11 Glycine Developer

Sodium sulphite, anhyd 25 g. 3 oz. 145 gr.
Potassium carbonate 50 g. 6 oz. 290 gr.
Glycine 10 g. 1 oz. 145 gr.
Water to make 1 1. 1 gal.
Number 11 may be expected to give normal development in 5 to 10 min. at 65°F.

tray development. For slower tank development it may be diluted one part of
developer and two parts water which will result in a development time of the order of
20 min. If desired, this developer may be mixed as stock solution at greater concen-
tration, up to five times the concentration indicated, and then diluted appropriately
before use.
Process Work. —In drawings or printed matter an extremely high
copying line
contrast between the lines and the background is desired. The emulsions made
particularly for this work are of contrasty type, but, to make full use of them, con-
trasty developing formulas are usually required. This high-contrast characteristic is
secured with metol-hydroquinone developers by using good concentrations of reducers
and high enough alkalinity to secure rapid.development. A relatively high potassium
bromide content is common also, to secure freedom from fog with development times
sufficient to come close to maximum possible contrasts.
Table V. Process Developers
No. 12 Range
Metric Avoirdupois Metric Avoirdupois
Rhodol (metol or Elon) 1.0 g. 58 gr. 1.0- 5 g. 58-290 gr.

Sodium sulphite (anhydrous) 75.0 g. 10 oz. 37 5-75
. g. 5-10 oz.
Hydroquinone 9.0 g. 1 oz. 87 gr. 6.0-10 g. 350 gr.-l oz. 145 gr.
Sodium carbonate (monohydrated) 30.0 g. 4 oz. 22 5-45
. g. 33-6 oz.
Potassium bromide 5.0 g. 290 gr. 3.0-12 g. 175 gr.-l oz. 260 gr.
Water to 1. 1. 1 gal. 11. 1 gal.
Number 12 may be expected to produce good contrast in 4 to 6 min. at 65°F.

If less contrast is may be diluted with an equal quantity
desired, one part of developer
of water.
Where still greater developer activitj' is required to give maximum contrast in
minimum time, carbonate no longer used for the alkali, but soda is used in its
is
place. High concentrations of both hydroquinone and bromide are typical.

The developer is usuallj' prepared as two stock solutions, as it does not keep well
after mixing. A tj'pical formula is:
No. 13 High-contrast Process Developer
Solution A
Hydroquinone 22 5 . g. 3 oz.
Sodium bisulphite 22 5 . g. 3 oz.
Potassium bromide 22 5 . g. '
3 oz.
AVater to make 1 1. 1 gal.
Solution B
Sodium hydroxide 52. 5 g. 7 oz.
Solution A is usually made by taking 750 cc. (3 qt.) of warm water and dissolving
the chemicals therein in the order given, then bringing to the volume indicated by the
addition of cold water. Care must be exercised in making solution B, which should be
mixed using cold water, as the solution of the hydroxide generates heat. For use,
take equal volumes of the two solutions, and mix them just before use. The develop-
ing time is usually about 2 min. at 65°F.
Lithe Developers. —
The maximum contrast requirements are encountered in
lithographic work where it is necessary to secure the maximum contrast between
exposed and unexposed areas. This is necessary both for line and half-tone work.
Special emulsions, formulas, and procedures are used to meet these needs, and some
of the developing formulas used are quite different than those encountered elsewhere
in photographic work. Both single-solution formulas and those mixed as two stock
solutions are recommended.
— :
Commercial Development of Roll Films and Film Packs. —Under the conditions
generally obtained in the commercial handling of amateur roll films, little individual
attention can be given, particularly as the range of exposures on any one film is
often so great that no one compensation of development could possibly be beneficial

to all the pictures. Accordingly, there is a considerable tendency to use developer
and development that will produce a good average out of the entire range of exposures.
For very obvious commercial reasons, the development time should be moderate, as
too short times would lead to difficulties in the control necessary for uniform quality,
and prolonged development reduces the output. A long useful life is also necessary
for satisfactory commercial work. A typical formula is
No. 17 Roll Film Developer

Rhodol (metol or Elon) . 75 g. 44 gr.
Sodium sulphite (anhydrous) 9 00 g. . 1 oz. 87 gr.
Sodium bisulphite 9 00 g.
. 1 oz. 87 gr.
Hydroquinone 3 00 g.
. ] 75 gr.
Pyro 0.75 g. 44 gr
Sodium carbonate (monohydrated) 22. 5 g. 3 oz.
Water to 1 1. 1 gal.
With this formula, normal development will take 7 to 14 min. at 65°F.,

No. 17,
depending upon the contrast desired and the films developed. The formula may be
made somewhat more active by increasing the concentration of reducers.
Developers for Papers. — In choosing a developer for a printing paper, contrast and
life must also be paid to the general tone
characteristics are important, but attention
of the final image. This tone can often be varied from cold tones, blacks and blue-
blacks, to warm tones, brown-blacks, by choice of developer formula. The same
formula frequently gives different tone quality on different papers. Hence no general
rules for selection of developer formula can be laid down here. In general any factor
which affects the grain-size distribution in the developed image will have an effect on
its tone. Sometimes the addition of special compounds is suggested to give partic-
ular tone characteristics. These are presumably effective through an effect on the
state of division of the silver particles making up the image.
The formulas recommended for different papers vary rather widely both in ratios
of original constituents and in dilution. Most commonly they are metol, hj'dro-
quinone, carbonate developers. In many cases they are originally mixed as concen-
trated stock solutions, then diluted and used as needed.
Table VII. Developers for Printing Papers
No. 18 Range
Rhodol (metol or Elon) 1.2 g. 70 gr. 0.6- 1 5 . g. 35- 87 gr.

Sodium sulphite (anhydrous) 19.0 g 2 oz. 232 gr. 7 5-22 5
. . g. 1- 3 oz.
Hydroquinone 4.0 g. 232 gr. 2.0- 6 . g. 115-350 gr
Sodium carbonate 26.0 g 3 oz. 200 gr. 7.5-30.0 g. 1- 4 oz.
I'otassium bromide 0.40 g 23 gr. 0.3- 1.5 g. 17- 87 gr.
Water to make 1 1. 1 gal. 1 1. 1 gal.
It is strongly recommended that papers be developed in the formulas suggested

by the manufacturers, as good print tone and contrast depend upon the use of a for-
mula suited to the paper.
. ——
—
Fine-grain Developers. Borax developers of the type discussed and listed for
motion-picture negatives are considered fine-grain developers. The grain is not so
fine as that which can be produced with some other types of formulas. As noted
in the general discussion of fine-grain development, a wide range of additions to various
basic types has been attempted, so much so that no attempt will be made to cover the
entire range of constituents and concentrations. Another limitation to completeness
in this case the fact that for commercial reasons the formulas of some of the success-
is
ful fine-grain developers have not been published.

The fact should be reiterated that overexposure and high values of gamma both
tend, within normal limits of work, to increase graininess of the final result. Much
of the value of fine-grain technique can be lost by inattention to such details of expo-
sure and processing.
Paraphenylenediamine is the reducer around which has centered many of the
attempts to produce particularly fine-grain images. Used with no other reducer in
weakly alkaline solution, such as that produced by sulphite, the graininess is equal to
or better than any other yet demonstrated. The effective emulsion speed is lower
than with more active developers of the borax type. This speed loss has been obviated
or reduced by the addition of a second reducer. Glycine has been used in this role in
one series of formulas.
Table VIII. Paraphenylenediamine Developers
No. 19 Range
Sodium sulphite (anhydrous) 90 g. 12 oz. 45-90 g. 6-12 oz.

p-Phenylenediamine (base) . 10 g. 1 oz. 145 gr. 6-12 g. 350 gr.-l oz. 260 gr.
Glycine 2g. 115 gr. 0-12 g. 0-1 oz. 260 gr.
Water to 1 1. 1 gal. 1 1. 1 gal.
Developers for X Rays. —For normal development of X-ray films an active con-
trasty developer is desired. A rather concentrated developer is usually used to
obtain the needed long-life characteristics, and this is accompanied with relatively high
bromide content to keep fog down.
On occasion. X-ray developer has been used as a nearly universal developer in some
laboratories, where it is the one developer always on hand. This practice is not to be
Table IX. Developer for X-ray Film
No. 20
Rhodol (nietol or Elon) 5.0 g. 290 gr. 2.0- 5 . g. 1 17-290 gr.

Sodium sulphite (anhydrous) 60.0 g. 8 oz. 45.0-105 g. 6- 13 oz.
Hydroquinone 7.5 g. 1 oz. 7.5- 10 g. 1- 1 oz. 145 gr.
Sodium carbonate (monohydrated) 50.0 g. 6 oz. 290 gr. 45 - 60 g. 6- 8 oz.
Potassium bromide 4.5 g. 260 gr. 4.0- 6.0 g. 232-350 gr.
Water to make 1 1. 1 gal. 1 1. 1 gal.
n'<'oni mended as leading to best results, but the formulas are probably as near general
applicabilit}'' as any.
High-temperatiire Processing.— When processing is to be done under conditions
such that it is impossible to keep the solutions from becoming warm, 80°F. or above, it
is usually necessary to take special precautions to keep the gelatin from softening too
much. Hardening agents may be used as prebath; H

P^r cent formaldehyde solution
may be used for this purpose.
A second method of meeting the situation is to use the developer loaded with
chemicals which tend to reduce the swelling of gelatin. Sodium sulphate is most
frequently used, though the sodium sulphite of the developer also tends to reduce
swelling. Sodium sulphite concentrations in from 100 to 200 g. per 1. protect the
gelatin greatly in warm solutions. Developing times should be kept as short as pos-
sible, and development should be followed immediately by a hardening stop bath and
good fixing bath with the shortest wash which will eliminate the hypo.
No. 21 For High Temperatures

Sodium sulphite (anhydrous) 50 g. 6 oz. 290 gr.
p-Aminophenol hydrochloride 7 g. 405 gr.
Sodium carbonate (monohydrated) 60 g. 8 oz.
Sodium sulphate (crystals) 100-200 g. 13 3-.26 6
. . oz.
Water to 11. 1 gal.
Development can be carried out up to 95°F. The development time varies with
the sulphate concentration. Times of tjae order of 1}^ min. may be expected with the
lower concentration and of the order of 3 min. with the higher concentration indicated.
—
Reversal Development. In reversal processing several special formulas have been
worked out. The requirements are somewhat different than in direct development
for other purposes. The first development of a reversal process must develop essen-
tially all the silver which was rendered developable by the first exposure. In some
cases a fog is intentionally developed to secure the desired characteristics from the
emulsion in use. The characteristics above are often secured from the normal devel-
oper constituents, but in addition to these, weak silver halide solvents are sometimes
introduced to (1) insure clear high lights or (2) reduce the tendency to brown tones.
In both cases, the effectiveness of the procedure is at least in part due to the fact that
the solubility of small grainsis greater than of large. These small grains are in general
slow, so they would be the ones least affected by first exposure and therefore most
likely toremain to veil high lights on second development. These small grains are
also the ones which would be expected to impart a brown tone to the final image.
These effects are not large and startling and probably differ in importance with differ-
ent emulsions, but the use of silver halide solvents in reversal development has been
important in some cases. The silver halide solvents used vary from hypo itself as a
very active solvent to potassium thiocyanate as a weak solvent.
No. 22 Reversal First Developer

Sodium sulphite (anhydrous) 50 ;. 6 oz
Rhodol (metol or Elon) 1
Hj'droquinone 8 g.
Sodium carbonate (monohydrated) 35 g,
Potassium bromide 5
Potassium thiocyanate 9
Water to 11.
Development times may be expected to lie in the range from 5 to 8 min. at 65°F.
All steps of exposure and reversal processing have to fit together closely to form a
complete reversal system designed to conform to the individual stock processed, hence
no very exact figures can be given in this rather general discussion.
—
Rapid Processing. All the formulas considered so far for materials other than
papers have been designed for developing times of a number of minutes. In some
cases, it is very desirable to develop the emulsions in much less time and various
formulas have been worked out to reduce developing times to a minimum. Needless
to say, such rapid processing methods can rarely be worked out to give the extreme
activity with as good quality and control as the more usual formulas. Use is made of
accelerating action of high alkalinity and concentration, so these formulas are not
particularly economical, but they find a place where rapidity of development is of
paramount importance.
One formula is given below:
No. 23 Rapid Developer
Sodium sulphite (anhydrous) 187.0 g. 1 lb. 9 oz.
Rhodol (metol or Elon) 21.5 g. 2 oz. 375 gr.
Hydroquinone 43.0 g. 5 oz. 315 gr.
Sodium hydroxide 43.0 g. 5 oz. 315 gr.
The developing time is usually of the order of II2 min. at 65°F. After develop-
ment a 5 per cent acetic acid stop bath should be used, followed bj^ fixation in hypo
with good hardening action.
—
Physical Development. The primarj' distinction between chemical and physical
development is the source of the silver. In chemical development the silver deposit
is essentially produced by reduction in situ, of the original halide. In physical
development the silver is originally in the developer itself and deposits out on nucleuses
to form the final image. The distinction becomes somewhat arbitrary and hard to
define for a limiting case such that the first action of the developer is to dissolve silver
halide, thus charging the developer with a soluble silver salt, then subsequent deposit
from the solution on the nuclei. Probably ordinary development partakes at least
to some extent of this nature, though the action of depositing silver is probably very
local in nature and the body of the solution never contains any great quantity of
silver salts.
Physical development is of interest fortwo reasons, as it gives an additional tool
for the study of the nature of the latent image and as it produces images of unusually
fine grain under the best conditions.
Physical development can be carried out after fixation, thus proving that the
"latent image" is in reality of quite different nature than the silver halide itself.
Fixation in a neutral or alkaline hypo solution is more favorable for this effect than
the use of an acid fixing bath. This may be connected with the fact that acid fixing
baths tend to attack or dissolve the silver of the developed image. Possibly there is a
similar solvent action on the minute quantities of whatever material composes the
"latent image." The probability of this connection is enhanced by the fact that there
is other evidence which also indicates that the latent image is silver deposited in
submicroscopic quantities in the gelatin.

In handling physical developers difficulty is often experienced, as they tend to
deposit silver on other surfaces, such as the sides of the dish in which the development
is taking place. The developing formulas are closely related to baths such as are
used in silvering mirrors. The difficulties of the process and the very low effective
emulsion speeds obtained, coupled with the small advantages to be gained, have kept
physical development in a minor role in photographic processing.
Some attempts have been made to secure the fine grain rather generally credited to
physical development without all its attendant disadvantages and uncertainties.
Some success has been reported, but some others have failed in their attempts to
obtain similar favorable results. The reasoris for these diverse and opposing views
have not been established. A procedure recently recommended for physical develop-
ment before fixation involves the following steps:
1. Treatment with potassium iodide bath.
2. Rinse.
3. Development in silver-salt bearing physical developer.
4. Fixation.
5. Washing and drjang.
The baths suggested are:
For Step 1:
Potassium iodide 10 g. 1 oz. 145 gr.

Sodium sulphite (anhydrous) 25 g. 3 oz. 145 gr.
Water to 11. 1 gal.
For Step 3;
No. 24
Stock Silver Solution
Sodium thiosulphate (hypo) (crystal) 160 g. 1 lb. 5 oz. 145 gr.
Sodium sulphite (anhydrous) 60 g. 8 oz.
Silver nitrate (crystal) 16 g. 2 oz. 58 gr.
Water to 11. 1 gaL
For use, add 1 part stock silver solution to 4 parts water, and add reducing
agent as directed below.
To make up this stock silver solution, dissolve the sodium sulphite in 300 cc.
(40 oz.) of water, then dissolve the silver nitrate in 100 cc. (16 oz.) of water and add
to the sulphite solution, stirring until the white curdy precipitate dissolves. Dilute
the whole to 950 cc. (120 oz.) with water, add the thiosulphate, and stir until complete
solution is obtained, after which the volume of the solution should be 1 1. (1 gal.).
Filter through cotton. The solution is fairlj^ stable and keeps well.
At the time of use of the developer, for each liter of diluted solution add 1.7 g.
of Amidol, or for each 15 oz. of diluted solution add 12 gr. of Amidol, and stir until
completely dissolved. The Ainidol should not be added to the solution more than
10 min. before the development is to start.
With tray development, 35 min. to 1 hr. has been recommended. Metals other
than stainless steel or chromium plate are to be avoided and hard rubber or bakelite
is preferred.
The special silver-bearing developer just described maj' be used for physical devel-
opment after fixation if that is attempted. Greatly increased exposures are required
over those needed with ordinary chemical development. Fixation should be carried
on in the dark, with rather dilute neutral or alkaline hj'po, such as represented by
the formula below:
Sodium thiosulphate (hypo) (crystal) 45 g. 6 oz.
Ammonium hydroxide (sp. gr. 0.90) 2 cc. 2 fl. dram.
Water to 11. 1 gal.
The plate is to be removed from the hypo as .soon as cleared and washed very
thoroughly in water after which it may be developed immediately or dried and devel-
oped later.
—
Developers with Special Properties. During the years of study of developers and
development, various special effects have been discovered beyond the basic process of
development.
Low-sulphite Pyro. —Pyro developers containing little sulphite produce two effects
aside from the actual development, i.e.. the reduction of the exposed halide of the
emulsion to silver. They harden the gelatin locally, in the region where the silver
deposit occurs, and they leave an insoluble oxidation product of the pyro along with
the silver image. The existence and extent of this image may be shown by removal
of the silver after such development. When weak, this is merely the familiar "pyro
stain," but conditions may be chosen which make this quite a strong brownish image.
The first of these effects has been used to produce relief images of the type some-
times used in imbibition printing processes, particularly those used in color processes.
When the original exposure is made through the transparent emulsion support,
images can be produced close to that support and differing in thickness, depending
upon the exposure received. This latter effect, difference in thickness of deposit with
exposure, is enhanced by using an exposing light to which the emulsion is strongly
absorbent, thus using the absorption characteristics of the emulsion itself to secure
relief characteristics for the image; or, alternatively, to use a dyed gelatin to enhance
the inherent optical absorption of the emulsion and thus enhance the image depth-
exposure relationship. In either case, after development in the pyro developer
without sulphite, the soft gelatin above the image which is hardened locally by
development is washed off by warm water. A relief image thus results, which can be
used for imbibition transfers and printing.
Several articles have been written concerning this subject. These formulas are
taken from a summary in "The New Photo Miniature," old series, #207, new series #2,
July 1935, by A. F. Odell.
A formula proposed for this hardening effect is:
No. 25 Hardening Pyro Developer
Pyro 8.2 g. 1 oz. 40 gr.
Citric acid 0. 2 g. 12 gr.
Potassium bromide 4.0 g. 235 gr.
Sodium hydroxide 3.4 g. 200 gr.
Ammonium chloride 1 . 7 g. 100 gr.
A 2-min. development at 65° has been suggested, followed by a wash at 110 to

130°F. to remove the soft gelatin. The exposures for this work are made through the
emulsion support.
Less practical use has been made of the colored image resulting from the deposit of
the insoluble oxidation product of pyro along with the silver image. The fact that
pyro-developed images tend to produce higher printing contrast than more nearly
neutral-toned images of similar appearance was mentioned before. Some attempts
have been made to use this color image as a yellow or minus-blue image in color
photography, but it is not a good yellow, and its use has not been satisfactory.
Color-forming Developers. —
A method for producing colored images by color-
forming developers has been known for many years but has not been used to any
extent until some of the recent work on color photography. In 1912 some procedures
were described which resulted in the deposit of a colored compound along with the
developed silver. In addition to the insoluble pyro oxidation product noted above,
a wide range of colors can be produced by the use of " color formers " and color-forming
developers. The colored deposit is the result of coupling the oxidation product of the
reducing agent of the developer with a compound which may be in the developer solu-
tion or in the photographic emulsion itself to form in situ a new insoluble colored com-
pound. This compound is little in evidence while the silver image is present but is
very evident upon removing the silver by bleaching, and a very wide range of colors
may be produced.
Only a few of the wide range of photographic developing agents lend themselves
to this work, but a wide range of color formers is known for addition to the developer
to produce many different shades. The developing agents are:
:
p-Phenylenediamine
Ethyl p-phenylenediamine
Diethyl p-phenylenediamine
Methyl p-phenj'lenediamine
Dimethyl p-phenylenediamine
These are sometimes supplied as the hydrochloride.
The methyl compounds are toxic to most people, the mono-compounds frequently
give poor colors, as does the p-phenylenediamine itself leaving the diethyl p-phenyl-
enediamine, usually supplied as the hj^drochloride, as the most important agent for this
special field. When this is used as the color-forming developer, a large number of
compounds can be used to produce colors. A few are listed below:
For yellows:
Acetoacet-2,5-dichloranilide
Acetoacetanilide
Acetoacet-o-chloroanilide
For magenta:
p-Xitrophenylacetonitrile
l-Phenyl-3-methyl-5-pyrazolono
For blue to blue-green
Alpha-naphthol
o-Hydroxydiphenyl
4-Chlorophenylphenol
In case commercial use of color formers is contemplated, the patent situation

should be thoroughlj^ investigated, as many are covered bj^ patents, though the
patents expired some years ago on the compounds used in the earlier work in this field.
Color can be produced by the direct development of the latent image, but the
reducers and formulas used are rather weak as developers; it is somewhat simpler to
develop and fix the emulsion as usual, then bleach and redevelop in the appropriate
formula. This redevelopment again deposits the silver image which must be removed
in turn by additional bleaching and fixation or equivalent steps.
A typical procedure for producing a colored image in positive motion-picture film
for example is:
1. Expose and develop as for any ordinary print.
2. Rinse, fix, wash, and dry (if desired).
3. Bleach to silver ferrocyanide in:
Potassium ferricyanide 37 o . g. 5 oz.

Ammonia (concentrated) 5 . cc. 5 fl. dr.
Water to 1 1. 1 sal.
4. Wash thoroughly
5. Redevelop in:
Diethyl p-phenylenediamine hydrochloride 3 g. 175 gr.
Sodium sulphite (anhydrous) 5 g. 290 gr.
Sodium carbonate (monohydrated) 35 g. 4 oz. 290 gr.
Water to 11. . 1 sal.
to which the following solution has been added just before use:
Color former J-i-2 g. 15-120 gr.
Alcohol 100 cc. 12K fl. oz.

The solution of diethyl p-phenylenediamine hydrochloride does not keep well,

hence it should be made up only a short time before use.
6. Wash
7. Bleach in the same formula as used for step 3
8. Wash
9. Fix in a hypo solution free from acids and sulphites as they bleach many of the
colors formed. A plain hypo bath of 20 to 30 per cent strength is suitable.
10. Wash, and dry as usual.
Extensions and variations of this process are used at present in experimental color
processes. Accordingly, there is considerable activity in this field and new color
formers, formulas, and processing methods appear imminent.
Bibliography
Mebs, C. E. K., and S. H. Wratten: Development by Time,

Brit. J. Phot., 57, 376 {\9\0); Phot. ./., 60,
403 (1910).
Watkins, a.: Testing tlie Developing Speed of Plates, Brit. J. Phot., 68, 383 (1921).
Neitz, a. H., and A. Whitaker: Effects of Dilution and Stirring of a Photographic Developer, BHt. J.
Phot., 73, 630, 645, 660 (1926).
Crabtree, J. I.: Grainness of Motion Picture Film, J. Soc. Motion Picture Engrs., 27, 77 (1927).
Carlton, H. C, and J. I. Crabtree: Some Properties of Fine Grain Developers for Motion Picture
Films, J. Soc. Motion Picture Engrs., 38, 406 (1929).

Crabtree, J. I.: Directional Effects in Continuous Film Processing, J. Soc. Motion Picture Engrs., 19,
207 (1932).
Sease, V. B.: Some Notes on Fine Grain Negatives, Camera, 47, 1 (1933).
Arey, I,eslie, B.: Ultra-Fine Grain by Modified Development, Am. Phot., November, 1934, p. 682.
Crabtree, J. I.: Uniformity in Photographic Development, J. Soc. Motion Picture Engrs., 25, 512
(1935).
Farthing, J. W.: Processing Films at High Temperatures, Am. Phot., December, 1935, p. 729.
Parker, H., and J. I. Crabtree: Rapid Processing Methods, Communication 577, Eastman Research
Laboratories. See also Am. Phot., March, 1936, p. 142; February, 1936, p. 67.
English, F. L.: Some Factors Affecting Grain Size, Am. Phot., May, 1937, p. 305.
Murray, H. D., and D. A. Spencer: The Addition of Silver Iron, Reactants to Organic Developing
Solutions, Phot. J., July, 1937, p. 458.
Evans, R. M., and W. T. Hanson
Jr.: Photographic Development and the Latent Image, Phot.
J., August, 1937, See also Communication 615 from the Eastman Research Laboratories.
p. 497.
Crabtree, J. I.: Maintenance of Negative Quality, Am. Phot., November, 1937, p. 800.
Smethusst, p. C: Developer Agitation in Plate Tanks, Brit. J. Phot., 84, 664 (1937).
Reinders, W., and M. C. F. Beukers: Fine Grain Developers and a Method of Determining Grain
Size, Phot. J., April, 1938, p. 192.
Evans, R. M., and W. T. Hanson Jr.: Reduction Potential and Composition of MQ
Developers, J.
Soc. Motion Picture Engrs., May, 1938, p. 559.
Ste\'ENS, G. W. W., and R. G. W. Norrish: Mechanism of Photographic Reversal, Phot. ./., August,
1938, p. 513.
Evans, R. M.: Maintenance of a Developer by Continuous Replenishment, J. Soc. Motion Picture
Engrs., September, 1938, p. 273.
Crabtree, J. I., and R, W. Henn: A New Fine Grain Developer, Camera, January, 1939, p. 40.
CHAPTER XIII
FIXING, WASHING, AND DRYING

By Beverly Dudley
In general, the processing of photographic materials subsequent to that of develop-
ment includes: (1) rinsing the negatives in a short-stop bath to stop development and
to make the materials acid in order to prevent alkalinization of the fixing bath; (2)
fixing the material so that the developed latent image may be permanent; (3) washing
the material to rid it of the fixing solution which, in time, would otherwise stain it;
and (4) drying. Sometimes one or more of these processes may be omitted. For
example, short-stop baths are frequently dispensed with bj'- the amateur who processes
a relatively small quantity of material, and where the element of time is of importance,
as it is in newspaper work, negatives may be used while they are still wet. But the
normal procedure follows the processes enumerated above, and these will be dealt with
in this chapter.
—
Short-stop Baths. Function of the Short-stop Bath. The short-stop bath has two
important functions. Its main purpose is to arrest development of the latent image
after the photographic material is removed from the developer. If some short-stop
bath is not employed, the film of developer solution adhering to the negative or print
continues to develop the latent image much the same as if the photographic material
were permitted to remain in the developing solution. The second purpose of the
short-stop bath is to prevent the photographic material from carrying alkaline solu-
tions from the developer into the fixing bath where an excess of alkali renders the fixing
solution useless. The alkaline solutions which adhere to the film from the developer
may be partially removed by washing the film thoroughlj^ in water before fixing, but
removal of the alkali is made much more effective by placing the photographic material
in a short-stop bath or acid solution before fixing. The use of short-stop baths aids
in the prevention of fog and developer stains and helps to prevent sludging of the fixing
bath. If the acid short-stop bath contains hardening ingredients, it is possible to
eliminate the hardening agents in the fixing bath.
Desirable Properties of Short-stop Baths.—The desirable properties of short-stop
baths have been summarized by Crabtree and RusselP in the following manner:
1. The bath must be distinctly acid and to be efficient must remain acid during the
life of the fixing bath. Although the stop bath must be sufficiently acid to insure long
life, when the film leaves the bath, it is more or less acid and will therefore increase the
free-acid content of the fixing bath which in turn will increase the tendency of the
latter to sulphurize. The choice of acids therefore depends upon the propensity of
the acid to precipitate sulphur in a hypo solution.
2. A stop bath should not be sufficiently acid to cause blisters, and the limit of
acidity in this case is much less than in the case of a fixing bath because the alkalinity
of the film is much greater when removed from the developer than after a slight rinse
and previous to the immersion in the fixing bath.
1 Cbabtbee, J. I., and H. D. Russell, Some Properties of Chrome Alum Stop Baths and Fixing
Baths, J. Soc. Motion Picture Engrs., 14 (No. 5), 483-512 (1930).
378
. — 5
FIXING, WASHING, AND DRYING 379
3. A hardening stop bath should have properties similar to those of a plain acid
stop bath and in addition should produce satisfactory hardening throughout its life.
Since the hardening produced by alum mixtures varies with the quantity of developer
or alkali added, it is apparent that an acid hardening stop bath will not produce
uniform hardening except for a limited time unless it is suitably revived.

—
Composition of Stop Baths. The composition of a number of suitable stop baths is
given in Table I. The chemicals should be mixed in the order in which they are given.
The 28 per cent acetic acid required for one of these stop baths may be made from
glacial acetic acid bj' diluting 3 parts of glacial acetic acid with 8 parts of water.
Table I. Composition of Stop Baths
Nonhardening Hardening
Constituents
Lantern
Recommended for. Bromide prints Films and plates
slides
Sodium sulphate, g 192

Sulphuric acid, cc 83..
Chrome alum, g 20
Sodium bisulphite, g 20
Acetic acid (28 per cent), cc. 48 38.5
Potassium metabisulphide, g. 50
Potassium chrome alum, g. . . 30
Water to make, 1 1 .0 1.0 1.0 1.0
1 Does not keep well.
With the acetic acid stop bath, negatives or prints should be immersed in the stop
bath for about 5 sec. before fixing.
The potassium chrome alum stop bath is especially suitable for use in hot weather.
When immersed in this hardening stop bath the negatives should be agitated for the
first 30 or 40 sec. They should remain in this bath for 3 min. Agitation of the film.
assists in the prevention of blisters due to the decomposition of carbonate in the
developer by the chrome alum and prevents stains due to the precipitation of chro-
mium hydroxide by the alkali of the developer. This bath may require frequent
renewal.
Processing Conditions. —^To reduce to a minimum all tendency toward reticulation
or uneven swelling of the gelatin, it is desirable that all processing solutions be main-
tained at the same temperatures. Since the temperature at which the processing
solutions are used is usually determined by the temperature of satisfactory operation
of the developer, which is usually between 65 to 70°F., it is desirable that the stop
baths be used in this temperature range. The potassium chrome alum stop bath,
however, may be used at temperatures considerably above this if it becomes necessary
to operate with warmer solutions.
It is advisable to agitate the photographic materials immediately upon immersion
in the stop bath.
The when a sludge forms either in the bath or on the
stop bath should be discarded
when the bath fails to harden the gelatin
films or, in the case of hardening baths,
emulsion. Some revival of baths may be accomplished by adding sufficient acid to
maintain the original acidity. In many cases however^ it will be more satisfactory
to replace the exhausted solution with a new one, rather than to attempt to replenish
it by the addition of acid.
Most developers contain carbonates which may be decomposed bj'' the acid in the
stop bath with the liberation of carbon dioxide. The evolution of carbon dioxide is
prone to cause the emulsion to blister, especially if the materials are not agitated upon
immersion in the stop bath. It may, therefore, be good practice to rinse the films or
prints for a few seconds in clear water before placing them in the stop bath in order to
remove as much of the developer as possible. This procedure will, however, dilute the
stop bath.
Since the stop bath prevents development, no harm will be done if the films or
prints are left in the stop bath untilit is convenient to transfer them to the fixing
solution. This procedure may be convenient where a small quantity of work is being
done, since it permits the operator to prevent contamination of the developer with
hypo which might be picked up on the fingers from the fixing solution.
Fixing. —
Purpose of Fixing. After development of the photosensitive material
(either film, plate, or paper) the emulsion contains the metallic silver image which has
been reduced from a silver halide during the process of development; it also contains
grains of silver haUde which have not been acted upon by light during exposure and
which, consequently, have not been changed to metallic silver during development.
This remaining silver salt is still sensitive to light, even if the photosensitive material
is desensitized, and the salt will therefore ultimately become dark and mask the image.
To prevent this action from taking place and to assure that the image will remain
permanent, a fixing bath is employed. Permanance of the image may be accomplished
either by (1) rendering the unexposed silver salt as permanent as the metallic silver
and preventing its subsequent exposure or bj^ (2) dissolving away the salt from the
metallic silver image. In practice the latter method is universally employed.
The silver salts for which the fixing bath must be solvent are silver chloride, silver
bromide, and silver iodide. Silver bromide is the most common, although all three
may be present. All three of these halides are soluble in potassium cyanide (KCN),
ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH), and sodium thiosulphite (Na2S203), but not all
these solvents are suitable for ordinary photographic work. Potassium cyanide, for
example, is highly poisonous, has a softening effect on the gelatin and is also a solvent
for metallic silver. Ammonium hydroxide produces the objectionable and pungent
odor of ammonia (NH3). Sodium thiosulphite, commonly known as "hypo" from its
other chemical name, sodium hyposulphite, is the onlj^ other alternative of the com-
monly available materials and is used almost exclusively in photographic fixing baths.
Chemistry of Fixing. — The chemistry of fixation, like practically all photographic
chemistry, is rather involved and highly complicated, especially since many chemical
compounds may be formed during the fixing process. No attempt will be made to
indicate in any detail the possible chemical reactions which are thought to take place;
an equation or two indicating the rationale of the essential operations may not, how-
ever, be entirely out of order.
The exposed and developed, but unfixed, photographic material contains deposits
which we may designate as AgF, if we
of metallic silver (Ag) as well as of silver halide
understand the symbol Y to represent the appropriate halogen, usually bromide.
Thus the developed film contains the compounds Ag + AgF, and it is desired to
remove the halide leaving only the metallic silver. If the developed film is immersed
in a solution of sodium thiosulphate Na2S203, the chemical reactions may be
described as
3Ag + SAgF + XNa2S203 = 3Ag + 3NaF + Na6Ag3(S203)4 +

(X - 4)Na2S203 (1)
:
The first term on the right side of the equation represents the metalUc silver which
remains on the photographic film and is unaffected (for the most partO by the sodium
thiosulphate. The two middle terms represent compounds in solution in the hypo
bath, while the last term shows how much hypo remains. Several silver-sodium
thiosulphate compounds beside that shown are possible, and it is probable that a
number of different ones coexist in equilibrium in the solution. Which particular
compounds are present depends upon the concentration of silver or upon the exhaus-
tion of the solution. A highly exhausted hypo bath may contain an appreciable quan-
tity of NaAgS203, which is only slightly soluble and somewhat unstable. Because
of the low solubility, this compound will be difficult to wash out from the film. It is
also unstable and may break down to form silver sulphide (Ag2S), which produces
stains. It is important to observe that the amount of fresh hypo solution has been
reduced from XNa2S20s to (X — 4)Na2S203, so that it will be less effective in subse-
quent fixations than in the original bath.
If only metallic silver and silver halide were brought over into the fixing solution, as
indicated in the equation above, sodium thiosulphate would be a satisfactory solvent
for the halide and would be a suitable fixing solution. However, the film carries over
into the fixing solution a certain amount of the developer solution. The developer
solution in the hypo oxidizes, and the oxidation products produce stains. This
situation may be prevented through the use of a stop bath or, if this is not convenient,
by adding. to the fixing bath some substance which prevents the oxidation of the
developer solution in the fixing bath, as well as an acid to neutralize the alkalinity
of the developer. The addition of the acid (which is usually sodium sulphite) in the
fixing bath also aids in preventing oxidation of the developing agent.
While fixing baths containing the silver halide solvent (hypo), an oxidation
preventive (sodium sulphite) and an acid or acid sulphite (such as acetic acid or
sodium bisulphite) produce a suitable fixing solution, a hardening agent is also usually
added. This is desirable because the hardened film is not so easily damaged in
handling and in subsequent operations as a nonhardened film. The three most impor-
tant gelatin hardeners are: (1) potassium alum [K2S04-A1(S04)3-24H20]; (2) chrome
alum [K2S04-Cr2(S04)3-24H20]; and (3) formalin, which is a 40 per cent solution of
formaldehyde (HCHO) in water.
Unless a stop bath is employed, free acid in a fixing bath is a necessity to prevent
stains due to oxidation of the developer in the fixing bath. So far as the neutraliza-
tion of the alkalinity of the developer is concerned, any acid might be used. Prac-
tically, however, the use of a strong acid results in the liberation of sulphur which in
turn reacts with metallic silver to produce stains of silver sulphide, according to the
equations
Na2S203 + 2HC1 = 2NaCl + H2SO3 + S (2)
2Ag + S = Ag2S (3)
Mechanism of Fixing. — In a given period time and with active agitation of a

of
fresh fixing bath whose volume is large compared to that of the material being fixed,
a certain portion of the silver bromide originally present in the photosensitive material
will be dissolved. In the next unit of time the same fraction of the silver which
remains after the end of the first time interval will be dissolved, and so on. In timc^
intervals of the same duration the same fraction of the remaining silver will be dis-
solved. The amount of sihêr dissolved in each time interval will decrease with time.
The dissolving of the silver bromide is therefore a geometric or exponential process
1 See Russell, H. D., and J. I. Crabtree, The Reducing Action of Fixing Baths on the Silver
Image, J. Soc. Motion Picture Engrs., 18 (No. 3), 371-397 (1932), for a study of deviations from this
general statement.
rather than an arithmetic one. Since a certain fraction rather than a certain amount
of the silver bromide is dissolved in each time interval, it is theoretically impossible
for all the bromide to become dissolved, although the amount remaining undissolved
may be made as small as may be desired by leaving the photographic material
immersed in the fixing bath for a sufEcientlj' long period of time.
Quantitativel.y, the amount of silver bromide left 'in the negative at any time can
be computed in terms of the original amount of silver bromide when the law expressing
the rate of dissolution is known. If the temperature and concentration of the fixing
bath are maintained constant, the rate at which the silver bromide dissolves is (at
least for a first approximation) proportional to the original amoimt of the salt and is
also proportional to (1 — k) where k is the fraction of the bromide dissolved in unit
time. If aS is the amount of the salt (silver bromide) remaining after any time t, the
rate at which the silver bromide dissolves is expressed by the equation
^ = ~AS[l - k) (4)
where A is a constant which depends upon the units used and is to be determined
experimentally. By separating the variables, integrating, and transforming from the
logarithmic to the exponential form, the amount of undissolved salt S at any time t
is given by the expression
S = e-^ <!-*>'
•
(5)
The factor k is termed the velocity constant of fixation and depends upon the
temperature and concentration of the fixing bath. It is dependent upon the amount
of silver bromide and the condition of the gelatin, although, for a given set of condi-
tions, k is larger for chloride than for bromide emulsions, so that the latter would
require a somewhat longer time for the same proportion of bromide to become dissolved.
From a theoretical point of view, an infinitely long time would be required to
dissolve out completely all the bromide in a negative or plate. However, it is desirable
to know at least approximately what length of time will be required to fix the photo-
graphic materials satisfactorily from a practical point of view. From the formulas
which have alreadj^ been developed, it can be shown that the time of fixing is
t
Ail -h k)
'^^'
(I) ^'^
where 52 = the amount

bromide left undissolved at the end of the fixing time;
of
Si ,= the amount
bromide originally present.
of
Since this equation involves the ratio of S2 to S\, we may determine the time of fixing
for the bromide to be reduced to any fraction of its original value. A common prac-
tice in photography is to determine the "time of clearing" of a negative and to use this
as the minimum time of fixation. The clearing time is that required for the negative
to become from its opalescence. It is claimed by Warwick that from 5 to 12.5 per
free ^
cent of the bromide remains imdissolved when the negatiAê is just cleared of its
opalescence. If we use a value of 10 per cent as representing an average value, then
S-z./Si = 0.1 and log, (So/Si) = -2.3026. Thus the time of clearing is
2-30^6
= ^"
(7)
.1(1 - k)
The equations developed may be regarded as giving some insight into the mecha-
nism of operation of the fixing bath. As a general rule, the temperature and concen-
1 WAR'mcK, W. A., The Laws of Fixation, Am. Phot., November, 1918.
tration of the fixing baths used in practice vary so widely throughout their life that
an evaluation of the constants is likely to be merely of academic interest.
So far as the physical action and effects taking place are concerned, the rate of
fixation is determined largely by the penetration of the sodium thiosulphate through
the film, because the chemical action takes place rapidly compared with the rate of
penetration of the hypo. Of course, the rate of fixing depends upon the agitation of
the fixing solution over the photosensitive material, as well as the freshness of the
fixing solution. If agitation is than that which
lacking, the rate of fixing will be less
might otherwise be expected. In an unagitated fixing bath the chemical reactions
take place only at the surface of the material, and any additional removal of silver
halide then becomes dependent upon the relatively slow process of diffusion rather
than upon mere solubility.
Requirements of a Fixing Bath. —To be perfectly satisfactory, a fixing bath should
fulfill the following six requirements:
1. Throughout its life, the fixing bath should dissolve the silver halide from the
emulsion without staining the photographic material.

2. The fixing bath should not precipitate sulphur, even when used at fairly high
temperatures.
3. Throughout its useful life, the fixing bath should not precipitate aluminum
sulphate.
4. The bath should not produce blisters in the gelatin coating of the film.
5. The fixing bath should provide a satisfactory degree of hardening.
6. The fixing bath should be economical, i.e., its cost in terms of the amount of
material fixed should be as low as possible.
Uneven stains are objectionable because of the denser image they produce in the
final print. Uniform, colored stains may not be injurious in a negative from which
positive prints are to be made. They may be objectionable in positive motion-picture
film or in paper prints.
If the second requirement is not met, more or less colloidal sulphur will be pre-
cipitated in the gelatin of the fUm. The precipitated sulphur cannot be removed by
washing, since sulphur is insoluble in water; it will, however, combine with the silver
of the fixed negative, ultimately causing silver sulphide stains and fading of the image.
A precipitate of aluminum sulphite forms when the fixing bath becomes neutralized
by the alkaline of the developer which is carried over into the fixing bath. The
aluminum sulphite occurs as a reaction of the alum hardening agent with the alkaline
sulphite preservative.
Blisters are usually produced in the fixing bath by the too rapid formation of carbon
dioxide gas. Bubbles or gas pockets of carbon dioxide may then form within the
gelatin layer which may finally break. The carbon dioxide is formed by the carbonate
of the developer carried over into the fixing bath reacting with the acid of the acid
hardening fixing solution.
Hardening is useful primarily to retard the swelling of the gelatin coating so that
the film may be dried more rapidly than if it is not hardened. In unswollen and
hardened film a minimum of water is present, and consequently drying may proceed
rapidly. Hardened films may also be dried at higher temperature than unhardened
film without the potential danger of softening or melting the gelatin coating. Harden-
ing may not be required if the gelatin does not swell so much during the processing
that the film may be handled and dried satisfactorily. However, the hardening agent
may be conveniently added to the fixing bath so easily that it is worth while to employ
the hardener as a safeguard.
Classification of Fixing Baths. —
Several types of fixing baths are in common use
and may be classified as follows:
1. Nonhardening fixing baths

a. Plain hypo baths
h. Acid hypo baths
2. Acid hardening fixing baths

The purpose of the plain hypo fixing bath is simply to dissolve the silver halide
from the emidsion so that the sensitized grains will not be subject to exposure after
development and thereby ultimately stain the photographic material. Acid fixing
baths fulfill the same purpose, but, in addition, the acid neutralizes the alkali which is
carried over from the developer into the fixing bath so that the fixing bath may be
used over a longer period of time. The purpose of the acid hardening fixing bath,
which is probably the most convenient and frequentty used form of bath, is (1) to
dissolve the silver halide, (2) to neutralize the alkali carried over from the developer
into the fixing bath by the photographic material, and (3) to harden the emulsion so
that it is easier to manipulate without danger of damaging it. A definite quantity of
acid hardener is added to a specified amount of plain hj'po solution to prevent troubles
which might otherwise arise during the process of fixation.
After the negative or positive has been developed the desired length of time, it is
necessary to stop development promptly. One method of accomplishing this is to
remove the photographic material from the developing solution and rinse it in clear
water which dilutes the developer clinging to the photographic material and con-
sequently removes most of the adhering developing solution. However, this rinsing
is never sufficiently complete to stop development entirely as some of the developer
remains in the pores of the gelatin coating. If the photographic material is rinsed in
an acid bath instead of in clear water, the acid will neutralize the alkali of the developer
so that development can no longer continue. The immediate stopping of development
eliminates stains which might otherwise appear on negatives and prints if only a plain
solution of sodium thiosulphate were used in the fixing bath.
The alkali in the developer, which is added to energize the developing agent,
softens the gelatin of the emulsion, thereby rendering the photographic material
more susceptible to damage. The acid hardener is consequently added to counteract
this effect by hardening the emulsion. White or potassium alum is frequently used
as a hardening agent. It has, however, a limited hardening effect on the gelatin
which, under certain conditions, is not sufficient to prevent softening of the gelatin at
moderately high temperatures. Where greater hardening action is required, chrome
alum is employed. Formalin or formaldehyde has even greater hardening effect than
chrome alum. Consequently chrome alum or formalin hardeners are employed where
considerable hardening is required or where the amount of hardening provided by
potassium alum is insufficient.
To keep down the amount of oxidation which occurs during the fixing process, a
preservative is added to the acid hardener. The purpose of this preservâtive is to
inhibit the formation of sulphur, thereby eliminating (or at least reducing) the tendency
for the formation of silver sulphide which turns brown and stains the negatives or
prints. The preservative usually added is sodium sulphite. The preservative action
is greater when the fixing bath is maintained slightly acid.
—
Plain Fixing Baths. A plain solution of sodium thiosulphite will dissolve the silver
halide grains in the developed emulsion and will, consequently, accomplish fixing,
provided little or none of the developing solution is carried over into the fixing bath
by the photographic materials. If a plain fixing bath is used, it is desirable, either
to wash the film thoroughly between development and fixing in a bath of clear water,
or to neutralize the alkali of the developer through the use of an acid stop bath or
rinse between development and fixing. When the latter procedure is employed, some
sodium sulphite must be added to the fixing bath in order to prevent sulphurization
of the hypo bath by the acid carried from the stop bath into the fixing bath. If these
precautions are not taken and the photographic materials are delivered to the fixing
bath directly from the developer solution, the fixing bath soon becomes discolored
from the oxidized developer, and these oxidized products stain the negatives and
prints. With a warm fixing bath a tendency exists for the gelatin to swell and to
become soft, which may easily result in frilling, reticulation, melting of the emulsion
from the gelatin base or other difficulties.
The only problem likely to arise in the determination of the composition of a plain
fixing bath is that of determining optimum concentration. Various investigations
indicate that the maximum speed of fixing occurs when the hypo concentration is
about 30 to 40 per cent.
—
Add Hardening Fixing Baths. -A good summary of the properties and character-
istics of acid hardening fixing baths has been given by Crabtree and Hartt^ from which
the following material is taken.
An acid hardening fixing bath contains the following ingredients: (1) a silver
halide solvent, (2) an antistaining agent, (3) a preservative or sulphurization inhibitor,
and (4) a hardening agent.
Although many solvents of silver halides are available, the most satisfactory for
fixing purposes are sodium and ammonium thiosulphates. A solution of ammonium
thiosulphate of given concentration fixes more rapidly than a corresponding solution
of sodium thiosulphate, but ammonium thiosulphate is more expensive, and commer-
cial grades are apt to contain free sulphur. For most purposes sodium thiosulphate
fixes sufficiently rapidly and is entirely satisfactory.
Practically any acid will function as an antistaining agent because it has merely to
neutralize the alkali in the developer carried over by the films and thereby retard
oxidation of the developing agent. Organic acids are more suitable than inorganic
acids because they are less dissociated and therefore have a correspondingly smaller
tendency to precipitate sulphur from the fixing solution. Acetic acid has been found
to be the most generally efficient for use in fixing baths, but much is still desired, from
the standpoint of a perfect acid, for this purpose.
It is imperative, when compounding an acid fixing bath, to have a quantity of
free acid present to prevent discoloration of the bath by developer oxidation products
and by the alkali in the developer.
to prevent the precipitation of the hardening agents
This free acid tends to cause precipitation of sulphur from the hypo especially at
temperatures above 70°F. It is therefore necessary to add some substance which will
prevent the precipitation of sulphur without impairing the antistaining properties of
the acid.
Two types of substances act in this manner. The first of these consists of the
alkaline sulphites of which sodium sulphite is the most common. Since hypo decom-
poses in the presence of acid to form sodium sulphite and sulphur, it is considered that
the addition of sulphite to an acid fixing bath retards the decomposition of the hj^po
because it tends to reverse the action by virtue of its mass action.
The second type of preservative consists of the alkali salts of organic acids which
are commonly referred to as buffer salts; sodium acetate is a typical example. The
effect of this type of substance is to buffer or reduce the hj^drogen-ion concentration
of the acid employed below the limits at which sulphur is precipitated from hj^po by
acids.
The hardening of gelatin may be either temporarj^ or permanent. Temporary
hardening agents raise the melting point and prevent the swelling of the gelatin only
while the gelatin is in contact with the hardening solution. A concentrated solution
1 Crabtree, J. I., and H. A. Haktt, Some Properties of Fixing Baths, J. Soc. Motion Picture Engrs.,
13 (No. 38), 364-405 (1929).
: ) :
of sodium sulphate is a typical temporary hardener. The hardening produced by

such substances is reversible, i.e., gelatin will subsequentlj- absorb water and swell.
Permanent hardening is characterized by a reduced absorption of water (swelling)
by the gelatin during subsequent washing. Various materials maj^ be used for
permanently hardening gelatin, such as formalin, quinone, tannin, organic developer
oxidation products, and certain inorganic compounds. Formalin, quinone, and
developer oxidation products harden gelatin only in alkaline or neutral solutions,
and their application is therefore limited to use in developers or to hardening of com-
pletely washed film.
Of the inorganic compounds, the salts of iron, chromium, and aluminum exert, the
most powerful hardening action on the gelatin. Salts of aluminum are, perhaps, the
most satisfactory hardeners because thej^ are colorless, are readily soluble in water,
and do not form colored compounds with the common developing agents, either in
acid or alkaline solutions, but they give satisfactory hardening provided the wash
water is not above 75 to 80°r. Sodium and potassium alum are equally efficient, but
with the ammonium alum an evolution of ammonia takes place after the fixing bath
becomes alkaline, and this tends to produce dichroic fog.
—
Composition of Fixing Baths. Bj'- way of summary it may be stated that (1) plain
fixing baths contain only a solvent for the unexposed silver halide grains, (2) acid
nonhardening fixing baths contain the silver halide solvent as well as an acid anti-
staining agent and preservative or sulphurization inhibitor, while (3) acid hardening
baths contain a gelatin hardening agent in addition to the ingredients alreadj^ enumer-
ated for (2).
The following tabulation shows some of the materials which have been used in
fixing baths of the various types enumerated
1. Silver solvent
Sodium thiosulphate (sodium hyposulphate, or "hypo")
Ammonium thiosulphate
2. Antistaining agent. Practically any acid may be used, although organic acids are
preferred because they show less dissociation. Suitable antistaining agents are:
Acetic acid
Citric acid
Tartaric acid
Oxalic acid
Lactic acid
Malic acid
Maleic acid
Sodium sulphite
Sulphuric acid
Sodium bisulphite ) . , ,
Potassium metabisulphite )
3. Preservative or sulphurization inhibitor

Alkaline sulphites (sodium sulphite, for example)
Alkaline salts (sodium acetate, for example)
4. Gelatin-hardening agents
Potassium alum
Chrome alum
Sodium sulphate (temporary hardener)
Formalin (formaldehyde)
Quinone j-in alkaline or neutral solutions only
Tannin \
The composition of fixing baths recommended for various purposes is given in

Table II. No effort has been made to include all the fixing baths which have been
published from time to time, but the solutions given are representative of current
practice. The baths are divided into three main groups, according to whether they
are plain fixing baths, acid nonhardening fixing baths, or acid fixing baths. Under
these main groupings, the baths are further classified according to the use or special
property for which they are recommended.
The plain fixing baths, 1 and 2, are simple nonhardening baths. They are suitable
for use where the films are ^âshed in a stop bath or in fresh water between develop-
ment and fixing. The baths differ only in concentration of hypo, and the two con-
centrations given represent approximately the extreme concentrations encountered in
practice for baths of this type.
Baths 3 to 6 inclusive are acid nonhardening baths which are suitable for plates,
films, or prints.
Baths 7 and 8 are recommended for films, while bath 9 has been suggested as being
The sodium sulphite is first dissolved in about 50 cc.
especial! j^ suitable for slides.
and the hydrochloric acid is added. The hypo is dissolved in about 900 cc. of
water, and, when it has completely dissolved, the first solution is added to the hypo
solution and the volume broiight up to 1 1.
Baths 10 and 11 have been recommended for prints where a nonhardening bath is
suitable.
Acid hardening fixing baths (12 andJoeyond) are the most suitable for general use
as the processes of fixingand hardening are combined in a single bath operation. The
first three baths under this classification are suitable for films, plates, or papers.
Bath 12 is a potassium alum bath. Bath 17 keeps indefinitely before using and there-
fore can be made up in advance of use; it can also be used repeatedly. Since it becomes
gradually alkaline with the addition of developer to the fixing solution, the bath should
be discarded when it becomes frothy. One pint should fix fifty 4- by 5-in. prints.
Although listed here as especially suitable for motion-picture work. No. 15 is an
acid hardening bath suitable for all professional films and plates. Bath 16 has the
advantage of having the lowest effect on reduction of the silver image of a wide number
of fixing solutions investigated by Russell and Crabtree (see page 378). Bath 18 is a
chrome alum fixing bath for professional plates and films, as well as for motion-picture
work. Since chrome alum baths often lose their hardening properties within a few
days after their preparation, either with use or without, a fresh bath should be pre-
pared immediately before using. There is a tendency for scum to form in old baths,
but this scum may be removed by swabbing the surface of the film with cotton. For
bath 20 the hypo should be dissolved in one-half the required volume of water. The
sodium sulphite, acetic acid, boric acid, and potassium alum should then be added
in the order given here, after which the volume of solution is brought up to 1 1. by
adding the proper amount of water. This bath contains a minimum amount of sul-
phite, so that sulphurization will not occur within a period of 3 or 4 weeks when the
temperature is 70°F. If the bath temperature rises above 70°F., double the amount of
sulphite indicated may be used. Bath 21 is a suitable chrome alum fixing bath for
motion-picture work. It does not harden the film excessively but maintains its
hardening properties on keeping. The bath does not sludge with the addition of a
relatively large amount of developing solution and, if the temperature does not exceed
70°F., will not sulphurize in less than 4 weeks.
Bath 22, suitable for paper prints, has an exceedingly long hardening sludge life,
and produces considerable hardening of paper prints. This borax bath has been found
to have a hardening life approximately four times that of bath 17 and a sludge life five
times as long.
FIXING, WASHING. AND DRYING 389
Fixing solutions suitable for tropical processing, or where the temperature of the
solutions cannot be reduced to 70°F., are given in baths 24 to 26 inclusive. Bath 24
has considerable hardening action and will keep a week at 100°F., although it has not
the keeping properties of the ordinary acid fixing and hardening baths. Bath 25 is a
chrome alum fixing bath recommended for tropical processing where the temperature
does not exceed 95°F. Bath 26 is a formalin solution for tropical development. The
hypo should be dissolved in about half the required volume of water. The sodium
sulphiteand formalin should be added in that order, and the solution made up to 1 1.
by the addition of the proper amount of water. The bath keeps well, although a
harmless milky precipitate may form. The fumes of the formalin (40 per cent
formaldehyde) are irritating, and for this reason formalin should be kept in closed
containers as much as possible.
A bath for prints or film, which, it is claimed, will completely fix in 2 min., is
fixing
given as bath 27. The bath should be kept at 70°F. and should be made just prior to
use as it does not keep well.
Another fixing bath suitable for rapid fixing is bath 28.
Practical Considerations in Fixing. —
The rate at which photographic materials are
fixed depends upon (1) the nature of the emulsion, (2) the concentration and com-
position of the fixing bath, (3) the degree of exhaustion or the extent to which the
fixing solution has been used, (4) the rate of agitation of the photographic material
in the rinse and fixing baths, and (5) the temperature of the solution.
In general, coarse-grained emulsions are fixed more slowly than those whose
emulsions contain fine grains of silver halide. Likewise a film having a thin emulsion
coating fixes more rapidly than one having a heavy, thick coating. Negative mate-
rials, particularly fast plates and films, contain some silver iodide which dissolves more
slowly than the bromide, and this is another contributing factor to the relatively slow
fixing of fast coarse-grained emulsions. In practice, the maximum time required to
completely clear the film of its opalescence is about 10 to 15 min.; if the film takes
more than this time to clear, it is usually economical to prepare a fresh fixing solution,
even though the fixing solution may not be completely exhausted and would still be
capable of fixing the material in 20 to 30 min. For negative materials, the time of
fixing is often taken as twice the time required for the film to become completely
cleared of its opalescence.
Printing papers may be completely fixed in about 1 min., provided the paper is
thoroughly agitated in a fresh fixing solution and the free flow of the fixing bath around
the print is not inhibited by the presence of other prints. In actual practice, however,
the prints are not usually very well agitated in the fixing bath, and it is difficult to
prevent two or more prints from adhering together. For this reason a longer time of
fixation is required.
For a given emulsion and temperature, the time of fixation of a fresh hypo solution
depends upon the concentration of the sodium thiosulphate, as shown in Fig. 1. From
these curves, which are also representative of those obtained for other emulsions, it is
seen that the optimum concentration is not extremely critical. Negative film fixes
most rapidly when the concentration is 400 g. of hypo per liter, so that 40 per cent is
the optimum solution. The motion-picture positive film is fixed most quickly in a
30 per cent solution. Most of the fixing baths are made with a concentration varj'-ing
from 200 to 400 g. of hypo per liter of solution. Unless rapid fixation is required for
some particular purpose, a 30 per cent solution will be found satisfactory for practically
all purposes.
As the same bath
used repeatedly, the rate of fixation continually decreases.
fixing is
The falling oft' is due to (1) dilution of the bath as a result of the addi-
of fixation rate
tion of developer or rinse water, as well as the removal of hypo to the wash water
when the fihns are changed from one solution to another; (2) the removal of thio-
sulphate ions by virtue of the formation of complex silver thiosulphate ions as nien-
tioned on page 380; and (3) the accumulation of sodium iodide resulting from the
conversion of the silver iodide of the emulsion to silver thiosulphate. It is, of course,
possible to revive the bath by the addition of hypo, but, as stated above, it is usually
good economj' to replace the fixing bath with fresh solution when negatives recjuire
more than 10 to 15 min. to clear.
The rate of agitation of the photographic material in the fixing solution has an
important bearing on the speed with which photographic materials are fixed. Experi-
ments by Crabtree and Hartt^ indicate that if the time of fixing films without agitation
is taken as 100 per cent, the time of fixation when agitation is made every 30 sec. may
Time to clear motion picture pcinchromafic

deg.F
10 65deg.F
9
8 ISc/eg. F
r 7
\ 6
•
5
: 4
3
'
2
1
8 Time to cleoir motion picture positive fTIm

7 ,^55 deg. F
6
5 1^-65 c/eg. F
4
3 '^-75 deg.F
2
1
50 100 150 200 300 400 500 600 700

Concentration: Grams Na2S2 03'5hi20/LIter Solution
Fig. 1. -Clearing time of plain fixing bath for various temperatures and concentrations.
reduce this time to 80 per cent. The time of fixation may be reduced to from 88 to
60 per cent with continuous agitation, whereas, when brush treatment is used, the
fixing time may be from 75 to 50 per cent of the time required without agitation,
depending upon the emulsion and the solution employed.
Figure 1 also shows the effect of temperature upon the fixing time. For motion-
picture negative film, Fig. 1 shows that with a 30 per cent solution the fixing time is
decreased from about 3.75 to approximatelj' 2 min. as the temperature is raised from
55 to 75°F. For a 40 per cent solution, the fixing time is decreased from 3 to 2 min.
for the same temperature change. For positive film, an increase in temperature of
from 55 to 75°F. reduces the fixing time from 50 to 30 sec. for a 30 per cent fixing
solution. From the shape of the curves it is evident that the fixing time is approxi-
mately inversely proportional to the temperature of the bath for the range of tem-
peratures normally encountered. For minimum fixing time, it is therefore advisable
not to use the fixing solution too cold. At elevated temperatures, however, the
1
Crabtree, J. I., and H. A. Hartt, Some Properties of Fixing Baths, Trans. Soc. Motion Picture
Engrs., 13 (No. 38), 364-405 (1929).
gelatin may become softened, and other undesirable effects may take place. It is a
good rule to keep the fixing bath between 65 and 70°F, The fixing bath should not
be colder than 60°F.
A practical problem in the use of fixing baths is the determination of their exhaus-
tion point. As the hypo bath is used, two important changes take place. First of all,
the sodium thiosulphate is gradually used up in dissolving the unexposed grains of
silver halide from the developed emulsion. With the decreasing amount of thiosul-
phate available for dissolving the silver salt, the time of fixing grows longer until
finally the point is reached where the time of fixation exceeds the practical limit for
efficient or economic fixing. The second change which occurs is a gradual diminution
of the acidity of the fixing bath as a result of alkali being introduced into the bath
from the developer. The hardening properties of the bath usually decrease fairly
rapidly, and, when the acidity is below a certain point (usually near the neutral point),
the bath is rendered useless by the formation of a sludge of aluminum sulphite which
destroys the hardening properties of the bath. Consequently the bath should be
discarded when the time of fixation becomes excessive, the practical limit usually being
set at 10 to 15 min., or upon the formation of a precipitate of aluminum sulphite.
The bath should also be discarded if it becomes dark or discolored and stains the
negatives or prints, if it becomes frothy, or if the bath sulphurizes.

A simple method of determining whether or not a fixing bath has been exhausted is
to immerse a test strip of film in the fixing solution until cleared of opalescence. The
strip is then washed thoroughly in nmning water, after which it is immersed in a
1 to 3 per cent solution ofsodium sulphide. If the test strip remains clear, the fixing
bath may
be regarded as satisfactory. However, if the test strip becomes colored
brown or yellow, this discoloration is an indication that the soluble halides have not
been entirely dissolved in the fixing bath, and consequently a new solution should be
prepared. Slight changes in discoloration may be observed if only one-half of the
test strip is treated in this manner; the untreated portion then acts as a control.
For purposes of economy and rapidity in fixation, the practice followed by some
commercial firms, of using two fixing baths in cascade, has much to recommend it.
The film or print is placed first in a partially exhausted fixing bath where it is
permitted to remain about 5 min., after which it is removed to a fresh fixing solution.
When the first bath is exhausted, it is replaced by the second, and the second bath is,
of course, replaced by a freshly compounded solution. The use of two baths insures
more rapid fixing of the film than can be accomplished through the use of only one
bath. Moreover, in being transferred to the second bath, the films do not carry over
any alkali from the developer, but only the partially exhausted fixing solution. Con-
sequently, the life of the second bath is longer than if the first or buffer bath were not
employed. Another advantage of the use of two fixing baths is that, if the hardening
properties of the first bath are impaired, the second bath may be used to provide the
necessary amount of hardening.
Precautions should be taken to see that the first fixing bath does not produce
dichroic fog, stains, or discolorations, since these will not be removed in the second
bath. Both fixing baths should be maintained acid and should be discarded when
any of the troubles mentioned above occur. The films should be agitated when being
immersed in the fixing solution. This is especially true with respect to immersion in
the first fixing bath.
Completion of Fixation. —A question of importance is the determination of com-

pleteness of fixation. Warwick ^ states that the clearing of the negative
a sign, not is
that the action between the silver bromide and the sodium thiosulphate complete, is
but only that the opalescent layer of silver bromide has become so tenuous as to be
1 Warwick, A. W., The Laws of Fixation, Am. Phot., November, 1918.
invisible According to this view, from 5 to 12.5 per cent of the original bromide
remains unattacked. This view seems to have gained some support, for a practical
rule frequent Ij^ observed is to permit the film to remain in the fixing bath for a length
of time double that required for the film to become clear. On the other hand, experi-
ments by Bullock, by Lumiere and Seyewetz, and later by Crabtree and Hartt^ indi-
cate that a film which is cleared of its opalescence is completely fixed. This state-
ment applies, however, to fresh fixing solutions and not to partially exhausted baths.
If the bath contains more than about 2 per cent, i.e., 20 g. per 1., of the silver halide
Avhich has been dissolved from fixed plates, all the removable silver salts are not
removed from the plates. Prolonged immersion in a partially exhausted fixing bath
will not dissolve the remaining salt, but the residual salt may be removed by trans-
ferring the film to a fresh solution. If any doubt exists as to the degree of fixation of a
plate, it is common practice to permit the material to remain in the fixing bath for a
length of time equal to twice the clearing time. The use of two fixing baths in cascade
is a much better solution to the problem, however.
—
Reducing Action of Fixing Baths. -Prolonged immersion of the film in a fixing bath
has been found to reduce the density of the silver image. For many applications of
photography, this is not important. In other applications, such as sensitometry,
photographic photometry, or processing of sound motion pictures, this may be a point
of practical importance. The results of the reducing action of fixing baths have been
studied by Russell and Crabtree,^ and the following is summarized from their paper,
which should be consulted for additional data, especially of a quantitative nature.
The rate of reduction of the density of the silver image in a given fixing bath is
found to be greater for fine-grain than for coarse-grain emulsions. The fixing bath
having the lowest rate of reduction of density is given as formula 16 in the compilation
of fixing baths. The highest rates of reduction were obtained with fixing baths con-
taining relatively high concentrations of sulphite and acid.
Acidity was the factor which affected the rate of reduction to the greatest extent in
ordinary fixing baths. Ammonium chloride, potassium bromide, and potassium iodide
increased the rate of reduction. Ammonium sulphite, sodium chloride, sodium sul-
phate, glycerin, and sugar decreased the reduction rate. Oxygen and oxidizing agents
such as peroxides have no apparent effect on the reduction rate in highlj" acid baths,
but the presence of oxygen increases the rate of reduction in fixing baths containing
low concentration of sulphite and acid.
It was found that the rate of reduction was also increased by an increase in temper-
ature of the fixing bath.
Troubles with Fixing Baths. —
The troubles which may be reasonablj' expected to
occur from time to time when using fixing baths are tabulated for convenience and
readj' reference use.
Blisters.
1. Distinguishing Characteristic. — Blisters form on the surface of the photographic

material, resembling blisters on the body. On dry film, blisters appear as craterlike
depressions when examined by reflected light.
2. Cause. — Blisters are caused by the evolution of carbon dioxide gas when
sodium carbonate of the developer is neutralized by the acid of the fixing bath.
Blisters are especially likelj^ to occur if the gelatin is soft and is incapable of with-
' Crabtree, J. I., and H. A. Hartt, Some Properties of Fixing Baths, Trans. Soc. Motion Picture
Engrs., November, 1929, pp. 364-305.
' RussELi,, H. D., and J. I. Cr.^btree, The Reducing Action of Fixing Baths on the Silver Image,
J. Soc. Motion Picture Engrs., 25, (No. 3), 371-397 (1932).

standing the disruptive action of the evolved gas. Blisters are also likely to occur (a)
if the fixing bath contains an excess of acid and the films are not rinsed thoroughly,
(6) if a strongly acid rinse bath is used, or (c) especially during hot weather.
According to Crabtree and Hartt, the tendency of the fixing bath to produce
blisters is governed by (a) the quantity of sulphite and carbonate contained in the
film when immersed in the fixing bath, (fe) the rate of agitation of the film when
immersed in the fixing bath, (c) the nature and thickness of the gelatin film, (d) the
duration of the rinse or wash used between development and fixing, (e) the degree
when first placed in the fixing bath, and (/) the acidity of the
of swelling of the gelatin
fixing bath.
3. Prevention. —Rinsing the film in plain water after development but prior to
fixing will remove developer alkali and reduce the amount of carbon dioxide formed.
The films may then be hardened, if necessary, before fixing. The fixing bath should
not contain an excess of acid. Strongly acid rinse baths should be avoided. Fixing
should be carried out, if possible, at temperatures not exceeding 70°F., and the film
should be agitated while immersed in the fixing bath.
4. Remedy. None. —
Dichroic Fog.
1. Distinguishing Characteristic. —Yellowish-pink stain when film is viewed by

reflected light.
2. Cause. — Dichroic fog raaj be caused (a)by old or exhausted fixing bath con-
taining an excess of dissolved silver salt or (6) by a fixing bath which does not contain
acid.
3. Prevention. —
Dichroic fog does not occur in fresh fixing baths. Replace fixing
bath with a fresh solution, and use a fixing bath containing acid. Rinse film in water
between development and fixing. Keep the fixing bath between 65 and 70°F.
4. Remedy. —
See Chap. XVII, Defects in Negatives and Prints, page 518.
Failure to Harden.
1. Distinguishing Characteristic. —Film

soft rather than solidly hard.
is
2. Cause. — Insufficient hardening may

be the result (a) of insufficient or impure
alum, or impure alum which does not contain the correct proportion of aluminum
sulphate; (6) of the fact that the bath is alkaline or neutral rather than acid; or (c)
of the presence of too much acid or sulphate.
3. Prevention. —
Depending upon the cause, prevention may be (a) use of suffi-
cient amount of alum containing the proper proportion of aluminum sulphate. The
hardening action of the alum is due to the aluminum sulphate. Since some grades of
alum do not contain the proper proportion of aluminum sulphate, a larger portion of
alum must be used with the deficient grades in order to prepare a bath of the adequate
sulphate concentration. The hardening increases as the quantity of alum is increased.
(6) The hardening bath should always be maintained acid, but excess of acid should be
avoided. For a given amount of alum, the hardening increases as the quantitj^ of
acetic acid is increased until a maximum is reached, after which increasing the acetic
acid content decreases the degree of hardening. In order to produce a fixing bath of
long life aluminum sulphite precipitates, a certain minimum quantity of acetic
before
acid must be added to the fixing solution. However, the amount of acid required for
this purpose is usually greater than that required to produce maximum hardening.
(c) Reduce the amount of acid or sulphate, or increase the amount of alum relative to
other ingredients if the failure of the bath to harden the film is attributed to cause (c)
above.
4. Remedy. —The film may be hardened by hnmersing it in a hardening sohition

containing potassium alum, chrome alum, or formalin.
Milkiness or Sludging.
—
\A. Distinguishing Characteristic. -Formation of milky precipitate which is pale
yellow and settles very slowly when the bath is standing, or yellow deposit of sulphur
precipitated on the gelatin which may later cause fading of the image.
2A. Cause. —Such milkiness may be caused by (a) excess of acid in the hardener;
(6) too little sulphite, or sulphite of impure quality when compounding
the bath solu-
tion. Some through oxidation, especially'' if the fixing bath is
loss of sulphite occurs
stored in open tanks, but this loss can be prevented or minimized by covering the tank
or by placing a floating cover on the solution, (c) High temperature of the fixing bath.
—
3A. Prevention. Depending upon the cause enumerated above, milkiness may be
prevented by (a) using less acid in the fixing bath; (6) use of the proper amount of
sulphite, or sulphite of pure quality; or (c) keeping the fixing solutions, whenever
possible, between 65 and 70°F.
—
4:A. Remedy. -None, except to prepare a fresh fixing bath.
\B. Distinguishing Characteristic. —
White precipitate which disappears on stand-
ing for several hours. A white gelatinous sludge of aluminum sulphate may also
settle out.
—
2B. Cause. This milky sludge may be caused by (o) too little acid in the hardener,
(6) too little hardener in the fixing bath, or (c) exhausted fixing bath containing alum
and sulphite but no acid.
3B. Prevention. —According
to the cause enumerated above, milkiness may be
prevented by the following methods: (a) The use of the correct amount of acid in
compounding the fixing solution. Care should be taken, not only to observe that the
proper amounts of acid are used, but to use either glacial or 28 per cent acetic acid, as
called for in the formula. If 28 per cent acetic acid is used instead of the same amount
of glacial acetic acid, the solution will contain less than one-third of the required
amount of acid. (6) More hardener solution should be added to the fixing bath.
(c) Acid may be added to the bath from time to time to prevent sludging.
4B. Remedy. —
It is usually best to make up a fresh fixing bath.
\C. Distinguishing Characteristic. —
Greenish gelatinous precipitate sometimes
forming upon the film.
—
2C. Cause. -The sludge consists of chromium hydroxide and is caused by an
excess of developer in the fixing solution.
—
3C Prevention. Milkiness due to this cause may be prevented by rinsing the
film in water before fixing, by the use of an acid stop bath before fixing, or by the
revival of the bath with the addition of acid. Frequently the formation of the green
sludge may be prevented from forming on the film by agitating the film thoroughly
when it is first immersed in the fixing bath.
4C. Remedy. — is discovered while the film
If the sludge is still wet, it may fre-
quently be removed by swabbing with soft cotton.
Scum.
\A. Distinguishing Characteristic. — Metallic appearing scum deposit on the surface
of the fixing bath.
—
2A. Cause. The scum consists of silver sulphide formed by the reaction of silver
thiosulphate in the partially exhausted or infrequently used fixing solution, with the
hydrogen sulphide gas present in the air.
—
3A. Prevention. Protect the unused fixing baths from contact with the air by
means of a cover on the container.
—
4A. Remedy. The scum may be removed from the surface of the bath by drawing
the edge of blotting paper or a piece of cheese cloth over the surface of the bath.
IB. Distinguishing Characteristic. —
Greenish white scum, often precipitated on the
surface of the film when chrome alum fixing baths are employed.
—
2B. Cause. The scum consists of basic chromium sulphite or chromium hydroxide.
3B. Prevention. — To remove chromium scum, films which have been treated with
a chrome alum fixing or hardening bath should be wiped or squeegeed carefully between
the washing and drying operations. If this scum is not completely removed, the scum
which remains will leave a stain on the negative and, after the film has dried, the scum
will be difficult to remove. The scum may be removed from the wet film by swabbing
the negative with moist absorbent cotton. Formation of the scum may often be
prevented by (a) agitating the film thoroughly when first immersing it in the stop bath
and (6) using a developer containing as little alkali as possible and by reviving the
fixing bath at intervals with acid.
45. Remedy. — None.
Sludging. — (See Milkiness.)

Stains.
I A. Distinguishing Characteristic. —
Green stain (when using chrome alum baths)
imparting to the gelatin an appearance as if colored by green dye.
—
2A. Cause. According to Crabtree and Russell, the intensity of the stain is
influenced by the relative proportions of carbonate and sulphite in the developer. An
excess of carbonate increases the intensity of the stain, whereas an excess of sulphite
decreases the stain intensity. The intensity of the stain is also materially increased
at high temperatures (80 to 90°F.)
—
3A. Prevention. Increasing the carbonate content of the hardening bath will
reduce or eliminate the stain.
—
4A. Remedy. By treating the film with a 5 per cent solution of sodium citrate
or a 50 per cent solution of potassium hydroxide, the stain can usually be removed.
This treatment destroys the hardening of the gelatin, however. Provided the stain
is uniform over the entire film, a stain is not ordinarily objectionable from the photo-
graphic standpoint. If the stain is not uniform, prints will show the presence of the
stain. ^
IB. Distinguishing Characteristic. —
Yellowish-white opalescent stain on film.
—
2B. Cause. This stain is caused by the precipitation of sulphur on the gelatin.
It maj^ be due to (a) the use of an improperly compounded fixing bath which contains
too little sulphite or a relative excess of acid or (6) a fixing bath Avhich is too warm.
When either of these conditions are encountered, colloidal or finelj^ divided sulphur
may be formed, which deposits on the gelatin.
—
35. Prevention. According to the cause listed above, the stain may be prevented
by (a) properly compounding the fixing bath or (fe) by maintaining the solution at
temperatures between 65 and 70°F.
—
45. Remedy. These stains may be removed bj^ first hardening the film in an
alkaline solution of formalin, after which the film is bathed in a 10 per cent solution
of sodium sulphite at a temperature of about 100 to 120°F. These stains cannot be
removed by water or acid baths.
IC. Distinguishing Characteristic. —White powdery stains of aluminum sulphite.
2C. Cause. —Owing to insufficient acidity of the fixing bath. This may occur as
a result of incorrect compounding or partial exhaustion of the bath.
1 For other stains, see S. E. Sheppard and A. Ballard, Chemistry of the Acid Fixing and Hardening
Bath, J. Franklin Inst., 200, 537 (1925).

:
3C. Prevention. —The following steps are recommended to prolong the life of the
fixing bath and prevent formation of aluminum sulphite, (o) Developers containing
an excess of alkali should be avoided. (6) Rinse the film between the developing and
fixing, to remove as much developer as possible. The rinse may be made using clear
water or an acid stop bath. Stop baths should be used with discretion, however, as an
excess of acid may be carried over to the fixing bath, thereby causing sulphurization
of the latter.
4C —
Remedy. The stains of aluminum sulphite may be removed by hardening the
film in an alkaline solution of formalin, after which the film is bathed for a few minutes
in a 5 per cent solution of sodium carbonate. The film should finally be thoroughly
washed.
—
ID. Distinguishing Characteristic. Fairly opaque stains on the film, having a
dirty yellow color.
—
2D. Cause. Such stains are produced when silver compounds are left in the
film as a result of incomplete fixation. They may be due to (a) Insufficient agitation
when immersing the film initially in the fixing bath. In such cases the developing
solution, coming into contact with the film, reduces the silver haUde (dissolved out
by the sodium thiosulphate) back again to yellow metallic silver. (6) Use of old or
exhausted fixing solution containing excess silver in solution. Some of this silver salt
remains on the film if it is not thoroughly washed. Originally this compound is
colorless, but upon exposure to the air a yellow stain results from the formation of
silver sulphide.
—
3D. Prevention. (a) Agitating the film when it is first immersed in the fixing bath
will aid in preventing stains. In this case, the tendency to form a stain is greatest
when strongly alkaline developing solutions are used and when the fixing baths are
neutral or alkaline instead of being acid. Consequently the fixing baths should be acid
and a developer having low alkaline content should be used, or the film should be rinsed
in water between development and fixing, (b) Use only a fresh acid fixing solution.
—
4D. Remedy. ^The following methods are frequently helpful in removing silver
stains
a. Wash the film thoroughly to remove any traces of sodium thiosulphate, and then
bathe in a 1 per cent solution of potassium cyanide. (Caution. Cyanide is a deadlj^

poison. In solution with water, cyanide produces deadly fumes of hydrocyanic acid.
Consequently, this material must be carefully handled in well-ventilated rooms.) The
cyanide will dissolve away the silver thiosulphate and some of the silver sulphide.
Cyanide is also a solvent for metallic silver. Therefore, as soon as any signs of reduc-
tion of the silver image appear, the film should be removed from the cyanide bath and
washed thorovighly in clear water.
b. Treatment with a weak solution of permanganate acid, followed by a thorough
wash in clear water and then immersing the film in cyanide will often be useful in
removing stains from old negatives.
c. In those cases in which the silver stain cannot be completely removed, it may be
possible to make a new negative, free from stains, by copying the negative or print
through a yellow filter, such as the Wratten G filter.
—
Water Supply. Water is so frequently used in photographic processing that it is
advisable to pay considerable attention to the purity and adequacy of the supply.
For photographic purposes water may be used as a con.stituent of most processing
solutions, or it may be used merely as a solvent or wash. In either case impurities
in the water may result in imparting undesirable
characteristics to the processing solu-
tions, to the formation of deposits on the photographic materials, or to other undesir-
able effects. As a general rule water which is suitable for human consumption will
also be satisfactory for photographic purposes. The filtered water obtained from
public sources of supplymay contain colloidal matter and dissolved salts which are not
removed by and certain municipalities intentionally add chlorine or other
filtration,
substances as public health protective measures. These constituents of water may or
may not be objectionable from the photographic standpoint, although they are not
desirable.
Wherever possible, and certainly when any doubt exists concerning the suitability
of the water supply for photographic purposes, photographic solutions and especially
developing solutions should be prepared with distilled water. If this is impracticable,
the solutions can be prepared with water which has been boiled.
Solutions are usually made by adding chemicals to a quantity of water called for
by the formula. In some cases, however, water is added to a solution to obtain a
given concentration or volume of solution, and in this case the final volume should
be that called for in the formula.
Chemical analj'sis of the water supply may be useful in determining the amount
of oxalate or lime which is to be added to coagulate slimes, to remove dissolved calcium
salts, or in determining which of several water supplies is most likely to be free from
dissolved or colloidal material. The greater the quantity of undesired products found
in the water supply, the greater may be the difficulty expected from drying marks, and
the less certain one can be of the purity of compounded solutions. Water supplies
containing iron, metallic sulphides, or hydrogen sulphide should be avoided. But
chemical analysis does not usually reveal much information as to the suitability of a
water supply for photographic purposes, and trial tests with sample solutions and
actual photographic materials are the only reliable means of determining the suit-
ability of a certain water supply for photographic purposes. Two solutions should
be prepared, one with distilled water and one with the water supply under considera-
tion. Samples of the film are then processed in the two solutions, the one made with
distilled water being used as a control. Comparisons of the processed films will then
show what, if any, undesirable effects may be expected from the water supply under
consideration. Another simple test which indicates the extent of the trouble which
might be anticipated due to residual scum may be made by permitting a large drop of
water to dry on a film; water suitable for photographic use should leave no scum or
stain.
Water exists in various states of impurity, and while anj^ source of water may be
purified, purification a time-consuming and expensive process which may not be
is
economically justified if the original source is reasonably satisfactory for photographic

purposes. Provided the distillation is carried out properly and with clean apparatus,
distilled water is the purest form of water supply. Next, in order of purity, may be
mentioned: (a) rain water collected on a clean surface and stored in clean containers,
(b) melted snow and hail, (c) spring and well water, (d) water from flowing rivers,
streams, and brooks, and (e) sea water.

The impurities which may
be present in the various kinds of water are dissolved
salts, such as bicarbonates, chlorides, and sulphates of calcium, magnesium, and
potassium. If iron is present to any considerable degree, the water should not be used
for photographic purposes. The water may also contain solid impurities, such as
silt, and, while these are not usually so injurious as iron or various salts, they may be
readily filtered out. Suspended matter, such as iron rust, dirt, or silt should be removed
,
by filtration, as otherwise these particles may settle and cause spots on negatives or
prints processed in solutions made with such water. The water may also contain clay,
slime, or colloidal animal or vegetable matter which is not removed by filtration. If
such water is used in the preparation of photographic solutions, the undesired particles
may gradually coagulate and settle as a sludge. Dissolved gases are sometimes
encountered in water supplies. Hydrogen sulphide isobjectionable in that it causes
chemical fog, but it may be removed by boiling the water. Sea water contains about
3.5 per cent of soluble salts, mostly halides, which retard action of photographic solu-
tion. Consequently sea water should be avoided.
—
Effect of Impurities in Developtnent. -If a developing solution is compounded with
water containing calcium salts, a white precipitate of calcium sulphite may form on
standing. If the developer contains sodium bisulphide or potassium metabisulphite,
fine, needlelike calcium sulphite crystals may be precipitated as a sludge. In either
case this sludge is harmless if it is permitted to settle, after which the clear solution
may be decanted from the sludge. The developer is, nevertheless robbed of the sul-
phite to the extent of the sludge which has formed, but the effect is negligible except
in the case of developers of low alkalinit^^ Borax developers are sensitive to small
changes in alkalinity, however, so that it maj'^ be necessar}' to make allowance for the
reduction of sulphite when such developers are prepared with calcium salts. If the
developer is agitated, the sludge may become precipitated on the photographic
material.
Sodiuna or potassium sulphide in the water used for preparing developing solutions
will produce objectionable chemical fog, even though only verj^ small quantities of
sulphides are present. Removal of sulphides may be accomplished by treating the
water with lead acetate to produce insoluble lead sulphide. Copper sulphate is
sometimes added to water supplies for the purpose of killing vegetable and bacteri-
ological matter. The amount of copper sulphate added is not usually sufficient to be
harmful, although it maj^ cause aerial fog.
The presence of chlorides or bromides in the water supply used in compounding
developers exerts a restraining action on the developer which may, however, be com-
pensated by properly adjusting the amounts of the other ingredients. Unless present
in excess, magnesium salts will not be precipitated. Other salts have little or no
effectupon the action of the developer.
The presence of sulphur in water from which developers are made will produce
formation of sodium sulphide from the interaction of the sulphur
fog, as a result of the
with the carbonate of the developer. By boiling the water, the sulphur can usually
be made to coagulate, after which it maj^ be removed bj' filtration.
Animal matter in the water from which developers are compounded usually
precipitates when the developer is mixed. Certain tj'pes of bacteria form growths
which act on the sulphite to form sodium sulphite which fogs photographic materials.
Effect of Impurities in Fixation. —Calcium and magnesium sulphite are soluble in
acetic acid and therefore are not precipitated in the fixing bath. Other dissolved
salts, such as bicarbonates, chlorides, and sulphates, are harmless. Suspended matter
in the form of dirt, iron rust, and certain types of vegetable and animal matter usualh^
coagulates and settles out in the fixing bath if allowed to stand. While most sus-
pended substances have practically no effect on the photographic properties of the
fixing baths, the particles maj' settle on the film, retarding fixing action locally, and
causing spots and stains. Extracts from vegetable matter or dissolved gases do not
affect the photographic properties of a fixing bath but may cause blisters or stains.
Effect of Impurities —
on Washing.^ Dissolved salts of magnesium, calcium, or
potassium in the water used for washing often cause trouble bj'' crystallizing on the
film in drying and, while not always visible, maj^ detract from the transparency of the
image. Water which is free of dissolved salts will also cause markings on the film if
it is allowed to remain in droplets on either side of the film during drying. It is
important, therefore, to remove all excess water from the film before drying.
Suspended mineral, vegetable, and animal matter generally leaves a scum on the
film unless the gelatin surface is wiped previous to drying. If the water used for the
'This section takpn from "Motion Picture Laboratory Practice," Eastman Kodak Co.
washing is run into a large settling tank or if it is properly filtered before use, most of
the suspended matter will be removed.
Dissolved gases will sometimes produce blisters if the water is warm, or if the film
is not sufficiently hardened in the fixing bath. When present in sufficient quantity,
dissolved extracts sometimes produce stains which are very difficult to remove.
So far as is known, small traces of impurities which may be left in the gelatin
coating of motion-picture negatives or positive film are not liable to impair the prop-
erties of the film seriously over a period of 4 or 5 years. However, as an added pre-
caution, valuable film should be washed finallj^ in distilled water.
Water Purification. — Water may be brought to various states of purification bj^:
(1) distillation, (2) boiling, (3) filtration, and (4) chemical treatment. Distillation
produces the purest water, but stills of adequate capacitj^ are expensive, especially
where large quantities of water are required, and the distilling process is slow. When-
ever it can be readily obtained, it is advisable to use distilled water for the mixing of
photographic solutions. It is not necessary that films be washed throughout the
entirety of the washing process in distilled water, however. Removal of soluble
materials may be accomplished by washing the films in ordinary tap water, as a
general rule. For those cases in which complete washing with pure water is necessary,
these preliminary washes may be followed with one or two baths using distilled water.
Except in those cases in which the water contains an excess quantity of dissolved
salts, sufficient purification can usually be obtained by boiling the water and permitting
this to stand while cooling. The boiling process coagulates most of the colloidal
vegetable and animal matter, changes certain lime salts into an insoluble condition
in which they settle out, and drives out dissolved gases which may be present, such
as hydrogen sulphide, air, etc. Dissolved substances are, of course, not removed in
this process. After the water has settled, it may be filtered through paper filters or
fine-mesh cloth. A more rapid method of separating the settled particles from the
supernatant liquid is to decant or siphon off the latter.
Filtration of the water supply may be used to remove suspended or undissolved
particles, but the dissolved gases and colloidal matter cannot be removed by this
process, unless the water has been boiled or otherwise treated to drive off dissolved
gas and coagulate colloidal particles. Where only very small quantities of water are
required, the ordinary paper filter or fine-mesh cloth fitted into a funnel may be
employed. Where larger quantities of water are required, a barrel filled with sand,
charcoal, or other filtering agents may be used. Many types of filters are available
commercially.
If large quantities of water are required, chemical treatment is the most practical
method of water purification. Coagulation of slime, which carries down suspended
particles, may be effected by adding potassium alum in the proportions of 0.25 g. per 1.,
or 15 gr. per gal. This method clears the solution quickly but does not remove dis-
solved salts. The addition of this small quantity of alum has been found to produce no
harmful effects when such chemically treated water is used in the preparation of
developing or fixing baths.
Solutions of sodium oxalate, sodium phosphate, or sodium sulphite may be used to
coagulate sHme and precipitate calcium and magnesium salts. These solutions are
added to the water supply until no further precipitate is formed. This method does
not remove dissolved salts.
—
Washing. Purpose of Washing.- The purpose of washing is to remove from the
negatives or prints all or a part of the soluble chemicals or solutions which adhere
to them in processing. Although in most cases negatives or prints are washed to
remove from them the chemicals of the fixing bath, this is not always the case. Some-
times, for instance, the photosensitive materials are washed after development but
prior to fixing. The general principles of washing are the same, however, no matter
in which stage of processing washing takes place.
—
General Remarks on Washing. The washing process is simply one of diluting or
dissolving the material and carrying away the diluted products with the disposal of
the wash water. No chemical action takes place during washing, or, at least, those
chemical actions which may take place are accidental and undesired.
So far as concerns the removal of the product to be eliminated, the washing of
photographic materials is largely independent of the temperature of the wash water.
Most substances are more soluble in hot than in cold water, so that it might be
expected that they would diffuse from the gelatin more rapidly in warm than in cold
water. Any attempt to wash photographic materials more thoroughly or more
quickly bj^ elevating the temperature of the water is counteracted bj' the swelling of
the gelatin at the increased temperature. This swelling tends to inhibit diffusion.
Both of these counteracting effects occur at about the same rate with a rise in tempera-
ture, so that the rate of washing is largely independent of the temperature, at least
within the range of temperatures usually employed for photographic work. At
elevated temperatures the gelatin may become soft, and reticulation may take place.
For this reason it is advisable that the temperature of the wash water be kept suffi-
ciently low as not to soften the gelatin. Temperatures of 60 to 70°F. are usually
satisfactory.
Hardening of the gelatin has little effect on the rate at which photosensitive mate-
rials may be washed, unless the material has been dried between the time of hardening
and that of washing. If the gelatin has been hardened and dried before washing, it
will not expand much when subsequently soaked in water, so that diffusion through
it will be difficult. Before the gelatin has dried, hardening does not affect the diffusion
through the gelatin.
The completeness of washing does depend upon the length of washing time and
upon the agitation of the photographic materials in the wash water. It also depends
upon the method of washing. As a first approximation, it may be stated that in
general the longer the photographic material is washed, the more completely are the
adhering chemicals removed. The removal of chemicals progresses geometrically
rather than arithmetically; i.e., in a given time interval, a certain percentage (rather
than a certain amount) of the remaining chemicals are removed. By washing for a
sufficiently long period of time, any desired degree of removal may be attained. The
more actively the photographic materials are agitated in the wash solution the more
quickly the chemicals are removed, as a general rule.
The most fundamental requirement in washing, however, is to provide an adequate
supply of wash water. This may be done by immersing the photographic materials in
running water, or by successively removing the photographic materials from one bath
to a fresh bath.
Mechanism, of Washing. —Two methods of washing are in extensive use: (1) the
continuous-flow method and (2) the multiple-bath method. Both methods are
capable of yielding satisfactory and thorough washing of the photographic material,
but the physics of the essential operations is slighth' different in these two cases.
An understanding of the mechanism of washing is useful in obtaining the most com-
plete washing for a given amount of water and in a given length of time.
In the continuous-flow system, fresh clean water is made to flow steadily over the
negative or print. So long as fresh water is supplied, washing continues indefinitely;
the prints are more or less continuously agitated with respect to the water flow, and
the operation is carried out automatically. All continuous-flow methods may not be
equally effective, however, and care should be taken to see that the method employed
in continuous-flow washing is such as to actually fulfill the requirements given above.
An excellent example of this method of washing is that in which a thin film of fresh
water is made to flow continuously over both sides of a film hanging vertically. The
water dripping from the film is discarded. A much less satisfactory example of the
continuous- flow method is represented by a tank in which the inlet and outlet pipes
are close to one another and at the same end of the tank. In this case it is possible for
a large part of the incoming fresh water to circulate immediately to the outlet drain
without becoming effective in washing the film which remains in the central portion
of the tank in relatively stagnant water. A better system for tank washing is to have
the inlet at the bottom of one end of the tank, and the outlet at the top and opposite
end of the tank. Any water which is discharged from such a system must have
passed across the tank and, in so doing, washed the film. Moreover the tank is always
filled with water so long as any water discharge takes place.
In the multiple-bath method, the negatives or prints are placed in a tank or tray
with a fixed amount of water which is usually not changed so long as the photosensitive
materials remain in them. During the time the photosensitive materials remain in
any given tank or tray, the negatives should be thoroughly agitated; after a lapse of
some time, the negatives are removed to another tank of fresh water. In so doing,
they will carry over into the fresh bath some of the solution from the bath from which
they were removed. While it is unavoidable that some of the solution be carried over,
much more thorough and rapid washing can be effected if as much of the solution as
possible is removed from the film before immersing into the succeeding wash. The
transferring of the prints from one tank of water to another containing fresh water is
continued until the prints are thoroughly washed. Usually six washes of about 5 min.
each are sufficient to produce satisfactory washing.
Continuous Washing.—Experiments indicate that with thorough agitation of the
photographic material in the wash water, the sodium thiosulphate diffuses exponen-
tially, so that in equal time intervals, equal percentages of hypo are removed. With
an exponential law representing the diffusion in the washing process it is theoretically
impossible to remove all the undesired product. Practically, however, we may
remove as much of the hypo as we desire by washing for a sufficiently long period of
time.
To derive a quantitative expression for this method of washing, let Mo be the
amount of material, e.g., hypo, originally present on the film, and let M
be the amount
washed out in time (The values of Mo and
t. M
may be expressed as initial and final
concentrations of the solution or as initial and final masses of material.) Then the net
change in the amount of material on the film, dM, during a given time interval dt
will be
dM = -k{Mo - M)dt (8)
where fc is a proportionality factor (sometimes called the constant of elimination)

which depends upon the degree of agitation and the type of emulsion and usually
varies between 0.1 and 0.15 for negatives, according to Warwick. It can be shown
that the solution of this equation is
= = 2-3^259 log.
'' ^«^^
MT^l J^f^) ^^^
from which the time required to obtain any desired degree of washing becomes
Mo ^ 2.30259 Mo
i = log.
-M =
,/"\,r ^^^^^T^ log.o ../"\..
^^"' (Mo - M) (10)
(1) Mo 0.1
In this equation. Mo indicates the initial amount (or concentration) and {Mo — M)
indicates the final amount or concentration of the material which remains.
To illustrate the use of this equation, suppose we wish to reduce the amount
of hypo to 1/50,000 of its initial value before stopping washing. Then (Mo — M) is
1/50,000 of Mo, so that (Mo) /(Mo - M) = 50,000. If we choose k =0.1, then the
time, in minutes, required for washing will be
t = 23.0259 X 4.6990 = 108 min. (11)
Similarly, if a given negative has 1 g. of hypo on it initially, and we wish to carry out
washing until the amount of hypo finally remaining is 0.0001, then
t = 23.0259 logic = 23.0259 logic 10,000 = 23.0259 X 4 = 92 miu. (12)

( q qoqi )
It should be realized that the results given by these equations depend upon the
assumptions that the rate of diffusion is an exponential function of time and that the
photosensitive material is thoroughly agitated in the continuously flowing wash water.
The first assumption is generally well fulfilled in practice, so that the degree to which
the above expressions represent actual conditions depends upon the degree to which the
second assumption (which is under the control of the photographer) is fulfilled. For
practical applications it may be said that the above equations represent favorable
limiting conditions and that in any practical case the wash time may be increased
advantageously over that given in the above equations.
—
Multiple-hath Washing. -In the multiple-bath system of washing, the removal of
sodium thiosulphate (or other solute) is a slightly more complicated process. In any
given wash, the amount of solute is removed continuously with agitation of the nega-
tive in the wash water until the final limiting value is reached. This limiting value is
•
that for which the amount of solute in the wash water is in equilibrium with that
remaining in the negative, i.e.. the concentration of solute in the negative is equal to
the concentration of the wash water. The negative is then removed to another bath
where the amount of solute removed progresses continuously until another equilibrium
of lesser concentration is reached. Except for the instant when the film is initially
introduced into a fresh wash bath, it is always immersed in a bath which is contami-
nated with hypo which this bath has removed from the film. Because the film is
immersed in water containing hypo, only that amount of solute (hypo in this case) can
be removed which will bring to equilibrium the solute in the gelatin with that of the
wash water. There is no possibility of removing more solute from the film after the
equilibrium condition has been reached no matter how long the material is washed
beyond this point. For each bath, therefore, a time is reached beyond which the bath
is no longer effective in the removal of solute, and further washing can be attained
only by removal of the film to a fresh bath.

Following the method of the previous section, equations may be developed for the
effect of each of a number of baths, as well as the over-all or net effect of several baths.
The essential feature in multiple-bath washing is the number of baths required to
reduce the original concentration of the solute to some definite and small fraction of
its original value. This case has been treated by Warwick. ^ If n is the number of
wash baths, all of which are similar, \/A is the fraction of the solute left after n wash-
ings, V is the volume of the wash water in each bath, and v is the volume of solution
on the surface of the film and carried over into one bath as a contamination from the
preceding bath, then the number of baths required is given by
^ ^ (13)
' Warwick, A. W., Scientific Washing of Negatives and Prints, Am. Phot., 11 (No. 6), 317-327
(1917).
where ni is a constant depending upon the type of material being washed. For plates
and films washed in tanks, m = 1, whereas when washing is done in shallow trays,
m = 1.25. For washing prints in trays, m = 2. Equation (13) gives the number
of baths required (for specified values of A and V/v), under the assumption that the
film is washed thoroughly in each bath.
—
Washing with Limited Water Supply. It sometimes happens that the amount of
water available for washing is limited so that the question arises as to the most effec-
tive use of the available supplj\ Under such restrictions it can be shown that the best
utilization of a given water supply is that in which the total amount of water is divided
into as many separate baths as possible so long as the amount of water in each bath is
sufficient to cover the entire negative or print. Between wash baths the surface
water from the negatives should be removed. The removal of the svirface water is very
effective in obtaining completeness of washing but is a point which is frequently
neglected.
The conditions outlined above for the optimum use of a limited water supply are
such that the reduction of hypo concentration per individual bath is not likelj'- to be
very high. Consequently a large number of baths is desirable. We may summarize
the conditions for optimum use of a limited wash-water supply as follows: (1) wash
the negatives or prints in the minimum amount of water in each bath which will com-
pletely cover all the surface area, (2) remove the surface water between baths by
sponging the photographic material with a viscose sponge or lintless cloth, and (3)
wash in as many baths as possible since each bath does not produce very much reduc-
tion in hypo concentration.
—
Importance of Adequate Water Supply. In any wash bath, the most fundamental
rule is to use plenty of water. For multiple-bath washing this general statement may
be modified slightly, as in this case it is more important that the ratio of the volume
of water in the bath be large compared to the volume of water carried over from one
bath to another by the film. Plenty of water is one answer to this situation; a better
answer, especially when the water supply is limited, is to make the ratio V/v as large
as possible. A very effective way of increasing V/v is to remoAê as much of the surface
water as possible between wash baths.
Washing Several Negatives in the Same Bath. —To save time in washing, it is common
practice to place several negatives or prints in the same wash baths at the same time.
So long as each sheet of material is always kept separated from all others, the general
principles outlined for multiple wash baths hold.
On the other hand, if the sheets of photographic material are not agitated and
especiallyif thej^ are permitted to pile upon one another so that one sheet protects
another from being washed by fresh water, hypo will not be effectively removed from
the protected areas. Therefore such washing maj'- not remove any appreciable per-
centage of hypo from the protected areas.
Even if the separate sheets are kept separated, it is still possible, if thej^ are not
thoroughly agitated, that some of the negatives or prints will sink to the bottom of
the tank or tray, whereas others may remain at a higher level of wash water in the
bath. Since the hypo solution is more dense than the fresh, uncontaminated water,
it will tend to settle at the bottom of the tank. Thus the sheets at the bottom of the
tank will receive less effective washing than those at the top.
—
Contamination of Partly Washed Materials. The addition of negatives or prints
fresh from the hypo bath into a bath of partiallj^ washed prints or negatives may
easily undo all the effects of previous washing, so that it may be necessary to start
washing all over again if complete washing is to be attained. The reason for this is
that the materials having the higher concentration of hypo add considerable hypo
to the wash water, so that the introduction of the hypo-laden materials may raise the
—
hypo concentration of the partly washed materials. The same effect occurs if hypo-
contaminated fingers are placed in the wash bath. In this ease, to obtain a given
degree of hypo elimination, washing will be prolonged beyond that time required if
the bath is not contaminated.
A practical means of reducing to a minimum contamination from either of the
causes mentioned above is to wash the photographic materials in cascade. Two
methods are possible. In one of these the wash water remains constant for each
bath, the baths being cascaded; in the other the water from one bath overflows into
the next bath and all baths have their water changed periodically. The second
method is to be preferred unless the amount of wash water is limited. The material
to be washed is placed in the first or bottom tank and is removed, in due time, to
higher tanks in which the water is successively less contaminated with hypo. Should
it become necessary to add more negatives during the washing process, the partly
washed negatives can be removed to a higher tray, whereas those fresh from the hypo
bath are placed in the bottom traj'. Thus the partly washed negatives or prints
receive fresh water, whereas those fresh from the hypo bath receive water which is
only slightly contaminated by hypo from the materials in the preceeding bath.
Completeness of Washing Negatives.—It is of practical importance to know when
negatives are sufficiently thoroughly washed as to prevent hypo staining. Washing
longer than is necessary is time consuming and accomplishes no essentially useful
service. There are three methods in common use for determining the washing time.
The first depends upon experience. The other methods depend upon chemical or
electroh'tic conductivity tests for traces of hypo or other solute.
The washing of negatives in trays is time consuming but is practical where only a
small amount of work is being done. A common general rule, based on experience, is
that a negative or print should pass through 6 to 12 changes, remaining in each bath
for 5 min. In warm weather this method may be productive of frilling because of the
frequent handling of the negatives which this process requires.
Where negatives or prints are washed in trays or tanks of running water the
required time of washing may be determined from the time which it takes for a
colored solution in the tank to become completely replaced by clear, colorless water.
To this time shouldbe added the minimum washing time for the material under
consideration, as given in Table III. For example, if it takes 10 min. for the colored
Table III. Minimtjm Washing Time for Various Photographic Materials

Washing Time
Material Min.
Lantern-slide plates 3
Other plates 5
Film negatives of all kindt^ 7
Single-weight bromide papers 20-25
Double-weight bromide papers 35—60
solution to be replaced bj^ clear water running into the tray, then film negatives
should be washed at least 17 min., single-weight bromide papers should be washed
30 to 35 min., and lantern slides should be washed 13 min. Any colored solution or
dye may be used to determine the length of time for the tank to become cleared, but
it is desirable that this solution be one which has no deleterious effects on the nega-
tives or prints.
A test solution for hypo maj' also be used. This solution is made bj' dissolving
the chemicals in the following formula.
Potassium permanganate . 3 g. 4 gr.
.Sodium hydroxide 0.6 g. 8 gr.
Distilled water to make 250 cc. 8 oz.

To make a test solution add 1 (J-'4 dram) of the above solution to 250 cc. (8 oz.)
cc.
of water in a clear glass container. Allow the wash water from several negatives or
prints to drip into the test solution. If the color of the solution remains unchanged
the photographic materials may be considered to be completely washed. The violet

color of the test solution will turn to orange in about 30 sec. if a small amount of hypo
from the drippings of the wash water is added. With larger amounts of hypo added
to the test solution, the color will turn to a greenish yellow. Change of color of the
test solution indicates incomplete washing.
The success of this test depends upon the water being free from oxidizable organic
matter, for, if it is not, the organic matter will react the same as the hypo. To ascer-
tain that the water is free from organic matter, it may be tested in the following man-
ner. Prepare two samples of the permanganate-soda test solution using distilled
water. To one of these samples, add a known volume of drippings from the wash
water, then add an equal amount of tap water to the second test solution which is to
serve as a control. If the sample to which the tap water has been added remains
violet, the absence of organic matter is indicated. If the color of the solution is
changed slightly by the addition of tap water, the presence of organic matter is indi-
cated. In this case, the amount of hypo present in in the first solution will be indi-
cated by the relative color change of the two samples. If both samples turn the same
color, no appreciable amount of hypo is indicated as being present in the first solution.
If the sample to which tap water was added turns pink, whereas the sample to which
hjrpo was added turned yellow, the presence of hypo would be indicated in the water
in which the prints were being washed.
Electrical methods of measuring conductivity of solutions may be used to deter-
mine the presence of hypo. The simplest of these methods, which is not so sensitive
as some of the chemical tests, makes use of an ohmmeter such as is used in radio-set
test equipment. The ohmmeter consists of a d'Arsonval or similar type of d-c
measuring instrument, a small dry battery, and a variable resistance for adjusting the
meter to its initial or zero setting, all connected in series with two terminals which are
insulated from one another. In use, the terminals of the instrument are placed in
clear water, and the rheostat is adjusted to the zero reading of the meter. When it is
desired to test a solution for the presence of hypo, the terminals are immersed in the
Mâsh water, and the meter reading is observed. If the meter reads zero, the absence
of hypo is indicated. If the meter reads some value greater than zero, the amount of
hypo present is roughly proportional to the meter reading.
In order that such a device may be independent of the extent to which its electrodes
are immersed, it is essential that the same area of the electrodes always be immersed
when making measurements. Usually, in most commercial instnmients, the elec-
trodes are exposed a given amount, the remaining area being protected by insulation.
The device then give significant readings so long as the exposed portions of the
will
electrodes are completely immersed in the liquid. The success of such a device
depends to a large extent upon the sensitivity of the meter, upon the area of
the exposed electrodes, and upon the separation between the electrodes.
]Vashing of Prints. —
Hickman and Spencer in the Photographic Journal, 1925,
vol. 63, page 443, showed that prints required a greater washing time than plates or
film. While the larger part of the hypo is removed from the emulsion in a compara-
tively short time, a certain amount is tenaciously retained by the fibers of the paper
support and is difficult to remove. For this reason much longer times of washing are
required for prints than for plates or film. Prints on good paper should be washed at
least 30 min. in a running stream of water while the simple double-weight paper should
receive a 1- to ll2-hr. washing. Increasing the velocity of the water or the flow of
water over the print does not decrease the time of washing correspondingly as is the
case with plates. The removal of hypo retained by the paper base appears to be a
matter of time and not of the amount of water or the velocitj' employed.
In general the conditions appljdng to the washing of negatives apply equallj' well
to the washing of prints, at least qualitatively. On the assumption that hypo would
diffuse from both sides of the print instead of from only one side, it has sometimes
been presumed that prints may be washed more rapidly than an equal number and
size of film. It has also been stated that prints require a longer time of washing than
an equivalent quantity of negatives on the basis that the fibrous texture of the paper
holds hypo more tenaciously than do negatives, so that complete washing is not so
readily accomplished.
Experiments by Hickman and Spencer' indicate that both points of view are cor-
rect within hmits. A large percentage of the total hypo may be removed from prints
within a comparatively short time, but considerably greater washing of prints than of
negatives is required to remove the last traces of hypo. Consequently, for complete
removal of hypo, prints should be washed in running water for a longer time than
negatives or should be washed in more baths than an equivalent amount of negative
material.
When prints are washed in running ^\ater, Warwick ^ gives as a practical rule the
formula
/ = A' logio A (14)
where t = the washing time, in minutes, required for satisfactory washing;

A = reciprocal of the fraction of hypo concentration which it is desired to obtain,
i.e.. for attaining a final hypo concentration which is 1/50,000 of the origi-
nal hypo concentration, A = 50,000;

K = a constant to be determined experimentally, but which is approximately
15.5 for common practical cases of operation.
If, for example, we take if = 16, and A = 100,000, the washing time is
t = 16 logio 100.000 = 16 X 5 = 80 min. (15)
whereas if we take A = 10,000, the washing time becomes
t = 16 logio 10,000 = 16 X 4 = 64 min. (16)
—
on Washing.^ While the amount of water which is changed
Effect of Container
is importance in the washing of photographic materials, Hickman and Spencer have
of
determined that the elimination of hypo is sometimes affected bj' the characteristics
of the wash water container in such a manner as to prolong the washing time much
beyond that required for a complete change of water in the washing device. For
example, these authors report that plates placed in a trough, through which a constant
amount of water was flowing, were found to be washed free of hypo more rapidly if the
trough was slightly inclined than if it was horizontal. The effectiveness of tank wash-,
ing devices were found to vary considerably. The inclined trough was found to be the
most effective, as well as one of the most simple, of washing devices.
It has been assumed (although not explicitly stated) that the material out of whicli
the container is made had no appreciable eftect on the time of washing of prints or
negatives. This is a desirable condition and is realized to a very close approximation
where the washing vessels are made of glass, enameled metal, glazed earthenware,
1 Hickman, K. C. D., and D. A. Spencer, Washing of Photographic Product-s, Phot. J., 65, 443
(1925).
2 Warwick, AV. A., Scientific Washing of Negatives and Prints, Am. Phot., 11 (No. 6), 317-327
(1917).
' A comprehensive study of the effectiveness of washing devices has been reported by Hickman and
Spencer, Phot. J., 62, 225 (1922).
stainless steel, or other nonporous material. If, however, the vessels are made of
imglazed earthenware, wood, or other semiporous or cellular materials, some of the
wash solution will be absorbed by the porous material and will not be given up so
readily as in the case of a nonporous material. In the case of a porous container, the
fresh wash water will be required to wash out the solution from the pores as well as
from the negatives and prints. The law of washing the container is similar to that of
washing photographic negatives and prints, although the containers may wash more
slowly than photographic products.
Temperahire of the Wash Water. —
So far as removal of hypo is concerned, the tem-
perature of the wash water not of great importance. But the temperature of the
is
water has secondary effects which may be quite damaging, and it is best to keep the
temperature of the wash water within certain limits, if this is at all possible.
As gelatin is warmed, it swells and finally, at sufficiently high temperatures, flows
off its support. For temperature should not become excessively high.
this reason, the
A good general rule to follow is to keep the wash water between 60 and 70°F. whenever
this is possible. For those cases in which it is not possible to keep the temperature of
the wash water down to these limits, damage of the film may often be prevented by
hardening the gelatin in a hardening bath. Sudden changes in the temperature of the
gelatin are likely to cause wrinkles or reticulation. For this reason it may be advisable
to keep the temperature of the wash water as near the temperature of other solutions as
possible.
Hypo Eliminators. —To reduce the washing time required to eliminate hj^po from
negatives and prints, it has been suggested that the hypo be converted into some
substance which can be more easily washed from the gelatin. There appears to be
little advantage in using such hypo eliminators, however, for then the "hypo elimina-
tor" must be removed from the gelatin, and the removal of this substance may take
as long as the removal of the original hypo.
—
Drying. Ordinarilj'' the drying of photographic negatives and prints is not given
serious consideration. In spite of the fact that comparatively little, if any, physical
action takes place which may harm the materials during drying, certain practices are
to be preferred to others.
—
Mechanism of Drying. Although drying is often treated as an operation involving
only a single step, two distinct phases of drying take place. The first of these is con-
cerned with the removal of excess surface water; the second phase is one of evaporation
of the remaining water much of which has been absorbed by the gelatin. In the second
phase, evaporation takes place normally, or it may be accelerated through the use of
forced-draft air blasts. Washes in alcohol or other liquids of low vapor pressure, and
consequently having rapid evaporation, also result in accelerated drying.
Removal of the excess surface water is desirable for two reasons. In the first place
it speeds up the total time required for drying by removing large drops or pools which
would otherwise be required to evaporate. In the second place the tendency of the
unremoved water to form water spots resulting in certain forms of spots or stains is
greatly removed. The excess water may be removed from negatives and prints by
blotting them with a soft but lintless cloth or absorbent material. In this case the
cloth should be free from woven pattern, as otherwise the pattern may be impressed
on the soft gelatin. Another very satisfactory way of removing excess surface water
is to blot or rub off the water with viscose sponges. In this case care must be used,
especially with miniature films, to see that small particles of the sponge do not become
loose and deposit themselves on the film, where they might remain to produce spots on
the final print.
After the surface water has been removed, the negatives or prints may be hung
up to dry by evaporation. Drying may take place through the normal evaporation.
although quicker drying can be obtained by playing a draft of air over the materials
to be dried. If the air is heated, drying will be more rapid, but the temperature
should not exceed 90°F.
While drying by forced air flow maj^ sometimes be advantageous, this method
tends to stir up the air more completely than normal drying and, in so doing, also
stirs up dust and dirt which may be deposited upon the film. The deposit of dust
particles on the film is particularly serious in the case of small negatives from which
enlarged prints are made. One means of minimizing this contamination by foreign
particles is to place the material to be dried in a wôoden or metal frame or box which is
covered with a cloth of very fine mesh; sufficiently fine so as not to permit dust par-
ticles to pass through it. The air may then be blown over this box. While the use
of the fine mesh cloth will reduce the air circulation somewhat and thereby prolong the
drying time, none of the particles outside of the frame can be deposited upon the film.
By making the frame small enough to hold onl^'' the required number of negatives, the
amount of dust inside the frame can be minimized.
Certain liquids having low vapor pressure so that thej^ evaporate readily may be
used to assist in rapid drying. Of these materials the most common and useful is
alcohol. After washing has been completed, the surface water is drained off, and the
negatives are immersed in alcohol.^ The negatives are allowed to remain in the
alcohol bath for a sufficiently long time for the alcohol to permeate the gelatin coating,
thereby replacing as much of the remaining water as possible. Ordinarily from 3 to
5 min. should be sufficient for this purpose, after which the negatives may be removed,
drained of their surface alcohol, and hung up to dr3^ If desired, much of the surface
alcohol may be removed by blotting with a soft cloth or viscose sponge, but in this
case care should be taken that lint deposits do not adhere to the negative.
The rapidity with which such an alcohol-treated negative will dry depends upon
the degree to which air is circulated over the negative, the temperature and humidity
of the air, and the percentage of water in the alcohol. Water and alcohol are miscible
in all proportions, and as water is brought over to the alcohol bath from the final water
wash bath, the alcohol becomes more and more diluted and loses some of its eff'ective-
ness as a rapid drying agent.
Sometimes it is found that a faint opalescent deposit appears on the negative
which has been rinsed in alcohol. This is likely to occur if poor grades of alcohol
(such as rubbing alcohol) are used but may usually be removed by rubbing the surface
of the dried negative with a soft cloth or lens tissue. If a negative has not been
sufficiently fixed, it will assume a white opaloid or white appearance when immersed
in the alcohol bath. The removal of this opalescence may be accomplished by washing
the negative in clear water and then returning it to the fixing bath for more thorough
and complete fixation.
As alcohol is a solvent for the support sometimes used for certain films, it should
not be employed with cellulose nitrate films. In this case drying may be hastened by
immersing the film in a 40 per cent solution of formalin or formaldehyde for 5 min.
following the final wash in clear water, after which the negative should be dried in a
current of air at as high a temperature as is consistent with prevention of injury to
the supporting base. Such procedure has considerable potentialities of damage to
the negative, especially if attempted by the inexperienced worker and is recommended
for use only in emergencies.
Quick drying can also be carried out by using ether instead of alcohol as the final
wash bath. Ether and its fumes are highly inflammable and operations with this
' The use of an alcohol bath is suitable for glass plates and film materials made of cellulose acetate,
as well as printing papers. Cellulose nitrate films are soluble in alcohol so that such negatives cannot be
washed in alcohol. From 10 to 20 per cent water should be added to alcohol for this bath.
chemical should be carried out in open space or a well-ventilated room. Fumes of

ether should not be breathed as it is an anesthetic.
Plates and by placing them in racks or hanging
films are usually dried vertically
them by clipsfrom some convenient support. In this case evaporation may take
place from both sides of the material. On the other hand, prints are often dried bj^
placing them on a horizontal surface or by squeegeeing them to ferrotype plates, in
which case effective evaporation can take place only from one surface of the print.
Another common method of drying prints is to place them between white lintless
blotters or alternate layers of blotting paper and waxed sheets. Pressure may be
applied to a pile of such prints to reduce the tendency of curling.
Water spots on negatives result from the accumulation of water particles into
drops. In drying, the gelatin swells at the edge of the drop and forms a crater around
the perimeter of the drop, which remains after the drop has completely evaporated.
The additional thickness of gelatin at the edge of the crater shows up later in the
print as a slightlj' dark ring or stain. It is sometimes possible to remove such water
spots by soaking the negative again in water and drying as uniformly as possible.
Removal of the excess surface water will assist in minimizing stains due to water
drops. Another method of removing drying marks is to completely bleach the film in
a solution of
Potassium bromide 10 gr.

Potassium feriicyanide 10 gr.
Water 1 oz.
After bleaching, the negative is washed and then fully developed in a nonstaining
developer.
—
Drying of Prints. After a print has been washed thoroughly, the surface moisture
may be removed by swabbing with a piece of wet absorbent cotton and the print
placed in a rack, in a print dryer, or on a flat surface to dry. If the hardener in the
fixing bath has hardened the emulsion side sufficiently, the print may be blotted
by means of a moistened viscose sponge, or the excess water maj^ be removed by a
squeegee or print roller. The print is placed emulsion side against a clean flat surface,
such as the polished surface of a ferrotype plate, and the surplus water is removed by
running a rubber straightedged squeegee or a print roller over the back of the print.
The print may be left on the ferrotype plate, if one is used, until it is thoroughly dry,
when it will peel off easily.
The print may also be placed upon a drying stretcher, which consists of a frame
of wooden strips, across which have been stretched sheets of thin porous cloth such
as cheesecloth. Such a frame may be used in the open, or it may be placed in a
warmed drying oven. In either case it is desirable to turn the prints over occasion-
ally so that the tendency toward curling may be reduced.
The time required for a print to dry will depend upon the degree to which the
emulsion has been hardened in the fixing bath, the extent to which the surplus water
has been removed from the print, the temperature and humidity of the drjdng atmos-
phere, and the weight or thickness of the print paper.
Curling of Prints. —
Prints frequently have a tendency toward curling. This is
especially true in the case of prints dried on a drying stretcher and in the case of prints
having a glossj" rather than a dull or matte surface. If a slightly excessive amount of
hardener was used in the fixing bath, and if, moreover, the temperature was above the
ordinarj^ room temperature and the humidity low, the crispness will be present to the
extent of brittleness, with an inclination to crack, making it easy to injure the print in
ordinary handling. Such an objectional condition in which a print dries when this
method is followed requires use of expedients to produce a flat flexible print. These
expedients are as follows:
The use of a glycerin bath.
Sponging and the use of blotters.
Coating the back of the print with gelatin.
Straightening the print.
Togive flexibility to the print and overcome brittleness, as well as some of the
tendency to curl, a glycerin bath may be used after completion of the final washing.
The bath is composed of 1 part of glycerin to from 5 to 10 parts of water. The print
should be allowed to remain in this bath until the solution has thoroughly permeated
the gelatin coating, which usually requires at least 5 min., and then, without further
washing, the print is placed upon the drying screen.
Whether a glycerin bath has been used or not, it is always advisable, while the
prints are on the stretchers and before they are thoroughly dry, to sponge the backs of
them lightly with water or alcohol and to lay a blotter on them. Even when the
glycerin bath has not been used, this sponging, combined with the use of blotters, will
aid greatl}'' in drying the prints flat.
The serviceability of the blotters used extensively in print finishing is greatly

increased by keeping them as dry as possible.
After each time they are wetted, they
should be spread out to dry before they are again used. Commercial blotters are
ordinarily unsuitable for photographic purposes as they invariably contain chemicals
that have a bleaching action on the print. Colored blotters are likewise unsuitable
because of the likelihood of the color being transferred to the print. A white, chem-
ically pure blotter is available for photographic purposes.
The curl of a print may be removed by the scraping effect of a straightedged ruler,
the procedure being to lay the print face down on a hard clean surface and to draw it
between the surface and the straightedge while it is held in close contact with the
surface.
Ferrotyping. — Glazing or ferrotyping a print is a process for increasing the luster
of a glossy-surfaced print so as to increase its contrast. To impart^ this gloss, ferro-
type plates, i.e. thin iron sheets coated with a hard, smooth, glossy enamel, or chro-
mium-metal plates, are used. Prints to be ferrotyped should be hardened in the
fixing bath and allowed to remain in the final wash for the normal length of time.
Upon completion of the final washing, dip the clean ferrotype plate in water to remove
dust specks and lint. Then lay the print, face down, on the ferrotype plate, applying
one corner first, and gradually bringing down the other corners until the print lies
smooth and flat on the plate. Squeegee the surplus water from the print by means
of a print roller or squeegee, making sure that the print is in firm, intimate contact
with the plate and that all small air pockets are eliminated. In rolling or squeegeeing,
work from the center toward the edges of the print. Instead of squeegeeing, the
print and ferrotype plate may be passed through a wringer; this is effective where
much work is being done. After squeegeeing or passing through the wringer, the
prints are set away to dry.
the ferrotype plate was clean and the directions given have been followed, the
If
prints will fall awaj^ from the ferrotype tin after they have become completely dry.
If they do not separate readily, the prints may be removed by prying loose one corner
and slipping a thin piece of film between the tin and the print, using this film as a
wedge to separate other parts of the print from the tin.
The prints should be trimmed immediately upon their removal from the ferrotype
plates and should then be placed under pressure to minimize the tendency to curl.
Tendency toward curling may be reduced bj' dampening the back of the prints occa-
sionally' with alcohol.
If a reasonableamount of care is exercised in handling ferrotype plates, and they

are clean and well polished, little difficulty should be experienced. Occasionally the
prints will stick, and the remedy in this case is to use an antisticking solution. This
solution consists of î oz. prepared ox gall, 2 drams of formalin, and 20 oz. of water.
The prints are soaked in this solution for at least 3 min. after the final washing and
are then transferred to the ferrotype tin without additional washing.
A common cause for the prints sticking to the ferrotj'pe tins is insufficient harden-
ing in the fixing bath, washing in water that was too warm, washing for too long a
period of time, applying too much heat to the ferrotj^pe prints in an effort to hasten
drying, or failure to lubricate the plates properly. The lubrication polish for ferro-
type plates is made as follows:
Benzol, gasoline, or benzine 15 oz.

Paraffin 150 gr.
Polish the tin with a soft cloth dipped in this solution. Rub dry with clean cloth,
and polish with a dry cloth until all traces of the solution have disappeared.
soft
—
Use of Alcohol. Alcohol may be used to hasten the drying of prints in the same
manner as its use in the case of negatives. After the final wash in clear water, the
print should be immersed in alcohol from 2 to 5 min. (depending upon the amount of
water in the alcohol) and left until the print becomes translucent, i.e., until the outUne
of the image may be seen through the back of the print. The surplus alcohol is then
drained off, and the print is dried in the usual manner.
Alcohol-burning Method. —
When alcohol is used to hasten the drying of the print,
it can be burned from the surface more quickly than it will evaporate normally.
The prints are washed in water and then in alcohol, as already explained. The sur-
plus alcohol is drained off. With the wet print safely removed from inflammable
materials, the print is held by one corner and an open flame is applied, enabling the
inflammable alcohol to burn and in so doing to dry the print. Care must be exercised
that the print is not scorched or that the fingers are not burned. If the print is
allowed to remain too long in the alcohol bath, the alcohol will penetrate the paper
fibers,- and the entire print maj^ be burned. The method is not recommended, except
as an emergency measure.
Bibliography
Periodicals:
Sheppard, S. E., and C. E. K. Mebs: Theory of Fixation, Phot. J., 46, 235 (1906).
Piper, C. Welborne: The Rate of Fixing, Brit. J. Phot., 61, 437, 458, 511 (1914).
Further Experiments in Fixing, Brit. J. Phot., 62, 364 (1915).
:
Warwick, A. W.: The Laws of Fixation, Am. Phot., 11, 585 (1917).
The Fixation of Prints, Am. Phot., 11, 639 (1917).
:
Elsden: The Theory and Practice of Washing, Phot. J., 67, 90 (1917); Brit. J. Phot., 64, 120 (1917).
Hickman, K. C. D., and D. A. Spencer: The Washing of Photographic Products, Phot. J., May, 1922;
Phot. J., May, 1923; Phot. J., November, 1924.
LuMiERE, A., L. LuMiERE, and A. Seyewetz: When Are Plates Fixed? Brit. J. Phot., 71, 172 (1924).
, , : The Time of Fixing Development Papers, Brit. J. Phot., 71, 108 (1924).
Sheppard, S. E., Elliott, and Sweet: The Chemistry of Acid Fixing Bath, J. Franlkin Inst., 196, 45
(1923).
Books:
Sheppard: and C. E. K. Mees: "Theory of the Photographic Process," Longmans (1907).

"Gelatin in Photography," Van Nostrand.
:
Ross, F. E.: "Physics of the Developed Image," Van Nostrand.

Neblette, C. B.: "Photography, Principles and Practice," Van Nostrand.
CHAPTER XIV
PRINTING PROCESSES
By Keith Henney
The photographic process culminates in the making of a positive print, either on a
transparent base for viewing by transmitted light or on a paper base for viewing by
reflected light. The negative is only an incidental and intermediate (although
extremely important) step in this process. The print is the final resvilt, and by the
print the photographer's efi'orts are judged as successes or failures.
—
General Printing Processes. The Printing Method. ^When the negative is made,
a tone reversal takes place, the bright portions of the object being reproduced in the
negative as dark portions and the shadows or dark parts of the object becoming light
or transparent portions of the negative. The reason for this reversal of tone is the
fundamental basis of present-day photography. Light so affects the negative mate-
rial that a metallic silver deposit of varj'ing thickness represents the image in the
processed negative. The high lights or brighter portions of the object are represented
by denser deposits which absorb more transmitted light than the less dense
of silver
portions representing shadows of the object.
When the print is made, the tone values of the negative are reversed so that the
dark portions, representing the high lights, become light portions in the print; and
the transparent parts of the negative, representing the shadows of the original, become
dark portions in the print.
If the negative and positive have been correctly exposed and processed, the rela-
tions between the brightness of the brightest, the least bright, and the intermediate
portions of the original scene will be correctly reproduced in the final print. In the
ideal case the actual values of these brightnesses will be reproduced as well as the rela-
tions between them, but in general all that is expected of the print is that two portions
of the original, bearing a certain brightness ratio, will be represented in the print by
that same brightness ratio. Thus, if two portions of the original scene have a bright-
ness ratio of 3:1, these portions of the print should reflect light to the eye in a 3:1
ratio.
—
Types of Printing Processes, and Their Characteristics. Prints may be made, in
general, bj^two methods: they may be placed in contact with the negative, when a
print having the same dimensions as the negative will result, or the positive material
may have the image projected on it from the negative so that the print may be smaller
or larger than the original, as well as the same size. If the print is to be reduced or
enlarged in size, compared to the size of the negative, the print must be made by
projection.
Printing processes may also be classified as to the medium used for the print, viz.,
paper sensitized with silver salts or paper sensitized with salts of other metals, or as to
whether the final print is in color or in monochrome, etc. In this chapter we are
concerned with monochrome printing on materials sensitized with salts of silver.
The result usually desired is accuracy in portraying the original scene, not only in
perspective, but in tone values as well, considering that colors in the original are
reduced to black, white, and shades of gray, in the final print. But artistically the
412
PRINTING PROCESSES 413
desired print may depart widely from being an accurate representation of the original,
not only in tone value, but in the component parts which make up the scene. In the
hands of an artist, a print may have very little in common with the original scene,
since the artist has means of removing from the print any objectionable portion of
the original, or lacking a desirable element in the original, the artist may add this
element to the print. The tone values are frequently distorted for artistic purposes.
Color photography, however, is as yet a realistic medium, in which the effort is
made to make an accurate representation of the original. In time it is probable that
photographers will learn how to make use of certain distortions in color photography
—
as they have in monochrome all with the aim of producing a work of art rather than
an accurate representation of the original subject.
—
The Printing Problem. If the aim is to produce an accurate reproduction of the
original scene, the photographer must consider the following factors, which are con-
sidered in greater detail in the chapter on Photographic Sensitometry.
1 2 3 4
Brightness Units
Fig. 1. —Effect of negative development on compressing or increasing opacity range with
respect to scene brightness range.
The original subject reflects light in varying degrees depending upon the nature
of the illumination, and upon the color and reflectance of the component parts. It is
desired to have the final print show these differences in reflecting ability. It is possible
in processing the negative to compress the scale or brightness range of the original, to
expand it, or to make the negative show accurately the brightness differences of the
original. Thus, if the ratio between the maximum and minimum brightness of the
original is 20: 1, the opacity of the negative representing these portions of the original
may show a ratio of less than, equal to, or greater than 20: 1.
If the scale is compressed, i.e., if this brightness ratio is reduced, the negative is
flat, whereas, if the opacity range is expanded, the negative is contrasty compared to
the original. If it is desired to make the print an accurate reproduction of the tone
values of the original, some compensation must be made for the fact that a flat or
contrasty negative does not accurately portray the original.
Practically, the photographer performs these compensations by using a paper
which has less or more contrast. With the flat negative, in which the brightness range
of the original has been compressed, a contrasty paper should be used; conversely, a
"'soft" paper, lacking in contrast, should be used with the contrasty negative, the
degree of softness or contrast depending upon the degree of compensation required.
Ifthe negative has been processed so that the brightness range of the original is cor-
rectly reproduced in opacity range, then a normal paper would be used. Prints
obtained in these three cases will all look alike, if the photographer has processed and
used his materials correctly.
The photographer may make use of this ability to compensate for errors occurring
in the making of a negative or print. For example, the scientifically minded photog-
rapher knows the brightness range which may be expected from paper of certain
contrast. If he must photograph a scene in which the brightness range is greater than
this paper will reproduce, he will intentionally make a "soft" negative in which the
brightness range of the original has been compressed into the scale which can be repro-
duced by the paper. On the other hand if certain negatives are flat because of some
error in processing, the photographer may select a grade of paper which compensates
for this error.
Printing Materials and Their Characteristics. Types of Silver Salt Materials.
—
Printing papers are generally known as chloride, bromide, and chlorobromide papers,
these names indicating in a general way the chief ingredient in their emulsions. Chlo-
ride papers are the slowest and are used bromide papers, the
for contact printing;
fastest of all printing papers, are roughly 100 times niore sensitive than the chloride
papers. They are used for projection printing. Intermediate in speed are the
chlorobromides; roughly one-twentieth as sensitive as the bromides.
The chlorobromide papers are used when the operator wants the maximum control
over print color and contrast by variations of development procedure, and when the
simplest types of afterdevelopment toning are to be employed.
Chlorobromides vary considerably in speed. Some are almost as slow as the
chlorides; others are almost as fast as the bromides; some may even be slower than
papers used for contact printing. These papers are usuallj^ not made in the wide
range of contrasts available in both chlorides and bromides, but a wide range of control
in warmth of tone is possible with them. Thej' have deeper blacks, and give a more
faithful rendering of shadows than chlorides or bromides.
Characteristics of Printing Materials. —
Curves representing the relation between
exposure and opacity (usually plotted as the logarithm of the exposure against the
density which is the logarithm of the opacity) of positive materials are similar to those
of negative materials. In general the straight or linear portions of these curves are
much shorter than those of negative materials. The effect of varying the processing
is markedly different for printing papeis than for negative materials, as illustrated
in the chapter on Photographic Materials.

Printing papers are sensitive onl}^ to the shorter wavelengths, inz., blue, and can be
processed in yellow or red light. Negative materials, on the other hand, may be
sensitive to the entire visible spectrum and even beyond.
Even to the light to which the paper is sensitive, printing papers are much less
sensitive than negative materials.
Another difference between positive and negative materials lies in the manner in
which varj'ing contrast is secured. If the photographer prolongs the development of a
film or plate, the contrast increases. By variations in development procedure, con-
trast in negative materials may be controlled. But contrast is varied only to a small
extent by development variations when positive printing papers are processed. Con-
trast effects are obtainedthrough proper choice of paper, rather than by methods of
processing. If a contrasty result is desired from a negative having normal gradation, a
contrast paper will be used. This contrast paper used with a soft negative will pro-
duce a normal print having normal gradation. Similarlj^ a soft print may be obtained
from a normal negative by the use of soft paper, and a normal result will be obtained
by using a soft paper with a contrasty negative.
—
These effects may be summarized as follows:
Table I. Print Characteristics
Negative
Matte vs. Glossy Prints.—On the question of tone range of matte compared to glossy
prints, a communication from Rowland S. Potter, in The Camera, April, 1936, is inter-
esting. Sensitometric curves were made of normal grade Velour Black, a chloro-
bromide enlarging paper. Successive exposures differed by -\/2- The maximum
reflection density of glossy paper is clearly greater (see Fig. 2) than that of a matte
paper. If the matte print is waxed, its maximum densitj^ lies somewhere between that
2.0
glossy prints both have longer scales of gradation than the matte by a factor of about
17 per cent.
With a vigorous long-scale negative there will be more detail in the shadows of a
glossy print or a waxed surface than in those of a matte surface. This is true in spite
of the greater contrast. If the differentiation of tone of the matte print is satisfactory,
a negative must be less contrasty to give equal differentiation of tones on a waxed

surface or a glossy paper. In addition the glossy print will reproduce greater subject
brilliance because of the greater maximum black that can be attained in the glossy
print.
its maximum density the paper reflects about 1 per cent of the incident
At
light,which corresponds to a reflection density of 2. Therefore the longest tone
range possible is about 100 to 1.
Varieties of Printing Papers Available. —Beside varying in contrast, printing papers
are made with varioussurface textures (smooth or matte, rough, glossjs canvas, etc.),
on paper backing material of various tints or colors, of various weights (single or double
weight, etc.) etc. These matters are treated more fully in the chapter on Photographic
Materials.
-. Tones in
\shaolows lost
B/ac/c j in finalprinf Black
\
Tone range
I affinal Tonerange
\ prinf ofprinr
i
40fol
Wh/Ye
Tones in
/ Opacify J ^. Ir'gh-lighfs
range of^ ' '°^''-
>" P""'"^
neaafive
I
'Opacify/ range of =50fo/
negafi ve =50 io]
Fig. 3. —Loss of shadow or high-light tones caused by using paper with too short an exposure
range for the negative.
Practical Considerations in Printing. Selection of Paper. —The printing paper

must be the negative to be printed,
selected, not only with regard to the contrast to fit
or to produce the desired end result, but also with regard to the texture of the paper,
its thickness, and its color. These are matters of opinion rather than matters of
fact.
Brightness Range Encountered in Practice. —
Fortunately the brightness range of the
average outdoor or studio scene is such that ordinary negative materials will record it
accurately. Mees^ shows a photograph of a typical outdoor scene in which the bright-
ness of a sunlit cloud was 4250 ft.-lamberts and the deepest shadow had a brightness of
162 ft.-lamberts. This represents a brightness range of 26 to 1. Scenes with bright-
ness ranges of 100 to 1 do not reproduce well, nor do scenes of range of less than 10
reproduce well. It is seldom that brightness ranges greater than 20 or 30 to 1 will be
encountered.
Most negative emulsions are capable of reproducing easily the ranges of brightness
found in studio or outdoor subjects.
Effect of Using Improper Contrast Grade. —
Suppose a subject has a brightness range
of 50 to 1 and that it is printed on a paper with an exposure range of 40 to 1. The
paper cannot reproduce the entire range of the subject. Suppose the paper is exposed
to the negative (which has an opacity range of 50 to 1) in such manner that the high
1 Mees, C. E. K., "Photography," Macmillan (1937).
lights produce a just perceptible deposit of silver. The deep shadow will now be full
black, but so will many tones which are merely approaching the shadow end of the
subject brightness scale. On the other hand suppose the paper is so exposed that the
deepest shadows only are black. Now the high lights will be white, but there will be
many tones toward the high-light end of the subject scale which will also be white.
Thus a portrait may show a totally blank white face no half tones. —
If, however, a subject with a range of only 40 is printed on a paper with a scale of
50, different results will occur. If the paper is exposed so that the high lights produce
a just perceptible blackening, the shadows will be gray and muddy because fifty times
as much exposure is needed to make this paper black, while the subject produces an
effect only forty times as great as that produced by the high-light portion of the nega-
tive. If, on the other hand, the exposure is such that the shadows are black, then the
brightest high lights will be darker than white, and the over-all effect will be a muddy
and an unpleasant print. Of course, it is possible to lose tones at both ends, as by
using a hard negative with soft paper and placing it midway between white and black
on the curve. All tones will be gray.
B/ack
Gray Tone range of
i, print,true
* i
Tone range white never
I ofprint. attained
rfrue biacl<
I
never Gray
Whife \Whi-f-e '
aifained White,
Aiegfati\/e opacity range \'p1ax. opacity i
Ôtot r~->K- "A^-iîn. opacity

Maximum
opacify
^ ^Minimum
1
Neg.ranqe \
-highlignf opacity
Exposure = shadow Exposure range of
range of paper 50 to T
paper=50tol
Fig. 4. -Production of weak, limited-tone-range prints by using paper with too long an
exposure range for the negative.
It is possible to take advantage of the exposure scale of a paper in another way.

If a "snappy" or brilliant print is desired from a negative correctly reproducing a
fairly flat subject, then a contrast grade of paper may be employed. On the other
hand, it is possible to reduce the contrast of a subject, correctly reproduced in a nega-
tive, by printing that negative on a paper of less than normal contrast. This has the
effect of making more important the intermediate tones existing between the black
and white limits of the original subject. It is impossible, however, to put half tones
into a silhouette. If the original had no intermediate tones, such tones cannot be
found on the negative and cannot be printed into the positive.
—
Methods of Matching Paper and Negative. Photographers who do much work learn
by experience how to select paper to fit negative. But the casual printer does not
acquire this necessary experience. It is possible that the professional could turn out
better prints if he had an accurate means of measuring the scale of his negative and
thereby determining which grade of paper he should use.
By means of an exposure meter, or other form of photometer, the photographer
can measure the transmission of light through the densest and the thinnest portions
of his negative. This gives an immediate index to the brightness (exposure) ratio that
must be accommodated by the printing paper. After measuring this range the deci-
sion can be made whether to use a hard or soft or a medium paper. Suitable photo-
metric devices are described on page 436.
Several devices are on the market which are useful in determining the exposure
to give a certain negative when printing it on a certain paper. These instruments
Fig. 5. —
Effect of printing low-, normal-, and high-contrast negatives. Middle negative
(left)and print (right) are normal. If the low-contrast negative were printed on hard
paper and the high-contrast negative were printed on soft paper, the resultant prints would
resemble closely the print made on medium paper from the normal negative. {Courtesy of
Agfa Ansco Corp.)
measure the average or integrated amount of light that gets through the entire nega-
tive. They will not help the photographer determine the grade of paper to be used
since they do not make it possible to measure small areas and thereby to determine
opacity differences between the high-light and the shadow portions.
It may be said here, however, that a negative having high contrast should be
printed on a paper having less than normal contrast, and conversely, a fiat negative
requires a more contrasty paper to produce the best results.
Practical Considerations in Negative and Positive Materials. So far it has been—
assumed that emulsion characteristics were perfectly straight and of sufficient length
to reproduce brightness ranges found in practice. Actual materials, however, are not
ideal; the relation between opacity and exposure in negatives is not completely linear;
at low values of exposure and at high values of exposure the curvature of the charac-
teristic means that distortion will result if these "toe" and "shoulder" portions are
used.
Curves are employed to represent the relation between exposure and opacity of
photographic materials. In practice these relations are usually plotted as the loga-
rithm of the exposure against the logarithm of the opacity (called density). There are
two reasons for this procedure: (1) a longer range may be represented conveniently in a
small space in logarithmic units, and (2) the response of the eye to a light stimulus is
more nearly proportional to the logarithm of the stimulus than to the numerical value
of the stimulus.
If a brightness ratio is to be reproduced which is so great that the curved "toe"
and "shoulder" portions of the D-logio .£/ curve must be used, then the extreme high
lights and the darkest shadows will not be truthfully translated into opacity ratios
(or density differences). This is because of the curvature of the relation between
exposure and opacity (or density). If the brightness range is small, it may be placed
anywhere on the straight part of the curve with the knowledge that the opacity ratios
(or density differences) will be proportional to brightness ratios if not exactly equal to
them.
The slope of the straight-line part of the D-logio E curve, when plotted as logarithm
of exposure against density, is known as "gamma." It is actually equal to:
A logio E logio {Ei/Ei)
Gamma and contrast are often used as synonomous terms, although incorrectly.
The the difference between the greatest and the least density,
contrast of a negative is
no matter whether these densities represent only the straight-line portion of the
D-logioi/ curve or not. Gamma pertains only to the straight portion of the curve.
Since, however, most photographers assume they are working only on the straight
portion, they use gamma and contrast indiscriminately.
If the gamma (slope of the straight part of the JD-logio E curve) of the negative
is unity, the negative represents accurately the subject brightness values both in
proportion and in actual opacity values. The negative may be printed on a paper
with a gamma of unity. But if the negative gamma is higher than unity (say 1.2)
then the negative must be printed on a paper with a gamma of less than unity (in this
case 0.83) to make a print that is a true representation of the original. Mathematical
proof of this practical point will be found in the chapter on Photographic Sensitometry.
If the product of the slopes of the negative and paper curves is equal to 1, accurate
reproduction is procured if we neglect the extreme shadows and extreme high lights.
With printing papers, the portion of the density-exposure characteristic that
is actually straight may be quite restricted in length or may be nonexistent. So long
as the curve has no pronounced curvature at either end or anywhere else, it is probable
that- very few, if any, persons will be able to detect that distortion has entered into the
printing of a given negative. It is the aim of the paper manufacturers, however, to
make printing materials that are as near technically perfect as possible and at the
same time to make them practical to use.
The exposure ranges that are often cited as being about 5 to 1 for a contrast paper
and about 50 to 1 for a soft paper are secured by measuring the exposure differences
required to produce certain density differences. If a considerable portion of the toe
region of the curve is taken into this calculation, the exposure range cited will be
greater than if only the truly straight part of the characteristic is considered, as one
may see from the curves in Figs. 7 and 8. These are characteristic of Defender B Velour
Nega+ive
...>^
about 100 times that of the contact paper (710 m.c.s. required to produce a density of
1.0 on the contact paper compared to 6.3 m.c.s. required for the projection paper; both
grades being medium). The exposure range was estimated by considering the portion
of the characteristic between a density 0.2 less than the maximum possible on the
paper and 0.2 above the minimum measurable density. These exposure ranges
would come more into line with the tables of such ranges already published if more of
the toe region of the characteristic were used in making the range estimate. Gamma
values were obtained in the customary manner, viz., the ratio between the change in
density to the change in the log exposure over the straight portion of the curve.
1.4
be directly proportional to the subject brightness ratios. But because of the curvature
two shadow regions differing by, say 3 to 1 in brightness, will not produce opacity ratios
of this value (when the characteristics of the printing material are such that t = !)•
They will produce less than a 3 1 ratio in opacity because over the curved region it
:
requires more than a 3: 1 exposure ratio to produce a 3: 1 opacity ratio.
2.0
1.8
up and will not be represented correctly. In print making, correct exposure is usually
that exposure which will just slightly tint the paper in the strongest high lights. Then
the shadows will usually be of the correct density if a paper of correct exposure range
has been chosen.
Because of the shortness of the straight-line portion of the paper characteristic
curve, it is often impossible to obtain perfect reproduction over the whole range of
1.6
1.4
!.2
I.O
c
0)
^0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
General Characteristics of Positive PHnting Papers. —

Under this heading in the chap-
ter on Photographic Materials will be found a discussion of the various paper charac-
teristics such as speed, color sensitivity, effect of development on contrast, image tone,
sheen, texture, weight or thickness, etc.
Choics of Negative Contrast. —
The question arises as to whether it is preferable to
develop negatives to a low or a high gamma and then to use a paper of proper contrast
to bring the final reproduction to the desired point, from the standpoint of true tone
rendition. In general, it is preferable to develop the negative to a good contrast and
then to use a soft grade of paper. In this manner better over-all rendition will be
secured. The reason is the fact that there is less difference between the straight part
and the toe and shoulder portions of a soft paper than of a hard paper.
2.0
1.75
1.5
c 1.25-
d
cl.O
o
^0.751-
^0.5
0.25
0.0
A
very thorough and practical treatise on methods of printing on various papers,
of methodsof measuring the contrast of negatives, and of measuring the capabiUties
of printing papers will be found in Dutton's book, "Perfect Print Control," The
Galleon Press, 1937.
Storage of Printing Papers. —
Papers should be kept dry and free from chemical
fumes, and from hypo dust. Preferably they should be stored in a cool place and
under a certain amount of pressure to keep them flat. If they are in a moist warm
atmosphere, they will mildew and stick together, being ruined for future use. Mois-
ture seems to be able to penetrate numerous thicknesses of protective paper as well as
the double envelopes in which most papers are now packed by the manufacturer. The
only solution is to keep printing papers out of a humid hot atmosphere; or to place
them in a simple drying closet which may be made by placing the paper in a box or
cabinet in which an electric light bulb burns continuously. Of course, the paper must
be protected from light if it is not to become fogged or exposed.
Contact Printing. Comparasion of Contact and Projection Printing. The ultimate —
in sharpness of detail will only be secured by contact printing. When sharp negatives
are enlarged a matter of two to four times this lack of definition is not noticeable, but
in greater magnifications than these values the loss of sharpness is unavoidable.
Therefore, for extreme detail as for engineering or scientific record prints or where
reproduction by a photoengraving method is to be followed, the 8- by 10-in. contact
print on glossy paper, well ferrotyped, cannot be equaled.
For portraits and pictorial subjects, however, there is often an advantage in a
projection print which is not so sharp as a contact print. In projection it is possible
to reduce still further the sharpness by the employment of diffusion attachments on
the enlarger lens or by making the exposure onto the printing paper through sUk or
other diffusing material.
Only by projection may the final print be smaller or larger than the negative. For
this reason, if a very large print is desired, it is practically impossible to get it in any
other way than by projection. In commercial studios the 8- by 10-in. camera is almost
the upper limit of size in general use. Of recent years there has been a remarkable
trend toward smaller cameras, which are easier to operate, to move about, and which
have lenses of greater depth of focus.
The miniature camera, with a lens of large aperture and short focal length has
made it possible to make photographs with very great depth of focus and very short
exposures. Negatives made in such cameras may be enlarged many times before
grain inherent in negative emulsions becomes annoying and before the natural loss of
definition with enlargement causes the print to suffer too much. Modern fine-grain
materials processed according to fine-grain technique will yield enlargements of 10
diameters^ before either grain or loss of detail becomes serious, and even greater
enlargements are possible if the utmost in detail is not necessary.
There is little or no opportunity for dodging or holding back a portion of the nega-
tive in contact printing; in projection, dodging is very frequently employed. In this
manner emphasis may be placed upon the part of the image that merits it; details not
wanted may be subdued. The photographer is freed, somewhat, by this expedient
from the vagaries of uneven lighting.
Negatives which are to be enlarged must be handled with great care. The com-
mercial photographer, accustomed to making contact prints from an 8- by 10-in.
negative must learn an entirely new technique if he hopes to turn out good prints from
1 Two
terms are used for indicating the magnitude of the enlargement: diameters and the general
term magnifioation. Strictly, the latter term should indicate the enlargement in area. Practically,
however, all enlargements are rated as the number of times any linear dimension is increased. Thus a
10 times (diameter) enlargement means that, for each inch of the negative along a side, the print
will be 10 in.
.
itiiniature negatives. Every scratch, fingerprint, and speck of dust or lint is magnified
with the image, and an invisible flaw becomes a ruinous blotch when magnified 20 X
It is practically impossible to retouch miniature negatives; all handwork must be done
on the final print.
One of the virtues of projection printing is the ability of the photographer to select
a portion of a negative and to enlarge it to the desired degree. Often a negative
looked at in toto will not reveal an excellent composition which becomes evident when
only a portion is masked off and studied.
To sum up, for the utmost in detail and freedom from grain, make contact prints.
For depth of focus, when the exposure must be short, for large prints, for dodging one
portion of the negative at the expense of another, for reproducing only a portion of a
negative, for soft effects, enlarge.
Contact-printing Equipment. —
Gaslight or chloride paper used for conta-ct printing
may be processed safely in a room illuminated by ordinary incandescent lamps, pro-
vided a safe distance is maintained between lamp and paper. A better method is to
use a yellow safe light to which the chloride paper is insensitive. The illumination
on the printing table may be fairly high so long as it is of a color which will not fog the
paper.
For the amateur a printing box is useful. This is simply a box with one or more
bulbs (of 40 or 60 watts each) in it together with a small ruby lamp. A switch is
connected with a hinged cover so that, when the exposure is to be made and the cover
is pressed down, the exposing lamp is turned on and the ruby lamp is turned off.
Between the exposing lamps and the negative is a diffusing ground glass. Some sort
of reflector in the box aids in securing even illumination.
Printers for professional use are of the same general type but are more complex and
are capable of accommodating larger negatives.
—
Making Contact Prints. Contact printing involves these several steps:
1. Placing negative in printing machine or frame, emidsion side up.
2. Placing printing paper in contact with the negative, emulsion side down (the two
emulsion surfaces are now in contact).

3. Turning on printing light, or if a printing frame and an external light source are
used, bringing the frame near the exposing light.

4. Developing, rinsing, fixing, washing, drying, and mounting.
With a printing box or machine it is difficult to "dodge," i.e., to expose one portion
of the negative more or less than another part for the purpose of improving contrast of
a particular portion or to even up the final brightness over the entire print. If a
printing frame is used and the exposing light is fixed at a conAênient distance from the
frame, a piece of cardboard or other opaque material may be interposed between the
light and the portion of the negative which is to be held back.
If a printing frame and an external source of light are used, it is wise to move the
frame with respect to the lamp so that even exposure over the entire picture is secured.
A simple light box can be made, however, which may consist of several incandescent
bulbs of small size (perhaps, 25 watts) placed in the bottom. Between these lamps
and the printing frame is a sheet of diffusing glass or paper.
A normal contact paper placed about 1 ft. from a 60-watt lamp will require 10 to
20 sec. exposure when printed from an average negative. It is wise to make a test of
the exposure by using a small strip of the paper before exposing the entire sheet. This
test strip is placed over a portion of the negative which has both high lights and shad-
ows. The exposure should be such that after development the high lights show a
just perceptible coloring compared to a sheet of unexposed paper.
It is good practice to arrange the printing light and the printing frame in such a
manner that exposures of the order of 4 or 5 sec, minimum, are required. At one time
it was thought that better contrast was obtained from flat negatives by printing them
for a longer time at a greater distance from the lightthan customary. Nowadays
the contrast is secured by using a harder paper. Standardized conditions of light
sources and distance between light and paper are highly desirable.
Chloride papers are completely developed in about 45 sec. to 1 min. If the print
becomes too dark in this time, it is overexposed. The image should show up in 10 to
15 sec; if it flashes up a shorter exposure is required. The print should be left in the
developer until the maximum blackness is attained.
—
Papers to Use for Certain Subjects. Nearly all pictures will look well if printed on
white stock; others look better if put on buff-colored, cream-colored, or other tinted
papers. But egregious errors may be made by using the wrong paper for certain
subjects. Portraits, interiors by artificial light, and some sunlight scenes may be
printed on cream-, buff-, or ivory-tinted paper. Outdoor scenes such as beach and
marine views and snow scenes do not look well on these papers. Moonlight scenes, as
well as some snow and sand scenes look well if placed on paper which maj^ be toned
blue. Fire scenes may be toned red. In general, however, it is always safe to use a
white paper.
For reproduction purposes, glossj' prints are desired. In any case, if the finest
detail and the greatest tone range is desired, glossy paper is preferred. Glossj^ paper
seems to be the mode for amateur prints made by commercial finishing establishments.
This style may change as has the style of using deckle edges and other out-of-the-
ordinary fads. Rough papers are useful for broad effects of light and shadow but are
not of much use if fine detail is to be preserved. All surfaces will take retouching with
the spotting brush and spotting colors, and all but glossy and silk surfaces will take the
spotting pencil.
Projection Printing. —
The Projection Method. If the print is to be larger or smaller
than the negative from which it is to be made, projection printing must be used. In
this manner of printing, the image of the negative is projected upon the printing paper
by means of an objective lens. The projection system may be especially constructed
for enlarging purposes, or it may be a camera used backward, i.e., the negative is placed
in the rear of the camera and illuminated by a source of light. The image from the
lens is then focused upon the sensitive paper.
Because of the loss of light in the projection system, papers adapted for contact
printing require verj^ long exposures. The projection papers, therefore, are much
more sensitive than contact chlorides. There is no reason, however, aside from the
longer exposures required (or the stronger source of light required), why contact-type
papers should not be used for projection or why projection papers should not be used
for contact printing. The bromide type of projection paper may be as much as 100
times as sensitive as the chlorides used for contact printing.
Projection Equipment. —In simplest terms the enlarging camera may consist of the
light source, a holder for the negative, a lens for focusing the image on the paper to be
exposed, some means for varying the lens-paper and negative-lens distances, and an
easel upon which the sensitive paper is placed. More complicated equipment involves
the use of several devices to adjust these necessarj' distances; some enlargers have these
two distance controls mechanically coupled together so that one operation changes
both lens-to-negative and lens-to-paper distances. These are known as automatic-
focus enlargers.
The housing for the illuminant and the easel need not necessarily be attached to
the focusing lens system. Consequently an ordinary camera may be used as an
enlarger by attaching the camera to the lighting sj'stem so that the negative is held
between glass plates (or in some other manner) and placed between the rear of the
camera and the light house. The easel need not be on the same bench as the camera
and light house.
Fixed-focus Enlarger. — If the photographer is content with a single degree of

enlargement, he may use a fixed-focus enlarger. The maximum size of film that may
be enlarged is controlled by the dimensions of the negative holder; the size of the
largest sheet of paper upon which the image may be focused is controlled by the dimen-
sions of the paper holder. Ordinarily these enlargers are used by amateurs who are
accustomed to use a single size of negative and who are satisfied with a single size of
paper, e.g., 3}'^ by 4}^ in. enlarged to post-card size or to 5 by 7 in. The lens is placed
at the proper position between the negative and the paper and is sufficiently corrected
for the purpose. After the negative and printing paper have been placed in their
respective holders, the enlarger may be brought out of the darkroom and exposure may
take place to the open sky or to some other source of illumination. The camera may
be knockdown in style so that it may be packed out of the way when not in use or so
that it may be readily transported more modern fixed-focus enlargers contain a source
;
of illumination.
Variable-focus Enlargers. —This type ofequipment is much more versatile than tht;
fixed-focus arrangement. With such an enlarger,any degree of magnification between
the minimum and maximum possible with the phj'sical equipment may be accom-
plished. In addition, if the lens may be placed far enough away from the negative and
close enough to the easel, a print reduced in size from the negative may be secured.
Variable-focus enlargers may fall into one of two general classes depending upon the
type of illumination. If a single source of light (usually a concentrated filament lamp
or an arc) is used, a pair of plano-convex condensing lenses is employed to bring the
light to a focus in the center of the objective (focusing) lens. This type of equipment
is more economical of light, and it requires more adjustments than the type described
below in which diffused lighting is used. Flaws and negative grain become more
apparent in prints made from this type of equipment than is the case when using the
second type.
The second general type of equipment utilizes one or more lamps, the illumination
being broken up by diffusion plates (usually ground glass or opal glass) interposed
between source and negative so that the difi'using medium becomes the source of light
as far as the enlarging process is concerned. A diffusion system provides even illiuni-
nation over the entire negative without any adjustments of lamp-to-negative distance;
flaws and grain are minimized but much of the available light is wasted in the diffusion
equipment. Prints made from diffusion-type enlarger will be less contrasty than those
made from a condenser system.
Some enlargers, notably those used for enlarging miniature negatives, use a con-
denser lens to concentrate the beam and a diffuser to provide even illumination.
Present trends are toward the diffusion type of equipment.
In any variable-focus enlarger there are two adjustments necessary to get sharp
focus of the image upon the printing paper: the lens-to-negative distance and the
lens-to-paper distance. In addition to these adjustments a condenser sj^stem requires
that the light-source-to-negative distance be accurately adjusted to get even illumina-
tion over the entire negative.
In operation the photographer places the negative in the holder and focuses the
image to the required size upon the easel by adjusting the distances mentioned above.
Then he may stop down the objective lens to the desired point, place the projection
paper on the easel, and make the exposure. Proper exposure is controlled both by the
diaphragm in the lens and by the time of exposure. Stopping down will tend to
minimize effects of poor focusing, but it is always wise to effect the best possible focus
before making the exposure.
If the light source requires adjustment, this is done after the desired magnification
has been determined and before the negative is placed in the holder. The distance,
light to negative holder, is varied until the easel is evenly covered with illumination.
If incorrectly placed, the light will cast upon the easel only a small circle of intense
light; the rest of the negative will not be covered properly and the enlargement will
show these light variations clearly.
a negative is dense and it is difficult to get accurate focus, a useful expedient is
If
to place in the negative holder a well-fogged negative on which fine scratches in the
emulsion have been made. When these scratches are sharply defined on the easel, the
test negative is in focus and may be replaced by the negative to be enlarged.
Equipment for working with miniature negatives will usually produce enlargements
up to 15 or 20 diameters with the physical equipment built into the enlarger. If still
greater magnifications are desired, some means must be found for increasing the
distance from lens to paper. Usually, sufficient adjustment of the lens-to-negative
distance is built into the enlarger so that its enlarging ability is beyond the limit set
by the lens-to-paper distance. This is generally accomplished by placing the paper on
the floor and by turning the camera so that the rays of light from the objective clear
the table upon which the camera stands. With enlargers adapted for negatives of
large size, e.g., 3J^ by 414 in. and up, magnifications much greater than four or five
diameters are not possible because of the considerable lens-to-easel distance required.
The only solutions in this case are to use a lens of shorter focus or to use an accessory
lens to reduce the focal length of the objective.
Enlargers for miniature negatives may use lenses of 50 to 100 mm. focal length.
Present-day equipment is constructed on the vertical plan, the camera extending
up in the air, the easel being below it and horizontal. Vertical space is seldom at a
premium in the darkroom, and a horizontal easel is much easier to work with.
Certain older equipment had other adjustments in addition to those mentioned.
For example, the negative might be tilted, or swung about a vertical pivot through the
center of the negative, or the negative might be raised or lowered so that one portion
could be brought nearer the center of the rays from the light source. Modern equip-
ment has few or none of these additional adjustments. If one edge of the easel is
tilted with respect to the negative, certain correction in the lines of the negative may
be effected. For example if the lines of a building converge because the camera
has been tilted in making the original exposure, the easel may be tilted in the opposite
direction. In general, however, modern enlarging practice has little need of these
additional adjustments.
Most modern equipment includes a yellow or red filter which may be swung into
the beam from the lens to make it possible to focus directly upon the sensitive paper.
When the exposure is to be made, this filter is removed from the light beam.
—
Condenser Enlarger. This type of equipment is useful when the utmost sharpness
of detail is desired, or when the maximum use of the light source must be secured.
Because of this sharpness of detail, flaws in negatives arenot subdued at all in enlarging
so that retouching on negatives to be projected must be much more carefully done than
ifthe enlarged print is to be made by a diffusion system.
In condenser equipment, rays of light are scattered more in the heavier portions
of the negative than in the less dense portions. The latter go straight through the
negative and are collected by the projection lens. Some of the scattered rays, how-
ever, are not collected by the lens and do not reach the printing paper. For this
reason, the contrast of prints made by a condenser system is greater than prints made
by a diffusion system. This is known as the "Callier effect." Placing a simple
diffusing medium between the light source and the negative will eliminate this effect,
but the advantage of the condensing system is lost.
The details of a condenser system are shown in Fig. 10. Theoretically, if the illu-
minant is a true point source, the condenser lens brings the rays that pass through
it to a focus in the center of the projection lens. If the lens is moved farther away from
:
the negative to produce a smaller image, the light source must be moved closer to the
negative to get even illumination. These adjustments must be made with considerable
accuracy to secure good focus and even illumination. Practically, however, the light
source is never an exact point source. Rays that illuminate the negative are both
transmitted through the lens and scattered by the negative image and do not go
through the lens.
In miniature enlarging equipment no attempt is made to simulate a point source.
An opal-glass bulb is used which presents to the negative, through the condenser, a
very large source of light. No attempt is made to adjust the distance from light to
condenser. The only adjustments, therefore, are the lens-to-negative and lens-to-
easel distances.
.Condensing lenses
Lighi source
si
Fig. 10. —Element of a condensing enlarging system.
Condensing Lens. —The plano-convex lenses are mounted with the flat sides out, the
inner surfaces touching or separated by a small distance. The equivalent focal length
of the pair may be calculated from the formula
/l X/2
/ = (2)
/i + /2 - d
where/ = the combined focal length;
/i, fi = the focal lengths of individual lenses;
d = the distance between lens centers.
In operating the enlarger, the distance Di from the objective to the easel controls
the size of the image. To bring the image into focus on the easel, the distance do
between objective and negative must be changed. These distances are related as
follows
Di=fM+f (3)
'^ = {{i)+^ (4)
where/ = focal length of objective;

M = magnification.
The condenser enlarger requires more space than the diffusing type because of the
considerable distance between the light source and the condensers. Furthermore,
unless objective and condenser are chosen carefully with respect to each other, the
space required for the enlarger may become very great indeed. If the focal length
of the condenser is less than that of the objective and if large values of magnification
are to be used, the distance between objective and easel may be such that the enlarger
cannot be accomodated within the darkroom. Thus, if a condenser with equivalent
focal length of 6 in. is used with an objective of 12 in., a magnification of 10 diameters
will require some 13 ft. for the distance between condenser and easel.
The focal lengths of the objective and the condensers should be of the same general
dimension or, perhaps, the objective may be somewhat greater in focal length than the
condenser.
An approxiniate expression for the distance between lens and easel is {M + 1)/,
where M is the magnification and 'f is the focal length of the objective.
Degree of Enlargement. —
With any enlarger the degree of enlargement increases
as the distance between lens and easel increases. The formulas below relate the
magnification and the distances between negative and lens and lens to easel. If / is the
is the distance from negative to lens, and Di is
focal length of the projection lens, do
the distance from lens to paper, the sum of the reciprocals of these distances must
equal the reciprocal of the focal length of the lens. Then the magnification is the ratio
between the two distances,
Ui+i
/ do '
Di
(6)
M =
Di
(6)
For practical purposes, however, it is simpler to use a table like that shown on page
433, worked out from these relations.
Objective Lens. —
The lens should be an anastigmat of flat field and fairly large
aperture. It should be equipped with a diaphragm, but if considerable light is
employed, this diaphragm should not be made of material that will easily warp from
the resultant heat generated. Since the condenser concentrates the beam of light
coming through the negative, the amount of light through the enlarger lens does
not vary with the /-number in the same manner as in a camera. A lens stopped down
to //8 may pass as much light as one marked //4.5 because of this concentration.
Therefore one must make trial exposures each time the aperture or magnification is
changed. If, however, exposures are not too short to be controlled at full aperature,
there is no object in stopping down the lens.

The lens from any camera that will bring rays to a sharp focus may be used in an
enlarger. A better lens, of course, will produce better definition, but many a good
camera lens will make a good enlarger lens.
Ref/ec:ôr~^ Lenses especially made for enlarging work are
Lamp-
Gro und glass

Oq
7^
often better corrected over a small angle than
camera lenses. The lens must be capable of
"covering" the desired negative.
Modern miniature enlargers are often designed
so that the photographer can use a lens inter-
changeably for camera or for enlarger, thus sav-
ing himself the expense of owning two lenses.
Diffusion Enlargers. —
In this equipment the
light from the source is scattered through one or
more diffusing mediums, which may be ground
Enlargemeni- glass or flashed opal glass. Because of the scat-
oneo/se/--^ tering of the light, rays arrive at the negative
from all angles with respect to the surface of the
negative. The illuminated diffusing medium
Fig. 11. —
Diffusion enlarger of the
becomes the light source for the negative.
vertical type.
Scratches and flaws are minimized.
According to Tuttle {Journal of the Optical Society of America, October, 1934), the
difference in contrast between complete diffusion obtained by heavy pot-opal glass
and no diffusion amounted to about 3 to 1 when Eastman Supersensitive Panchromatic
film was used as the sensitive material.
—
Table V. Reducing and Enlarging Tables

the ease of supplying sufficient light to print in a reasonable time. In this case,
however, care must be taken to dissipate the heat effectivel}-.
—
Use of Camera as Enlarger. If a camera has a removable back and if it has suffi-
cient bellows extension to accommodate the range of magnification desired, it may be
made into a successful enlarger. All that is necessary, in addition to the camera,
for the negative to be enlarged is a source of even ilhimination and a holder.
The light source may be made up of several low- wattage bulbs in a white wooden box,
or a metal box painted with glossy white paint, of such dimensions that it fits over the
rear of the camera. One or more plates of opal or ground glass may be interposed
between the bulbs and the rear of the camera to secure even illumination. These
diffusion mediums should be a short distance from the film to be enlarged so that the
grain of the diffusion medium is not in focus at the same adjustment that brings
the negative image into focus on the easel. Reflectors of any sort placed back of the
bulbs will improve the light efficienc3^
The film or plateholder may be simply two glass plates between which the negative
is placed. Masks may be fixed, permanently, to the glass plates. A simple slot
structure into which the assembly of glass plates and negative fits will enable the nega-
tive to be held parallel to the rear of the camera during focusing and exposure.
These homemade enlargers are usually horizontal, although it is not impossible
to make a vertical system that is entirely satisfactory. The photographic journals
have published many descriptions of such equipment. Several such articles are
noted below. 1
With four 40-watt bulbs and a single sheet of opal glass, exposures of the order of
10 sec. to several minutes may be required when enlarging 9- by 12-cm. negatives up
to 8 by 10 in. with a 13.5 cm., //4.5 lens.
One of the problems with homemade enlargers is to maintain the negative and
the easel parallel to each other and perpendicular to a line through the center of the
camera. Another problem is to get even illumination over the entire negative. If the
negative is small, this is not so difficult, but in this case considerable degrees of mag-
nification may be required, and then the proper mounting of camera, negative, and
easel becomes different.
It is probably uneconomical to attempt the construction of a high-grade miniature
enlarger at home. The precision of construction must be considerable if high-class
enlargements are to be made.
—
Exposure Related to Magnification. With diffusion enlargers the exposvire required
for any desired degree of enlargement when the correct exposure is known for some
other degree of magnification is given by
^'
„
==
(il/2 + 1)^ X E,
^^^
(ili, + 1)^
where E\ and Mi correspond to the known exposure time and magnification and il/2
and E2 are for another degree of magnification.
—
To Measure Degree of Enlargement. If two lines are scratched on a plate which has
been thoroughly fogged and processed, the ratio of the distance between the lines
projected on the easel to the actual distance on the negative will be a measure of the
degree of enlargement. Thîs, if the lines are cm. apart on the final print and only
1 cm. apart on the negative, the image has been enlarged five times.
1 HiBBS, Wyatt, a Horizontal Enlarging Outfit, Am. Phot., July, 1935. This used four photofloods
with a switch to reduce the voltage by a series connection for focusing. The camera' was an Zeiss Ideal
B.
Ramley, Edward J., A Reflected Light Source, for Photographic Enlarger, Am. Phot., September,
1937.
Jardine, Donald C, A Home-made Vertical Projection Printer, Camera, February, 1936.
Sources of Illumination. —Present-day enlarging is done largely with incandescent

lamps. At one time daylight was utilized, either by pointing the negative end of the
enlarger to the sky or by directing skylight into the projection equipment by means of
a mirror. Daylight is verj^ seldom used, today, however.
The incandescent lamps may be of the ordinary house-lighting kind designed to
have a normal life of 1000 hr.; they may be of the photoflood type which are operated
at higher than normal temperatures so that the illumination is increased at the
expense of decreased life; or ordinarj^ electric lamps may be burned at a voltage
slightly above normal so that they furnish more than their rated amount of light but
less light than a photoflood lamp.
Mercury and other vapor lamps are occasionally recommended for printing. A
Aâpor tube is much more efficient than an incandescent lamp. A given amount of
power consumed will produce a greater quantity of light. The lamp will run cooler
than the bulb type of illuminant, and there will, therefore, be less danger of harming a
negative from excessive heat.
These vapor lamps, however, have certain disadvantages. They require time to
heat up. They cannot be turned off and on like an incandescent lamp. When first
turned on a mercury lamp is very rich in ultraviolet light, but after 10 or 20 min. the
intensity of the ultraviolet decreases, and therefore the printing time varies as the
tube warms up. To get even illumination special reflectors are needed, and somewhat
heavy diffusion must often be used between light source and negative. The over-all
efficiency, therefore, may be no higher than with an ordinary incandescent bulb.
Effect of Lamp Voltage upon Exposure. —
Few photographers realize the close rela-
tion between light output of incandescent lamps and the voltage at which they are
operated. Not only the luminous output, but its spectral distribution as well, is
dependent upon the operating voltage. For example, a 1000-watt lamp will emit
only 50 per cent of its rated output if its voltage is reduced by 16 per cent. If expo-
sures are required that seem too long, the trouble may be due to reduced voltage on
the light source. Printing papers are not sensitive to yellow light, and yet the output
of an incandescent lamp becomes more and more yellow and less and less blue as the
voltage is decreased from normal. A paper that requires 10 sec. exposure when
exposed to a 115-volt incandescent lamp operating at normal voltage may require about
30 per cent more exp osure if the lamp is operated at 110 volts.
Chlorobromide papers are somewhat more critical in this regard because their
sensitivity is largely in the violet region of the spectrum. Enlarging lamps are
available in voltages of 110, 115, and 120 volts and the photographer should use the
lamp whose rated voltage is nearest his normal line voltage. Lamps operated at
higher than rated voltage will permit shorter exposure times. The lamp life -will be
shortened, however.
Lamp voltage should be accurately regulated by means of resistance or by means
of an autotransformer of the Variac tj^pe if exposures must be critically controlled.
This will enable the separate exposures, as in color photography, to be made at the
same voltage, and color balance in the final print will be more easily attained. The
autotransformer is a means of raising or lowering the lamp voltage compared to
the line voltage. A resistance will lower lamp voltage but cannot raise it above line
voltage.
Exposure and Enlargement. —Although modern projection papers have certain
latitude as regards correct exposure, it is come as close as possible
advisable, alwaj's, to
to the "best" exposure. Not only must the photographer determine the absolute
value of the exposure, but he must determine the contrast grade of the printing paper
he is to use. A negative of considerable contrast maj'^ require a paper of less than
normal contrast. Negatives made in miniature cameras, for example, are usually
developed to a contrast or gamma of less than unity so that the printing papers to be
used with miniature camera negatives have a natural contrast somewhat greater than
would be required for a "normal" (gamma equals unity) negative.
Furthermore the absolute value of the exposure is a function of the paper used
(as some papers are more sensitive than others) and upon the degree of enlargement.
Test-strip Method of Determining Exposure. —
If the photographer eliminates all
variable factors in the process of development (by always developing completely),

then the final result depends entirely upon choice of paper contrast and upon the
exposure. To determine experimentally the correct exposure time a test strip of the
paper to be used may be exposed to the focused image for a time judged to be correct.
When developed, this print maj^ be inspected carefully to determine if more, or less,
exposure is desirable.
The portion of the image chosen for the test should be a high light, perhaps the
brightest important portion of the image. Correct exposure will be that which will
produce a just discernible density after development. If the contrast grade of paper
chosen is correct, then the darkest shadow of the scene as represented by the negative
will be the darkest attainable color in the print. If the contrast (density range) of the
—
negative is greater than the printing paper will reproduce ^this is frequently the
—
case the photographer must decide which end of the scale to sacrifice, i.e., some of
the high lights or some of the shadows.
The correct exposure will give a just perceptible deposit of silver in the brightest
high light. If normal paper is* being used and if the first exposure is too short, double
it for the second test. For contrast grades of paper, increase the exposure about
•
30 per cent for the second test.

—
Exposure Meters. Various means have been worked out for avoiding the test-strip
method of determining correct exposures. If onh^ the correct exposure is desired, any
means of estimating the average transmission of light through the negative will aid in
arriving at the exposure. But if the correct contrast grade of paper is to be deter-
mined, then the photographer must have means for measuring the transmission of the
most and the least dense portions of the negative.
One means that has been developed utilizes the photoelectric type of exposure
niet«r, so useful in estimating negative exposures.
An ordinary printing box or contact printer is used as the light source. It may be
necessary to put a photoflood bulb in it to get sufficient light for measurement pur-
poses. A mask is cut for the top of the contact printer. In this is cut a small hole,
^-i in. in diameter for example. Over this hole is placed the portion of the negative
to be tested. The photoelectric exposure meter is then placed on top of the negative
so that the light getting through the hole and the negative shines on a portion of the
sensitive disk near the edge. A greater reading will be obtained in this way than if a
spot near the center of the disk is chosen. The printing light is turned on, and a
reading of the exposure meter is taken. Then a reading without the negative is taken.
The ratio of the reading with negative to the reading without negative will give the
transmission. If a reading of 250 is obtained without the negative and 25 with the
negative, the opacity is 10 and the transmission is 0.1 or 10 per cent. Of course,
the scale on the exposure meter must be calibrated in numbers which are proportional
to the light intensity if this method is to be satisfactor^^
To determine the grade of paper that should be used, it is necessarj'- to make two
measurements, one of the transmission (or opacity) through the densest portion of the
high light desired to be correctly reproduced and one through the thinnest portion of
the shadow that is to be correctly reproduced. The ratio of these two transmissions
(or opacities) will give the exposure range required if the paper is to reproduce the
desired range correctly. As an example, suppose that the thinnest portion of the
negative represents and opacity of 4, and that the densest portion an opacity of 40.
The ratio of these two quantities is 10. The printing paper, therefore, must be
capable of reproducing an exposure range of 10 to 1 to reproduce accurately the
opacity ratio in the negative which, it is assumed, accurately reproduces the brightness
range of the original subject.
Many other schemes have been developed for measuring the transmission of light
through a film in an endeavor to determine the opacity ratio or the density difference
over the desired portions of the negative scale. These may employ various forms of
comparison photometers; or they may permit direct measurement of the quantity of
light transmitted through the film. In the simplest case, a source of light distinct
from the enlarger illumination is varied, by an iris diaphragm in the lens, until the
illumination on the easel through the negative just matches the illumination on the
easel from the external source as determined from visual examination. Then by trial
and error the exposure necessary to produce a good print on a certain grade of a certain
kind of paper is determined. Once determined, this exposure will be the same under
the same conditions. All that is necessary is to have sufficient adjustment of the
illumination through the objective to cover all types of negatives that will be printed.
The eye is surprisingly accurate in making illumination comparisons of this
kind.i
A simple and inexpensive device of recent development is an adaptation of the
well-known grease-spot photometer. A small battery-operated incandescent lamp
illuminates one side of a semitransparent piece of material. The image from the
enlarger is focused upon this screen, and the lamp current is adjusted by a rheostat
until the screen illumination from the lamp and from the focused image have the same
brightness as viewed by the photographer. The rheostat is calibrated in terms of
exposure and contrast grades of modern papers.
Prints for Half-tone Engravings. —
In the Agfa Diamond, for January and February,
1938, Lloyd Varden, speaking of prints for reproduction, states:
"In decreasing order of preference we might list print surfaces for reproduction
purposes as follows:
"1. Black and white prints of uniform glossy or semiglossy surface.
"2. Semi-matte or smooth matte white surfaces.
"3. Rough or textured surfaces."
Now it is quite true, that among half-tone workers a preference is made for either
glossy, ferrotyped or unferrotyped, or smooth semimatte papers. Glossy prints,
especially on paste-up jobs, create undesirable reflections, and for this reason are not
so satisfactory for this work as semimatte surfaces. Especially contrasty negatives
are best printed on semimatte or smooth matte surfaces, for the final reproduction is
enhanced by the softening of contrast due to the matte paper. However, if a negative
is of normal contrast, or of flat contrast, it is best printed on glossy paper, and for the
latter instances, therefore, glossy surfacescannot be surpassed. Art work, if neces-

than glossy, but print retouching is by no means
sary, usually calls for a surface other
impossible on glossy prints. Under all circumstances, time permitting, the engraver
should be consulted about the proper surface, for he might have very excellent sugges-
tions to offer, and the photographer also has an opportunity to explain his reason for
wanting to use a particular paper.
1 The following bibliography will direct the reader to several sources of data on homemade pho-
tometers, etc., for this purpose. Especially, the reader should consult "Perfect Print Control," by
Lawrence Dutton, Galleon, 1937.
Colt, Ralph S., Simple Method Timing Enlargements, Am. Phot., April, 19.38.
of
Brockman, Frank Timing for Projection Printing, Am. Phot., September, 1936.
G., Photoelectric
Sec also discussion of this paper by Ronald L. Ives, Am. Phot., September, 1937.
Weiland, W. F., E.xposure in Projection Printing, Am. Phot., July, 1936.
has been a mistaken fancy among the photographic profession that engravers
It
want contrasty prints. On the contrary, contrasty prints have black shadows and
high hghts of Httle gradation, which means that the engraver cannot possibly make a
reproduction containing the detail which is more than likely in the negative. The
engraver has little trouble in increasing the contrast of a print, but he cannot put in
detail which does not exist. He wants prints that are black and white, but this does not
mean contrasty. Prints of full scale, with plenty of detail and black and white tones
are themost satisfactory prints for reproduction.
In ordinary half-tone reproduction black-and-white prints are most suitable.
Whether the actual color of the black should be an ohve tone or a blue-black tone is
mostly a matter of preference on the part: of the engraver. Generally speaking,
though, a good blue-black or neutral black is preferred. Red proofs or sepia prints
are not so good as black-and-white prints, but sepia prints are more satisfactory than
red proofs. However, if red proofs or sepia prints must be submitted, the situation
which demands it should be explained to the engraver in ord,©r that his full cooperation
can be secured on the job. Monocolored prints of this type^^should never be placed on
the same panel with black-and-white prints, and black-and-white prints in themselves
should be of uniform tone. •^
The success of producing good half tones from photographs resolves itself, there-
fore, into correct selection of surface, color, and contrast^. If that be done, the
engraver will have little difficulty.
Printing Control Processes. —
In this section are discussed several control methods
frequently used in projection printing to obtain special effects.
Dodging, Masking in Projection.— M.a,iiy times a negative will produce a better
print if certain portions are exposed more or less than other portions, so that the final
print has a more uniform density, or so that one portion is lighter or darker than the
other portions. Local reduction and intensification {q.v.} may be employed. In the
printing process certain control methods are available which may produce the desired
i-esultwithout making recourse to corrective processes.
one portion of the negative is to receive less exposure in printing than other
If
portions, the light from the enlarger is kept from exposing the paper in these portions
by use of some opaque object, often the operator's hand. A portion of a print may
be made completely black by illuminating it, while printing, with a small flash lamp
or other source of illumination.
one small portion of a negative is to be printed deeper than the remainder of the
If
negative, a small hole may be cut in an opaque material and moved about in the light
from the enlarger so that all portions except that which is to be dark receive less
exposure than the selected portion. On the other hand, if one portion is to receive
less exposure than the majorit.v of the print, a small piece of opaque material of the
proper shape and size may be placed in the beam from the enlarger and moved about
so that a sharp edge between light and dark parts of the final print does not result.
This opaque material may be moved by fixing to it a small wire handle.
If the dodging tool is made of red celluloid, the photographer may watch the entire
image on the printing paper and thereby better perform the dodging, but the blue
rays to which the paper is sensitive will be stopped by the dodging device.
Practice and trial and error are the onlj^ means of determining whether the proper
amount of dodging has been secured.
White borders around prints are secured by masking the edges of the negative, or
print, or both, so that these edges are not exposed. A sharper edge will be obtained if
the mask is placed over the printing paper, rather than if it is placed only over the
negative.
Black borders around prints are secured by trimming the negative so that only the
picture area is left. The printing paper is somewhat larger than the image, and the
negative is not masked. The edges of the paper which are fully exposed will become
full black in the developer.
Diffusion. — Pictorial and portrait prints are frequently enhanced in appearance by

printing the negative through some diffusion medium, such as a piece of thin silk,
linen, etc. If the material is laid on the paper during the exposure, the texture of the
material is impressed upon the final print. If the material is interposed between the
printing paper and the lens of the enlarger and kept in motion during the exposure a
general lack of definition or diffusion of the image results. The amount of diffusion
depends upon the position of the diffusing medium with respect to the printing medium,
upon its motion during exposure, upon the weave or mesh of the diffusing medium, etc.
The desired result must be, attained by trial and error.
" Printing-in" Clouds, Etc. — It is desirable, at times, to add clouds to the print
made from a negative in which no clouds appear. This is typical of another control
process in which experience is the best teacher; only trial and error will enable the
photographer to determine best conditions for the printing-in procedure.
In general, adding clouds or other material without going to the intermediate nega-
tive process is carried out as follows The picture should be fairly well divided between
:
foreground and sky. Let us suppose that the foreground is printed first. In exposing
the print, the sky iscovered with an opaque mask so that no light gets to the sky
portion. After the foreground exposure is complete, this portion is protected from
further exposure, while the clouds from another negative, carefully placed in the
enlarger or printing frame, are allowed to expose the sky portion of the print. Proper
exposure of each portion to produce the desired density must be determined by
experiment.
If the sky line is not straight or if trees or other objects protrude into the sky,
the process is somewhat more intricate. If the protruding element will print quite
dark it may be ignored because the cloud may then be exposed on top of the protruding
object without showing owing to the greater density of the object. But, if the object
will be light in density in the final print, perhaps of the same density as the clouds,
then greater care must be taken. An outline of the method is as follows:
First project on the easel the lower, or cloudless, part of the picture. Make expo-
sure tests until the desired print density is secured. Make note of this exposure.
Now project the cloud negative on the easel and determine proper exposure time.
Finally make the foreground exposure by cutting up the preliminary cloud print so
that only the clouds remain. Remove the protruding objects from this cloud print,
and hold this print, more or less cut to the shape of the cloud outline, so the sky
portion of the final print is held back in exposure.
Now trim the test print made from the foreground negative, leaving in the protrud-
ing objects, and expose the upper or sky part of the final print.
All this sounds easier than it is in practice. It is difficult to avoid line of demarka-
tion between sky and foreground. One should learn the procedure by using negatives
in which the sky line is fairly straight and in which there are no protruding objects,
proceeding then to more complicated subjects. The negatives which are easiest to use
are those in which clouds do not go clear to the horizon but leave a short gap between
cloud and horizon. This gap may be used to bridge over the region between tree tops
and the point where the clouds are to appear in the final picture.
True photo montages are made in this manner, although several negatives may be
made to produce the final print. Accurate and careful work is necessary to determine
the printing time of each negative so that violent clashes in print density do not occur;
so that all parts of the paper, except that which is being exposed at the moment, are
protected from exposure; so that the exact position of each portion is determined and
under control.
Many so-called montages are merely "paste ups" in which portions of several or
many prints are cut to shape and pasted together to form some sort of pattern. The
true montage is much more difficult to do. Often two negatives are printed so that the
print from one overlaps that of the other. There are other modifications.
Correction of Distortion.— Hy tilting the easel upon which the printing paper is
placed for exposure, certain distortion occurring in making the negative may be
corrected. Conversely, distortion may be produced by tilting the easel when printing
from a normal negative. If the camera has been pointed upward when making a
photograph of a tall building, the lines of the building will converge toward the top.
If, now, the easel is so tilted that the lines of the image tencj to diverge toward the top,
the lines of the building in the print may be parallel and therefore neither converge or
diverge.
If much correction is to be performed in this manner, the fact that one portion of
the paper is further distant from the lens than another must be taken into account, and
the nearer portion should be given slightly less exposure.
By by holding the edges, or the center
distorting the shape of the printing paper, as
away from the queer distortions of various sorts may be effected.
easel,
—
Processing Prints. Development serves the same purpose in making positive
prints as in making negatives. The exposed silver halide must be converted to
metallic silver; then the unexposed silver must be disposed of so that the print will be
permanent. Developing formulas recommended by the manufacturers for use with
their papers may be depended upon to give excellent results. For consistent results
the processing conditions (temperature, dilution of stock solution, age of developer)
must be carefully controlled.
Positive prints are usually developed at 70°r. and the temperature of the conven-
tional developers should not be allowed to vary more than a few degrees from this
temperature. Developer should be freshly made; exposure conditions should be
standardized.
Theories of development will be found in the chapters on Development. In
this chapter only the more practical aspects of developing procedure will be
discussed.
Contrast Control. —
The contrast of a paper print depends largely upon the grade
of the paper that is employed. It also depends to some extent upon the conditions of
processing. This is particularly true of bromide papers. For highest contrast the
paper must be adequately exposed and fully developed. If, for any reason, a print
having less contrast is desired, the print may be removed from the developer before the
full density in the shadows has been attained.
Prints taken from the developer before a minimum developing time (13^ to 3 min.
for projection papers) will lack contrast, lack detail in the shadows, and will be poor
in tone. Overexposure and underdevelopment produce flat prints of poor color.
Underexposure or overdevelopment is likely to produce fogged prints in which detail
and contrast are lacking.
Exposure Latitude. —At one time it was that a desirable paper was one which
felt
had a soft gradation (low gamma) with short development and a steep gradation
(high gamma) witha longer development. Such a paper would have the character-
istics ofa negative emulsion, gamma increasing with increasing development time.
Such a paper had limited exposure latitude, for the same character of print, but gave a
supposed increase in latitude for taking care of negatives of varying degrees of con-
trast. Such a latitude was at the expense of print color.
Nowadays the photographer controls print contrast by the use of a particular

contrast grade of paper. Figure 12 shows the characteristics of a modern printing
paper (Velour Black), indicating that print character will be the same for varying
degrees of development time. Thus a longer development (short of fog) will produce
the same gamma as a shorter ornormal development time. Such parallelism of the
characteristics for varying development time indicates a desirable quality. The
photographer has a certain latitude in making exposures.
2.0
1.6
5
An idea of the color changes that may be effected may be obtained from Table VI
below, taken from Ilford's Manual. It is applied to Ilford Chlorona paper which is a
typical chlorobromide.
Developer P'ormtjla for Ilford Chlorona Paper

Glycine 60 gr. 3.4 g.
Hydroquiiione 60 gr. 3.4 g.
Sodium sulphite 2 J-2 oz. 62. g.
Sodium carbonate 4 oz. 100
Potassium bromide 6 gr. .35 g.
Water, up to 20 oz. 500 cc.
Table VI. — Color Control Table for Above Developer
Developer Potassium bromide, Developer time,

Exposure
dilution 1 10 per cent, per oz. min.
Warm — black
Sepia
|
Normal
2 times
Full strength
5 times
None
20 minims 1 cc.
m
5
Warm sepia 3 10 60 3 10
Red brown 4 15 100 5 15
Red 5 20 120 6 20
To secure "warm" tones, black mixed with brown, the amount of bromide is
i.e.,
increased and the exposure is If the exposure is n'ot increased, the final
increased.
print color will be the same as if the print had been developed in the solution with less
bromide, but it will take longer for the final color to be attained.
Slow papers will respond more readily to changes of potassium bromide than the
faster papers. Changes of tone should be effected by varying the amount of bromide
plus the variations in exposure time, rather than in merely varying the time in the
normal developer solution for various exposures. Increased exposure and under-
development in a normal developer will produce warm tones, but the shadow detail will
be poor, the shadows will not be black, and the print will not be uniformly colored.
Modifications in Development. —
Although the formulas recommended by the manu-
facturers are to be followed wherever possible, the following effects of changing
formulas are to be noted in case unusual conditions are met.
Increasing metol and decreasing hydroquinone makes softer prints. Reversing
these changes produces greater contrast and brilliance.
Additional carbonate in the developer increases developing action and yields
black tones without an olive cast. Less carbonate gives softer results and slows up
developing.
To inci'ease contrast, increase h.ydroquinone and carbonate. For less contrast,
double usual amount of metol, halve the hydroquinone, and halve the carbonate.
Increase bromide to slow development, to decrease fog, to clear high lights, to add
warmth of tone.
—
Typical Print Developers. The chapters on Development contain numerous
developing formulas for papers. The formulas on page 443, however, are those sug-
gested by manufacturers whose papers are widely used in this country.
Inspection during Development. —
Under a red- or yellow-printing safe light, it is
often difficult to judge print color correctly. Prints appear darker under the safe light
than in white light. It is wise, therefore, to fix a test print and to inspect it by white
light todetermine if it is satisfactory. Another expedient is to use a green safe light
(Wratten Series OA). Under this light the prints will appear more like they will under
white light. (For safe light for certain papers, see chapter on Darkrooms and Dark-
room Practice.)
— ——
TabiuE VII. Defender Formulas
Artura Apex. Apex. Velour Velour

Veltura
Iris b Black, c Black, d
Hot water, oz 16 32 32 40 40 16
Metol, gr 22 15 14 15 20 22
Sodium sulphite (dry), oz. . .
V2 192 gr. 1
}i
Hydroquinone, gr 90 60 52 60 60 90
Sodium carbonate (dry), oz .
y2
a
365 gr. a
M
Potassium bromide, gr ...... . 10 9 4 25-60 20 10
Cold water to make 32 32
Dilution 1-1 1-2 1-1
Temperature, °F 65° 70 65-70 70 70 70
Developing time, see 45-60 45-60 45-60 1^-^-4 min. 1^2 min.
a. Normal
6. Photo finishing.
c. Use for Apex portraits.
d. Fast development.
Table VIII. Eastman Paper Developers
Chlorobromide General Photo

olive tones purpose finishing
D-52 Z»-74 i>-72
Water (125°F.), oz 16 16 16 16
El on, gr 22 12 45 40
Sodium sulphite 350 gr. 1-1^2 oz. 1 oz., 140 gr.
Hydroquinone, gr 64 175 155
Sodium carbonate >2 OZ. 175 gr. 2->4 oz. 2->2 oz.
Potassium bromide, gr. 32 27 12
Water, oz 32 32 32 32
Dilution b d
Athenon 64
a. Dilute 1 to 1. To each 32-oz. dilute developer add 3-^ oz. of 10 per cent potassium bromide.
b. Dilute 1 to 1. Develop
to }4 min.
1
c. Dilute 1 to 2 for chloride; 1 to 4 for bromide.

d. Dilute 1 to 2.
Table IX. Agfa Developers
^-103 120 (B-20) 125 (B-5) 135 (TF-5)
Metol 51 gr. 1-4 oz. 70 gr. 45 gr. 24 gr.
Sodium sulphite (anhydrous) 1?^4 OZ. 50 gr. 1 oz. 88 gr. IH 34 oz., 20 gr.
Hydroquinone }i OZ. 55 gr. J-4 oz. 65 gr. 96 gr.
Sodium carbonate (monohydrated) 2J.^ oz. 35 gr. 1 oz. 88 gr. 2,14 oz. H oz., 20 gr.
Potassium bromide 18 gr. 27 gr. 30 gr. 40 gr.

Water 32 oz. 32 oz. 32 oz. 32 oz.
Dilution 1-1° 1-4?' 1-2 1-4 1-1

Temperature 70 70 70 70°F.
Developing time 1 min.olH-S* \M-3>' min. 11-2-3'' min. 1^2-2'' mill.
" Convira.
* Brovira.
When working with prints which are to have one of the warm colors, the correct
tone is still more estimate under safe-light conditions. Therefore a small
difficult to
hulb, of perhaps 5 cp., may be used to make a quick inspection to see if the desired
color has been attained.
It must be remembered that color, densitj^, and contrast are determined by the
developer formula and its age and temperature.
Prints often change color in the fixing bath because, before fixation, print color is
controlled by the combination of black silver and of unexposed, undeveloped silver
halide which is light yellow. Upon fixation the unexposed emulsion disappears and
the shadows of the print will be blacker than before immersion in the fixing bath.
Short Stop, Fixing, and Washing.^ —
After the print is thoroughly developed, it may
be placed in the fixing bath, then washed and dried. An acid rinse bath may be used
between the developer and the fixer to stop development and to insure that the print
will have uniform color. The acid rinse neutralizes the alkalinity of the developer and
prevents the acidity of the fixer from being neutralized. It prolongs the life of the
fixing bath. Prints may be kept in the rinse bath until all are ready, and then all put
through the fixing bath at once.
Prints should be left in a fresh fixing bath for about 15 min. It is most important
that their position should be changed frequently. Prints matted together and left
stagnant in the bath will lack permanence. Best results are secured by the use of two
baths, one partially exhausted for preliminarj^ fixing, and one made up fresh for final
fixation.
The acid rinse between developer and fixer will aid materially in prolonging the
usefulness of the fixing bath. For example, the Eastman Kodak F-1 fixing solution
will treat 120, 8- by 10-in. prints per gallon when the SB-1 rinse is used; but only half
this number without the stop bath.
Washing is equally as important as any part of the printing process. The general
tendency to throw the prints in a tray or stagnant pool of water and to stir them up
occasionally is not satisfactory. Prints should be run through numerous changes of
water, and the order of prints from top to bottom of the pile should be changed
occasionally. Prints on heavy supports require longer washing periods than single-
weight papers.
Short Stop (Eastman SB-1)

Water 32 oz. 11.
Acetic acid (28 per cent) IH oz. 48 cc.
This is sufficient for 100, SJ-^ by oJ-^-in. prints.
Acid Hardening Fixing Bath

(Eastman F-1 and Defender 2-F)
Water 64 oz. 2 1.
Hypo 16 oz. 480 g.

When completely dissolved add
Water (about 125° F.) (52° C.) 5 oz. 160 cc.
Sodium Sulphite (desiccated) 1 oz. 30 g.
Acetic Acid (28 per cent pure) ' 3 oz. 96 cc.
Potassium Alum 1 oz. 30 g.
' To make 28 per cent acetic acid from glacial acetic acid, dilute 3 parts glacial acid with 8
parts water.
To mix the hardener, dissolve the chemicals in the order given. The sulphite
should be dissolved completely before adding the acetic acid. After the sulphite-
acid solution has been mixed thoroughly, add the potassium alum with constant stir-
ring. Cool the hardener, and add it slowlj^ to the cool hypo solution while stirring
the latter rapidly.
1 See aso Chapter on Fixing, Washing, and Drying.
When a number of prints are fixed at one time, thej' must be separated occasionally
to insure even fixing, and in hot weather they must not be left in the solution for a
longer time than is necessary to fix them, as a warm bath may turn them brown. At
all times have plenty of solution, preparing and using fresh bath frequently. The
above fixing solution, prepared as described, will fix approximately 275, 3}^- by 5H-in.
prints or the equivalent in larger sizes if an acid short stop (SB-1) is used, or about
220, 33^- by 5K-in. prints if only a water rinse is used.
Prints may be dried in several ways. Mechanical devices are available which act
fairly quickly and produce prints that lie flat when dry. These machines consist
usually of rolls of some absorbent material, such as blotting paper, between which the
prints are placed. Then hot air is blown through the assembly, or the entire stack of
paper, and the blotter is heated by electricity.
Prints may be laid on top of cheesecloth frames after they have been squeezed free
from the surface water. Alternately, the wet prints may be wiped ofT and then placed
in a stack of blotters under weight. Prints dried in this manner will tend to curl
because of the unequal contraction of the gelatin surface and the paper support.
Immersing prints in a glycerin solution before drying (or after the dried prints have
curled) will aid in keeping them flat. Prints that have curled may be straightened
bj' moistening the backs and immediately putting them between blotters and under
Aveight or in a mechanical press.
Greater details on fixing, washing, and drying will be found in Chap. XIII.
—
Mounting. Prints may be mounted with several kinds of adhesive (pastes, etc.,)
but most photographers have standardized upon dry mounting tissue. This is a
semitransparent tissue which is impregnated with substances which melt easily and
firmly cement together the print and its mount. For satisfactory results, large prints
practically require a mounting press, with heat applied electrically, but even an 1 1- by
14-in. print may be mounted on a salon-size card (16 by 20 in.) by means of a flatiron.
Mounting tissue a bit larger than the print is attached to the back of the print at
several places by using the tip of the iron or a special tool provided for the purpose.
Then print and tissue are trimmed. Next the print and tissue are carefully placed in
position upon the mount. With the tip of the iron, or with the tool, the tissue is
cemented to the mount at several places by lifting up a corner of the print giving access
to the tissue. Finally the print placed in the mounting press or is gone over with
is
the flatiron so that it is firmly fixed to its mount. If the flatiron is used, it is wise to
cover the face of the print with a sheet of protective paper.
Correct temperature is important. If the iron is too hot, the tissue will adhere to
the mount but not to the print; and if not hot enough the tissue will stick to the print
but not to the mount. It is possible to scorch the print so that it will turn brown or
yellowish. A good working temperature is 140°F.
Color of Mount. —
It is easy to spoil the appearance of an excellent print by the
use of a mount of improper dimensions or of wrong color. There are few prints that
do not look well on a light-colored mount (white or cream); there are many that will
look bad on anything but a light mount. A light-colored moimt is nearly always safe.
If the mount has any appreciable color, it is likely that it will appear more important
than the print.
Salons prefer 16- by 20-in. mounts; the picture should be placed so that there is a
little more space between top of print and top of mount than there is between the sides
of print and mount; there should be less space at the top than at the bottom. A small
printmay look best in a rather large mount.
Often a print which is light in general tone may be enhanced in appearance bj"
mounting it first on a piece of black paper, so that about 3^^ in. of the black projects
beyond the limits of the print, thereby framing it. Then the print and its black frame
are mounted on a light cardboard. A thin black line drawn about ^s in- from the
edges of the print will often serve the same purpose.
—
Embossing Prints. ''Prints which have a die-sunk line embossed around the edge
of the picture are attractive and easily made. Any double weight paper is suitable
for embossing.
"The prints should have wide white margins; and standards of size should be
adopted, as a mark and form must be made The embossed line for a
for each size.
print, say 6 by 9 in., on an 11- by 14-in. sheet of
paper, should be about %
in. from top and sides of
the picture image and %

in. from the bottom, mak-
ing the embossing form 6% by 10 in. The form

should be the same thickness as the print so an old
print may be used for this purpose.
"Cut it 6% byand then draw a line % in.
10 in.
from top and sides and % in.
from the bottom, as
shown in the diagram. Cut out the corners as
indicated by dark triangles. These openings are
to locate the corners of the print when adjusting
the form.
"A
square of plate glass with a light beneath
makes an excellent embossing table. Place the
form on the plate glass over the light. Place the
print over the form, locating the corners of
the picture in the triangular openings. Hold the
print firmlyand run a print embosser [available at
photo supply stores] over the back, following the
edge of the form. If the pressure of the emboss-
Fig. 13. — Method of embossing
ing tool is even, the result is a distinct plate-sunk
mounts.
adds to the print's attractiveness.
line that
"Before prints are embossed, their backs should be moistened evenly to the edges
with a solution of equal parts of wood alcohol and water. They should then be placed
betw-een blotters under pressure. If not allowed to become bone-dry, the prints will
lie flat and emboss without cracking." (Eastman Kodak Co.)
—
Paper Negatives. Exhibition prints are frequently made by the "paper negative"
process.^ This consists in making a positive print from the original negative, making
an intermediate negative from this positive, and making the final positive from this
negative. The advantages of the method over straight negative-to-positive printing
are as follows: (1) Local work may be performed on both the first positive and the
intermediate negative; (2) certain objects may be added to or subtracted from the
print that either do not exist on the original negative or which, if they do exist,
detract from its composition or are otherwise objectionable; (3) the intermediate
negative may be larger than the original negative. Therefore a large contact-paper
print may be made on paper so slow that a projection print from the original, and
smaller, negative would be impractical. (4) The texture of the paper on which the
intermediate negative is made may appear in the final print.
The process is as follows:
1. Make negative on paper, either from a positive print or direct in the camera.
2. Make corrections on this negative.
3. Make final print from this negative.
Or as follows:
1. Make positive on paper or film from negative, by contact or by projection.
1 So-called because the "intermediate negative" is usually made on a paper rather than on a film.
2. Make corrections on this positive.

3. Make paper negative from this positive, and make corrections on this positive.
4. Make final positive print from this negative.
Direct Paper Negative. —In paper instead of film is loaded and exposed
this case
in the camera. A matte or glossy paper may be used. Naturally
fast single-weight
the exposure will be longer than if a film negative is to be made. Experiment will
determine the correct exposure, which, for bromide paper will be about twentj^ times as
long as is required for average speed film. A soft working developer is recommended.
The exposure should be ample to register details in the shadows; development may
be a bit longer than for normal print development. The negative should look some-
what overdeveloped. The negative should be fixed and dried carefully so that no
creases appear. A trial print may be made from this negative, to determine what is
to be touched up on the negative.
—
Paper Positive. By contact or by projection a print is made from the desired
negative on a semigloss or glossy single-weight paper. The print should be the size
of the final print. If the exposure is made through the paper support, the grain of the
paper will be minimized in the final print. This intermediate print may look blotched
by reflected light, but when viewed by transmitted light, the mottle of the paper
support is not nearly so evident.
The somewhat and must be fully developed. From
positive should be overexposed
this positive the paper negative is made by contact. The final positive print is made
by contact with the paper negative.
Handwork may be carried out on both the paper positive and the paper negative
made from it. If something is to be added to the final print which does not exist in
the original negative, it must be sketched in on the positive with soft pencil or with
retouching material worked on with a chamois.
—
Film Positive. In this case the positive is made by projection or by contact on a
film. A matte-back film is preferred because the retouching may be made on the
back. Exposure must be full, but development should be shortened to keep contrast
down. Dust specks and other flaws must be kept to a minimum if the positive is to
be enlarged in making the intermediate negative.
Intermediate Negative. —
This negative may be made on ordinary printing papers or,
better, on the translucent papers now available, such as Eastman Translite or
Defender Adlux. These papers have emulsions on both sides. The negative must be
fully exposed but somewhat underdeveloped to bring out high-light detail and to keep
shadow density down. For Translite, as an example, the negative should be developed
about 45 sec. or 1 min.
Paper fiber does not show on this negative when it is viewed by transmitted light.
As the light passes through the paper stock and exposes the back emulsion, the paper
fibers tend to cancel their images on the back emulsion. The paper should be laid
down on black paper when making the exposure.
The enlarged paper negative, when made on the semitransparent materials men-
tioned above, offers excellent opportunity for handwork with lead pencil, charcoal
pencil, or chamois stump dipped in powdered charcoal or lead pencil dust. The
negative should not be oiled when making the final positive print.
—
Photo Murals. Murals are enlargements of considerable size which are usually
made in sections and mounted on the wall from which they are to be viewed. Printing
paper is available 42 in. wide by 10 ft. long so that fairly large sections may be made at
one time, provided one has the equipment in which to develop, fix, and wash the
individual strips.
Techniques differ among the individual mural experts. One professional photog-
rapher, who has made many of the best known murals, uses a 4- by o-in. negative as
the original. This is projected to make a glossy 11- by 14-in. print. This print is
spotted and is rephotographed on an 11- by 14-in. plate. The final "blow up " is made
from this plate. The final sections are 40 in. wide and are developed in D-72, diluted
1 to 6 and kept at constant temperature. The prints are then mounted on three-ply
wood.
If the mural is to be made up of portions of several unrelated pictures cut at odd
dimensions and sizes, the problem is largely artistic and not photographic.
Murals are often made up of distinct portions of several prints assembled into a
pattern which may be regular, as rectangular, or it may be irregular, the individual
portions which make up the w^hole being in assorted sizes and shapes.
Given a job of this kind the photographer often finds that he has thrust upon him
prints of varying color, varying tone range, varying degrees of gloss, varying size.
They may be the only prints available and the negatives may be unobtainable.
The dimensions of the finished mural are known. The photographs are, therefore,
to be made into a design in miniature. The scale may be an inch to the foot or anj'
other convenient reduction. The photographer's or artist's design will be ultimately
copied on film and then projected into the final dimensions. If the original layout is
large enough to require more than one negative, there must be natural places where
one negative may stop and another one take up the design. There must be a line of
cleavage which bj' design is invisible but nevertheless there.
Parts of the prints that are to be cut away are outlined with a razor blade, and the
actual cutting only goes through the emulsion or at least not very deep into the paper
itself. Then the print is torn so that the paper support tears away beneath the image
and leaves the latter verj^ thin. This edge may then be laid down on the adjacent
print and fixed in place. The better artists do not use an airbrush or other means of
obliterating the edge because of the difficulty in preventing the material from getting
under the feather edge (which may be thinned wdth sandpapering on the back of the
print) and from being more apparent than before the brush was used.
The final design is photographed and projected upon mural paper in strips of the
proper dimension. These strips are processed like anj'^ other photographic paper
except that large tanks or trays are necessary.
Transparent murals or mosaics may be printed upon paper which has an emulsion
on both sides such as Adlux, Translite, etc. Murals may be tinted or actuality painted
in transparent oils. This coloring is done after the mural is on the wall, and the
actual coloring is a job for an artist, not a photographer.
—
Enlarged Negatives by Reversal. -Where retouching must be done on miniature
negatives, the following method of making enlarged negatives is useful (see "Leica
Manual," 1st ed., p. 133.) The negative is projected upon process film or upon an
ortho film of somew^hat softer gradation. Develop the film, wash, fix, and bleach it in
potassium permanganate to which has been added silver nitrate; clear in sodivun
bisulphite, wash, and give second exposure. Then develop; again fix, wâsh, and dry.
Retouching can now take place upon this enlarged negative which may be used for
contact printing or which may be projected so that a larger print may be secured.
—
Photographic Sketching. A combination of photographic processes and of draw-
ing makes it possible to produce verj^ creditable sketches which resemble freehand
drawings.
In one method, the negative is projected upon a sheet of white drawing paper where
the image is a negative. If the white lines of the image as projected are gone over
wdth a crayon or a soft pencil until all such white lines have been covered, a positive
sketch will have been made of the image on the negative. Now the drawn print is
photographed to the final size desired and photoprints are made from this
negative.
In another method, a positive print is gone over with waterproof India ink. In
this case the black hnes are covered. Judgment must be exercised as to the strokes
used, viz., crosshatching, curves, etc. With a little practice the results are unusual and
distinctive. Then the print is bleached so that the photographic image disappears
leaving only the hand-drawn sketch.
A satisfactory bleach for disposing -of the silver image is
Water 3>2 oz.
Potassium permanganate 3 gr.
Sulphuric acid 1 dram
This will leave a discolored print. To remove the permanganate stain immerse
the print in a bath made up of 50 to 100 gr. of sodium bisulphite in 4 oz. of water.
This will leave a perfectly clean white print on which remain only the India ink lines.
Additional lines may be added to this print if desired.
Since the India ink must be placed over the black lines of the original print, it is
sometimes difficult to tell when all the necessary lines have been covered, or to judge
how well the work has progressed. The solution to this difficulty is to place the
black fines on a negative print. In this case the ink is placed upon the white lines of
the negative.^
—
Lantern Slides. Lantern slides are made on glass plates coated with an emulsion
somewhat similar to that used for making positives. Standard sizes are 3K by 4)4 in-
and 33<4 by S}i in. Several degrees of contrast are available. Eastman provides
soft, medium and contrast. The first two may be developed under a Wratten safe light
Series O or OA for contrast and medium plates; Series 1 safe light must be used for
soft plates which are more sensitive.
Any negative that will a good print will make a good slide. The slides may
make
be printed by projection or by contact. Blemishes must be kept to a minimum
because of their subsequent enlargement when the slides are projected. The Eastman
plates vary in sensitivity as follows: contrast plates require about three times the
exposure required for medium, and medium about seven times as much exposure
as soft.
—
Exposure. Using a 25-watt frosted lamp at a distance of about 6 ft. between light
and printing frame, the exposure required for an average negative on medium plates
is about 5 sec. It is advisable at first to make use of the test-strip method of deter-
mining correct exposure. Cover two-thirds of the slide with an opaque cardboard
and give an exposure of 40 sec; uncover part of the slide so that only one-third is now
covered, and give an exposure of 8 sec. Finally uncover the entire slide and give an
exposure of 2 sec. Now the slide will have portions exposed for 2, 10, and 50 sec.
In varying exposures, double or halve them, as smaller exposure changes will make so
little difference the operator will not learn much. To make positive from miniature
frames, use the positive stock film, print by contact; for 10 sec, 6 in. from a 10 cp.
lamp is a good trial exposure. Use weak developer.
Development. —
Slides may be developed in D-72 (see developers for paper, above).
Develop in a white tray and judge development as one would a printing paper.
When development is complete, the highest light should show appreciable
color. Dilute D-72 and develop as follows: soft plate, dilute 1 to 4, develop 2 to 3
min. at 70°F. medium plate, dilute 1 to 2, develop 1 to 2 min. at 70°F. ; contrast
;
plate, dilute 1 to 1, develop 3 to 5 min. at 70°F.
1 There are several other modifications of the photo-sketching process. A good .survey of this
process will be found in Some Suggestions on Photo Sketching, by E. A. Yunker, Am. Phot., December,
1935, p. 740.
The plates should be rinsed in a short-stop bath and then fixed in any good harden-
ing fixing hath. They should be washed 20 min.
—
Mounting. The slides should be varnished to protect them and prevent absorp-
tion of moisture in damp weather, which causes "dewing" or condensation of moisture
on the cover glass when it is heated by the lantern. Special varnish for this purpose
may be purchased from the supply houses.
The shape of the mask should usually be rectangular. Oval or round masks are
seldom necessary or desirable. The standard size mask opening for motion-picture
theaters is 3 by 2^^ in. The mask, which may be cut from black paper or purchased
ready to use, is placed on the emulsion side of the slide.
After masking, the slide is bound in contact with a thin cover glass which is placed
on the emulsion side. A white spot or label should be placed on the lower left-hand
corner when holding the slide in the hand so that the image appears on the screen
properly. This label not only identifies the slide but is useful to the projection-
machine operator in inserting the slide in the machine properly.
Cover glasses for slides 2 in. square are now available for Kodachrome and other
positives made with cameras using 35-mm. film. These slides are mounted and bound
in the same manner as the larger slides. Cellulose or Scotch tape may be used to bind
up the positive with its cover glass.
—
Direct Positive Paper. This paper is used for making negatives which, by the
reversal process, are changed into positive prints. Correct exposure for the negative
determines the quality of the print, therefore a fixed light source and a definite
exposure are required. Underexposure will produce a dark picture, while overexposure
produces pictures which are too light.
The reversal process includes exposure, development of the negative, bleaching the
negative, clearing, reexposure, development of the positive, fixing. Fixing is not
essential, but it gives the print a slightly increased brilliance. Fixed prints should be
washed for 10 min. in running water. If not fixed, prints should be washed for 4 or
5 min. The Eastman direct positive emulsion is coated on a waterproof support
which permits rapid drjdng. An inexpensive electric hair dryer can be used effectively
to facilitate drying. The Series 2 Wratten safe light should be used for workroom
illumination.
A satisfactory division of time in the different solutions is as follows: developing,
45 sec. to 1 min.; bleaching, 30 sec; clearing, 30 sec; developing or redeveloping,
30 sec; fixing, 30 sec. It is necessary to wash the prints thoroughly in iiinning water
for at least 15 sec. between the different solutions. When the solution D-88 is used for
developing a black-and-white positive, it is necessarj' to expose the paper to artificial
light directly after clearing. If convenient, the white light may be turned on as soon
as the prints are placed in the clearing bath.
Developer (D-88)
Water (about 125° F.) (52° C.) 96 oz. 3 1.
Sodium sulphite (desiccated) 63-2 oz. 195 g.

Hydroquinone 3 J'i oz. 97 5. g.
Boric acid (crystals) l-i oz. 22 5. g.
Potassium bromide 150 gr. 10 5. g.
Sodium hydroxide (caustic soda) SV^ oz. 97.5 g.
Water to make 1 gal. 4 1.
The caustic soda should be dissolved in a small A'olume of water, in a separate

container, and added to the solution which has been made bj^ dissolving the chemicals
in the order given. Water should then be added to make 1 gal. (4 1.). When dis-
sohdng the caustic soda, stir constantlj' so that the heat generated will not cause the
solution to boil with explosive violence and spatter the hot caustic on the hand and
face, wliich would produce serious burns. Use the developer full strength at a tem-
perature of 70°F. (21°C.).
Use a crystalline boric acid as specified. Powdered boric acid dissolves with
difficulty.
Bleaching Solution
Water.. 1 gal. 4.0 1.
Potassium bichromate 1 J-i oz. 37 5

. g.
Sulphuric acid (o.p.) 1>2 A. oz. 48.0 cc.
Use full strength at 65 to 70°F. (18 to 21°C.). For more rapid bleaching, the
amounts of acid and bichromate may be increased.
Cleabing Solution
Sodium sulphite (desiccated) 12 oz. 360 g.
Water 1 gal. 4 1.
Use full Strength at 65 to 70°F. (18 to 21°C.).

Printing-out Paper. —
At one time the photographer's best medium was POP,
printing-out paper, in which the image is visible after exposure and before develop-
ment. Proofs of negatives were often submitted on paper of this type because the
prints if exposed to the light and so the person photographed could not
would fade
retain the proof print with any degree of satisfaction. He was forced to let the
photographer make a print with a more permanent image. For rendition of fine
detail, a glossy POP paper is superior to more modern developing-out papers and for
reproduction by means of half-tone engravings, P O P is still recommended.
P O P is very slow compared to present-day printing papers. It is exposed to the
negative by direct daylight or very strong artificial light. It may be handled in a
well-lighted room. The negative should be of average contrast. Flat negatives will
produce weak and flat prints. Prints should be exposed somewhat longer than
appearances would dictate as determined by inspection during the exposure. Some
color is lost in subsequent processing. The parts which are to be pure white in the
should show some slight color in the correctly exposed print.
final print
After exposure, the prints should be washed thoroughly, i.e., until the wash water
no longer shows any milkiness. Five or six complete changes of water are required.
—
Toning Bath. Innumerable baths may be used to tone POP. In some there is a
combination of the toning and fixing processes. The following formulas are a few
examples of those which have been recommended.
If the toning and fixing are to be distinct baths, the following method is recom-
mended by Ilford.
Two stock solutions are necessary for making up the working toning bath.
Sulphocyanide Solution A
Ammonium sulphocyanide 200 gr. 12 g.
Water 20 oz. 500 cc.
Gold Solution B
Gold chloride 15 gr. 1 g.
For use, take 2 oz. each of A and B and add to 20 oz. water (50 to 400 cc. water).
Add the gold solution slowly and shake well.
After about 5 or 10 min. in this bath, prints begin to lose their characteristic red
color and take on their final purplish color. After toning, the prints should be thor-
oughly washed, then immersed in hypo, 3 to 20 oz. water (75 g. to 500 cc. water),
and moved about for 10 min. The fixer should be used but once. Finally the prints
must be thoroughly washed, Ilford recommending 2 hr.
Combined Toning and Fixing. —Use of a combined bath saves time, but at the
expense of less permanency of the image
Combined Toner and Fixer
Hypo 6 oz. 150 g.
Sodium chloride 20 gr. 1 g.
Lead nitrate (or lead acetate) 20 gr. 1 g.
Gold chloride 4 gr. . 2 g.

Water to make 20 oz. 500 cc.
Prints may be immersed in this solution without the preliminary washing. Toning is complete in
about 6 min.
Papers are available (Seltona and Enitone of Ilford) which contain the gold
chloride in the emidsion. After exposure, these papers are placed in a hypo solution
in which they are rendered permanent.
Bibliography
GiBBa, C. W.: Paper Negatives, Am. Phot., October, 1934, p. 591.

WooDLEY, A. J.: Composite Pictures, Am. Phot., November, 1934, p. 678.
Spicer, Don R.: Dry Mounting, Am. Phot., December, 1934, p. 760.
MouAT, L. W.: An Exposure Calculator (for printing). Am. Phot., January, 1935, p. 34.
OsTERNDORFF, E. R.: Photo Sketching, Cam.era, December, 1935, p. 391.
YuNKER, E. A.: Photo Sketching, Am. Phot., December, 1935, p. 74.
Cassidy, E. H.: The Psychological Point of View, Am. Phot., February, 1936, p. 102.
Cole, P. J.: Meter Measurement of Enlarging Exposure, Camera, May, 1936, p. 316.
Benedict, H. C: Condenser Enlarger, Camera Craft, June, 1936, p. 275.
Young, L. H.: Relation between Condenser and. Objective in Enlarger, Am. Phot., June, 1936, p. 358.
Weiland, W. F.: Exposure in Projection Printing, Am. Phot., July, 1936, p. 420.
Brockman, F. G.: Photoelectric Timing in Projection Printing, Am. Phot., September, 1936, p. 604.
Russell, Grant: A Comparison of Print Developers, Am. Phot., November, 1936, p. 718.
Huff, M. O.: Gaseous Discharge Tubes for Enlarging and Printing MO, Camera, December, 1936, p. 362.
KoRTH, Fred G.: Making Photomontages in the Enlarger, Am. Phot., January, 1937.
Pike, H. W.: Miniature Lantern Slides, Am. Phot., June, 1937, p. 398.
HoPKiNSON, R. G.: New Approach to the Problem of Tone Reproduction, Phot. J., September, 1937,
p. 542.
Dubbing in Clouds, Agfa Diamond, September-October, 1937, p. 5.
TuTTLB, Clifton: Photoelectric Photometry in Printing Amateur Negatives, J. Franklin Inst., Sep-
tember, 1937, pp. 315-331.
:Devices for the Photoelectric Control of Exposure in Printing, J. Franklin /n.si., November,
1937, pp. 615-631.
MoHSE, R. S.: Black and White Prints from Kodachrome, Am. Phot., January, 1938, p. 1.
Sanial, a. J.: Making Lantern Slides, Am. Phot., January, 1938, p. 4.
Mowbray, G. M.: A Novel Dodging Device, Camera, February, 1938, p. 91.
Home Sensitized Prints and Iron Salts, Photo Art Monthly, April, 1938.
Colt, R. S.: Simple Method of Timing Enlargements, Am. Phot., April, 1938, p. 244.
Carson, Kenneth: Paper Negatives, Defender Trade Bull., March-June, 1938.
Herbert, Jr., W. A.: Hints on Mounting Salon Photographs, Camera, June, 1938, p. 386.
•: Simplicity of Paper Negatives, Camera, June, 1938, p. 375.
Heyser, C. a.: Drawings and Etchings from Photographs, Am. Phot., June, 1938, p. 414.
Desme, R. G. J.: Print Quality and Development, Am. Phot., July, 1938, p. 460.
Weller, Jr., H.: Print Reversal, Camera, August, 1938, p. 102.
NoRGREN, C. A.: Photo-Etching, Am. Phot., September, 1938, p. 640.
Donaldson, E. W.: Etchcraft for the Beginner, Am. Phot.. September, 1938, p. 642.
Greenslade, T. B.: Photographic Murals, Am. Phot., September, 1938, p. 654
BoALS, R. B.: Amateur Slide Making, Am. Phot., October, 1938, p. 685.
Printing in Clouds, Photo Art Monthly, October-November, 1938.
Westerman, a. W.: An Efficient Print Washer, Am. Phot., November, 1938, p. 800.
Greenleaf, a. R.: SimpUfied Print Developers, Am. Phot., November, 1938, p. 810.
DuTTON, Lawrence: Types of Photographic Papers, Am. Phot., December, 1938, p. 872.
Mounting and Embossing, Photo Art Monthly, December, 1938, p. 596.
CHAPTER XV
TONING
By Donald Burchan and Ira Current
One of the fundamental,and ofttimes little understood, characteristics of a photo-
graphic print the color or tone which makes up its image.
is In the ordinary black-
and-white print this tone is very subtle, and the presence of color is often unnoticed.
This tone or color is fundamentally determined by the emulsion characteristics of the
paper and is controlled, within limits, by the nature of the developer used and the
amount of its dilution. The usual color range is from a cold blue-black to a warm
brown, although it is also possible to obtain tones up to red by direct development.
While this method is rather involved and requires careful attention to details of
exposure and development, it has, we believe, a definite place in a discussion of toning
methods. The careful technique that is required is such that probably only the
advanced worker may be sufficiently recompensed to reward his patience and per-
severance; however, by toning processes in which the silver image is actually changed
to another compound having the color desired, it is possible to produce, easily and
uniformly, brown, red, blue, and green tones, as well as many of their intermediate
shades.
By the use of toning processes the photographer can produce pictures which are
more effective because of their tone or color. For instance, some snowscapes are
much enhanced when the photographic image has been rendered in a brilliant blue or
a fireside picture more appealing in a reddish brown. The possibilities are unlimited
as one becomes familiar with the colors that the different methods are capable of
producing.
As different kinds of paper react differently to most toning processes, a short-
explanation of these papers and their behavior will be given before proceeding with
the various toning processes. Bromide papers as a class do not produce a wide
variety of good tones. They tend to the cold browns and purples. It is better when-
ever possible to choose papers of the chlorobromide or chloride group. The chloro-
bromides are the so-called slow enlarging papers, while the chloride papers are used
only for contact printing becavise of their slow speed. As all leading manufacturers
have papers of these two groups in a variety of surfaces, it is possible for the most
exacting worker to find the surface which will satisfy his particular demands. After
he has made his choice of paper, it would be well for the beginner to experiment in its
manipulation, following suggestions of the manufacturer. It is only by mastering
the art of making good black-and-white prints that success can be obtained in toning.
This point cannot be stressed too much for many of the troubles experienced in
toning can usually be traced directly to a faulty original print.
Toning, as it is generally spoken of, involves a chemical conversion of the silver
image of the "developed print" into one or more insoluble substances having various
colors, for example, brown silver sulphide, or colored compounds of such metals as
copper, uranium, iron, etc. But it is also possible to obtain colored metallic siher
images, as we have suggested, by modification of development.
453
—
Toning by Direct Development. When developers of a special composition are
used and the developing time is shortened or the solution diluted, a coloring of the
image is noticed; this usually is brownish. Here again some papers have properties
which yield themselves to these modifications of development more than others.
These are the chlorobromide papers that yield warm olive tones even in ordinary
developers, and some of the chloride papers. Most chloride papers, especially those
used for commercial and photo-finishing purposes, are blue-black in tone when devel-
oped in the recommended formulas. Bromide papers, as a rule, are not readily
adaptable to toning by direct development.
The reducing agents used in a developing formula and their proportions to one
another play an important part in the determination of the final color of a print.
It must be remembered that an agent such as hydroquinone has a tendency, when
used without any other agents, to yield warm tones, especially in the presence of fairly
large quantities of potassium bromide. Metol, on the other hand, besides having
soft-gradation-producing characteristics, generally makes the tones of prints black
or blue-black.
In most photofinishing establishments contact prints with a blue-black tone are
desired, and these result from using a developer having a high energy factor, i.e.,
one having a large proportion of alkali or energizer and properly balanced amounts of
metol and hydroquinone. Such a developer is of the following composition and may
be used for contact and bromide papers when cold blue-black tones are desired.
Stock Solution (Agfa 103)

Hot water (125°F. or 52°C.) 750 cc. 24 oz.
Metol 3.5 g. 50 gr.
Sodium sulphite (anhydrous) 57 g. 1?4 oz., 50 gr.
Hydroquinone 11.5 g. M oz., 55 gr.
Sodium carbonate (monohydrated) 78 g. 23-2 oz., 35 gr.
Potassium bromide 1 . 2 g. 18 grains
Water to make 1 1. 32 oz.
Dilute 1 part stock solution with 2 parts water.

Chloride papers: Normal development time, 1 min. at 70°F. (21°C.).
Bromide papers: Normal development time, IH to 2 min. at 70°F. (21°C.).
A chlorobromide paper when developed in such a formula will have a tendency to

produce rich blacks, although the medium tones will be more olive in color, especially
if through use the developer has been allowed to accumulate an amount of bromide.
By reducing the amount of metol in such a formula, the warm-toned results will be
even more pronounced. If the solution is diluted in order to control the rate of
development, still warmer tones wUl result.
There are other reducing agents, which, when used in the developing formulas in
the proper proportions, will yield tones even more brilliant in color than those obtained
from the methods outlined above. Examples of these reducing agents are Adurol and
glycine.
Adurol produce tones which range from a rich brown-black to brilliant reds
will
when the is very great; the exposure time has been increased
dilution of the developer
enough to compensate for this dilution, and increasing amounts of potassium bromide
have been added. The formulas on page 455 were developed by Ilford Limited of
London and published in their "Manual of Photography." The table of exposure
time, dilution, etc., has been changed slightly to meet the requirements of American
papers.
These formulas used as mixed, without any dilution, will produce warm black-
toned prints. By diluting the solution, increasing the exposure, adding a certain
amount of a 10 per cent solution of potassium bromide, and prolonging the developing
time, we may change this tone from warm black to reddish brown. While different
—
TONING 455
papers may not all work the same, the difference in result will not be very great.
With a few experiments in exposure and developing time, it is possible to arrive at the
tone desired.
Adurol Formula
Adurol 6 8 g.
. 97 gr.
Hydroquinone 6 8 g.
. 97 gr.
Sodium sulphite (anhydrous) 62 4 . g. 2 oz., 85 gr.
Sodium carbonate (monohydrated) 54.4 g. lî oz., 60 gr.
Potassium bromide . 7 g. 11 gr.
Water 1000 cc. 32 oz.
Table I. Dilution, Exposure Time, Etc., for the Adurol Formula

are permanent and will keep their tones indefinitely without fading. Siich toners
are easy to use, are economical, and can be depended upon to duplicate values fairly
well.
The methods depends upon the character of the original black-and-
success of these
white print. As a general rule maximum exposure and full development produce
prints which will tone well by these processes. Underexposure and overdevelopment
and the reverse, viz., overexposure and underdevelopment should be avoided in all
instances. A few trial prints made on the paper selected with varying times of
exposure and development, but all approximately the same density, will easily estab-
lish the correct procedure. Fresh solutions should always be used and care taken
that they are not overworked. The temperature of the developer should be kept as
near 70°F. as possible. Bromide in the developer used for the black-and-white prints
has quite an influence on the final results; i.e., slightly increasing the bromide content,
will yield somewhat warmer tones in the final print tone.
The sulphide processes may be divided into two classifications.
1. Direct sulphide process in which the silver image is changed directly to silver
sulphide with no intermediate steps.

2. Indirect sulphide process in which the silver image is first changed to an insol-
uble silver salt or a mixture of silver and mercury salts which are then changed to the
sulphides of these metals.
—
Direct Sepia Process. The three most commonly used direct processes are hypo
alum, hypo-alum gold chloride and "liver of sulphur." As all these direct methods
have hypo as one of their ingredients, it is not necessary to wash the prints after
fixing, but they may be transferred directly to the toning bath.
The chief disadvantage of these methods is that the solution must be used hot
(approximately 120°F.), and it is necessary to have some method of keeping this
temperature fairly constant. It takes from 15 to 60 min. to tone prints at this
temperature, depending on the kind of paper used. Toning in a cold solution would
require about 10 to 12 hr. Some photographers leave prints in these mixtures over-
night, but this is not good procedure and should be avoided. Another caution that is
very important is to use these toners in a separate room or at least at a distance from
any sensitized materials, such as paper or film, for direct sepia toners give off sulphur
fumes when heated which are destructive to sensitized materials. Good ventilation
is absolutely necessary. Abrupt changes of temperature should be avoided, prints
should be allowed to cool after being removed from the toning bath and before washing.
If this is not done, frilling and blistering will result. Prints should be sponged off
carefully after removal from the toning baths, to remove sediment; allowed to cool;
and then washed in cold running water for 15 to 20 min.
—
Hypo-alum Sepia Method. Two common photographic chemicals are used in this
formula, viz., hypo and potassium alum. When alum, which is acid, is added to a
solution of hypo (sodium thiosulphate), free sulphur is precipitated. This pre-
cipitated sulphur, when combined with the silver image of the print during toning,
forms brown silver sulphide.
A silver "ripener" which retards the bleaching action due to the hypo must also be
added to the solution. Chloride, bromide, or iodide are used for this purpose. If
six or eight waste prints are at hand, it is possible by toning these prints to dispense
with the ripener, as the silver salts supplied by these prints will serve the same pur-
pose. The bath may be used indefinitelj' or until it is so reduced by evaporation that
it is necessary to replenish it, when a fresh solution must be added.
Very definite instructions are given as to how these ingredients should be com-
bined in the bath, and anj^ deviation from this order will result in failure. It is
equally important to keep the solution at the temperature given, as too hot a bath
TONING 457
willcause blistering and frilling, and a cold bath not only slows up the toning action
Imt tends to produce cold purplish tones. Prints should be agitated constantly while
toning to prevent them from sticking together and toning unevenly.
As this method does not work progressively but carries the toning to completion
and then stops, the prints should be left in long enough to insure complete toning.
Hypo-altjm Toner
This toner is recommended for beautiful reddish-brown tones.
Solution A
Hypo 4.50 g. 16 oz.
Solution B
Water 30 cc. 1 oz.
Silver nitrate H-4 g. 20 gr.
Solution C
Water 30 cc. 1 oz.
Potassium iodide 2J.2 g. 40 gr.
Add solution B to solution A. Then add solution C to the mixture. Finally add
105 (3,H oz.) of potassium alum to this solution, and heat the entire bath to the
g.
boiling point, or until sulphurization takes place (indicated by a milky appearance of
the solution). Tone prints 20 to 60 min. in this bath at 110 to 125°F. (43 to 52°C.).
Agitate prints occasionally until toning is complete.
—
Hypo-alum Gold Sepia Method. A toner which yields even more beautiful sepias
than the hypo-alum is made by adding a soluble gold salt to a solution which is made
up of hypo-alum and a ripener. Gold chloride or gold sodium chloride is used.
When the print is placed in this gold solution, the silver will replace the metal in
solution,and the gold will be deposited in place of the silver. It is necessary for a good
tone that this gold deposit be rapid. This bath must be kept alkaline, a condition
which is accomplished by the addition of sodium phosphate. A definite test for this
alkaUnity is the use of red litmus paper which turns blue in an alkaline solution.
Hypo-alum Gold Toner

Solution A
(1) Boiling water (distilled) 4000 cc. 128 oz.
Hypo 450 g. 16 oz.
Alum potassi\im 56 g. 2 oz.
Boil the above 2 or 3 min., allow it to cool and then add
Sodium phosphate 56 g. 2 oz.
Test the resulting solution with red litmus paper. If the litmus paper does not turn
blue within 1 min., heat bath again, and add sodium phosphate in 2-oz. (56-g.) quan-
tities until the bath has become slightly alkaline. Then dissolve
(2) Silver nitrate 4 g. 60 gr.

Water .30 cc. 1 oz.
Potassium bromide 8 g. 1 20 gr.
Water 30 cc. 1 oz.
Separate solutions are made of the silver and bromide, each dissolved in 1 oz. (30 cc.)
of water. The bromide solution is poured into the silver solution. The resulting
mixture, precipitate and all, is then added to the hypo-alum bath after the latter has
thoroughly cooled.
Solution B
Gold chloride 1 g. 15 gr.
Water 15 cc. 1 oz.
To use add 1 dram (3.7 cc.) of gold solution (solution JS) to each 16 oz. (500 cc.)
of —
hypo-alum bath (solution A), tone at 90 to 110°F. not more than 110°F. Prints
should be examined as the toning proceeds and removed when the desired tone is
reached.
This toning bath as mixed will tone approximately 150 4- by 6-in. prints. When
used up to this point, it should be discarded and a new bath mixed.
Prints should be agitated during toning to insure even toning. After toning is
completed they should be carefully sponged to remove any surface sediment, fixed
again in the regular acid hypo fixing solution for about 5 min., washed and dried in
the usual manner.
Liiver-of-sulphur Sepia Method. —This is an easy economical method of sepia toning
giving results which are comparable to the hj^po-alum process on some papers. As
results varj^ with different papers, it would be well to test this method thoroughly
before adopting it.
Liver of sulphuris a mixture of potassium sulphide along with other compounds
such as sulphates, carbonates, hypo, etc. The actual toning agent is not known,
but it is thought that the sulphur acts on the silver image forming silver sulphide as in
the other sulphide toners. It is well to get liver of sulphur from a reputable chemical
concern, as most of it is impure and not fit for photographic use. It is necessary in
this process to be sure the prints are well hardened, as liver of sulphur in a hot solution
has quite a softening effect on the emulsion.
LiVER-OF-SULPHUR SePIA MeTHOD

Liver of sulphur 30 gr.
Water 40 oz.
Use at 80°F.
Indirect Sepia Process. —This processused extensively for sepia prints because
is
of its simplicity at room temperature.

and economy and because the solutions are used
Two solutions are necessary: (1) the "bleach," so called because the image disappears;
and (2) a weak solution of sodium sulphide which changes the bleached image into
brown silver sulphide, as in the direct toning processes. It is very important that the
black-and-white print be thoroughly washed, as silver bromide, which is first formed
in the bleaching operation, is soluble in hypo; so part or all of the image may be dis-
solved if the print has not been washed in running water for at least 20 to 30 min.
This precaution should be especially noted, for the cause of about 50 per cent of all
the troubles experienced with this process is due to prints that are not washed thor-
oughly. Clean enameled trays without any chipped or broken places in the enamel
should be used, for contamination by iron rust will cause blue spots on the finished
print. These blue spots may also be caused by iron rust from the water, and where
this occurs the water should be filtered through several thicknesses of flannel or felt,
which may be placed directly over the water taps.
Bleach prints in solution 1 until the image is converted to a very light brown.
Bleach for Sulphide Redevelopment

Solution 1
Potassium ferricyanide solution 500 cc. 17}"2 fl. oz.

Potassium bromide solution (10 per cent) 100 cc. 3\i fl. oz.
Sodium carbonate solution (10 per cent) 200 cc. 7 fl. oz.
Water 200 cc. 7 fl. oz.
Wash prints for about 5 min., and redevelop in the following solution:
:
TONING 459
Sulphide Redeveloping Solution

Stock Solution
Sodium sulphide 45 g. lyi oz.
Water to make 500 oc. 16 oz.
For use, dilute 1 part stock solution with 8 parts water.

After using this toner it is advisable to harden the prints. To do this mix the
following hardener:
Hot water (125°F. or 52°C.) 150 cc. 5 oz.

Sodium sulphite, anhydrous 15 g. ^^ oz.
Acetic acid (28 per cent) 45 cc. IM oz.
Potassium alum 15 g. 3'2 oz.
After removing prints from sulphide redeveloper solution wash for 2 or 3 min. and
place in the above hardener bath for 5 min. Then wash thoroughlj^ for 30 min.
This hardener solution has no effect on either the color or gradation of the print.
—
Mercury Sulphide Sepia Toner. The four sepia toners just described depend on
the formation of one compound, silver sulphide, which, although it allows some altering
of the shade of brown by means of the nature of the original print image and by the
bleaching methods used, is essentially a compound with a limited range of colors.
By producing a combined silver sulphide and mercury sulphide image, the range of
tones available is lengthened. The addition of mercury sulphide to the image is
accomplished by adding mercuric chloride to the bleaching bath. The compound
formed in the bleaching is then a combination of a silver and a mercury salt. Upon
subsequent development with sodium sulphide, silver sulphide and mercury sulphide
are formed. By varying the amounts of mercuric chloride in the original bleach, the
color of the final print image is easily controlled; the larger the amount of mercury
used, the blacker or colder the image. The gelatin on the print has quite a strong
affinity for the mercury, and for this reason, after bleaching, the prints are bathed
in several changes of dilute hydrochloric acid to remove anj^ mercury which is in
combination with the gelatin. The mercury which is combined with the silver image
is not affected by this treatment, so there is no loss in the richness of the image. Mer-
cury sulphide is a compound just as stable as silver sulphide, so there need be no fear
of impermanence in images made of mercurj^ sulphide. The prints should be slightly
lighter than for the other processes as mercurj^ produces some intensification in the
toned print.
Wash print well, eliminating all hypo.
Bleach in bath made as follows
Mercury Sulphide Toner

Solution A
Potassium ferricyanide 30 g. 1 oz.
Potassium bromide 45 g. l)-2 oz.
Water to make 266 cc. 9 oz.

Solution B
Mercuric chloride 4 g. 60 gr.
Potassium bromide 4 g. 60 gr.
For
— part A, 3 parts B, 16 parts water
Engraving black 1
Warm — part A, part B, 16 parts water

black 1 1
Cold sepia— part A, M part B, 12 parts water

1
Normal sepia— part A 1 12 parts water.

only, (None of B added.)
.
After the prints are completely bleached, they are washed first and then rinsed in
three baths of per cent hydrochloric acid.
1 The prints are then washed again and
toned in the following solution:
Stock Solution
Sodium sulphide 45 g. IJ^ oz.
For use, dilute 1 part stock solution with 8 parts water.

—
Potassium Permanganate Sulphide Method. Another bleach for sulphide toning
consists in using potassium permanganate instead of potassium ferricyanide. This
has one particular advantage over the ferricyanide bleach, inasmuch as any traces of
hypo left in the print before toning will be destroyed by the permanganate and have no
effect on the final image. A stain is formed when the image is bleached, but this will
disappear in redevelopment. Wash print well and bleach in the following solution.
Solution A
Potassium permanganate 2 5 . g. 40 gr.
Water 590 cc. 20 cc.
Solution B
Hydrochloric acid (c.p.) (36 per cent) 80 cc. 2^4 oz.
Water to make 590 cc. 20 oz
To use take 1 part solution A, 1 part solution B, plus 6 parts water. Wash
well and tone in sulphide solution.
Sulphide Redeveloping Solution

Stock Solution
Sodium sulphide 45 g. IJ-2 oz.
For use, dilute 1 part stock solution with 8 parts water. Wash prints for
15 min. after toning.
Intermediate Redevelopment Sepia Method. —The above bleach bath lends itself
well to control of the resulting image by means of intermediate development of the

print with a dilute developer after bleaching and before toning. The developer
acts on the bleached silver compound forming a partial black metallic silver image.
The remaining undeveloped silver compound, when treated with sodium sulphide in
the toning bath, forms silver sulphide. Thus a combined image of black metallic
silver and brown silver sulphide is formed, and the resulting degree of blackness
depends on the proportion of metallic silver that makes up the final image. Procedure
for this method is as follows: Bleach print according to instructions given for the
permanganate sulphide method. After washing well, partially develop the print in
a 1 to 2 dilution of the developer for blue-black tones given in the beginning of this
chapter. Time the length of development and then tone in the regular sulphide toner
given above. A few experiments will determine the length of intermediate develop-
ment necessary to secure the desired tone.
The permanganate bleach will react on both the silver sulphide and silver image,
so that, if the desired tone is not obtained with the may be
first trial, the toned image
bleached and retoned. Sometimes it is desirable to restore a toned print to its original
black state: this may be accomplished by bleaching in a permanganate bath and
redeveloping completely in a normal developer.
—
Engraving Black from a Silver Sulphide Print. It is possible to intensify or darken
sulphide-toned prints by means of lead compoimds. The lead combines with some of
the silver sulphide forming lead sulphide, which is black. The darkening is accom-
pUshed by treating the sulphide-toned print with a solution of lead acetate. Prints
TONING 461
should be treated in the following solution until the desired intensitj' of tone has been
reached.
Engraving Black Solution
Hypo 20 g. ?i oz.
Lead acetate 5 g. 80 gr.
The action of this solution proceeds rather slowly and for a normal change in
tone J-^ to 1 hr. is required.
—
Red Tones from Sulphide-toned Print. Silver sulphide images may be readily
changed to brilliant and charming red tones by treatment with a gold chloride ammo-
nium sulphocyanate bath. The prints, which have already been toned by one of the
sulphide processes, are immersed in the following bath imtil the tone has changed to
red. They are then fixed for several minutes in the regular acid fixing bath and
washed and dried in the usual manner.
Tone directly in:

Ammonium thiocyaiiate 50 g. lî oz.
1 per cent gold chloride 30 cc. 1 oz.
With the above solution verj^ deep-blue tones may be obtained by using ordinary
l)lack-and-white prints. The prints should be made in the ordinary manner, fixed
and washed thoroughlj^ and then toned in the above solution. After toning thej'
should be fixed again for several minutes, washed and dried.
—
Sepia Tones on Bromide Papers. The fact has been emphasized that bromide
papers, as a class, do not tone so well as chlorobromide or chloride paper. There is a
formula, however, which will produce tones from cold brown through red-brown on
bromide papers.
The thoroughly washed black-and-white print bleached and then redevel-
is first
oped, the tone being controlled by the amount

sodium carbonate added to the
of
redeveloping solution. The table following the formula will give the amounts neces-
sary for certain tones. Here, again, not all papers will react the same, but by increas-
ing or decreasing the amount of the sodium carbonate, the desired tone may be
achieved. The formula without any sodium carbonate will produce brilliant red
tones. By increasing this carbonate in the redeveloping solution, we may achieve
many different shades of red-brown, sepia, and cold brown. Only two additions of
carbonate are given in the table, but experimentation will yield the desired tones on
any bromide paper.
Bleach the well-washed print in the following solution:
Potassium ferricyanide (10 per cent) '

500 cc. 16 oz.
Potassium bromide (10 per cent) 100 cc. 3 oz.
Sodium carbonate (10 per cent) 200 cc. 6 oz.
Water 200 cc. 6 oz.
Wash and tone in the following solution:
Sodium sulphantimoniate (Schlippes salt) 10 g. 3-4 oz., 45 gr.

Sodium carbonate solution (10 per cent) 30 cc. 1 oz.
Potassium bromide solution (10 per cent) 160 cc. 53-2 oz.
Warm brown tones Add 30 cc. 10 per cent solution sodium carbonate
Sepia tones Add 100 cc. 10 per cent solution sodium carbonate
For colder tones increase the carbonate 30 cc. at a time until the desired tone is
reached.
.
Ferrocyanide Toners. —Ferrocyanide compounds of other metals than silver have

various and and may be substituted for the silver image. Iron com-
brilliant colors
pounds are blue; uranium, brownish red and brown; copper, red, etc.
Ordinarily the silver image is first converted into silver ferrocyanide, and this is
subsequently converted into the desired metallic compound by direct replacement of
the silver by the metal of the ferrocyanide compounds. Usually other organic con-
stituents are added to the formula to restrain the action of the toners, to prevent
stains, etc. Most toning formulas of this class are similar in their reactions, although
some of the single solution formulas form the silver ferrocyanide and the metallic
ferrocyanide in one operation. Others involve two operations, first the conversion
of the black silver image into silver ferrocyanide and subsequently the replacement
of the silver in the silver ferrocyanide by the suitable metal higher in the electromotive
series. The formulas we give may be considered representative of this type of toner.
Toners of this class are more susceptible to troubles caused by impurities and by
deviations from recommended procedures than any of the others and therefore require
considerably more care in their use. Also many of these metallic ferrocyanide com-
pounds are soluble in even mild alkalies, and therefore water which is slightly alkaUne
when used in washing might remove some of the image. The use of these toners
generally requires considerable care and experimentation in order to produce the
desired results.
—
Copper Toner. This toner hesitates for a moment, then a distinct toning action is
noticed which proceeds quite rapidly at first. The tone goes from a cold brown,
toward red, during which time a double tone, brown and red, is formed. After this
the toning is progressive to red. The success in obtaining the desired tone by this
method rests in the control of the time of toning and being able to judge just when the
desired tone is reached. When using a toner of this type, it is wise to make several
prints, toning them for different lengths of time with constant temperature, so that
when the prints are dried one has several different tones from which to select. By
this time method one may duplicate tones when prints in quantity are being processed.
Toning solutions are as follows:
Solution A
Copper sulphate (cupric) 4 g. 60 gr.
Potassium citrate 16 g. 240 gr
Solution B
Potassium ferricyanide 3 5 g.
. 50 gr.
Potassium citrate 16 g. 240 gr.
To use, mix equal parts of A and B and tone the black-and-white print in this solution.
Iron Toner. —The following toner will produce blue tones. Tone in following bath
until desired color is obtained.
Iron and ammonium citrate (ferric) (10 per cent) 60 cc. 2 oz.
Potassium ferricyanide (10 per cent) 60 cc. 2 oz
Acetic acid (10 per cent) 600 cc. 20 oz.
Wash in pure water, but not too long, as blue color is soluble in water even slightly
alkaline.
Uranium Toner. —Uranium
toner yields shades from black through brown to a
yellowish red. While some instances and for certain effects gives satis-
this toner, in
factory tones, the writers have never had very good results with it. It is included
here for those workers who seek the unusual and bizarre.
Prints should be toned in the following solution after they have been thoroughly
washed.
2
TONING 463
Bleach completely in
Solution A
Potassium ferricyanide 2 5
. g. 38 gr.
Glacial acetic acid 5 5 cc.
. 96 minims
Water 250 cc. 9 oz.
Wash well and tone in
Solution B
Uranium nitrate 2. 5 g. 38 gr.
Water 240 cc. 8 oz.
Wash well in water free from alkali.

Green Tones. —By a combination of iron ferrocyanide and silver sulphide green
tones may
be obtained. For this method the following stock solutions are required.
For green tones:
Solution A
Potassium ferricyanide (red prussiate of potash) 5 g. 77 gr.
Ammonia 5 drops 5 drops
Water to make 100 cc. 3J^ oz.
Solution B
Iron and ammonium citrate ferric 2 . g. 33 gr.
Hydrochloric acid (concentrated) 5 cc. 80 minims
Water to make 100 cc. 3H oz.
Solution C
Sodium sulphide (pure crystal) 1 g. 15 gr.
Water 100 cc. 3K oz.
Hydrochloric acid (concentrated) 5 cc. 80 minims
In toning the following procedure should be followed: The thoroughly washed

print is completely bleached in solution A. After washing has removed all the stain,
print is immersed in solution B for about 5 min. Again the print is washed and then
placed in solution C for about 5 min. Print should be washed again after removing
from this solution and dried in the usual manner.
—
Dye Toning. It is possible to replace the normal silver photographic image with
one consisting primarily of a colored dye. In such a process the metallic silver is first
converted into a mordant, such as silver ferrocyanide, which has the ability to attract
and hold many basic dyes. The following mordanting bath is one recommended
by Dr. B. T. J. Glover., in his book, "Lantern Slides," and although it is
intended for lantern slides and film positives it may be used in some instances for
paper prints.
Mordanting Bath. Stock Solution
Uranium nitrate 8 g. 70 gr.
Oxalic acid 4 g. 35 gr.
Potassium ferricyanide t . 4 g. 35 gr.
Water to 11. 20 oz.
The chemicals are each dissolved separately in 5 oz. of water, and the solutions
added together in the following order: oxalic acid, uranium nitrate, potassium ferri-
cyanide, and finally water to make the required quantity. The solution when pro-
perly compounded should be of a pale-yellow color; and because of its light sensitivity
should be stored in the dark. For use, 1 part of this stock solution is diluted with
4 parts of water.
The positive after fixing and washing is placed in the mordanting bath until the
black silver image has been converted to a light-brown color. It is then washed to
remove the yellow stain and transferred directly to the following "dye" solution:
: :

Dye 0.2 g. 3 gr.
Acetic acid (10 per cent) 5 cc. 75 minims
Water 1 1. 35 oz.
The dye is dissolved in hot water and filtered. The acid is then added, together
with cold water to make up the required bulk. The positives are left in the dye
solution until the desired tone is obtained and then washed until the excess dye is
removed from the lighter areas of the picture.

A partial list of basic dyes suitable for dye toning is the following
Rhodamine G Red
Auramine Orange
Chrysoidiue Yellow-
Malachite Green Green
Methylene Blue Blue
Methyl Violet Violet
When working with paper prints, the dye is usually held by the fibers and baryta
coat of the paper base to quite a great extent, but sometimes a large part of this excess
dyeing may
be removed by washing with water. Finallj^ any objectionable coloring
of the whites or high lights may be removed from the dried print by immersing in the
following clearing solution for from 1 to 2 min.
Potassium permanganate i g. 3}'2 gr.
Sulphuric acid 1>2 cc. 20 minims
Water to 1 1. 20 oz.
Another mordanting bath is one which is described in the British Journal and
Almanac for 1927:
Copper sulphate 40 g 350 gr.

Tribasic potassium citrate 60 g 524 gr.
Glacial acetic acid 30 g 262 gr.
Potassium or ammonium sulphocyanide 20 g 175 gr.
Water 1 1 20 oz.
The print is mordanted for from 1 to 15 min., washed for about 30 min., laid out
on a sheet of glass and surface dried. A 10 per cent solution of the dyes or mixture
of dyes, and 1 per cent acetic acid is then applied with a tuft of cotton or flat brush.
Crabtree and Ives have described a method of dye toning with a single solution,
which, although intended for toning motion-picture films, may also be used with a
certain measure of success on some papers. Here the dye is mixed with the mordant-
ing solution in a concentration of from 0.02 per cent to 0.04 per cent, and sometimes
higher, depending on the kind of dye used. The combined mordanting and dye
formulas follows:
Dye (to make a final concentration of 0.02 to 0.04 per cent
depending on the kind of dye) X g. X
Acetone 100 cc.
Potassium ferricyanide 1 g.
Acetic acid (glacial) 5 cc.

Water to make 11. 32 oz.
The dye should be volume of hot water, and added,

dissolved completely in a small
with stirring, to This mixture is then immediately diluted to about
the acetone.
three-fourths the final volume with cold water. The potassium ferricyanide is dis-
solved in a small volume of water, and the acetic acid added. This mixture is added
to the dye solution with constant stirring, and the whole diluted to the final volume
for use.
Some experimental work will have to be done in order to determine the proper
concentration of dye in the solution before serious work is attempted. As a rule
TONING 465
various dyes may be mixed to obtain almost any color desired; although some dyes
have a tendency to precipitate out in the presence of one another.
There are several points which have been mentioned in this chapter that are impor-
tant enough to be repeated. As the original black-and-white print plays such an
important part> in the final toned print, it is necessary that the art of producing good
prints be mastered before venturing into the field of toning.
After selecting the papers to be used, it is good practice to follow carefully the
manufacturer's directions as to developers, developing time, and general procedure.
These recommendations are based on the results of long and painstaking research and
constitute the best methods available for the particular paper.
All photographic processes, including toning, are chemical by nature; therefore,
neatness, cleanliness, and accuracy are necessary at all times. Clean, orderly work-
rooms, clean utensils, care and accuracy in mixing all solutions, and a rigid adherence
to all instructions are a requisite for satisfactory results.
The photographer who experiment will find that these formulas provide a
likes to
basis for many Many interesting and unusual I'esults may be
interesting trials.
obtained which will compensate for the time and trouble. However, if we may be
allowed to repeat, master the fundamentals first.
Bibliography
Periodicals:
Power, H. D'Abcy: Chemical Control and Modification of Bromide Prints, Am. Ann. Phot., 23, 93
(1909).
Zehbe, William H.: Even Toning with the Cold Hypo Alum Bath, Am. Ann. Phot., 33, 122-123 (1919).
De Saullbs, R. H.: Green Tones on Bromide Paper, Brit. J. Phot., 70, 705 (1923).
LuMiERE, A., L. LuMiEHE, and Seybwetz, A.: Discoloration of the Whites in Sepia Toning, Brit. J.
Phot., 70, 732-733 (1923).
Shaw, W. B.: An Improved Method of Nitro-sulphide Toning, Brit. J. Phot., 70, 759-760 (1923).
Underberg, G.: Experiments in Sulphur Toning, Brit. J. Phot., 71, 50-52 (1924).
Seyewetz, a.: A Review of Dye Toning Processes, Brit. .1 Phot., 71, 611-614 (1924).
.
Formstecher, F.: The Principles of Toning with the Noble Metals, Camera, 3, 100-103 (1924;.
Wall, E. J.: Sulphide Toning I and II, Am. Phot., 21, 620-628 (1927); 22, 22-34 (1928).
Crabtree, J. I., and Ives, C. E.: Dye Toning with Single Solutions, Am. Phot., 22, 656-665 (1928).
Steigmann, a.: Toning and Intensification of Selenium Toned Prints and Negatives, Phot. Tnd., 26,
902 (1928).
Wiegleb, p.: Methods of Sulphite Toning, Brit. J. Phot., 76, 344, 363, 375 (1929).
Milbauer, J.: Selenium Toning, Phot. Korr., 66, 10, 45 (1929).
.Jarman, a. J.: Improving the Color of Prints by Toning with Gold, Am. Phot., 24, 584 (1930).
Bennett, Henry W.: Uniformity in Sulphide Toning, Am. Phot., 26, 132-138 (1932).
.Jelley, Edwin E.: Cause of Yellowness in Sepia Toning, Phot. ./., 72, 480-485 (1932).
Nietz, H.: Paper, Developer and Bleach in Sulphide Toning, Brit. J. Phot., 79, 486 (1932).
Houben, L.: Uses of Thiourea in Photography, Photo Rev., 45, 179-180, 199-200 (1933).
Morris, O. J.: Stains in Sulphide Toning, Brit. J. Phot., 80, 127-128 (1935).
Backstbom, Helmer, and Arthur Bostrom: The Influence of the Bleaching Bath on the Colour
Obtained in the Indirect Sulphide Toning Process, Phot. J., 76, 607 (1936).
Bassett, Ivor: Print Toning with Potassium Ethyl Xanthate, Camera (Phila.), 64, 217-226 (1937).
NicKOLAUS, J. M.: Toning Film by Machine Methods, /. Soc. Motion Picture Engrs., 29, 65-67 (1937).
Fassbender, Adolph: Blue Toning, Am. Phot., 32, 638 (1938).
Waddell, J. H.: Toning Prints and Transparencies, Photo Technique, 1, 35, (1939).
Books:
Fhaprie,Frank R.: "How to Make Prints in Color," Am. Photographic Pub. (1921).
Blumann, Sigismund: Toning, "Photographic Handbook," pp. 75-89, Photo-Art Publisher, (1935).
"Ilford Manual," pp. 2.34-244, Ilford, Ltd. Toning.
"Tinting and Toning of Eastman Positive Motion Picture Film," Eastman Kodak Company.
Glover, Dr. B. T. "Lantern Slides," British Periodicals, Ltd.
J.:
Wheeler, Capt. Owen: "Photographic Printing Processes," Am. Phot. Publ. Co.
British Journal & Almanac.
CHAPTER XVI
SPECIAL PRINTING PROCESSES
By Paul L. Anderson
Carbon Printing. Theory. —^Carbon printing depends on the fact that, if a colloid
substance, such as gelatin or gum arable, is sensitized with any one of several chromium
salts and is exposed to light, the salt breaks down, giving off nascent oxygen, this
nascent oxygen rendering the colloid more or less insoluble, in proportion to the
amount of light action. In practice, the colloid used in carbon work is gelatin, and
the "tissue" as purchased consists of a moderately heavy backing paper or support,
one side of this carrying a layer of gelatin with which some earth pigment such as
lampblack, burnt umber, etc., has been incorporated. This tissue is sold insensitive
and is sensitized and dried in the dark just before use. It is then printed under a
negative and developed in warm water, when the soluble portions of the gelatin wash
off, taking their quota of pigment with them and leaving behind the insoluble portions,
which with their pigment adhere to the paper, thus giving the print.
—
Advantages. The prints are absolutely permanent, as is the case with platinum.
Any one of about 20 different colors may be used.
Practically any support may be used. This includes not only various papers
but also glass, ivory, porcelain, celluloid, etc. Very beautiful miniature portraits
are sometimes produced by carbon printing on ivory.
Modifications of total contrast are very easily made.
Local modifications of values may be made to a slight extent.
Multiple printing is very easy, not only in one color, but in various combinations of
colors. Some very beautiful special effects may be attained in this manner.
Carbon has a very long scale of gradation, and gives exceedingly rich blacks, fully
equal to those given by platinum.
Disadvantages. — It is almost impossible, except in very special cases, to avoid the
luster of the gelatin emulsion, particularly in the shadows. This may be an advan-
tage, since it adds to the richness of the deeper tones, but it interferes with our enjoy-
ment of the texture of the support.
Like platinum, carbon requires a strong light for printing, therefore it cannot be
be used for enlarging, except with very special apparatus; it is strictly a contact
process.
The technique is slightly more difficult than that of platinum, though no more so
than that of gaslight or bromide printing.
It is not easy to handle carbon in either very dry or very damp weather; a humidity
of 65 to 70 per cent is desirable. Still, by proper precautions, this difficultj^ may be
overcome.
It is extremely difficult to secure absolutelj^ pure high lights, without recourse to
brush development. This disadvantage, though, is of minor importance, since
almost pure lights may readily be obtained, and it is seldom that absolute purity is
desirable.
—
The Negative. Carbon being a long-scale medium, if its full possibilities are to be
exhausted, the negative must be rather stronger than for bromide or gaslight paper;
466
SPECIAL PRINTING PROCESSES 467
about the same quality is desirable as in the case of platinum printing. It is. of
course, not necessarj' to exhaust the scale of the paper; medium or low-keyed prints
may be made as well as with any other medium, though when a very high key is
required, carbon is not so satisfactory as platinum.
Since the print is not developed on the original backing paper but must be trans-
ferred to some other support for development, it follows that, if the picture is to be the
right way around, it must be printed from the back of the negative, or a reversed
negative must be made. In pictorial work it is usually satisfactory to print from the
back of the negative, for, whether the negative is on film or on glass, there will be
little or no perceptible diffusion if a concentrated source of light is used and the printing
frame is not moved during exposure. If, however, the negative is to be on a glass
plate, a diffused source of light is used, the picture must be the right way around, and
—
the utmost in fine detail is required all of which is a rather unusual combination of
—
circumstances then a reversed negative must be made, or double transfer must be
resorted to.
The Tissue. — "Tissue" is rather a misnomer, since the combination of backing
paper and gelatin emulsion is rather heavj-. The tissue is sold insensitive, in cut
sheets 8 by 10 in. or in rolls 30 in. by 12 ft. It should be stored in a cool dry place, in
which case it will keep indefinitely before sensitizing; if it is allowed to remain moist
for any length of time, bacteria maj^ grow in the gelatin, and the prints, on develop-
ment, will show irregular blank patches.
A roll of thoroughly dry tissue is very intractable and very brittle; it is almost
impossible to unroll and cut it without cracking the gelatin. It may be rendered
more flexible bj^ allowing it to stand for a few hours in a damp atmosphere or, in
emergency, by steaming it slightly over a teakettle, when it can be easily handled and
cut. The roll should then be permitted to dry out again, and the cut pieces should be
stored under moderate pressure and allowed to become thoroughly dry before
sensitizing.
The various colors of tissue differ to a considerable extent in their working charac-
teristics, as regards not only printing speed but also scale of gradation. One of the
pleasantest for general use is the Ivory Black, which is a pure translucent black of very
long scale; being translucent, it takes a tone from the transfer paper, so that a print
in this tissue on a white paper is a pure black, whereas on a toned paper it will have a
very pleasing warmth of color even in the deep shadows. Since the gelatin of this
particular tissue is heavily loaded with pigment, it is possible to make prints in a high,
or even a medium, kej^ which are free from luster even in the shadows.
Transfer Paper. —
When the carbon tissue is printed, it is the layer of gelatin which
is next the negative that is first insolubilized. Therefore, if it were developed directly
on the backing paper, only those portions which had been printed clear through the
gelatin would adhere to the support, the other areas washing off, and we should have
merelj' a silhouette of the deep shadows. For this reason, it is necessary to transfer
the layer of gelatin to another support., strip off the backing paper, and develop the
gradations from the back of the layer of gelatin.
About 15 different transfer papers of various textures and colors are commercially
available, or a transfer paper may easilj^ be made by fixing out a sheet of bromide or
chloride paper without exposure to light, using plain (not acid) hypo, and washing as
usual. If this is done, care must be taken to choose abromide paper which is suitable
for bromoil work, many of the commercial silver papers having a protective super-
coating of hard gelatin to which the carbon tissue will not adhere.
In general, the writer prefers to make his own transfer paper, which is readily done,
as follows:
Solution A
Water, cool 350 cc. 12 oz.
Gelatin 12.0 g. 180 gr.
Cooking gelatin may be used, but Nelson's No. 1 Hard is preferable. Allow the
gelatin to soak until it is thoroughly swollen, then melt in a double boiler.
Solution B
Water, hot 60 cc. 2 oz.
Chrome alum 2 5 . g. 36 gr.
Pour B A slowly, with constant stirring. The solution must be used hot.
into
most convenient to prepare the paper in large sheets, later cutting it to size.
It is
Pin a sheet down on a flat surface, wet a small sponge in water as hot as the hand can
bear, squeeze it out, and take up with it a small amount of the hot gelatin solution.
Rub this over the surface of the paper, scrubbing it well into the pores, then hang the
paper up to dry. Do the same with several other sheets, giving each one a second coat
as soon as the first is dry. It is impossible to say definitely how many applications
willbe necessary; a very rough paper, such as a Whatman Cold Pressed Rough, or a
very soft paper, may require as many as five; on the other hand, a hard or a smooth
paper may not need more than two; only experience can tell the precise amount of
gelatin necessary.
When dry, the transfer paper may
be cut to size and stored; the chrome alum
renders it less than is the tissue. It should be cut
liable to the attacks of bacteria
rather larger than the print is to be, say 9 by 11 or 10 by 12 for an 8- by 10-in. print,
and it is well to mark the back with pencil, since the coated side cannot be distin-
guished from the uncoated when it is wet.
Sensitizing. —
Many different formulas have been suggested for sensitizing the
tissue, the best with which the writer is acquainted being the following, which was
suggested and worked out by Kirtland Flynn and A. K. Aster, members of the Orange
Camera Club.
Water, distilled 1000.0 cc. 30 oz.
Potassium chromate 30 . g. 440 gr.
Citric acid as much as suffices to neutralize the solution (about 22 gr.) will be required.
This sensitizer gives a film which behaves verj^ nicely during development, and
appears to hold gradation in the high lights better than any other that has yet been
worked out.
The and may be used repeatedly if stored in a brown
sensitizer keeps indefinitely
bottle or otherwise kept from the light and if filtered back into the bottle after use.
Sensitizing may be done in an ordinary room, since the tissue is not sensitive to light
until dry. The sensitizer should be used at a temperature between 65 and 70°F.;
it can be used warmer, but if it is too warm the gelatin may be softened excessively.
To sensitize, pour the solution to a depth of %

in. or more into a clean tray, take
the carbon tissue by the edges and immerse it, face up, in the solution. The tissue
will tend to curl, coated side in, and should be pressed down under the surface. After
about a minute it will lie flat, when it should be turned over, and any adhering bubbles
should be brushed from the back. Any bubbles which may have adhered to the
coated side should, of course, be broken by a light touch of the finger as soon as they
appear. The tissue is now turned face up, and the tray is rocked, keeping the tissue
under the surface of the solution, until a total time of 2,V2 min. from the first immersion
has elapsed. It is then lifted by two corners, drained for a few seconds, and laid face
down on a clean sheet of glass, being lightly squeegeed on the back to remove the
excess of sensitizer, when it is stripped off and hung up in the dark to dry.
An method of drying, which takes somewhat longer but gives better

alternative
results, is to squeegee the tissue on a ferrotype plate and to allow it to dry there
The ferrotype plate should first be thoroughly cleaned with water and a mild soap,
such as Castile, then dried, and powdered with talcum, which is well rubbed over the
surface and dusted off with a clean cloth. It should not be waxed in the usual manner
employed when squeegeeing glossy prints, for the carbon tissue may then refuse to
adhere to the transfer paper. Care should be taken to squeegee out all air bubbles
which may be trapped under the tissue, but the squeegeeing should not be heavy.
Drying may be hastened by the draft from an electric fan, and, when it is complete,
the tissue will snap off the ferrotype plate. This gives a more satisfactory working
surface than drying freely in the air.
The squeegee used in this and subsequent operations should be of the scraper, not
the roller, type. An automobile windshield-wiper blade is too soft, and the ordinary
photographic scraper squeegee is too hard; a satisfactory article is that sold in hard-
ware and housefurnishing stores for cleaning windows.
All squeegeeing should be done from the middle toward the ends of the print;
the squeegee must not be scrubbed back and forth.
Printing. — The sensitiveness of the different tissues varies somewhat, the blacks
and blues printing in general a little faster than the browns and reds; further, the
sensitiveness varies to some extent with the moisture content, a tissue which is bone
dry printing faster than one which is not absolutely desiccated. In general, the Ivory
Black tissue, when fully dry, prints a trifle faster than a silver printing-out paper, so
if a print is made, proof deep, from the negative which is to be printed and the carbon
tissue is printed for three-quarters of the time required for this proof, the result will
be about right; further, there is considerable latitude in development, so the printing
need not be meticulously exact.
Printing should preferably take place as soon as the tissue is dry, as the gelatin
tends to become insoluble even without exposure to light. If printing is to be post-
poned for any reason, the dry tissue should be stored in a lighttight receptacle which
contains also a small quantity of calcium chloride to keep the air dry; even with this
]irecaution, the tissue will probably not remain in good condition for more than 2 or
3 days.
When printing, necessary to have a "safe edge;" i.e., a border of at least J^ in.
it is
and preferably 3^2 wide all around the tissue must be protected from light, or frilling
in.
will take place during development. Therefore the tissue should be cut 1 in. larger
each way than the negative, which latter should be masked with opaque paper.
Also it is advisable to have a freshly cut edge on the tissue; hence this latter should be
trimmed to size immediately before printing.
Transferring should take place immediately after printing, since with any bichro-
mated colloid there is a "continuing action," i.e., the printing, once started, takes place
even after the tissue is removed from the light. If for any reason transferring cannot
be done at once, this continuing action may be slightly retarded by keeping the print
under heavy pressure and may be entirely arrested by washing the print thoroughly in
cold water to remove the sensitizer. If this washing is done, the print may be dried
in the light and may then be transferred and developed at a future time, even weeks
later.
Transferring. —The transfer paper should be soaked for a time in cold water to
soften the gelatin; with an ordinarily smooth paper, 15 min. will be enough, whereas a
very rough one may require }i hr. When both transfer paper and print are ready,
the latter is immersed, face up, in a tray of cold water and pressed down under the
surface. It will at first tend to curl up, face inward, gradually flattening out as it
absorbs water. Slightly before it is flat, it should be placed face to face with the
transfer paper, the two being lifted together from the water and placed on a horizontal
sheet of glass, the tissue uppermost. The two are then held together by pressure of the
fingers at one end, while with the other hand they are squeegeed together. This
squeegeeing is not difficult, but there is a slight knack to it, and it should be done in a
certain definite way. The squeegee should start a little beyond the middle of the
paper, the first few strokes being light, merely to expel the water and any possible
air bubbles between the gelatin surfaces. Then, the tissue being held down at the
other end, the squeegeeing is repeated in the other direction. All water and air
bubbles having been driven out by this light squeegeeing, the squeegee is then applied
more heavily, to press the transfer paper and the tissue into firm contact. This part
of the operation should be very strongly done —
though not enough so as to tear the
tissue— and should be continued until the backing paper begins to rub up in tiny rolls.
When squeegeeing is completed, a piece of lintiess blotter is placed on the print,
another sheet of glass is laid on this, and rather heavy pressure is placed on the whole.
With moderately smooth papers a weight of 15 or 20 lb. is sufficient; with the very
rough surfaces of transfer paper, it maj^ be necessary to use a copying press. Some
workers prefer to use waxed paper instead of blotting paper, but the writer feels that
if the combination dries out somewhat better adhesion is secured. The print should
remain under pressure for from 15 min. to 1 hr., the longer time being for the very
rough papers; probably 20 to 30 min. is a good average time. It is then removed from
between the sheets of glass and is developed.
Development. — A tray a size larger than the transfer paper is filled to a depth of 1 in.
or so with water at about 95°F., and the transfer paper with its adhering tissue is lifted
from the glass, taking care not to bend it to any great extent and is slid gently into the
water, the tray being then rocked almost continuously. Air bubbles will appear in
great number on the back of the tissue, and these should be lightly brushed off. The
temperature of the water is gradually raised a few degrees, either over a gas stove
or an electric plate or bj'' the addition of a little hot water, until at about 100 to 105°F.
— —
the exact point depending on various circumstances the pigmented gelatin will be
seen oozing out from under the edges of the backing paper. This oozing should be
allowed to continue for 1 or 2 min., when one corner of the backing paper is lifted by
means of a fingernail and an attempt is made to strip it off. If it is ready to release, it
will come away from the transfer paper very readily; if it resists, the corner should be
pressed down very lightly and the temperature of the water raised 2 or 3 degrees,
when, after a minute or so, another attempt may be made. When the backing paper
releases easily, it m&y be stripped off, keeping the entire combination under water and
using a smooth uninterrupted pull. Resistance to stripping comes from one of three
causes: (1) the water is not warm enough, (2) the print is seriously overtimed, or (3)
the print has been allowed to dry out too much under pressure. If more than an
extremelj^ slight amount of force is used in stripping, frilling or tearing of the print
is very likely to result; the backing paper should release with the verj^ slightest effort.
An indication of the correctness of printing time and of transferring may, perhaps,

be found at this point, since with an average negative, if the work has been properly
done, the backing paper will probably show a more or less distinct negative image.
The pigmented gelatin remaining on the transfer paper wiU be soft and smudgy, giving
little or no indication of an image.
The backing paper is thrown awaj'^, and development of the print proceeds. The
easiest way to do this is to grasp one corner of the transfer paper and jiggle it back
and forth under the surface of the water, raising it from time to time for the dissolved
gelatin to drain off. This operation is continued until all or nearly all the surplus
gelatin and pigment have been washed off; quite possibly it will be necessary to raise
the temperature of the developing water a few degrees in order to reach the desired
result. The print will dry slightly darker than it appears when wet, and allowance
should be made for this, the print being developed until it seems slightly lighter than
the finished result is to be.
When the print has reached the proper stage of development, the warm water is
emptied from the tray, the print is rinsed in three or four changes of cold water to
set the gelatin and prevent running of the pigment, and it is then hung up to dry.
When dry, the print may havea slight yellowish tone from the trifle of sensitizer still
remaining in the gelatin. This may be removed by soaking the print for a few minutes
in a 5 per cent solution of alum, a 5 per cent solution of sodium bisulphite, or a 5 per
cent solution of potassium metabisulphite, with subsequent washing. There does not
seem to be much choice among these three agents; the last is possibly the most effec-
tive, although it is commonly advised to use alum, on the ground that it tends to
harden the gelatin, but there seems little point in this, since the dried gelatin of the
finished print is very hard and resistant in any case. It is not absolutely imperative
to dry the print before clearing, but it is advisable to do so since, if this is done,
blisters and frilling are less likely to result.
There is considerable latitude in the development of a carbon print. One which
is badly undertimed is hopeless, but if the undertiming is not serious, the print may
often be saved by keeping the developing water relatively cool. On the other hand,
an overtimed print may be developed at a temperature a good deal higher than 105°F.,
the ordinary practical limit in this respect being about 120°F. The writer has at
times used the developing water as warm as 160°F., but this is very likely to cause
blisters and frilling. If raising the temperature of the water to 120°F. does not produce
the desired result, it should be reduced to about 10o°F., and a trifle of any alkali
should be dissolved in the water. This is rather drastic treatment and is very likely to
cause blisters or frilling or even a complete eating away of the gelatin in the high
lights; hence it should be done very cautiously, and the print should be promptly
rinsed in cold water when the desired result has been attained. The addition of 1 level
teaspoonful of anhydrous sodium carbonate, or an equivalent amount of any other
alkali, to 2 qt. of water will have a marked effect.
Local development may be used to a slight extent. This is done by brushing
gently over the portions of the print which are to be raised in key, using a wet tuft of
loosely packed cotton or a soft camel's-hair brush. This work must be done very
cautiously, for the gelatin is likely to tear, there being more danger of this in the high
lights than in the shadows. Pouring water slightly warmer than the developing water
over the portions which are to be lightened is at times effective, as is also spraying
water from an atomizer or a spray bottle.
When the fully developed print is dry, it is finished and may then be mounted in
any desired manner.
Spotting.— It is ordinarily advised to save the backing paper, soften the pigmented
gelatin which remains thereon (using warm water for the purpose), and do any neces-
sary spotting with this pigment (applying it with a pointed brush). The writer
finds this to be rather unhandy and, except in the case of definitely colored prints,
such as reds and greens, unnecessary. An ordinary carbon spotting pencil, sharpened
to a needle point on sandpaper, will take care of any black or brown prints satisfactorily.
Multiple Printing. —Additional contrast maj^ be secured with a soft negative or
additional richness and shadow depth with either a soft or a normal negative by
multiple printing. It is usual, though not imperative, to print first for the high
lights, adding one or more lighter printings for the shadows. When this is done, it is
neither necessary nor advisable to clear the print until after the last printing has been
added since the additional printings, being lighter than the first, will be developed in
cooler water. If the first printing has been dried before adding the subsequent ones,
its gelatin willbe amply hard to withstand the later processing. If, however, the first
printing has been light and the later ones are to be heavy, it is well to bathe the first
one 5 niin. in a 5 per cent alum bath before proceeding with the further printings.
In this case the print must be thoroughly washed, for the alum remaining in the gelatin
will damage the subsequent prints.
In multiple printing, the first print is used precisely as the transfer paper was for
the first printing, the additional prints being transferred to it and developed on it
exactly as has been described. It is, however, necessary to adopt some means for
registering the several printings with one another, and this is most easUy done as
follows:
The mask is made, in the case of a film, of thin brown pressboard,
for the negative
and the negative attached to it by a touch of Duco cement at one end; it should not
is
be fastened down all around, or it will certainly buckle during printing. If a glass
negative is used, the mask is made of cardboard of the same thickness as the negative,
or slightly less, and a hole is cut in it so that the negative fits snugly in this hole.
Four register marks are made on this mask, as indicated in Fig. 1, and when the
carbon tissue is placed in the frame for printing, four
Prinfing frame-
jV corresponding marks are made on it with a sharp
pencil. Then, after the print has been squeegeed to
Mask the transfer paper and just before development, four
marks are made on the face of the transfer paper,
corresponding to the marks on the backing paper.
Tissue
Development then proceeds in the usual manner.
The carbon tissue for the second printing is cut the
same size as that for the first, and when it is placed
1^
'"^Regisf-rafionl-
J^ in contract with the negative in the frame, four marks
marks are made on it, corresponding to those on the mask.
When squeegeeing this second print to the transfer
paper on which the first printing has already been
developed, these marks are placed in register with
the marks on the transfer paper. By this means,
any number of printings may be applied, with the
Fig, 1.' —Mask with registration assurance that all will register with one another. It
marks for negatives.
will very possibly be found that the transfer paper
will change slightly in size with processing, but the difference is not likely to be great,
and since by the method indicated it will be split both ways, any failure in precision
is not likely to be troublesome. In general, it is possible to work by this method
within H' mm., a difference which is not important except in three-color work.
This method has been used to produce prints in color, the worker masking out
certain areas in the various printings, so as to obtain, say, a sunset sky in red with the
landscape in green, or a still life of a rose with the flower red and the foliage green.
Inasmuch as the colors obtainable are rather definite and lacking in delicacy, the
results of this procedure are almost sure to be harsh and unpleasant; those that the
writer has seen were without exception very painful. But by using various harmon-
izing colors, allowing the later printings to take a tone from the earlier ones, results
may be obtained which are similar, though far superior, to those obtained by the
toning of bromide prints. Thus the writer has made a very delightful portrait by
using a first printing of Red Chalk, printed rather deep and transferred to a buff transfer
paper, with five subsequent Aêry light printings of Ivory Black. The final print
ranged from a buff in the extreme high lights to an exceedingly rich warm black in
the shadows. Of course, for this purpose a very soft negative was used. In general,
when multiple printing is used, its value lies in the great richness of the shadows, a
—
richness and transparency akin to that which the painter secures by repeated over-
paintings of a transparent color.
—
Double Transfer. This method is used in three-color work or when the print must
be the right way around and must possess very fine detail. It is not, in general, useful
to the pictorial worker, since it not only introduces an extra —
and rather delicate
operation, but limits the choice of transfer paper to a comparatively smooth
surface.
To make printsby double transfer, secure a sheet or several sheets of the tem-
porary support, which is sold by the dealers in carbon materials, together with a bottle
of waxing solution and several sheets of double transfer paper. The temporary sup-
port is carefully cleaned with warm water, dried, given a coat of the waxing solution,
and then lightly polished with a tuft of cotton. The print is transferred to this and
developed on it as described above. When this operation is completed, the well-
soaked double transfer paper is squeegeed to the print and allowed to remain under
pressure, between blotters, for a few minutes. It is then stripped off the temporary'
support and allowed to dry in the usual manner.
Prints on Ivory. —
Carbon prints may be made on ivory, porcelain, celluloid, and
other materials, using the single transfer method. The support to be used may be
coated with the gelatin-chrome alum solution, described above, by dipping and should
then be dried in a dust-free atmosphere. The subsequent operations are as already
described.
Transparencies. —Very fine transparencies for the making of enlarged negatives
may be made by carbon printing, the great advantage of this method being that the
gradations of the original negative are faithfully reproduced with no danger of loss
through incorrectly estimating the exposure and development, as often happens when
making such transparencies on dry plates or films.
Instead of transfer paper, a piece of ground glass, which has been well washed with
soap and water and thoroughly rinsed, is used. All the operations are as already
described, except that the tissue should be printed about four times as long as for a
print on paper. The tissue is transferred to the grovmd side of the glass, which needs
no special preparation. A special transparencj^ tissue is sold for this purpose, but the
writer prefers to use the regular Ivory Black. If a slight grain in the large negative is
not objectionable, the transparency may be used as soon as it is dry, but if grain must
be avoided, the transparency should be flowed with some ordinary negative varnish,
which will eliminate the grain of the ground glass.
Miscellaneous Notes. —
Frilling of the print during development may be caused by
(1) no safe edge, (2) failure to use a freshly cut edge on the carbon tissue, (3) exces-
sively hot water used at first in developing, (4) stripping before the gelatin has been
sufficiently softened, (5) an alkaline sensitizer, (6) the use of excessively hot water for
developing, (7) development forced with excessive alkali in the developing water, (8)
excessive soaking of the print before squeegeeing to the transfer paper, (9) insufficient
pressure during squeegeeing, (10) failure to allow the print to remain long enough in
contact with the transfer paper before development. Blisters may result from (3),
(4), (5), (6), or (7) or from allowing air bubbles to remain between the print and the
transfer paper, when squeegeeing. Frilling or blisters may also result from the use of
insufficient gelatin on the transfer paper or from the use of an excessively hard gelatin
such as that on a supercoated bromide paper, but in this case the failure is more likely
to be a definite tearing away of the print in large areas than a true frilling or blistering.
It should be noted that the failure due to an excessively alkaline sensitizer or to the
use of excessive alkali in the developing water is more likely to be a breaking down
of the gradations in the high lights —a sort of corrosion of the thinner portions of the
print —than an actual frilling or blistering.Handling the dry carbon tissue —either
sensitive or not —with greasy fingers may cause blisters, though it is more apt to
result in white finger marks in the finished print.
The sensitizer may be either slightly alkaline or slightly acid, but the best results
are secured when it is as nearly neutral as possible.
More or less contrast may be secured by varying the strength of the sensitizer, a
strong solution producing a faster printing and softer working tissue, whereas a weaker
sensitizer gives a slower printing and stronger working tissue. The same result may
be secured by varying the time of immersion in the sensitizing bath, though the writer
pi'efers to accomplish this by varying the concentration of the bath rather than by
varying the time. The possible limits of concentration, beyond which it is not safe to
go, are ^ 9 per cent for a weak bath, and 6 per cent for a strong bath.
A carbon print, when dry, may often be waxed and polished to advantage, as
described in the section on Platinum Printing (see page 478) and here the damage to
the surface texture is less than with platinum since the carbon print already has a
gelatin surface which masks the texture of the support.
From the description given of the process, with the list of possible failures, it may
seem that carbon printing is a very complicated and difficult operation, but this is by
no means the case. If ordinary care is used, none of the possible failures is likely to
occur, and with a little practice the entire operation may be carried through rapidly
and successfully. As an illustration of this, the writer has known a man who did
carbon printing for a professional studio, many years ago, when carbon was in vogue
for portraits. This man, working alone for a 10-hr. day, was required, as his regular
day's work, to sensitize, print, transfer, and develop 200 carbon prints a day which —
would seem to be enough to satisfy almost any amateur.
—
Carbro Printing. The word "carbro" is a combination of the first syllables of
"carbon" and "bromide," and the process is so named because it is a method whereby
a true carbon print can be made from a bromide print, without the use of light. In
practice, the sensitized carbon tissue, instead of being dried and printed under a nega-
tive, is squeegeed into contact with a bromide print while still wet, the gelatin becom-
ing insoluble not through the action of light on the sensitizer but through the chemical
reaction between the sensitizer and the silver of the bromide print. Stripping and
development follow in much the same manner as with carbon, the final result being an
actual carbon print, exactly as in the previously described process.
—
Advantages. The advantages of carbro are the same as those of carbon, with the
additional ones that no very strong printing light is required, that enlargements can
be made without making an enlarged negative, and that multiple prints can be made
without the need for registration.
Disadvantages. —
The disadvantages and possible failures are those of carbon,
plus the fact that carbro is decidedly more temperamental than carbon, demanding a
closer adjustment of the controlling factors if success is to result.
—
The Bromide Print. There are two methods of working carbro, the transfer and
the nontransfer methods. In the former the sensitized carbon tissue is left in contact
with the bromide print long enough for insolubility to take place, being then stripped
off and squeegeed to a piece of transfer paper, where it is developed. In the non-
transfer method, the sensitized carbon tissue is developed directly on the bromide
print, which then acts as the final support for the picture.
If the transfer method is employed, almost any bromide, chlorobromide, or
chloride paper can be used, but if the nontransfer method is preferred, care must
be taken that the original silver print is made on a paper having a soft gelatin. Most
of the American enlarging papers are hardened in manufacture, and some have a
protective supercoating of hardened gelatin; such papers cannot be used for non-
transfer cai'bro, since it is almost, if not quite, impossible to soften this hard gelatin
sufficiently to let the gelatin of the carbon tissue adhere to it. However, any paper
which is satisfactory for bromoil will work well with nontransfer carV)ro, and there are
several English papers of this sort. Kodak Royal Bromide is excellent for the purpose,
and in this country, the Defender Photo Supply Company will furnish, on order,
several grades of Velour Black which are specially manufactured for bromoil use.
Doubtless there are many other papers which will give good results with carbro. An
experienced worker can tell whether or not any particular paper will be satisfactory
by soaking it for 3^2 hr. or so in cold water, then judging the degree of swelling of the
gelatin by feeling it between finger and thumb.
The bromide print should be completely developed as is done with one which is to
be toned by the bleaching and sulphiding process, i.e., development should be con-
tinued for at least 2 min. after the print has ceased to gain strength. It should be
printed a trifle darker than would be the case with an ordinary bromide print since it is
easier to retain gradation in the high lights of the carbro print if this is done. It
should be fixed in plain, not acid, hypo, and it should not be hardened in any way
whatever. If the bromide print is slightly blocked up in the shadows, this does no
harm, since the carbro print will bring out detail which is not visible in the darker
parts of the bromide. Any ordinary developer may be used.
Care must be taken that the bromide print is entirely free from hypo since, if any
remains, it will combine with the potassium ferricyanide in the sensitizer to form
Farmer's reducer, which will dissolve the silver image, causing pale, or even completely
blank, spots in the carbro print. Potassium permanganate must not be used as a
hypo eliminator; the only safe procedure is thorough washing with plain water.
Solutions Required. —
Two solutions are necessary, the sensitizer and the control
bath. The sensitizer is made up as follows:
Water, distilled 1000.0 cc. 20 oz.

Potassium bichromate 12 . g. 110 gr.
Potassium ferricyanide 12.0 g. 110 gr.
Potassium bromide 12.0 g. 110 gr.
Note that potassium ferricyanide, not ferrocyanide, is used. This sensitizer will
keep indefinitely if protected from strong light and may be used repeatedly, merely
adding to the bulk from time to time, as required.
The control bath is made up as follows:
Formaldehyde (40 per cent) 650.0 cc. 22 oz.
Acetic acid (glacial) 30.0 g. 1 oz.
Hydrochloric acid (c.p.) 30.0 g. 1 oz.
Water, distilled 45.0 g. li-2 oz.
This forms a stock solution. Probably, after a few days, and especially if the
solution is exposed to light, a white precipitate will settle in the bottle. This may be
filtered off, or it may simply be ignored, provided care is taken to decant the clear
solution and to avoid getting any of the precipitate into the working bath. This
stock solution keeps indefinitely.
For use, take
Stock solution 30 . oc. 1 oz.

Water 1000 . cc. 32 oz.
This dilute control bath changes in strength as successive prints are treated in it,
therefore it should not be used for more than half a dozen or so and should not be kept
but should be thrown away when used.

Sensitizing. —
The carbon tissue is sensitized exactly as described in the section on
Carbon Printing, except that the time of immersion should be 3 instead of 2^4 min.
At the expiration of the 3 min., the tissue is lifted from the sensitizer, is drained for
15 sec, and is then placed in the control bath.
Use of the Control Bath. —The control bath governs the depth of color in the final
print; a long immersion results in a high-keyed carbro, whereas shorter immersion
soft
gives a stronger, deeper print. Thus it is possible to secure very widely varying
results from any given bromide print; there is doubtless a limit to the control which is
possible by this means, but the writer has secured a carbro which was hardly more
than a ghost of a print from a decidedly heavv bromide and a strong carbro from a very
weak silver print. Hence the time of immersion in the control bath may vary
between 5 and 90 sec; probably a satisfactory time for average results will be in the
neighborhood of 15 or 20 sec
When the tissue has had the proper time in the control bath, it is lifted out and,
without draining, is squeegeed down on the bromide print.
Squeegeeing. —
The bromide print should have been soaked for from 15 min. to
J-2 hr. in water at room temperature, as described for the transfer paper in the section
on Carbon Printing. It is then laid face up on a sheet of glass, the sensitized and con-
trolled tissue is laid on it, and the two are squeegeed together as in carbon printing.
A caution is necessary at this point. The tissue must be carefully lowered on the
bromide print and must be held firmly in place while squeegeeing goes on; it must not
slip. Slight slipping does no harm in carbon printing, but in carbro, since insolubili-
zation liegins as soon as the tissue and this bromide print are in contact, any slipping
inevitably means a double image in the final print.
If the transfer method is to be used, squeegeeing should not be so firm or so long
continued as in carbon work; it is merely necessary to secure definite contact between
the tissue and the bromide. If the nontransfer method is preferred, then squeegeeing
should be as firm as in carbon work.
When squeegeeing is completed, the bromide print, with its adhering carbon tissue,
is placed under pressure and left for at least 15 min. At this point there is a slight
difference of opinion among carbro workers as to whether waxed paper or blotting
paper should be placed over the adhering print; the writer's preference is to use waxed
paper and light pressure in the transfer method and blotting paper with heavy pressure
if nontransfer is being used.
Transfer Method. —
At the expiration of 15 min. or so (slightly longer will do no
harm), the carbon tissue is peeled from the bromide print and is squeegeed down on a
piece of previously soaked single transfer paper. Here it is left under pressure, then
stripped and developed as in carbon printing. If a hard-surfaced bromide paper has
been used and squeegeeing has not been excessive, the tissue will peel from the bromide
print with only a moderate use of force; if it does not strip easilj^, soaking in cold water
may loosen it, but care should be taken not to use violence enough to cause
tearing.
If the carbon tissue, after stripping from the bromide print, is immediately
squeegeed to the transfer paper, as is usually recommended, it will very likely fail to
adhere properly, so that the gelatin will frill or even tear badly when the backing paper
is stripped off for development. This trouble may be entirely avoided if, instead of
being transferred at once, the carbon tissue is rinsed in several changes of water to
remove the sensitizer, is then dried, and when dry is transferred as described for single
transfer in the section on carbon printing.
When the transfer method is used it will very likely be found that there is a slight
loss in print quality; some of the more delicate gradations are not rendered so beauti-
fully as in the nontransfer method. For this reason, as well as on account of its
greater ease and certainty, the writer prefers to work by the nontransfer process
whenever it is at all possible to do so.
Nontransfer Method. — In this method, the bromide print and adhering carbon
its
tissue are treated exactly as described for stripping and development

in carbon work.
If, however, the work has been properly done, the carbon tissue will strip and develop
somewhat more freely than in carbon work and will be a trifle more delicate and liable
to injury. Therefore this part of the work should be carried out rather carefully, the
worker feeling his way more slowly and gradually than in carbon.
Large Prints. —
Carbon tissue larger than about 11 by 14 in. is not easy to handle
by the above method, and in this case the sensitizing and control baths may be com-
bined in the following proportions:
Water 15 oz.
Sensitizer 16 oz.
Stock control bath '4 oz.
Sensitize for 2J^ min., then proceed with squeegeeing and subsequent operations
in the usualmanner. This combined bath should be mixed immediately before use,
and should not be kept over, as it decomposes in the course of a few hours, even with-
out use.
Hard Water. —In where the tap water contains a large proportion of dis-
localities
solved calcium or magnesium probably be found that the carbro prints show
salts, it will
a decided erosion or breaking down in the high lights. It is sometimes recommended,
in order to avoid this trouble, that the bromide prints receive 5 min. in a 3 per cent
hydrochloric acid bath, followed by not less than 10 min. or more than 40 min. washing
in running water, this treatment to follow the washing after fixing or to precede the
soaking for squeegeeing. The writer has not found this technique to be invariably
successful, and he prefers, where the local water is hard, to process the bromide prints
and the carbon tissue throughout, up to the point of developing the carbro, in distilled
water.
When distilled water is used, or where the local water is exceptionally soft, it will
probably be necessarj^ either to shorten the time in the control bath or to use this
bath more dilute; the latter method is preferable since it can be more accurately
adjusted. Thus the writer finds that, when processing w^th distilled water throughout,
he obtains normal results with 20 sec. in a bath made up of
Water 1000. cc. 64 oz.
Stock solution 15.0 cc. 1 oz.
Obviously, this is a matter which each worker must adjust for himself.
Safe Edge. —
In carbro, as in carbon, it is desirable to have a freshly cut edge on the
carbon tissue, and it is imperative to use a safe edge. This safe edge may be attained
by simply allowing the carbon tissue to extend over the print by 3^2 ^^- or so all around,
in which case waxed paper should be placed under the bromide print, before squee-
geeing, so that the carbon tissue will not be squeegeed to the glass at any point. The
writer feels it preferable, however, to make the bromide on a large sheet of paper,
masking the paper so as to get 1 in. or so of clear margin all around the print. The
tissue should then be cut to such a size that its edge comes between the printed
portion and the edge of the bromide paper. Thus, for an 8 by 10-in. carbro, he would
use 11- by 14-in. paper and cut the carbon tissue to about 9 by 11 in.
After treatment of Bromide Print. —
The effect of the sensitizer on the silver image
is to bleach it out, precisely as in the case of toning by means of bleaching and sul-
phiding. The carbro print having been developed, it follows that there are several
ways in which the bromide print may be treated.
If the transfer method is used, the bromide print, after thorough washing, may
be redeveloped in any ordinary developer and used for the production of other carbros,
exactly as at first. It should be noted, though, that this bleaching and redeveloping
has a slight intensifying action on the bromide print, and allowance for this should be
made in the use of the control bath. Owing to mechanical causes, the limit to this
use is about six carbros to each bromide.
If the nontransfer method is used, there are three possible courses.
1. The may be completely removed with Farmer's reducer.
residual silver image
In this case the a pure carbon print.
final result is
2. The residual silver image may be redeveloped with sodium or barium sulphide
(not sulphite) to a brown, in which case the result is a brown image underlying the
pigment image of the carbon and adding strength as well as a warm color to it.
Barium sulphide is preferable to the sodium salt, as it gives a cooler, richer brown, but,
if it is used, care must be taken to swab off the scum that settles on the face of the
print and to give a final rinse after this is done. If the silver image is thus redeveloped
to a brown under a carbon image in Ivory Black, the whole being on a buff stock, the
richness and color of the result are very desirable in the case of portraits with a dark
background or in the case of sunny landscapes.
3. The residual silver image may be redeveloped to a black, using any ordinary
developer, and may then be left that w&y or maj^ be made the basis for multiple
printing.
Whichever one of these final treatments is selected, the carbro print should always
be dried before the aftertreatment since, if this is done, there is less danger of blisters
and frilling.
Multiple Prints. —The making by nontransfer carbro is exceed-
of multiple prints
ingly simple and easy. The bromide redeveloped to a black with any ordinary
print is
developer; it is weU washed and dried; and a second printing of carbon is placed on the
first, using the bromide-carbon print exactly as the original bromide was used. Obvi-
ously, there is no need of any special registration, since this is automatically taken care
of by the bromide print, i.e., by the silver image which reacts with the sensitizer to
insolubilize the gelatin of the carbon tissue. It is, of course, apparent that, provided
there is no slipping during squeegeeing, registration will be perfect even though the
bromide print may not have shrank back to its original size. In the writer's opinion,
the chief merit of carbro lies in the extreme ease with which the great richness of
multiple carbon prints may be attained in large sizes.
Prints in Colors.— It is possible with carbro to produce prints in arbitrary combina-
tions of colors. Thus, if a landscape is to be printed and it is desired to have the
foreground in green and the sky in blue, the foreground in the bromide print is bleached
out, using an ordinary ferricyanide-bromide bleacher, and applying it with a brush.
Then a carbro print is made from this semibleached bromide, using a blue tissue when
only the sky is printed. Then the bromide is redeveloped to a black, and the sky is
bleached out, after which the foreground is used as a basis for a green carbro. In
general, however, the results of this technique are extremely unsatisfactory, being
harsh and unconvincing. However, it is often the case that multiple prints in different
colors are very pleasing, if the colors are so chosen that they harmonize, the various
colors being used merely to modify the tone of earlier or later printings, as was
suggested for carbon work.
—
Platinum Printing. At the time of writing, there is no commercial platinum paper
on the market, but the operation of preparing homemade sensitized material, together
with the subsequent printing and processing, is so extremely simple and easy as to be
well within the capability of even the least experienced amateur. The results
obtained are in many respects so far superior to those given by any other photographic
printing medium as amply to repay the slight effort involved.
Advantages. —The prints arepermanent. If properly developed,
absolutely
cleared, and washed and a good grade of linen paper, platinum prints will
if made on
remain in new condition unless the paper support is destroyed mechanicalh^ or by fire.
Variations in total contrast are very easily obtained. Almost any degree of
, contrast may be secured by altering the composition of the sensitizer, and still further
variations are possible through varying the constitution of the developer.
Almost any paper support may be used. This makes possible the use of very
beautiful cliarcoal and drawing papers, as well as of vellums and tissues, so that widely
varying effects may be obtained by this means.
A range of colors from cold and neutral black through gradually increasing warmth
of brown, even to sepia and red, is easily secured by slight changes in the developer.
Further, these colors do not involve any loss of permanence, as is often the case in the
toning of silver papers.
Platinum gives a very long scale of gradations and renders the delicate tones of the
negative better than any other medium.
There is no gelatin emulsion, therefore the image does not interfere with the
spectator's appreciation of the texture of the support. This is a characteristic which is
highly esteemed by those artists to whom fine print quality is of importance.
Platinum is by far the easiest photographic printing process, so far as technique is
concerned; it is vastly easier to make a good platinum print than it is to make a
bromide enlargement or a gaslight print.
Disadvantages. — It is rather expensive. At the current prices for chemicals, an
8- by 10-in. print costs about 40 cts to make, and an 11 by 14 in. about double that.
Against this, however, must be set the fact that the cost of developer is practically nil,
the cost of clearing baths very slight, and there is no reason whatever for failures.
With a little care, the worker can count on complete success in this work. Of course,
to those workers who wish a few fine prints rather than many mediocre ones, this
matter of cost has little importance; one good platinum print is more to be desired
than a thousand ordinary bromides or chlorobromides.
Internal modifications of values are not easily made. In this respect Fresson,
gum, and bromoil are superior to platinum, for, although it is possible to modify values
by brush development of the print with a developer diluted with glycerin, the results
are not usually very satisfactory; good prints have been made with this technique,
it is true, but in general they are likely to look more like wash drawings than like
photographs.
Platinum is definitely a contact process. Enlargements have been made on
platinum paper, but only with very special apparatus, and as a rule it is necessary, if a
large print is desired, to make an enlarged negative. This is due to the relative slow-
ness of printing, and as a corollary it follows that for contact printing a strong light is
required. This involves the use of sunlight, a carbon arc, a mercury-vapor lamp, or a
sunlight lamp of the type supplied for therapeutic use. Any one of these is satis-
factory; probably the best is the mercury-vapor lamp, and next to it the carbon arc.
Sunlight is, of course, the cheapest, as well as the most variable.
—
The Negative. It is commonly said that platinum requires a strong negative, but
this is by no means the case; exquisite prints in either high, medium, or low key may
be made from soft negatives, and the possibilities of variation are such that excellent
results may be obtained from any negative of reasonable quality. It is, however,
true that platinum has such a long scale of gradation that to exhaust its possibilities a
rather contrasty negative is needed, and it is further true that for average results with
an average sensitizer the negative should be somewhat stronger than for average
results with a medium grade of chloride paper. Still, practically any quality of print
can be obtained from any quality of negative.
It should be noted, though, that for a given degree of contrast a finer print will be
secured from a thin negative than from a dense one, i.e., if we have two negatives of
the same contrast, one of them thin and the other dense, the former will give the
sweeter print. This is by no means true of platinum alone but holds good with most
printing mediums.
The Paper. — Practically any paper which is neither too absorbent nor too highly
sized can be used. Whatman Cold Pressed
Satisfactory results have been obtained on
drawing papers, on Strathmore, Michallet, and Lalanne charcoal papers, on Strath-
more Alexandra Japan Vellum, on the Shidzuoka Vellum of the Japan Paper Com-
pany, and on various linen letter and typewriter papers.
To determine whether or not any given paper will work well, pin a piece of it
about 8 by 10 in. on a table, pour on it %
dram of water, and brush this water back
and forth with the sensitizing brush. If the paper is surface dry, or nearly so, in less
than 30 sec, it is too soft and should be sized (see page 483, under Multiple Printing)
before use; if it is still wet after 2 or 3 min. of brushing, it is too hard, and should be
rejected.
It should be noted that different qualities of paper give very different contrasts.
This will be discussed later, under Increased Contrast, page 482.
Sensitizing Brush. —
This should preferably be a flat Japanese paintbrush, as sold
in various Japanese art stores. The advantages of this type are that the bristles are
short and are set in a thin row, causing little waste of sensitizer, and that no metal is
used in its construction. Three inches is a convenient width for prints up to 16 by
20 in.
If such a brush is not readily obtainable, a painter's graining brush may be used,
though if this is bound with metal, some steps should be taken to protect the sensitizer
from contact with the metal ferrule. This may be done by diluting Duco cement with
a mixture of acetone and alcohol and introducing a small quantity of the dilute
cement among the hairs, at their base. Capillary attraction will spread it, forming a
base past which the sensitizing solution will not go. It will also shorten the effective
flexible length of the hairs, but this does no harm, since the hairs in such a brush are
longer than necessary.
—
The Solutions. Make up three solutions, as follows:
Solution I
Water (distilled), warm 55.0 cc. 2 oz.

Ferric oxalate 15.0 g. 240 gr.
Oxalic acid 1 . g. 16 gr.
Solution II
Water (distilled), warm 55.0 cc. 2 oz.
Ferric oxalate 15 . g. 240 gr.
Oxalic acid 1 . g. 16 gr.
Potassium chlorate . 3 g. 4 gr.
Solution III
Water (distilled), warm 65 cc. 2% oz.
Potassium chloroplatinite 13.0 g. 219 gr. (equals J.^ oz. avoir.)
Note that not ferrous, oxalate is used. This should be in the form of dry
ferric,
bright-green scales. If the scales have a brownish tinge or show any tendency to
stick together, the sample is stale and should be rejected; this chemical must be
perfectly fresh. Note also that potassium chloroplatinite, not chloroplatinate, must
be used. This has the form of bright ruby-red crystals, the chloroplatinate being
yellow. No trouble is likely to be caused by the other chemicals, provided reasonably
pure samples are obtained.
These solutions are the basic ones from which the actual sensitizer is made, and
they should be protected from strong light. A convenient plan for storing and
handling them is to keep the solutions in three properly labeled brown-glass 2-oz.
dropping bottles, with a medicine dropper in each. These droppers should be of the
guaranteed type, giving drops of equal size. If a single dropper is used for all three
solutions, it should be well rinsed in distilled water before going from one solution to
the next.
The sensitizing solution is made up as follows:
For very soft prints:

Solution 1 22 drops
Solution II drops
Solution III 24 drops
For moderately soft prints:
Solution 1 18 drops
Solution II 4 drops
For average prints:
Solution 1 14 drops
Solution II 8 drops
For strong prints:
Solution I 10 drops
Solution II 12 drops
For very strong prints
Solution I .
drops
Solution II 22 drops
Note that in each of the solutions the amount of III is always 24 drops; that the
sum of I and II is always 22 drops; and that increasing the proportion of II with respect
to I increases contrast.
The required number may be measured into a small graduate; a very
of drops
amount of shaking
slight mix the solutions sufficiently. The amount given 46
will —
—
drops is a satisfactory quantity for an 8- by 10-in. sheet of average paper; a very
rough paper, such as Whatman Rough, may need perhaps 50 per cent more by volume.
Sensitizing. —The paper to be sensitized should be cut slightly larger than the
negative that to be printed—say, 10 by 12
is an by
in. for 8- 10-in. negative —and
should be pinned down on a smooth board. Guide lines may be drawn in pencil on it,
to indicate the exact area which is to be sensitized, but it is well to sensitize a slightly
larger area than that of the negative, so that the excess may be used as test slips in
printing. It is the writer's practice to sensitize an area 8 by 12 in. for an 8- by 10-in.
negative, this giving two test strips 2 by 4 in.
The brush wetted under a faucet of cold water and is shaken out slightly. The
is
sensitizer is then poured in a pool on the paper and is spread back and forth over the
paper with the brush. It is not necessary to work very rapidly, nor is it necessary to
be meticulous in spreading the solution evenly, as is the case in gum printing. In
platinum work the printing goes just as far as the light action calls for, and if there is
enough sensitizer in any area to take care of this light action, a satisfactory print will
result even though the paper may be very unevenly sensitized. However, it is well to
spread the solution as uniformly as is convenient.
Brushing is continued until the paper begins to be surface dry, when the paper is
hung up in the dark for drying to be completed. Temperature and humidity in the
drying room should be such that the paper is bone dry in from 10 to 20 min., but if
these conditions are not obtainable, drying may be completed over a gas stove or an
electric plate. If this is done, care must be taken to see that the sensitizer is not
scorched. This will occur long before the paper itself shows any signs of scorching
and will result in uneven and irremovable areas of excessive darkness in the print;
further, this scorching of the sensitizer is not apparent until after the print is
developed.
The sensitizing may be carried out in an ordinary room or by the Hght of a 100-watt
Mazda lamp, since the paper is only slightly sensitive while wet.
Brush and graduate should be well washed under the faucet immediately on
completion of sensitizing.
Printing. —
As has been said, a strong light is required for printing, and, as with
any paper, the time will depend on the density of the negative and on the character
of the result desired. It is the writer's practice to make negatives somewhat softer
than the average, and in unobstructed July sunlight or 15 in. from a 110-volt 15-amp.
twin carbon arc, using White Flame carbons, the printing time ranges between 2 and
5 min., with the sensitizer for average results. The printing time will vary slightly
with the different sensitizers, those for stronger prints requiring somewhat more time
and those for soft prints a little less. If the carbon-arc lamp is used. White Flame
carbons are preferable to the Panchromatic.
When printed, the image will appear brownish yellow on a yellow ground, but it is
not distinct enough to serve as a guide to timing, and test strips should be printed and
developed before printing the full sheet.
Developing. —
The developer is made up as follows:
Water, warm 1500.0 cc. -48 oz.
Potassium oxalate 500 . g. 1 lb.
In some localities, where the water is very hard, it may be advisable to make this
up with distilled water, but as a rule this is not necessary.
The developer is ordinarily used at room temperature, i.e., from 65 to 80°F.,
moderate variations in temperature having little effect on the results. A tray a size
larger than the print should be used, the developer being poured into this to a depth
of 32 i^- or so and the print being slid in face up, so that the developer covers the print
with an even sweep. If there is any stoppage so that the print is not evenly covered,
development marks may occur at normal temperatures and are certain to result when
the developer is used warm.
Development should take place immediately after printing since, although there is
no continuing action as there is with bichromated colloid processes, the paper is very
hygroscopic, and if it absorbs moisture from the air, the print will have degraded
high lights.
At normal temperature, development will require 3 or 4 min. and should be con-
tinued until has gone as far as it will. In the case of an overprinted print, it is
it
sometimes possible to save it bA^ withdrawing it before development is complete, but

this is uncertain and should not be depended upon. An undertimed print cannot be
forced after development has begun, though if underprinting is discovered before
development, the print can sometimes be saved by warming the developer.
Clearing. —
The clearing bath is
Water 2000 . cc. 60 oz.
Hydrochloric acid (c.p.) 35.0 cc. 1 oz.
The
print should be given three successive baths of the above strength, after which
it iswashed in running water (or in half a dozen changes) for a few minutes and is
hung up to dry. Clearing must be thorough, to remove all the iron salts from the
paper, or the print will gradually darken on exposure to light.
Increased Contrast. — If sufficient contrast cannot be obtained by varying the
sensitizing solution, as given above, still further contrast may be obtained by printing
tonormal depth but in a very weak light, so that a long time is required. If still more
is it may be secured by overprinting and by adding a small amount of potas-
desired,
sium bichromate to the developer. It is iinpossible to give precise instructions as to
:
the quantity of this chemical to use since this depends on the balance between printing
time and contrast desired. However, a lump the size of a large pea in 32 oz. of devel-
oper will have a marked and even greater amounts may be used. If this
effect,
modification is carried too far, the prints will have a granular appearance.
With any given sensitizer, the use of a hard-surfaced paper gives more contrast
than a softer, i.e., a more absorbent, one. This is due apparently to the fact that the
harder paper requires longer printing in order to keep the sensitizer on the paper in the
lighter areas, and while this longer printing is taking place, the shadows, of course, gain
in depth. This fact may be used to advantage when printing from a soft negative
and should, of course, be allowed for in any case when adapting the sensitizer to the
negative and to the desired result.
—
Decreased Contrast. If the prints have too much contrast even when the softest
working sensitizer is used, softer effects may be obtained by the addition of a very
small amount of hydrochloric acid to the developer. Again, it is impossible to say
precisely how much to use, but a perceptible effect will result if a finger is dipped into
the 1 to 60 clearing bath, and the adhering acid is stirred into the tray of developer.
Another method for diminishing contrast is to print lightly and heat the developer,
though here also the balance must be determined by circumstances. In extreme
cases, the writer has developed prints at 200°F., but this is rarely necessary, about
150°F. being the ordinary limit. It should be noted that a warm developer not only
cuts down contrast, but also gives warmer tones in the finished print.
Colder Tones. —
Blue-black tones may be secured by using a developer made up as
follows
Water, warm 1000. cc. 48 oz.

Potassium oxalate 180.0 g. 9 oz.
Monobasic potassium phosphate 60.0 g. 3 oz.
This must be used cool, i.e., not above 70°F.

Warmer Tones. —A warm black or even a brown tone may be obtained by using a
hot developer, as described above. If still more warmth is required, it may be
obtained with normal printing time by the addition of mercuric (not mercurous)
chloride to the developer. The amount to use must be decided by the worker, but
60 gr. per 32 oz. (4 g. per liter) of developer will have a decided effect. It should be
noted that mercuric chloride (which is also known as bichloride of mercury and
as corrosive sublimate) is a dangerous poison and should be handled carefully.
Multiple Printing. —If, through the softness of the negative or because of incorrect
choice of a sensitizing mixture, the print lacks the desired contrast when finished,
more strength may be given it by sensitizing and printing a second time. The
sensitizing may be carried out exactly as at first, and printing maj^, of course, be either
full or partial; i.e., a comparatively light printing may be given, merely to add weight
to the shadows, or the second sensitizing may be printed to the same depth as the first,
when all the gradations will have a weight equal to the original added to them.
No special method of registration is needed as with multiple printing in carbon and
gum. The sensitized print is simply placed on the negative in the printing frame and
moved about with the fingers until it is in register, this point being clearly visible if
the negative and print are viewed by strongly concentrated transmitted light. It may
be that the first processing has caused the print to shrink so that perfect registration
cannot be obtained; in this case the worker must use his own judgment as to whether
to split the difference through the entire print or to register certain portions say, —
—
the eyes in a portrait and let the rest of the picture be out of register. In any case,
the difference is not likely to be great enough to be objectionable for pictorial
work.
It will very likely be found that the first processing has removed the size from the
paper to such an extent that it must be resized before the second sensitizer is applied;
also, some papers will require sizing before the first sensitizing. The operation of
sizing may be carried out as follows:
Sizing. — Make up the following solutions:
Solution A
Water, cool 350.0 cc. 12 oz.
Gelatin 12.0 g. 180 gr.
Cooking gelatin is perfectly satisfactory. Allow the gelatin to soak until well
swollen, then melt in a double boiler.
Solution B
Water, hot 60.0 cc. 2 oz.
Chrome alum 2 5
. g. 36 gr.
Pour B into A while both are hot, stirring constantly. Pour the hot solution into a
tray, and immerse the print or paper in it, allowing it to remain until well soaked, then
hang it up to dry. There will undoubtedly be bubbles on the surface of the paper,
but these may be removed by drawing the paper over the edge of the tray when taking
it from the size or by wiping the surface with a glass stirring rod or a soft automobile
windshield-wiper blade.
may be found that this gives a heavier sizing than is desired, in which case the
It
may be diluted with hot water to the desired point. The size should be kept
size
warm when in use, and after sizing one batch of paper or prints, it should be thrown
away, as it does not work well if allowed to cool.
—
Brush Development. If local modification of values is desired, the only way it can
be attained is by brush development with glycerin. The materials required are two :
or three soft camel's-hair brushes of different sizes; a supply —

16 oz. or so of glycerin; —
a sheet of glass somewhat larger than the print; developer; three small receptacles,
such as 1- or 2-oz. graduates; and a plentiful supply of clean hard-surfaced blotters.
The print should be timed much more fully than normal. A layer of glycerin having
been placed on the glass, the print is plastered down on this. A rather thick coat of
glycerin is then painted over the surface of the print; the graduates are filled—one
with clear developer, one with a mixture of equal parts of developer and glycerin, and
one with clear glycerin. The various areas of the print are then developed by brushing
one or another of the solutions over the surface, as required, and blotting freely from
time to time. The function of the glycerin is to retard development and give oppor-
tunity for what local bringing up of values may be desired. When the operation has
gone to the desired point, the print is cleared and washed as usual, the final operation
being generally to place the finished print face down in the ash can. It will be apparent
that the desirability of the results depends almost entirely on the worker's manual
dexterity and his appreciation of the tonal relationships necessary to produce a satis-
factory picture, this latter point being one in which most amateur photographers (and
professionals also) are notably weak. However, it must be admitted that very fine
pictures have been produced by this method.
—
Gum Platinum. If it is desired to increase the depth and richness of the shadows in
a platinum print, the finished print may be given a coating of a gum-pigment mixture,
as described in the section on Gum Printing. This gum coating is printed and •
developed in the usual manner. This treatment often adds tremendously' to the
appearance of the final print, though it destroys the characteristic surface texture of
the platinum paper. It is almost invariably necessary to size the paper before apply-
ing the gum coating, and it will probably be found that a more dilute size than that
,
recommended under Multiple Printing is desirable. This, however, each worker must
decide for himself. should be noted that gum-platinum printing is much easier than
It
straight gum printing; it is usually possible to get the same richness and depth of tone
with one printing of platinum and one of gum as with six or seven printings of gum
alone.
Miscellaneous Notes. —
Having no gelatin emulsion, platinum prints have no
tendency to once flattened, they remain flat.
curl;
With most papers, the surface has much more tendency to rub, especially when wet,
than is the case with bromide or gaslight papers. Therefore platinum prints should
never be processed in bulk, and they should be handled with some care. Damp or
dirty fingers placed on the surface of the paper at any time between sensitizing and
development will be almost certain to leave marks.
Platinum paper is very hygroscopic and, if allowed to become damp, will give fogged
or degraded prints. Therefore it should be sensitized immediately before use and
developed as soon as printed. If it is to be kept for any length of time, it should be
stored in an airtight receptacle with a small amount of calcium chloride, which, being
even more hygroscopic than the paper, acts as a preservative. Even so, the length of
time which the paper can be kept without fogging is about 3 months. Old or fogged
paper can often be salvaged by the use of a small amount of potassium bichromate in
the developer, as described under Increased Contrast.
Sometimes, through improper choice of paper or of sensitizing formula, the dry
print may have a dull, sunken look shadows; this occasionally results also from
in the
letting the print soak too long in the developer or the clearing baths. In such a case,
the brilliant appearance of the wet print may be restored by simonizing, either
Simoniz wax or Old English Floor Wax being used; the former gives the print a
slightly greenish tone, the latter being a pure yellow. The wax is brushed as evenly
as convenient over the surface of the dry print and is then polished with a rather stiff
scrubbing brush, such as a nail brush or a vegetable brush. This polish, of course,
destroys the characteristic surface texture of the paper, and if this is not desirable, a
marked lightening of the shadows may be obtained by applying the wax as described,
then melting it into the paper over a gas flame or an electric plate, taking care not to
set the turpentine in the wax afire. The polishing should not be omitted, or the wax
will probably go into the paper unevenly, causing streaks. The yellow tone thus
obtained is often very valuable in the case of portraits or sunlit landscapes. It should
be noted that this waxing operation tends to make the print more brittle, so a waxed
print must be handled rather more carefully than an unwaxed one.
Various methods of toning platinum prints to red, blue, green, and other colors
have been suggested. Since these depend chiefly on the use of salts of iron or uranium
they impair the permanence of the prints and are not recommended. Von Hlibl has
shown that the warmth of tone secured by the use of mercuric chloride does not depend
on the addition of any other substance to the platinum image but is solely a question
of the grain size of the deposited metal. Therefore a properly cleared and washed
print is as permanent if developed with mercury as if processed for a pure black.
Unless working on a very large scale, it is not worth while to salvage the platinum
from the clearing baths and the trimmings of paper. However, the developer should
never be thrown away; age does not impair its working qualities, and an older devel-
oper will contain a considerable quantity of platinum as well as of iron. This forms a
sludge at the bottom of the bottle, and for use the clear solution is poured off. A
certain amount of the solution, of course, adheres to the prints, so that the total bulk
must be kept up by the occasional addition of new solution, but the main body of
solution should never be thrown out; the developer which the writer is now using dates
back at least 25 years and is giving perfect results.
If potassium bichromate is used in the developer, this chemical is used up and must
be renewed from time to time. This is not the case with the bichloride of mercury,
which never loses its effect.
Trays and graduates should be kept scrupulously clean, or the prints may show
wliite spots. If enameled trays are used, care should be taken to avoid those which
are chipped or cracked, as the presence of iron in the developer may cause blue spots
in the prints.
Gum Printing. —
The printing process which is variously known as the gum
process, the gum-pigment process, and the gum-bichromate process is the most flexible
and at the same time one of the most beautiful of all photographic printing mediums.
It is commonly believed that it is a difficult process to use, but this is by no means the
case. The trouble lies in the facts that it is extremely flexible and that the average
amateur approaches it in a hit-or-miss fashion, so that he becomes confused among the
great number of variables inherent in the medium. But if anyone will systematize
his work, operating along definite lines and varying one element at a time, he will find
that the process, though somewhat laborious, offers no difficulties of any consequence
and that the beauty of its results well repays the necessary effort.
Insoluble gum ^^
Soluble gum Surface of paper
Fig. 2. — Diagram showing cross section of paper used in gum printing.
Gum analogous to carbon and Fresson in that it depends on the insolubilization

is
by pigmented bichromated colloid film produced by light, but it differs from

light of a
these processes in that the colloid used is gum arable and that development is effected
simply by floating the printed paper face down on cold water. Also the paper is not a
commercial article but must be coated by the worker himself. There is still a further
difference, which has a profound influence on the results and which is illustrated in the
accompanying sketch. In this sketch it is seen that the outer portion, or layer, of the
gum film becomes insoluble first, when printed under a negative, and that this insoluble
layer adheres to the high points of the paper, allowing the soluble gum and pigment
to seep out through it. When the fully developed print is dried, this insoluble layer
retracts into the hollows of the paper, thus adhering to the latter wherever the gum
has been insolubilized. From this it follows that the gum-pigment emulsion must be
spread very thinly on the paper, or the soluble gum will not seep out through the
overlying insoluble layer but rather will tear it off, causing flaking of the print. From
this thinness of the emulsion it follows that single gum is a very short-scale process
and does not give rich blacks. If rich black are to be secured, it is necessary to resort
to multiple printing, from three to five coatings and printings being required for a
very deep black. If a long scale is desired, from five to eight printings will be
demanded. It is tiiis need for multiple printing which makes the process laborious,
but on the other hand it offers an exceedingly valuable means of control, as by this
method it is possible to render the gradations of a negative which is far too strong for
any other printing process and it is also possible to emphasize any desired set of tones,
either high, middle, or low, by varying the manner of coating and the time of printing.
Advantages. — If the paper and the pigments are correctly chosen, the prints are
absolutely permanent.
Almost any color or texture of support may be used.
Almost any color or combination of colors of pigment may be used.
Modifications of total contrast are very easily made.
It is extremely easy to make modifications of local values.
Multiple gum printing offers a longer scale of gradation than any other printing
medium.
Extremely rich blacks may readily be obtained.
It is commonly believed that gum printing is suitable onlj^ when very broad effects
are desired, but this is far from true. By
the proper selection of paper as fine detail
may be obtained as on a medium rough bromide or chloride paper, though not so fine
as on a glossy or semimatte surface.
Gum is the cheapest of all printing mediums.
Disadvantages. — ^Like most of the quality mediums, gum is suitable only for contact
printing, as it requires almost as strong a light as carbon or platinum. Hence it
follows that for large prints, an enlarged negative is required.

It is somewhat laborious to handle.
We will now consider the actual working of the process.
The Negative. —The ideal negative
for gum printing is one which has so short a
scale of gradation that can be fuUj^ rendered in one printing of gum. Additional
it
printings are used merely to add weight and contrast. However, this is by no means
imperative. By multiple printing and varying the times of exposure so as to register
successively the high lights, half tones, and shadows, it is possible to render satis-
factorily a negative of practically any degree of contrast. In fact in this respect
multiple gum is far more flexible than any other printing medium.
As is the case with other printing mediums, for a given degree of contrast a thin
negative is preferable to a dense one. This holds good with gum to an even greater
degree than with platinum, carbon, or Fresson, so on all accounts it is desirable that a
negative which is to be used for gum printing have full exposure and brief development.
—
The Paper. This must be a stock which will stand prolonged soaking in cold water,
and it must have a slight tooth or grain. As may be inferred from the sketch and
from the accompanying remarks, it is practically impossible to make a gum print on a
very smooth surface, since the insoluble layer of gum must have slight irregularities to
which it can adhere. A print on a perfectly smooth paper will be merely a silhouette,
only those portions of the film adhering which have been printed clear through the
emulsion. A print on a smooth surface can, it is true, be made by stippling the gum
emulsion while it is still tacky, in the process of coating the paper, but the results are
not satisfactory. It is not necessary, however, to use a very rough paper; the texture
of the ordinary sketch pads which are sold in art stores is rough enough. If desired,
for broad effects, almost any degree of roughness is admissible; the writer has made
excellent prints on Whatman Cold Pressed Rough, though such exceedingly rough
papers are seldom suitable for prints smaller than 11 by 14 in. In general, the writer
prefers Whatman Cold Pressed Medium or Michallet Charcoal for prints 11 by 14 or
8 by 10 in. and for smaller ones either Michallet Charcoal, Strathmore Charcoal, or
some of the ordinary drawing papers which are sold for use by artists and
draftsmen.
In the interests of permanence, the paper chosen should be a good linen stock.
—
The Brushes. Two will be required, a fiat, soft paintbrush about 3 in. wide, set in
rubber, for coating; and a flat badger blender about 5 or 6 in. wide for blending. This
latter brush is rather expensive, costing about $5 or $6, but it lasts indefinitely; the
writer has been using his present one for about 27 j'êars. As there is considerable drag
on the hairs in the blending process, it is advisable to reinforce the setting of the
blender, using a thinned Duco cement in the manner described in the section on
Platinum Printing.
The brushes should be thoroughly washed in cold water as soon as the coating
operation is completed, for, if the coating mixture is allowed to dry in them and is
exposed to light, it will be impossible to remove it. They should be hung up to dry,
bristles down, so that they may keep their shape.
—
The Pigments. -These must be either water-color paints or dry-powder colors, the
former being preferable; oil colors will not do, and though some authors recommended
tempera colors, the present writer has not found them satisfactory. They must be the
so-called "earth pigments," such as lampblack. Ivory Black, burnt umber, burnt siena,
Venetian red, Prussian blue, cobalt blue, cadmium orange, cadmium yellow, etc.; the
aniline colors will not do. It is better to buy a good grade of water-color tubes; the
powder colors are much cheaper, but they must be ground for use, and the time thus
consumed amounts to more than the money saved.
It is immaterial what manufacturer of colors is favored; the pigments of Talens &
Son, Winsor & Newton, Devoe & Reynolds, or, in fact, any standard maker can be
relied on; the writer prefers those of Talens, but this is partly the result of habit and
partly because that firm puts up an excellent black, known as Photo Engraver's
Black, which is much cheaper than the ordinary water colors. The selection of colors
given above will be ample for any ordinary use; as a matter of fact, three or four tubes
—
are plenty to start with say. Ivory JBlack for a neutral black and burnt umber or
Venetian red to warm it up, with cobalt blue for cool blacks.
Whatever make of pigments is used, the same one should be adhered to throughout,
since the pigment will be measured by the number of inches squeezed from the tube,
and the apertures of the tubes vary with different makers.
The. Gum. Solution. —This is a fairly thick solution of gum arable in water, and, as
different samples of gum vary, it is well to use that of one single maker; even so, there
will be some variation between lots. It should be granular, not in the form of tears
or powdered, as the first is easiest to dissolve. The writer favors McKesson & Robbins
Gum Acacia No. 1 Granular, but this again is a matter of habit; an equivalent article
from any good maker will be satisfactory.
Some preservative will be necessary, for, although a sour gum solution works as well
as a fresh one, it works differently, and the progressive souring will throw the worker's
calculations out. Formaldehyde and carbolic acid are unsuitable for this purpose,
and, though oil of cloves is sometimes recommended, the writer prefers bichloride of
mercury, which, as noted in the section on Platinum Printing, is a dangerous poison
and should be used with care. It is, however, an efficient preservative; the writer has
known a gum solution so treated to remain perfectly fresh for 18 years.
The formula which is preferred by the writer, and on which subsequent formulas
will be based, is as follows:
Water 3000.0 cc. 32 oz.

Gum arable (granular) 500 . g. 1 lb.
Mercuric chloride 6 . g. 90 gr.
The gum is most conveniently dissolved by rubbing it up in a mortar, a little at a

time, with portions of the water. The preservative may
be rubbed in at any stage of
the proceedings but should be thoroughly stirred through the final solution. This
manner of dissolving the gum is tedious but is more satisfactory than the method
sometimes recommended, of putting the gum into a bag and suspending it in the water;
if the latter plan is used, the gum coagulates into a mass which requires a very long
time to go into solution.

It is advisable to store the gum solution in a wide-mouthed screw-cap bottle or, if

the bottle has been ground with reasonable accuracy, merely to lay a piece of glass over
the top, to prevent evaporation. The neck of the bottle should be wiped each time
that any of the solution poured out, to avoid cementing the cap fast.
is
The Sensitizer. —The commonly recommended is potassium bichromate,

sensitizer
but the writer prefers sodium bichromate, as it is far more soluble than the potassium
salt, wherefore a given amount of a saturated solution contains much more of the
sensitizing agent and gives a much more rapidly printing film. The formula follows:
Water, warm 500 . co. 16 oz.
Sodium bichromate (technical) 500 . g. 1 lb.
Filter, and brown bottle. This will keep indefinitely if not exposed to
store in a
strong light. approximately a saturated solution.
It is
Sizing. —
If it is found necessary to size the paper, this may be done by the
method which is used for making single transfer paper for carbon printing and is
described in the section on that subject. One, or at most two, applications will be
sufficient.
—
Coating Mixture. As the longest scale of gradation is secured when the coating
mixture contains the largest possible amount of pigment and as a long scale is usually
desired, it follows that the coating mixture should hold as much of the pigment as can
satisfactorily be used. But for every paper, every pigment, and every gum solution
there is a maximum relation of pigment to gum which can be used without staining the
—
paper or rather, to be precise, there are two such maxima, one for automatic develop-
ment, the other for brush development. The method of determining these maxima
is as follows:
Squeeze into a small mortar an inch length of the pigment, and rub this up with
K dram of the gum solution. With a fine brush dipped into the mixture, make a small
mark on the paper which is to be used, and opposite this mark, pencil "1 in. to 3^
dram." Add }i dram of gum solution to the mixture, rub it up well, and make another
mark, labeling this "1 in. to 1 dram." Add another }4 dram of the gum solution, and
label the resulting mark "1 in. to IJ^ drams." Continue thus until a series of m.arks
extending to "1 in. to 10 drams" is reached. Then allow these gum-pigment marks
to dry thoroughly, and let the paper float face down in a tray of water at room tem-
perature for 3^2 hr. On inspection it will be found that some of the marks have
entirely disappeared, while others remain visible. Suppose, for example, that the last
visible mark is opposite the notation "1 in. to 4,^2 drams"; then it is known that, if
pure whites are to be secured with automatic development, the maximum proportion
of pigment to gum solution in the coating mixture must be 1 in. to 5 drams. Now with
a soft camel's-hair brush, brush over the remaining marks, when it will be found that
others will disappear. As an example, suppose that the last one visible after this
brushing is opposite the label "1 in. to 2 drams"; then it is known that, if brush
development is to be used and pure whites are to be obtained, the maximum allowable
proportion of pigment to gum is 1 in. to 2}^ drams. If a note is made of these propor-
tions, it will be possible at any future time to predict accuratelj^ the maximum gum-
pigment relationship for that pigment and that paper. This should be done for the
various pigments which are to be used and for the various papers. A table can then
be drawn up giving the sundry relationships at a glance, thus avoiding the "by-guess-
and-by-gosh" method so common in gum printing.
This method serves also to indicate the possible maximum when two or more pig-
ments are mixed to secure variations in color. Thus, if it has been determined that a
certain black requires 5 drams of gum solution to 1 in. of pigment for automatic
development and burnt umber requires 4 drams to 1 in., then, if it is desired to mix
these pigments in the proportion of 2 to 1, it follows that the worker will use 1 in. of
the black, 3^2 in- of the burnt umber, and 7 drams of the giim solution,,
Note that no sensitizer is used in these determinations.
maj' seem that this method of determination involves a great deal of work, but
It
actually the labor is not excessive, and, if the experiments indicated are carried out
and the suggested table is drawn up, a vast amount of effort- and disappointment will
in the long run be saved.
The complete mixture hiust be dilute enough to spread to a sufficient, but not
excessive, thickness on the paper. Only the worker's own experience can indicate
this characteristic, as it varies with different samples of gum arable and with different
papers, a rough paper admitting of thicker coating than a smooth one. If the coating
is too thin, an excessive number of printings will be required to secure depth and
scale; if it is too thick, it will flake off instead of developing smoothly. A suggested
formula which the writer has used successfully with Whatman Cold Pressed Medium
follows. It must be borne in mind, however, that this is no more than a suggestion,
put forward as a basis for the reader's own experiments.
Talens Photo Engraver's Black 25. mm. 1 in.
Gum solution 15.0 cc. 4 drams

Sensitizer 35 . cc. 10 drams
The pigment is squeezed from the tube into a mortar, is well rubbed up with the gum,
and the sensitizer is added and stirred in. The mixture is then ready to be spread on
the paper.
—
Coating the Paper. This operation is like driving a golf ball or sawing a board, in
that it can be described and instructions can be given for doing it, but only experience
makes it possible for the worker to accomplish it properly; a certain manual deftness or
knack is required, and this comes only with practice.
The paper, which should be cut 2 in. or so larger all around than the finished print,
is to be is —
pinned face up on a smooth board, using most conveniently—pushpins
at the four corners. The coating brush is dipped into the mixture, it is lightly pressed
out against the side of the mortar, and the mixture is brushed rapidly back and forth
over the paper until the surface is well coated. Then the blending brush is taken up
and is drawn lightly but rapidly back and forth over the paper, both crosswise and up
and down. It will be found that the brush marks left in coating are smoothed out,
eventualh^ disappearing altogether as the gum sets. As the gum sets, the action of the
blender becomes gradually lighter and more of a whipping than of a dragging motion,
and it should be stopped at just the right point. If it is arrested too soon, the gum will
run together in tinj^ puddles, and if it is continued too long, the coating will be streaked.
A slight puddling or streaking does no harm, since it tends to blend out to smoothness
while the paper is hanging up to dry.
If several sheets of paper are coated at one time, it will probably be found that the
blender becomes clogged with the mixture; it should then be well rinsed in running
water and dried by rolling the handle rapidly between the palms of the hands, when
its use may be continued at once.
The commonest fault in coating gum paper is that the beginner tries to get the
coating mixture on too thick. The coated paper should not look black but should be
of a light greenish gray.
If the blending has been carried on too long or if the paper buckles so that it is
difficult to blend evenly, a uniform coating may be obtained bj^ using the blender with
a stippling action. This renders the coating spotty, but most of the spots will blend
out as the paper dries, and the others will disappear during development.
All the above operations can be carried out in an ordinary room, since the coating
is not sensitive to light until dry; but the coated paper should be dried in the dark. In
proper conditions of heat and humidity, drying will not take more than a few minutes,
but it may be hastened bj^ an electric fan or over a gas stove, taking care to avoid
scorching.
The paper should be printed as soon as it is dry, since it keeps in good condition
for not more than a few hours at most.
Printing.- —
Ît is, of course, impossible to say definitely how long a time the printing
will take, but as compared to other quality mediums, gum is fairly rapid. As an exam-
ple, the average printing time for one of the writer's negatives, printing in unobstructed
July sunlight for the high lights, will be from 2 to 3 min., and for the half tones and
shadows it will range from 2 min. to 20 sec.
Development. —
Development should take place as soon as printing is completed, on
account of the continuing action which occurs in gum as in other colloid-bichromate
mediums and which cannot here be arrested by washing the print in cold water, as with
carbon and Fresson, as the gum is soluble in water at any temperature.
To develop, the print is washed in several changes of cool water, to remove most of
the sensitizer, and is then turned face down and allowed to float on j4 to 1 in. of water
in the tray. It may be lifted and drained from time to time, to follow the progress of
development. The stage of development is noted by watching the water that drains
from one corner back into the tray; this water will be seen to carry with it more or less
pigment, the amount of color gradually diminishing as development proceeds. If
the printing has been correctly timed, H' hr. will find the print developed to the proper
point, which will be indicated partly by the general appearance and partly by the fact
that the drainings will be practically free from pigment. It is not necessary that
they carry absolutely no pigment whatever, but only a trifling amount should be seen
running off the print. Here again, experience is the only precise guide. Obviously, if
the print is too light at the end of î hr., it is underprinted, and if it is still too dark,
printing has been excessive. In neither case is it necessary to throw the print away; an
undertimed print should be developed as far as it will go and made the basis for a
multiple print, and one which is overtimed can be forced bj^ the use of warm water up —
to 212°F. — or by the use of a small amount of alkali in the developing water,
as described in the section on Carbon Printing. In the case of gum, however, the
addition of alkali has at normal temperatures; it is most effective when the
little effect
water is warm. In any case it should be used very cautiously, as an excess causes
the same trouble as in carbon, viz., a complete washing out of the lighter gradations,
and perhaps flaking of the film.
The colloid film of a gum print is much softer and less likely to tear than that of
either a carbon or a Fresson print, consequently much more local development may be
indulged in than with either of the other processes. In fact, the possible modifications
are so great that there is a serious temptation to overdo them, producing a result which,
even though it may not be obviously scratched up in imitation of a charcoal or pencil
— —
drawing as far too manj^ gum prints are^ still is evidently false in its values. This is
a danger which should be guarded against. As in any medium, only such local modi-
fications as are definitelj^ necessary should be made; the temptation to play with the
print should be sternly resisted.
Since the purpose in local modification is to remove the softened gum from the
paper, many ways of doing this will suggest themselves. Water from a hose may be
allowed to run on the spot which is to be lightened; if the hose is held at such a height
that the water falls in drops, the effect will be greater than that of a continuous stream.
A spray from an atomizer may be used, or a jet from a washing bottle, or, if this is not
sufficient, a soft carael's-hair brush. It is not generally advisable to use a stiff brush,
since this tends to leave a scratchy appearance. Whatever method of local modifica-
tion is used, the effect will be less obvious —and less likelj^ to be unpleasant — if the
work is done under water.
When local development is planned, it is best to use a gum-pigment mixture which

will give a slight staining with automatic development. To print slightly deeper than
normal, allow the development to go as far as it will automatically and do the brush-
work on the pigment stain.
When development is complete, the print is hung up to dry. It will probably have
a slight amount of sensitizer stain, which may be removed by a few minutes' immersion
in a 5 per cent solution of potassium metabisulphite, followed by several rinsings in
clear water. Sodium bisidphite or ordinary alum may be used, but the potassium salt
seems to be rather more effective than either of these. It is commonly advised to use
alum, on the ground that it hardens the film, but the writer has not found this to be at
all necessary; the printed and developed film, after drying, is hard enough to stand
almost any amount of rough handling. Clearing should not take place until after the
print has been dried, or, in the case of a multiple print, until after the last printing
has been dried.
Multiple Printing. —
One reason that so many beginners in gum work get into
trouble that they expect the first printing from the negative to look like a print and
is
try to make it do so. It should not; it shovdd look like a very sick imitation of a
—
print pale, washed out, very likely no more than a flat tone in the shadows, and in
general thoroughly unsatisfactory. It is astonishing to an inexperienced worker to
see how the print assumes vigor and character with the addition of subsequent
printings.
If the negative is soft enough so that its entire range of gradations is rendered in
one printing of gum, then when the print has been developed and dried it may be
coated a second time and printed again, for the same printing time, and developed as at
first. Thus the second and subsequent printings are used merely to add depth and
contrast. It is much more likely, however, that the scale of the negative will be too
—
great to render in one printing of gum, in which case the shadows^ perhaps even the
half tones —
of the first printing will be merely a flat tone and must be brought out by
the later printings. The coating mixture may, perhaps, be the same as for the first
printing but the printing time less, e.g., if the negative requires three printings to
render its full scale, the first one may be timed for 4 min., the second for two, and the
third for one, each printing being developed fully. Some workers have been known
to use 16 or 17 printings, and the writer knows of one who went to 25, but this is sheer
frivolity. Using a well-sized paper, which permits the use of a fairly large amount of
pigment, the utmost richness and depth of blacks can be got in five printings, and the
scale of practically anj^ negative can be rendered in six or eight printings.
It will be apparent that very great variations in coating and printing are possible
in order to secure various effects. Thus a long scale may be secured with little depth
of shadow by using a relatively small amount of pigment in the coating mixture; or the
shadows may be emphasized by using light doses of pigment for the high-light and
half-tone printings, with a heavy amount, printed lightly, for the shadows. Each
worker will think up these variations for himself, but it cannot be too strongly urged
that he keep a record of what he has done in each case. If he fails to do this he will
not know where he is; he will be unable either to duplicate or to predict results, and
he is likely to abandon gum printing under the impression that it is too difficult. As a
matter of fact, gum printing is not at all difficult, but it does demand care and accu-
racy. Given these and a moderate amount of experience, gum printing will be found
not only much easier than bromoil or even than plain bromide enlarging, but far more
satisfactory in its results.
General Remarks. —Registration in multiple gum has been the, subject of many
inventions; the simplest and best method is that recommended for multiple printing
in carbon, viz., the use of a mask around the negative, of a printing paper larger than
the negative but smaller than the mask, and four registration marks on mask and
paper.
A very beautiful which is particularly delightful in the treatment of sunlit
effect,
water, a sunny landscape, or any subject in which a vibrating, shimmering eifect of
light is desired may be secured by very slight underprinting, by very slight under-
development, and by drying the print in a horizontal position on a sheet of glass or
other flat level surface. In this case the gum and pigment run slightly, giving a
peculiar blurring of the outlines which is not obtained in any other way or in any
other medium. This is a very difficult eifect to obtain, since it demands the most
exact timing throughout, but if secured, it has a remarkable charm.
One of the finest characteristics of multiple gum lies in the extreme richness and
depth of the blacks obtainable, a quality in which gum rivals multiple carbon. This
effect, in both mediums, is due to the fact that we are looking through, rather than
at, successive layers of pigment suspended in a transparent medium, and, as in carbon,
the effect may be enhanced in a gum print by waxing and polishing.
In conclusion: work systematically; keep a record of all you do; do not expect to
get a good picture with one printing; and do not overdo your local modifications. If
these recommendations are followed, success will result.

—
Fresson Printing. Fresson is, in effect, a revival of the Artigue process, which was
more or less used some 25 or 30 years ago, and like carbon and gum it depends on the
fact that a colloid film, when sensitized with a chromic salt and exposed to light,
becomes more or less insoluble in water.
The paper supplied for this process consists of a sheet of paper carrying a basic
— —
layer of some hard colloid presumably either gelatin or glue which has a high melt-
ing point. —
Over this is laid a stratum of softer colloid probably gelatin^ which —
melts at about 96°F. and which carries a relatively heavy content of pigment. The
paper is supplied insensitive and is sensitized just before use by immersion in a solution
of potassium bichromate, being afterward dried and printed under a negative. At this
point the process diverges fi'om both gum and carbon, since, instead of being developed
by floating on cold water, as with gum, or by washing with hot water, as with carbon,
the printed paper is soaked for a short time in tepid water, is then laid face up on a
slanting surface, and is developed by pouring over it a soup of boxwood sawdust in
water.
—
Advantages. The process has a long scale of gradation, gives very rich blacks, and
has a beautiful absolutely matte surface closely resembling that of platinum.
The prints are absolutely permanent.
The paper may be obtained in several different colors, and on several different
supports.
Modifications of total contrast are verj^ easily made.
It is extremely easy to make modifications of local vakies.
The processis very easy to work, requiring but little technical skill. Also there
is great latitude in handling.
Disadvantages. —Fresson is a contact-printing process, requiring a very strong
light, and it is practically impossible to use it for enlarging.
It is somewhat laborious to work, requiring a good deal of time for development if
the best expression of the process is to be obtained.

The surface of the paper, both before and after printing, is very delicate and easily
marred, so finished prints must be handled carefully.
—
The Paper. As has been said, this is bought insensitive and, if stored in a cool dry
place, will kee^^^nost indefinitely, though the colloid gradually hardens with time,
requiring slightly warmer water for processing. It is advisable to store it flat, vmder
light pressure, to minimize its tendency to curl. The paper may be obtained in
:
black, dark brown, sepia, blue-green, green-blue, and red and on either a white or
cream support, which last may be either smooth or slightly rough.
As the emulsion is very delicate and as the warmth of the fingers is sufficient to
melt the colloid, it is advisable to handle the paper only by the edges; therefore it
should be purchased and used a size larger than the print is to be i.e., 5 by 7 in. for a
4- by 5-in. print, or 11 by 14 in. for an 8- by 10-in. print. If larger prints are wanted,
it is best to get the full-size sheet, approximately 23 by 35 in. and cut it to size.
—
The Sawdust.- This is a special boxwood sawdust, put up by the manufacturers of
the paper and sold in packages of the proper amount to make 5 or 6 qt. of the soup.
The exact amount of water is not important; the soup should be thin enough to pour
readily but not so thin as to be ineffective, and wathin these wide limits the strength
does not greatly matter.
The sawdust may be used repeatedly —
almost indefinitely, in fact^ and does not —
lose its effectiveness. simply allowed to dry between the occasions of use, being
It is
mixed again with water when desired. It is sometimes stated that a preservative
should be used in the soup to prevent putrefaction of the gelatin which is washed off
the prints; but the writer has not found this to be at all necessary, having used the
same batch of sawdust for more than 4 years with no trouble whatever. It is true
that the gelatin forms a hard crust over the sawdust as the water evaporates, but this
does no harm, being readily soaked soft again.
—
The Sensitizer. This is normally a 1 per cent solution of potassium bichromate,
made up as follows
Water 1000.0 cc. 30 oz.

This keeps indefinitely if protected from light andmay be used repeatedly.

Different strengths of sensitizer may be used for different purposes, as will be
discussed under Variations in Contrast.
Sensitizing.- —^The potassium bichromate solution is poured into a clean tray to a
depth of }i in. or more, and the sheet of Fresson paper is slid into it, the edges being
pressed down any adhering air bubbles being broken by a light touch
as they curl up,
of the fingertip or of a soft brush, and the tray being rocked. At the expiration of
4 min. from the first immersion, the paper is lifted from the sensitizer and is hung up
to dry in the dark; clips are used at the corners. It is advisable to hang it cornerwise,
so that the sensitizer will drain from one corner.
Sensitizing may be done in any ordinary room, as the paper is not sensitive until
dry; it should, however, be dried in the dark, since when dry it is slightly more sensi-
tive than a printing-out paper.
The sensitized paper will dry, in proper conditions of humidity, in a very short
— —
time drying may be hastened by an electric fan- and the paper should be used as
soon as possible, since when dry it tends to become insoluble without exposure to
light. Even if kept in a sealed tin with preservative, as is done with platinum paper,
it will not keep in good condition for more than a few days.
The sensitizer should be used at a temperature of between 65 and 75°F.; if too

warm, it will soften the gelatin of the paper excessively.
If the paper is allowed to become bone dry while hanging up, it will curl very
badly. It is therefore advisable to take it down when it is dry enough not to stick to
anything and then to finish drying under light pressure. This is not, however,
absolutely necessary, as with care, the paper can be handled even when badly curled.
Printing. — This requires a strong light, such as is used for platinum or carbon, and
no precise directions can be given as to time, as this varies with the negative, the
color of the tissue, the possible moisture content of the colloid film, and the effect
desired. Generally speaking, the cooler colors print more rapidly than the warm ones,
and a bone-dry paper will print more rapidly than one which is faintly damp. Using
the black paper, working with it bone dry, and working for normal results, the writer
makes a test on P O P, then prints the Fresson for about three-quarters of this proofing
time.
Developing. —The print should be developed immediately after taking from the
printing frame, since there is the same continuing action with Fresson that there is
with carbon and gum.

To develop, the print is immersed for 4 min. in water at room temperature, then
for 1 min. in water at 88°F. It is then laid face up on a smooth slanting surface, and
the sawdust soup is poured repeatedly over it. A convenient arrangement for this
apparatus was designed and made of sheet zinc by W. G. Houskeeper. It consists
of a semicylindrical trough about 18 in. long and 5 in. in diameter, supporting a
sheet of zinc which has had the edges bent up so that the soup will not run off them.
The trough has feet to keep it upright, the sheet has a lip which projects slightly
over the edge of the trough, and the upper end of the sheet is supported by a piece of
2- by 4-in. wood. An enameled cup from the 5-and-lO-cent store is used for
pouring. The exact angle of the support is of no great consequence. So long as
—
there is slant enough for the soup to run off freely, it is all right an angle of 30°
with the horizontal is satisfactory.
Development is continued until it has reached the proper point, when the print is
rinsed in cold water to remove any adhering bits of sawdust and to set the gelatin.
It is then hung up to dry; no further fixing or washing is necessary. The print will
—
dry somewhat darker than it appears while wet this darkening is more apparent in
the shadows than in the high lights, so development should be continued until the
print seems a little lighter than it should be when finished.
If for any reason it is not desired to develop the print at once, the continuing
action may be arrested by washing the undeveloped print in six or more changes of
water to remove the sensitizer. It may then be dried and developed in the usual man-
ner at any subsequent time.
Unless printing has been so deep as to require the use of water at 96°F., it will
probably be found that the margins of the print, even though masked in printing, will
not develop clear but will retain more or less of the pigmented gelatin. Apparently
a slight amount of light actioa is necessary if absolutely pure whites are to be secured.
This residual tint is often very pleasing but may be removed with a brush if it is not
desired.
For any given temperature of the soaking water, the print will develop to a certain
depth, after which continued pouring of the soup has no effect. If it does not develop
far enough after soaking at 88°F., the print may be placed for 1 min. into water at a
slightly higher temperature, after which development is resumed in the usual manner.
It is not advisable, however, to go above 94 to 96°F., since at this temperature the
pigmented film will probably strip entirely from the paper, and even if it does not do
this, the high lights of the picture will probably flake off, leaving blank spaces. If
96°F. will not bring the print up to the proper point, it is seriously overprinted and
should usually be thrown away, though it may sometimes by salvaged by brushing
with a soft brush. This treatment, however, is likely to result in unsightly scratches
on the surface of the print.
Variations in Contrast. —
For normal sensitizing, the softest contrast is obtained
when the paper printed to such a depth that it will develop satisfactorily after
is
1 min. of soaking at 88°F. Deeper printing, up to double the normal time, with the
use of a warmer soaking water, up to 96°F., gives marked increase of contrast; this
latter technique tends to give a grainy texture to the print which may be undesirable.
If this method of control is not desired, greater contrast may be obtained by the
use of a weaker sensitizer, say ) 2 or 3^ of 1 per cent, together with a correspondingly

— —
longer printing time two or four times normal and a soaking water at the standard
temperature of 88°F. Overprinting and a warmer water may also be used in conjunc-
tion with the weaker sensitizing.
If softer prints than normal are wanted, the sensitizer may be used stronger than
1 per cent, with correspondingly shorter printing. It is not advisable, however, to

attempt to use the sensitizer stronger than 5 per cent at most, since above this con-
centration it will tend to strip the emulsion from the paper.
Local J\[odifications. —
It is extremely easy to make local modifications of values.
Extra weight may be given to an area by avoiding it in pouring the soup, or by tilting
the support at such an angle that the soup does not run over the portion which is
to be left dark. Broad areas may be lightened by pouring the soup from a greater
height, so that it strikes the print with more violence in some places than in others;
this technique, however, is likely to result in a grainy appearance in the finished print.
Still greater lightening may be secured by the use of a soft brush, though this must be
applied carefully, a little at a time, if scratches and brush marks are to be avoided.
It is best to rinse the print free of sawdust, place it in a tray of cool water, and work
under the surface of the water. However, it is sometimes necessary, in order to
secure the maximum effect, to work in the air. However, by working carefully, it is
possible to carry this local modification very far indeed without it becoming appar-
ent; in this respect, Fresson is far more flexible than carbon, and almost as much so
as gum.
Javelle Water. —
It is sometimes recommended that the Fresson paper be greatly
overprinted and given a prehminary soaking in a dilute Javelle water before develop-
ment. The writer has found this technique to be altogether unsatisfactory; the great
desirability of Fresson lies in the extremely delicate manner in which it renders the
gradations of the negative, together with the beauty of surface of the finished print,
but the treatment with Javelle water increases contrast, loses the finer gradations,
and gives a coarse and grainy texture to the surface. The result is quite foreign to
the best expression possible with the medium.
Final Remarks. — If is too dark when dry, it may be soaked until limp in
the print
cool water, placed for min. in water 2 or 3° warmer than was used in the original
1
development, and then developed still further with the sawdust. This treatment may
be repeated several times and does no harm.
It is ordinarily recommended that Fresson prints be spotted by softening an
unsensitized piece of the paper in warm water and using the pigmented gelatin thus
loosened, applying it with a brush. This is necessarj^ when large areas are to be
spotted, especially if they are in the darker portions of the print, as any great amount
of penciling will leave a shiny mark. But for small spotting the writer prefers to use
a carbon spotting pencil (sharpened to a needle point on sandpaper) and stippling
rather than stroking, this being much easier than the brush method.
If for any reason the finished Fresson seems too dull and heavy, it maj- be given
the brilliant appearance of a wet print by waxing, as described in the section on Plati-
num Printing, though this, of course, destroys the inherent beauty of the matte surface.
If greater strength or richness is desired in a somewhat weak Fresson, this may be
secured by coating the finished print with a gum-pigment mixture, printing and
developing as described in the section on Gum Printing. Both waxing and the addi-
tion of a printing of gum are more satisfactory on the rough Fresson paper than on
the smooth.
At its best, Fresson may be considered a worthy rival of platinum,
fairly its long
scale of gradation, rich blacks, and matte surface giving it a good claim in this respect.
It does not, it is true, admit of the use of the more beautiful paper supports, but on the
other hand it is far more flexible than platinum in the matter of local modifications.
The finest expression of the process is secured by printing as lightly as possible, using
—sometimes as low as 86 or even 84°F. —and develop-
relatively cool water for soaking
ing slowly and gently, pouring the sawdust easily and with no violence what-lightly
ever. This technique means slow development —the writer not infrequently spends
an hour or more developing an
in by print —but the
8- amply repays the
10-in. result
trouble involved the worker cares
if exquisite print qualit3^
for
Oil and Bromoil Printing and Transfer. — printing depends on two
Oil facts: (1)
when a bichromated gelatin film is exposed to light, it becomes more or less tanned in
proportion to the amount of light action; and (2) if this film is soaked in water,
it
absorbs water and becomes repellent to an oily ink in inverse proportion to the amount
of light action. —
In bromoil which is an outgrowth of oil, exactly as carbro is an out-
—
growth of carbon- the tanning action takes place as a result of the chemical reaction
between a special sensitizer (ordinarily called the "bleacher") and the silver image of a
bromide print or enlargement. After the sensitizing, drying, and printing in the case
of oil or the bleaching, fixing, and washing in the case of bromoil, the print is soaked
until the gelatin is properly swelled; it is then surface-dried. A suitable ink is dabbed
on with a special brush until a sufficient amount has adhered to the print to give
the desired image, when the print is pinned up to dry and may be considered finished.
Or, if desired, the print, may be placed in contact with a piece of plain paper while the
ink is still soft, and may be run through a press similar to an etching press, in which
case the ink is transferred to the plain paper, giving an effect quite different from that
of the original print. After such transferring, the print may be soaked and inked a
second, third, or fourth time, or even oftener, and these inkings may either be trans-
ferred to different pieces of paper or may be transferred to the first one, thus producing
a multiple print. Since there is great latitude not only in the matter of the original oil
or bromide print but also in the matters of soaking, choice of inks, and manner of
applying the ink, the oil and bromoil processes are exceedingly flexible, almost equal-
ing multiple gum in this respect.
As be seen from the above, the oil process is a contact medium requiring a
will
strong light for printing, whereas the bromoil process makes it possible to produce
large prints without the need for an enlarged negative. Other than this, they are
practically if not entirely identical in the results obtainable. It is true that one
author claims that bromoil gives a longer scale of gradation than oil, but the present
writer has not found this to be the case and believes that the error is due to the fact
that the special paper which is supplied for oil printing is thinly coated with gelatin.
If a sheet of bromide paper of a type suitable for bromoil is fixed without exposure to
light, washed, sensitized, printed, and soaked, it gives as long a scale as though it were
used by the bromoil process.
Advantages. —
If the proper paper and inks are used, the prints are absolutely
permanent.
The process is extremely flexible, in respect to both modifications of total contrast
and local modifications of values.
A beautiful quality of richness and depth in the shadows is possible.
verj'^
Byvarying the thickness of the ink, the mode of handling the brush, or both, very
delightful variations in texture may be secured. This characteristic is even more
apparent when transfer is vised, since a final support of almost any desired character
may be used.
Very wide variations in color are possible through choice of inks.
Multiple prints are readily made by transfer, this making possible still greater
modifications of total contrast and of local values.
Disadvantages. —As has been said, oil is a contact process, demanding an enlarged
negative if large prints are to be made.
It is somewhat laborious.
does not render the delicate gradations of the negative as finely as do some
It
other mediums; for this reason, it is not so well adapted to sunny snow scenes, high-
keyed portraits, and the like, as platinum, carbon, gum. or Fresson, but is at its best
when broader effects are desired.
The advantages and disadvantages of bronioil are the same as those of oil, with the
following exceptions: (1) large prints can be made without the use of an enlarged nega-
tive and (2) it is a much more tricky and temperamental process. The first argument,
however, is scarcely a valid one, since fully as much labor and skill are required to
make a bromoil print as to make an enlarged negative and a platimun print.
—
The Paper. This should be a bromide paper having a soft gelatin emulsion, with-
out a supercoat of gelatin. The same paper should be used for both oil and bromoil,
since the best oil paper results from fixing, without exposure to light, a sheet of heavily
coated bromide paper. This fixing should be done in plain, not acid, hypo, since it is
necessary to avoid anj^ hardening of the gelatin.
Suitable surfaces of Velour Black will be supplied by the Defender Photo Supply
Company, of Rochester, N. Y., provided that the order specifies "for bromoil," and
the Kodak Royal Bromide, obtainable from the Medo Photo Supply Corporation,
15 West 47th St., New York City, can be recommended when a buff stock is desired.
There are numerous other good bromoil papers, most of them, however, originating in
England, where the process is more popular than it is in this country.
Whatever paper is used, it should be as fresh as possible.
—
The Negative. For either oil or bromoil, the negative should be soft and well
graded, since it is very easy to secure anj^ desired degree of contrast, and a relatively
soft original print will render the gradations better than a stronger one. The best
type of negative for either process is one which will give a moderately soft enlargement
on an ordinary medium-contrast chlorobromide paper. As in other printing processes,
a thin negative is preferable to a dense one, for a given degree of contrast.
—
Sensitizing for Oil.- -Having been fixed, washed, and dried, the paper is sensitized
by 3-min. immersion in a solution of potassium bichromate and is hung up to dry in
the dark. Sensitizing may take place in any ordinary room, since the paper is not
sensitive to light until dry.
The normalstrength of sensitizer, for average results, is a 2^2 per cent solution,
but it may
range in strength from }yi oi 1 per cent to 5 per cent, the stronger solution
giving a quicker printing film and less contrast.
Printing for Oil. —
For either oil or bromoil, the paper should be masked so as to
—
give a blank margin at least 3^2 i^- wide and 1 in. is better all aroimd the —
picture.
oil paper should be printed as soon as dry, since it does not keep well.
Sensitized
not possible, it should be stored in a sealed airtight box, with calcium chloride
If this is
as a desiccator. Even so, it will not keep in good condition for more than a very few
days.
Printing is carried out by sunlight, carbon arc, or mercury-vapor arc and should
be continued until gradation is elearlj^ visible in the high lights. The print has much
the appearance of an undeveloped platinum print, though somewhat deeper; in each
case, the image shows as a yellowish brown on a yellow ground.
After exposure, the print should be washed immediately in water at approximately
room temperature until the free sensitizer is completelj^ washed out, when it may be
either soaked in warmer water (if necessary) and inked at once or allowed to dry and
soaked and inked at some future time. It is not well, however, to postpone the soak-
ingand inking for more than a week or so, since with time the gelatin tends to become
hard and resistant to swelling.
Printing for Bromoil. —Printing may be either by contact or by enlarging, though, if
the former is used, there no gain over

is and there the additional —and sometimes
oil is
tricky —
operation of bleaching. To be satisfactory for bromoil, the enlargement
should be distinctlj^ on the soft side; there should be no very deep shadows, since if
these are present it will be difficult to hold up shadow detail in inking; and the lights
should be a trifle darker than thej^ would be for the ideal bromide print. If this
quality is maintained, inking will be much easier than otherwise, and, though it is
desirable to adjust the negative so that the ideal print quality is maintained with
normal treatment, this is not absolutely imperative. If the negative is slightly too
strong, a satisfactorily soft bromide print may often be secured by giving two or three
times normal exposure, diluting the developer to about a quarter of normal strength,
and removing the print from the developer when the lights have reached the proper
depth. This technique is a "touch-and-go" sort of performance, since the tray must
be rocked constantly if uneven development is to be avoided. The print must be
—
snatched at exactly the right point a trifle before it reaches the desired depth and it —
must be promptly and evenly immersed in the hypo, where it is rocked for î min. or
so after immersion. Still, this plan is often useful, especially since it is not at all
necessary, with bromoil, that the print be developed to infinity, as is required when
toning by the bleaching and sulphiding process is contemplated.
Almost any developer which is suitable for bromide paper can be used, though it is
generally best to employ Amidol, since this, working without alkali, has little or no
chemical effect on the gelatin.
Many bromoil workers favor a stop bath between development and fixing, giving
the print }/2 niin. or so in
Water 1000 . cc. 32 oz.

Acetic acid (28 per cent) 45.0 cc. 1>2 oz.
or (which is the same thing)
Water 1000.0 cc. 32 oz.

Acetic acid (glacial) 12 . cc. 3 drams
The present put the print directly from the developer

writer, however, prefers to
into the hypo, a technique which demands clean trays, clean hands, and prompt work-
ing if stains and uneven development are to be avoided, but which, in his opinion, gives
a print which is more easily inked than if the intermediate acid bath is used.
Fixing must be done in a 25 per cent solution of plain hypo, since any hardening
of the gelatin must be avoided. Washing after fixing must be thorough, since if any
trace of hypo remains in the emulsion it may react with the chemicals of the bleacher,
causing uneven tanning of the gelatin.
Bleaching. —
Bleaching may take place immediately after washing, or the print
may be dried and then bleached at some future time. It is not well to postpone the
bleaching too long, or the gelatin may tend to harden spontaneously. If a dried print
is to be bleached, it should first be soaked in water until thoroughly limp.
It is not possible to give a general formula for the bleacher, since this varies with
different papers, with different inks, with the temperature of the soaking water, with
the worker's stj^le, and with the results desired. Each bromoil worker, therefore, must
try different techniques until he finds that which is most satisfactory.
A technique of bleaching which is recommended by John Kiem, of the Orange
Camera Club, for Defender Velour Black, is as follows:
Water 1000.0 cc. 20 oz.
Copper sulphate 10 5 g.
. 96 gr.
Potassium bromide 10 5 . g. 96 gr.
Hydrochloric acid (c.p.) 10.0 g. 10 drops
Bleach, wash well, and fix in
Water 1000 .0 cc. 20 oz.

Hypo 95.0 g. 2 oz.
Wash well, and dry. Resoak for inking.

The formula which is recommended for Kodak Royal Bromide is as follows:
Water 1000.0 cc. 20 oz.

Copper sulphate 10 . g. 90 gr.
Potassium bromide 7 . g. 65 gr.
Chromic acid . 3 g. 3 gr.
Bleach, wash well, fix, and drj- as above. Resoak for inking.
The writer has found both of these formulas to work well, but there are many
others from which to choose.
The print should be bleached until all the characteristic black image has been
convert,ed to a yellowish brown strongly resembling that of an undeveloped platinum
print or that of a newly printed oil paper. There will be a residual image, which may
darken with exposure to light,
later, and the second fixing recommended above is to
remove thus preventing future deterioration of the print.
this image,
Some workers advise giving the bleached, fixed, and washed print 5 min. in a 3 per
cent solution of sulphuric acid (c.p.) which tends to soften the gelatin and make it
easier to secure the proper relief for inking. This solution may be used warm (up to
110°F.), in which case the effect is still greater. A higher degree of softening of the
gelatin, with consequentlj' greater relief, may be obtained by using the bleacher warm
rather than cold.
It is generallj^ advised to dry the bleached print and resoak before inking, some
workers even going so far as to state boldly that this is imperative. Such, however, is
by no means the case; the writer has frequently made thoroughly satisfactory bromoil
prints by inking immediatelj^ after the second fixing and washing. The difference
of opinion hinges gelatin, by drying, acquires a greater power of
on the fact that the
thus increasing the scale of gradation which it is possible to secure
differential swelling,
(n inking. But if high-keyed or other short-scale prints are desired, it may often be
preferable to swell and ink directly after the second fixing and washing, rather than to
drj' and resoak. This is a point for individual judgment in each case.
Soakh}^. —
Here again, no definite instructions can be given, since the degree of
swelling required varies with the paper, the ink, and the result which is to be obtained.
The temperature of the soaking water may vary from 65 to 150°F. (though it is not
usually safe to go above 110°F.) and the time from 5 min. to 1 hr. Generally speaking,
brief soaking in warm water tends to give more contrast than prolonged soaking at a
lower temperature, and the longer the soaking at any given temperature, the greater
the relief obtained with consequently greater resistance to the ink. Only experience
furnishes a satisfactory guide on this point, though some indication may be got from
feeling the clear margin of the which should be definitely slippery when rubbed
print,
between finger and thumb; if, however, the gelatin breaks down under this treatment,
the water has been too hot, and the print must generally be thrown away.
^
In connection with the matter of soaking, the following point should be noted.
Other things being equal, the temperature of the soaking water controls the
degree of .swelling of the gelatin and consequently its resistance to the ink, i.e., warm
water produces greater swelling than cool. In some cases, it may not be feasible to
complete inking at one sitting, in which case the print maj^ be dried and resoaked for
further inking. But a print cannot be swelled to a lesser degree the second time
th\n was done at first; i.e., if the first soaking water was used at 100°F., for example,
and after drying the print is resoaked at 70°F., the second swelling will be as great as
the first one. On the other hand, if the second swelling is done at 110°F., a greater
relief will be obtained than at first, and any subsequent soaking at a lower temperature
will produce the same relief as though done at 110°F. This is an important point to
bear in mind, since obviously it furnishes an additional means of control and at the
same time limits, to some extent, the possible variations in the matter of inking.
—
The Brushes. Special brushes are required for the inking operation, these being
made either of polecat or fitch hair or of hog bristles. The last is used chiefly for broad
effects or for the first application of ink, the others for finer work or for smoothing out
the rather coarse texture given by the bristle brush. It is advisable to have several
brushes of different sizes, ranging from 3^ to IK in- diameter, for different purposes;
and they should be of the type in which the hairs are cut slanting and are domed, the
square-cut brushes being less flexible in use and more likely to tear the gelatin.
The brushes must be thoroughly cleaned after use; the ink should not be allowed
to dry in them. There are two ways of cleaning them. The method preferred by
most workers is to wash them with gasoline or carbon tetrachloride (which is sold under
the trade names of Carbona and Energine Non-inflammable Cleaning Fluid, as well as
sundry others). The writer prefers to wash his brushes with Castile soap and water,
for two reasons: (1) he feels that this is less likely to take the spring out of the hairs
(this is a debatable point) and (2) frequent applications of water tend to keep the
setting of the hairs more fully swelled, so that the brush is less likely to shed. It is
true, however, that a brush cleaned with gasoline or carbon tetrachloride can be used
again sooner than one washed in soap and water, since the latter usually takes several
days to dry satisfactorily.
The brushes should be kept in cones of stout paper to preserve their shape and
should be hung up, bristles down, when not in use, though this last is not imperative.
—
The Inks. These are oily inks, much stiffer than ordinary printer's ink, and are
sold especially for oil and bromoil work. The two best known are the Drem and the
Sinclair, the former having a wax base, the latter an oil base. There does not seem to
be any choice between them, so far as results are concerned; which to use is a question
of individual preference.
Another ink which works as well as those mentioned (though differently) and is
them is that sold by the makers of printer's inks under the
vastly cheaper than either of
name of Stiff Litho Ink. This is somewhat softer than the bromoil inks and requires
greater swelling of the gelatin, but, if properly handled, it gives results equal in quality
more expensive article. This matter of cost, however,
to the is not important unless
much work is to be done, since a 50-ct. tube of bromoil ink will give a great many
prints, only a very small quantity being required for one inking.
The inks may be obtained in a number of different colors, though, as in gum print-
ing, the rational worker will confine himself to neutral, warm, and cool blacks and
various browns. Sinclair makes two warm-black inks, known, respectively, as Encre
Machine and Encre TaUle Douce, the latter being a relatively thin ink which may
either be used alone or may be mixed with stiffer inks to thin them down for special
purposes.
It is well to have some thinner available, but there is no need to buy the special
bromoil thinner. A small bottle of linseed or olive oil is perfectly satisfactory, the
amount taken up on a broom straw or a large pin being usually enough to add when the
ink must be thinned.
Inking. — When the print has been swelled to the proper point, three or four lintless
blotters, somewhat larger than the print, are dipped into water, drained, and laid on a
sheet of glass or other smooth, approximately level surface. The print is then taken
from the soaking water, drained, and laid face up on them. The purpose of this blot-
ter pad is most workers believe, to keep the print from drying out during inking;
not, as
it no effect on the rate of drying of the gelatin, being used simply
has, indeed, little or
to furnish a soft support, so that the gelatin is less likelj^ to be torn by the repeated
impact of the brush.
The print is then surface-dried. This may be done by dabbing with a piece of
chamois skin (or the soft-tanned leather which is sold under this name in the 5-and-
10-cent stores) or with a wadded-up piece of soft well-washed linen or cotton cloth.
Some writers on the subject say that it is imperative to surface-dry the print by dab-
bing and that it must never be wiped, but this is by no means true. A perfectly
satisfactory way to dry it, which is much quicker than dabbing, is to wipe it lightly but
firmly with a soft automobile windshield-wiper blade.
A small amount of the ink is then squeezed from the tube to a sheet of glass or other
nonabsorbent surface (a dinner plate or the back of an old 8- by 10-in. glass negative is
excellent) and is spread out thin with a palette knife. A quantity the size of a small
pea will ink several 8- by 10-in. prints. The brush is pressed rather firmly into this
film and is dabbed several times on a clean area of the glass to spread the ink evenly
among the hairs. It is then applied to the print. If the preliminarj^ work has been
correctly done, it will be found that the ink adheres to the gelatin in proportion to the
degree of tanning of the film, i.e., it takes most freely in the shadows, less freely in the
half tones, and least of all in the lights, thus with repeated application gradually build-
ing up the picture. But this building up must be slow and gradual; an attempt to
work the print up rapidly is almost certain to defeat itself, except when done by a very
experienced worker.
Up to this point the operations have been more or less mechanical, but this is
where the fun begins.

There are almost as manj^ work-
different techniques of inking as there are bromoil
ers. One man prefers to use a thin ink and to work another uses a stiff ink,
rapidlj^;
working slowly. One man inks the print all over, building up contrast by going over
and over the entire surface; another inks up a small area to its final point, then passes
on to another. The writer generally spends from 39 to 1 hr. in inking a e^- by 8>2-in.
print, but he knows a man who habitually inks a 10- by 12-in. print in 10 min. It
depends on the worker's preference and on the results that he desires. In general, the
writer feels that the best results are obtained throiigh relatively slow inking, and he
prefers to ink a landscape or similar subject all over at first, gradually building up
the contrasts, but to ink the face of a portrait fully, working up the background and
surroundings afterward. This, though, is a matter for each worker to decide for
himself.
There are certain fundamental points to be remembered, as follows:
If the ink. at first application, shows a tendency to take on the clear margin of the
print, the print has not been swelled enough for that particular ink, though a stiffer
one may work all right.
If, later, the ink shows a marked tendency to take on the margin before the inking
iscompleted, the print is drying out too rapidly.

The brush should not be held vertically over the print but at an angle of about 60°.
A slow, dabbing, legato brush action puts ink on the print. A staccato motion
(called "hopping") takes ink off the print. This hopping is a trick of the hand which
must be acquired by practice, but it can best be described as throwing the brush lightly
at the print and catching it on the rebound.
There are wire holders sold for hopping, the idea being that by placing the brush at
the end of a long wire, and, gripping the other end, a slight vibrating motion of the
hand will produce the desired bouncing action of the brush. These should be carefully
avoided, as they are by no means easy to handle, and have a marked inclination to
cause tearing of the gelatin.
If the ink does not take sufficiently to give the desired depth, it may be thinned
— —
down with a trifle and a very small trifle of oil. On the other hand, if it takes too
freely, it may be wiped off with a wet cloth and a stiff er ink used or the print swelled
at a higher temperature.
A thin ink can be applied over a stiff er one; a stiff ink cannot be applied over a
thinner one, unless the latter has been allowed to dry thoroughly.
If the print dries out too rapidly to finish it at one sitting, it may be allowed to
dry completely, being subsequently resoaked and the inking being resumed. If this
is done, it is well to allow time enough for not merely the gelatin but the ink to dry
thoroughly, since, if the print is soaked again while the ink is soft, the latter is apt to
run or smudge.
It is extremely difficult to work fast enough so that the gelatin will not dry out
excessively if the work is done in the ordinary artificially heated house; a humidity of
at least 65 per cent is desirable in the workroom, and even higher than this is better.
If a small amount of ink remains on the margins of the print when inking is com-
pleted, this may be cleaned off by wrapping a soft cloth around the finger, dipping it
into water, and wiping firmly.
When the print is finished, it should be pinned up to dry in a vertical position, to
minimize the settling of dust on the surface, and it is well to pin it by all four corners,
to minimize its tendency to curl.
The worker must carefully avoid getting any water on the brush during inking, as
this will cause white spots in the print. White spots may also result from tearing of
the gelatin, if this has been excessively softened or if the brush is used too violently.
If the brush becomes clogged with ink during inking, so that the ink is deposited in
black specks, it must be laid aside and a clean one taken up.
The brush should never be carried directly from the original pool of ink to the
print, but should always be dabbed out on the area reserved for that purpose.
There is one caution which should be written in large letters and hung on the wall
of every bromoil worker's workroom: "don't overdo." The flexibility of the medium
is so great and the opportunities for personal expression are so wide that the tempta-
tion to play with the print overcomes a great many users of the process. Further,
comparatively few photographers have studied nature with sufficient attention and
thoroughness to know definitely how things look, the result of these two facts being
that painfully false values are more often found in bromoil than in any other printing
medium. This does not mean that the photographer should confine himself to the
true values of nature, any more than the writer of fiction should confine himself to
fact. — —
Exaggeration is legitimate in fact, necessary- in any art medium whatever,
but the productions of the bromoil worker, like those of the fiction writer, should be
convincing. They need not be true, but they must imperatively seem true. It is
therefore necessary for the bromoil worker, more than for the user of any other medium
except gum, to know how things should look, so that when he falsifies he may do it
convincingly.
Degreasing. —
Also called "defatting." The final appearance of an oil or a bromoil
print shows a lustrous quality of surface, this characteristic being, of course, greater in
a print which has rich, deep, blacks than in a higher keyed one. This luster may or
may not be desirable; it adds richness to the shadows, but in some cases the dead matte
quality of a platinum or Fresson print may seem preferable. When this matte surface
is desired, can be secured by allowing the print to dry until the ink is thoroughly
it
hard, then rocking it for a few minutes in a tray of benzol (also called "benzene," but
not "benzine," which has a different chemical composition). This benzol removes the
oily or waxy base, leaving a pure matte surface which is very beautiful and which
—
may be worked on to advantage with a carbon spotting pencil or to lighten desired
—
areas- with a soft pencil eraser. If the benzol is applied before the ink is hard, some
or all of the ink wall be removed, and the print will be ruined.
Transferring. —
The advantages of transferring are that almost any texture of
paper can be used for the final support; that multiple prints are readily made, thus
permitting the emphasizing of desired areas or the combination of various colors; and
that the final result has a fine matte quality of surface which is quite unlike that of the
oil or bromoil print, even though the latter may have been degreased. So far as tex-
tural appearance is concerned, a bromoil transfer has the beautiful quality of a plati-
num print, though, of course, it lacks the exquisite delicacy of gradation of the
latter.
Complete instructions for the transfer process would require more space than can
be given here; workers who are interested in this medium are therefore referred to
"Bromoil Printing and Transfer," by Emil Mayer, obtainable from The American
Photographic Publishing Company, 353 Newbury Street, Boston, Mass. This is an
admirable and very complete book, but it must not be received as absolute gospel,
since it contains a few statements which are, to say the least, highly debatable; how-
ever, it may in general be relied upon.
In transferring, the bromoil print, as soon as it is fully inked, is placed in contact
with a sheet of plain paper and is run through a suitable press, the ink which is on the
bromoil thus being transferred to the plain paper. To secure the best results, the
bromoil should be so strongly swelled by the use of warm water for soaking as to require
a decidedly soft ink; the stiff er the ink, the less readily will it transfer. The bromoil
print should be so inked as to have clean high lights (unless these are, for artistic
reasons, to be veiled in the final result), and the shadows should be somewhat more
heavily inked than they would be if transferring were not to be used the ink usually
;
transfers more completely in the high lights than in the shadows, therefore allowance
must be made for this fact when inking.
Generally speaking, the most suitable paper is one which is tough but has a soft,
moderately absorbent surface. One which is too highly surfaced may be rendered
suitable by dipping it into water, placing it between lintless blotters, running it
through the press, then transferring while it is still damp. If the paper is too absorb-
ent, it should be given a coat of size made by mixing 60 gr. of laundry starch with
4 oz. of water and boiling, with constant stirring, until it is clear. The various char-
coal and drawing papers can generally be used without any preparation.
There are two types of bromoil transfer press. In the first, the print and transfer
paper are passed together between two rolls, one of which is operated by a crank, the
other by the friction between it and the pack. In the second type, the print and paper
are laid on a flat bed and passed under a roll, this roll being geared to the bed. The
first type has the advantage that the regulation of pressure (an important point in
transfer work) is accomplished by means of a setscrew that bears on the frame carrying
the upper roller, whereas in the second type the necessary variations in pressure are
secured by increasing or decreasing the number of blotters or of felt blankets in the
pack, a much less convenient method. On the other hand, the second type of press
eliminates the chance of the print "creeping" on the transfer paper, a circumstance
which is often very troublesome when making multiple prints. There is also a variant
of the first type, having the same advantages and disadvantages, in which the pack is
laid on a flat bed and passed under a roll, the bed moving freely on rollers but being
—
operated by friction alone. Which type of press is chosen is largely a matter of per-
sonal preference; in the writer's opinion, the first type is the better for single transfers,
the second when multiple prints are to be made.
To transfer, two or three pieces on a sheet of pressboard, a
of lintless blotter are laid
ferrotype plate, or — in the case of a flat-bed press —on the bed.
The transfer paper is
then laid on these blotters and the inked print, face down, on the paper. One or two
lintless blotters are laid on the print and over these, if necessary, one or more felt
blankets such as are used by etching printers. This pack is then run through the
press, using comparatively light pressure; it is not necessary or advisable to use so
much pressure that great muscular effort is required to turn the crank. The high
lights of the print will transfer most readily, and the print may be lifted at one end
—
taking care that it does not shift on the transfer paper- to see whether or not the
shadows have transferred satisfactorily. It will probably be found that they have
not, in which case the pressure may be slightly increased and the pack run through the
press again. If the inking, the transfer paper, and the pressure are properly adjusted,
a satisfactory transfer should be obtained this time, but if not, the operation may be
repeated. Too much pressure, however, will probably cause the gelatin of the print
to adhere to the transfer paper in the high lights, resulting in its tearing loose from the
support. If sufficient depth is not readilj^ obtained in the shadows, it is usually better
to reink the bromoil and make a multiple transfer, rather than to try to transfer all
the ink of the shadows by heavy pressure.
After transferring, the bromide print may be stripped away from the transfer
paper, resoaked, and reinked, either for another transfer or for the purpose of adding
another printing to the first transfer. Register marks should, of course, be made on
the back of the bromoil and on the face of the transfer paper before the first trans-
ferringif multiple printing is contemplated. The possible number of printings to be
had from one bromide print depends on the roughness or gentleness of the handling
—
which it receives and varies widely from, say, 5 to 25. The variation is purely
mechanical and does not depend on any chemical action whatever.
After the transfer is perfectly dry, it may be worked on with pencil, stump, or a
soft pencil eraser, to practicallj^ an unlimited extent.
In conclusion, we may say that the chief merits of oil and bromoil printing and of
transfer lie in the extreme richness and depth of the shadows which may be obtained
by this process and in the great flexibility of the medium. Its chief fault lies in the
fact that it is not a truly photographic process. By this last, the writer does not mean
to imply any objection to manual control of resiilts in photography; he has no fault to
find with such control, provided it is properly done. But the essential merit of photog-
raphy, the characteristic in which it surpasses all other graphic mediums whatever, is
the unrivaled delicacy with which it represents the gradations of light on surfaces, and
this is precisely the point in which oil and bromoil and transfer are inferior to other
photographic printing mediums. This, however, is a matter for individual choice;
after all, the great desideratum is, not the production of a photograph, but the produc-
tion of a picture, and each worker will select the medium which best expresses the
idea that he has in mind, making use at times of the delicacj^ and precision of platinum
and at other times and for other purposes employing the breadth of expression and the
control of bromoil.
Bibliography
Sawyer: Gum, Am. Phot., February, 1933, p. 82.

: —
Hanson, R. E. Landscape Bromoil Printing, Am. Phot., May, 1933, p. 257.
Lewis, C. E.: Simple Bromoil, Am. Phot., February, 1934, p. 125.
Anderson, PaulL.: The Gum-pigment Process, Camera, April-September inclusive, 1935.
English, F. L. Bromoil on Enlarging Paper, Am. Phot., May, 1935, p. 290.
:
Bromoil on Ordinary Enlarging Paper, Am. Phot., May, 1935, p. 290.

:
Bauxbaum, E. C: Carbro, A Neglected Pictorial Process, Am. Phot., June, 1935, p. 366.
Anderson, Paul L.: The Fresson Process, Am. Phot., October, 1935, p. 597.
MoRTENSEN, William: Brouiojl Transfer Factors in Inking, Camera Craft, June, 1936, p. 261.
Gum Bichromate, Photo Art Monthly, August, 1937, p. 394.
Anderson, Paul L.: Hand-sensitized Platinum Paper, Am.. Phot., October, 1937, p. 685.
Hand-sensitized Palladium Paper, Am.. Phot., July, 1938, p. 457.
:
Fleming, William D.: Home Manufacture of Materials for Carbon Printing, Am. Phot., August, 1938,
p. 570.
Partrington, Charles H.: Bromoils and Transfers, Defender Trade Bull., September, 1938.
Hammond, Arthur: Bromoil Printing for the Professional, Defender Trade Bull., reprint.
Mater, Dr. Emil: Bromoil Printing and Transfer, Am. Photographer's Pub.
CHAPTER XVII
DEFECTS IN NEGATIVES AND PRINTS
By Beverly Dudley
DEFECTS IN NEGATIVES
In the ideal case, defects in negatives do not occur; in practice defects of one kind or
another occur with sufficient frequency that the perfect negative is somewhat of a
rarity. It is seldom that the fault can be laid to the photosensitive materials. In
nearly every case the defects could have been avoided by cleanliness and complete
and proper attention to details in the exposing, developing, fixing, washing, and drying
of the negative. The best assurance that perfect negatives will be obtained
therefore is to take all precautions toward the prevention of occurrence of possible
defects.
But even under the best of conditions, blemishes of one kind or another will occur,
and,when they do, a corrective or remedial measure is desired so that the film or plate
may be made to produce a satisfactory print. The prevention of defects in negatives
and the correction of these defects so as to produce satisfactory prints are, conse-
quently, two separate and distinct problems so far as the technique of manipulating
negatives is concerned. It is not always possible to find a remedy for certain types of
defects or blemishes in negatives, however, so that prevention of the cause of the
defect is the only true "remedy." But whether or not a defective negative can be
corrected through remedial measures, it is desirable to know
the visual and photo-
graphic characteristics of the defect and the actual or probable cause, after which the
method of prevention and remedy can often be determined. This chapter deals with
such matters.
To make this chapter as useful as possible the various defects which may occur in
negatives are classified into eleven groups depending (usually) upon the visual appear-
ance of the defects as seen by transmitted or reflected light. ^ The 1 1 groups into which
the defects are somewhat arbitrarily classified are:
Blotches, lines, and streaks (page 508)
Blurred negatives (page 512)
Distorted images (page 514)
Fogged negatives (page 517)
Incorrect contrast (page 520)
Incorrect density (page 522)
Markings and spots (page 523)
Mechanical or physical defects (page 529)
Scum, slime, and deposits (page 532)
Stains and discolorations (page 534)
Uneveness (page 537)
By determining into which of these 11 groups the defect falls and then further
following up the individual listings given under this grouping, information on a specific
defect may be obtained quickly.
I See also Defects in Development, p. 361.
507
Blotches, Lines, and Streaks

Here are listed those defects of negatives which appear on the film or plate as white,
gray, or black (but otherwise usually uncolored) blotches, lines, and streaks. Blotches
are considered to be usuallj^ irregular in shape and larger than those defects which
might be classified as spots, which are treated elsewhere. The edges of lines are
usually sharply defined; in the case of blotches and streaks, the edges may be sharply
defined or not.
Abrasion Lines and Scratches.

lA. Distinguishing Characteristic. —Fine
dark lines on the negative, frequently
straight; often appearing in multiple in which case they are usually parallel.
—
2A. Cause. Scratches caused by improper handling of the negative prior to
development. Such lines are often caused by dirt or grit abrading the emulsion.
Such grit vaay come from the interior of the camera, especially if a camera with large
IdcHows is employed, from the tables or other apparatus in the darkroom, or even from
unfiltered sources of water used for processing, (o) If the lines are parallel to the long
side of the film, they may easily have been caused bj^ dust, dii-t, grit, or even small burs
of metal in the roll film camera or in the film pack. Occasionally such lines may be
caused by scratching the surface of the negative with the dark slide of the plate or film
holder. (6) If the lines are at some random angle with respect to the edges of the
negative or if they are not straight, they may have been caused prior to development
or in the earl,y stages of development by abrasion of one negative with another or with
a gritty surface such as the darkroom table or developing traj''.
—
3A. Prevention. Absolute cleanliness is the best safeguard against such defects.
Films or plates should be loaded into their holders shortly before being used, and
should be inserted in the camera just before being exposed. The camera bellows
should be cleaned periodically. Processing tanks and trays should be wiped free from
dust and grit, and the water and other processing solutions should be filtered to free
them from foreign matter. Boxes containing imexposed negatives should be stored on
end to prevent pressure on top from bringing the emulsion into contact with other
surfaces which might scratch.
4:A. Remedy. —Scratches are difficult to remedy, especially if they occur on minia-
ture negatives from which fairlj' large enlargements are to be made. Careful retouch-
ing may help in both contact and projection printing. The effects of scratches may
sometimes be minimized or eliminated in projection printing by dipping the negative
in glycerin after which it is placed between two sheets of glass before being placed in
the enlarger. Air bubbles must, of course, be removed.
—
IB. Distinguishing Characteristic. -Fine, light lines on the negative, frequently
straight; often appearing in multiple in which case they are usually parallel.
—
2B. Cause. Abrasion subsequent to fixing, usually occurring after the iiegative
is dried. In motion-picture and other miniature roll films, "cinching," i.e., winding
the film tighter when in roll form, especially where grit is present, is a frequent source
of trouble.
ZB. Prevention. —
Cleanliness and proper handling of developed film is the best
safeguard. Processed plates and negatives should be stored in a manner as to protect
them from scratches. Glazine or cellophane envelopes are especially suitable for
storing negatives. Roll film should be stored in dust-free boxes, should be handled as
little as possible, and should never be "cinched." Motion-picture film should be
reeled moderately tight with uniform pull during winding and should be stored in
dust-free containers. It likewise should not be "cinched."
4^. Remedy. — (See A A above.)
DEFECTS IN NEGATIVES AND PRINTS 509
Branched Lines with Black Spots. — (See Static Markings, page 511.)
Brush Marks.
1. —Streaks and blotches resembling brush marks.
Distinguishing Characteristic.
2. —Incorrectly compounded or exhausted developing solutions are the
Cause.
most probable causes for such streaks.
Prevention. — Use of correctly compounded developing solutions
3. concen- of full
tration for the negative being processed. Prepared developers are available which,
when dissolved in the proper amount of water will give solutions of the proper strength
and compounding. Certain developers for tray development are not recommended
by the manufacturers for tank development when diluted.
4. Remedy. —
Probably none other than retouching the negative or print.
Dark or Black Streaks or Blotches.
Streaks and blotches occur in several different forms, so that it is not possible
to identify the cause of the defect quite so readily as in the case of certain other defects
of negatives. For this reason, means for the prevention of the defect sometimes may
be difficult to determine. The streaks and blotches may take various shapes, may be
sharply defined with sharp edges, or may be poorlj^ defined with edges of varying
gradation.
lA. Distinguishing Characteristic. — Dark or black streaks or blotches, usually
with shaded edges.
—
2A. Cause. Uneven development which may be due to: (o) failure to immerse a
portion of the film during development; (b) protection of a portion of the negative
against development by intimate contact with another negative or the surface of the
developing tank or tray; (c) failure to provide relative motion between negative, solu-
tion, and developing tray or tank.
—
SA. Prevention.- Immerse negative quickly and completely in developing solution.
During the first few minvites of development, maintain relative motion between nega-
tive and developing solution by agitating solution, moving the negative in the solution,
or rocking or tilting the developing tray or tank.
4A. Remedy. — ^Local intensification of the lessdense portions of the negative may
be employed to assist in bringing the negative to its proper and uniform densitj\
IB. Distinguishing Characteristic. — Irregular dark blotch, resembling splashed
or spattered liquid.
2B. Cause. — Developer splashed on negative prior to development. The action
of this splash of developing solution for a longer time than developer acting on the rest
of the negative produces a darker spot, otherwise uncolored if nonstaining developer
is used.
35. Prevention. —
Cleanliness and careful habits in developing. Do not permit
negatives to around the darkroom, especially if unprotected.
lie
4:3. Remedy. —
^Local reduction may sometimes be used to advantage in this case
(see chapter on Intensification and Reduction).
IC. Distinguishing Characteristic. —
Dark or opaque streaks or blotches.
2C. Cause. —
Dirty developing tray or tank or, perhaps, the use of fixing tray or
tank for developing.
—
3C Prevention. Cleanliness and systematic habits in developing. Where a single
tank is used for carrying out all processing of the negative, it may be advisable to run
clear water through the tank between processing solutions. For single-tank process-
ing, special care should be given to the matter of thoroughly cleaning the tank and
plate or film supports after each use.
—
4C Remedy. Probably none, other than local reduction.
ID. Distinguishing Characteristic. — Dark or opaque streaks, often reasonably

straight, with fairly sharp edges; sometimes accompanied by general fogging of the
negative.
2D. Cause. —^Light striking and fogging the plate or film, (o) If the edges of
the negative are clear (transparent), fogging is indicated as having taken place within
the camera, (b) If the entire negative is fogged, fogging may have taken place in the
darkroom, while loading the negative material into the camera, or at any other point
at which the entire negative may have been exposed to radiations, (c) Certain resin-
ous woods, varnishes, composition slides, etc., have also been known to produce irregu-
lar streaks or blotches or fog.
3D. Prevention.— DeteTvaination of the cause of the streaks or fog will usually
suggest suitable remedy, (a) Pinholes in the camera bellows, old and faulty film or
plateholders, and improper insertion of the slide in the plateholder are frequently
responsible for this type of defect. The
should not be inserted in the film holder
slide
by one and permits fogging. The entire
corner, as this opens the velvet light trap
edge of the slide should be inserted all at once, (b) Handle negatives, especially the
sensitive panchromatic emulsions, in complete darkness or in a safe light which has
been proved to be safe for the type of emulsions used. Use changing bag, if necessarj^,
when loading negatives into their holders. Exclude all light (and other radiations
such as X
ray, ultraviolet, infrared, and undue heat) from the darkroom during proc-
essing, (c) Airing the camera, plateholder, or other offending and fog-producing
apparatus in fresh air and exposing it to sunlight has sometimes been found helpful.
Painting the interior of the metal and wood parts of the camera with a weak solution of
bichloride of platinum is also useful. Change from composition to metal plate slides
is advantageous in some cases.
4:D. Remedy. —
General and local reduction may have some remedial effects.
Dark Straight Lines.
1. Distinguishing Characteristics. — Dark straight lines, starting from one edge

of dark portions of the negative (high lights) and running in one direction in a straight
Line away from the high light.
2. Cause. —
Insufficient agitation of the developing solution, permitting silver to
be deposited on the emulsion below the point where the greatest deposit of silver occurs
— the high lights. In motion-picture development, or in other processes in which
the film is continuously moved through the developing solution in a steady continuous
motion, this defect is caused by the fact that the first part of the film is acted upon
by fresh developer; later portions are acted on hy more or less exhausted developer.
3. Prevention. —
Agitation of the developing solution, or of the negative in the
developer.
4. Remedy. — ^Local reduction of the negative, if carefully carried out, maj'' help.
—
Fan-shaped Lines. (See Static Markings, page 511.)
—
Forked Lines Resembling Lightning.^ (See Static Markings, page 511.)
Light or Transparent Streaks or Blotches.
As in the case of dark streaks or blotches, those which are transparent or lighter
than the mean density of the negative may have various shapes and may have poorly
or sharply defined edges.
\A. Distinguishing Characteristics. —Light streak, sliarply defined or moderately
defined at edges.
2 A. Cause. —
Obstruction before the lens or in the camera between lens and nega-
tivewhich did not permit light to act on the negative. The more sharply defined the
streak is, the more hkely it is that the obstruction was close to the negative.
3A. Prevention. — Determining and removing the cause of light obstruction. A

common source of trouble by beginners in photography is that of placing their fingers
in front of the lens, thereby obstructing light from part of the desired image. Improp-
erly folded bellows may sometimes cut off light from edges of negative.
4A. Remedy.— 'None.
IB. Distinguishing Characteristic— Irregular streaks.
—
2B. Cause!. Prevention of uniform development of the negative. Sometimes this
may be caused by oil or grease from the fingers which prevents action by the developer.
If the negative is washed in water before developing, especially in cold water, certain
areas which are resistant to the action of the developer may be produced in
the washing.
SB. Prevention. —
If due to oil or grease, cleanliness and systematic habits in proc-
essing will prevent recurrences of this defect. If due to washing prior to development
(such washing is of much assistance in preventing the formation of air bells during
development), the wash water should be at the same temperature as the other process-
ing solutions, preferably between 60 and 70°F.
—
4B. Remedy. Probably none if due to grease. If due to resistant areas set up by
wash water, local intensification may be useful.
—
IC Distinguishing Characteristics. ^Light area on negative appearing as (a) a
smudge or (b) generally approximately circular with irregular, sharply defined edges.
—
2C Cause. Sodium thiosulphite coming in contact with negative before develop-
ment. In (a) the hypo is transferred to the negative by hypo-stained fingers, whereas
in (6) the hypo appears have been splashed on the negative.
to
ZC. Prevention. — Cleanliness
and careful habits in developing. Do not permit
unprotected negatives to lie around the darkroom where they may be subjected to
contamination.
4C Remedy. —^Local intensification may sometimes be found useful.
Static Lines and Markings.
1. Distinguishing Characteristics. —
Dark spots with diffused edges singly or in
combination with thin, dark, irregular, forked or branched wavy lines. Static mark-
ings have been classified by Crabtree and Ives as follows: (a) small black spots with
diffused edges similar to certain types of moisture spots or spots caused by chemical
dust; (b) black spots with radiating branches; (c) treelike markings; (d) fan-shaped
markings; and (e) combinations of dots, branches, and fans.
2. Cause. —
These marks are caused by static electrical charges accumulating
on the uegative. The charges may accumulate within the camera, during processing,
or in handling the dry film. In the case of rolled motion-picture film, reeling or imreel-
ing the film during cold, dry weather may produce appreciable static. A common
source of camera static is that in which the negatives in film packs or roll films slide
over a velvet protected corner or through a light trap.
3. Prevention. —
Camera static may be prevented by removing all sources of friction
between the film and the camera and by making all parts of the camera of electrically
conducting material so far as this is possible. Winding the roll film slowly, or pulling
through an exposed film in film packs very slowly, will help diminish the formation
of static charges on the film. Since static is most easily formed with dry substances,
rehumidifying the film, especially if motion-picture reel, will tend to diminish forma-
tion of static. Conducting the combustion products of an alcohol lamp into the
camera chamber is also given as a method of prevention by Crabtree and Ives. In the
case of motion-picture processing, static produced in the laboratoiy processing niaj-
be discharged by passing the film through tinsel or tin foil playing over both surfaces
of the film, the tinsel being grounded. In this case care should be taken to see that
scratches are not produced by this process.
4. — None.
Remedy.
Treelike Lines. — (See Static Lines and Markings, above.)
Blurred Negatives
In the majority of cases, blurred negatives are the result of improper technique in
the focusing or taking of the picture, of excess relative motion between the subject
and camera for the shutter speed used, unsteadiness in holding the camera, etc., rather
than defects in the negative per se as a result of processing.
Blurred Negatives.
—
1^. Distinguishing Characteristic. Part of image blurred; objects nearer or farther
than main point of interest may be sharp, or not.
—
2A. Cause. (a) Camera not correctly focused or (6) too great an aperture and
consequently too small depth of focus for the purpose.
—
SA. Prevention. (a) Proper focusing of camera, making sure that the image of the
principal part of the picture is in sharpest focus. With many small hand cameras and
especially box cameras no focusing is possible, and in this case proper results can be
obtained only with the subject not too close to the camera. With many hand cameras,
focusing is accomplished by turning the front element of the lens system or by increas-
ing the distance between lens and negative with slide or rack and pinion arrangement.
In such cases suitable distance markings are given on the lens mount or on a scale
attached to the camera bed, dependence being placed on the judgment of the photog-
rapher to estimate distances correctly. For such cases, a distance meter may be
useful. If a ground-glass back is provided, still subjects may be focused by means of
this back; distances for moving subjects will have to be estimated. Graflex and reflex
cameras are usually provided with a focusing arrangement which permits the photog-
rapher to view the subject and make focusing adjustments at least up to the time of
making the picture. Many high-grade miniature cameras are provided with an optical
distance meter which is also coupled to the lens system, so that setting the range finder
automatically focuses the camera lens, (b) Insufficient depth of focus may be pre-
vented by using a smaller aperture or /-stop or, if perspective considerations permit,

this result may be minimized by using a lens of shorter focal length.
4A. Remedy. None.—
1J5. Distinguishing Characteristic. — Image completely blurred, although properly
focused.
2B. Cause. —
Camera was moved during the exposure.
SB. Prevention. —
Hold camera steady during exposure. If the camera is held in
the hands, an exposure of about Ji^ sec. is the longest that many people can make
without running the risk of blurring. For exposures longer than this, a tripod support
for the camera will be found useful or even necessary.
4B. Remedy. —
None.
Background blurred, but image of moving
object in foreground reasonably sharp.
2C. Cause. —
In order to obtain sharp image of moving object, camera has been
moved to follow it. The background has been sacrificed to obtain sharp image of
moving object. Such results are often obtained in photographing fast-moving objects.
—
3C Prevention. This type of blur may be eliminated or at least minimized bj^
(a) photographing the moving object from a greater distance so that the relative
motion is less apparent, (b) photographing the subject so as to obtain a more nearly
"head on" view, (c) using a shorter exposure so as better to arrest the relative motion.
In the latter case a larger aperture or a faster emulsion may be required to obtain the
proper exposure with the shorter shutter speed.
—
4C Remedy. None.
ID. Distinguishing Characteristic. —
Some planes of the image in sharp focus; other
planes out of focus.
—
2D. Cause. Insufficient depth of focus.
3D. Prevention.— De^pih. of focus may be increased by using a smaller aperture
in taking the picture. For a given aperture, greater depth of focus will be obtained
with a lens of short focal length rather than one of long focal length, but perspective
considerations must be taken into account in selecting a lens of proper focal length.
4D. Remedy. —None.
\E. Distinguishing Characteristic.—Image generally indistinct.
2E. Cause. —A negative lacking sparkle, snap, or contrast may be due
in to (a) a
dirty lens in the camera, (6) flat lighting or lack of contrast in the original subject, (c)
insufficient contrast due to development, or {d), although relatively rare,

insufficient
fog or moisture condensing on the lens of the camera. This latter condition is espe-
cially prevalent if the lens is suddenly removed from a cold dry atmosphere to a warm
moist atmosphere, in which case moisture condenses on the lens until the lens reaches
temperature equilibrium with its surroundings.
Ê. Prevention. —(a) Cleanliness is the only answer here. The lens should be
kept clean. Dust should be removed with a camel's-hair brush. A dirty lens may be
cleaned with soft lens tissue, after the lens has been breathed upon so as to condense
moisture upon it. Water, alcohol, or other liquids should not be used, nor should linty
or coarse cloth be used in wiping the lens. (6) Flat lighting or lack of contrast in the
original subject often cannot be prevented, especially when making outdoor pictures
on cloudy days, (c) Contrast can be increased (up to its limiting value) only by
proper exposure and development. Contrast depends upon the exposure range, but
for flat subjects with little contrast the apparent contrast may be increased by fairly
long development of the negative and then printing on a contrasty grade of paper.
(d) Do not subject the lens to sudden changes in temperature or humidity. If this
cannot be avoided, allow the lens to reach equilibrium conditions with its surrounding
atmosphere before making exposures.
—
AE. Remedy. Printing a flat negative on a contrasty grade of printing paper is
perhaps the best remedy for improving contrast. No remedy for other causes.
IF. Distinguishing Characteristic. —
Parts of film out of focus or indistinct, with
remainder of film satisfactorily sharp. Sometimes the images may also be somewhat
wavy.
2F. Cause. — Film was buckled in film holder during exposure; not perfectly flat.
3F. Prevention. —
Maintaining the film at uniform temperature, allowing film to
reach equilibrium temperature with its surroundings before taking picture if it has
been subjected to sudden temperature changes, and loading the film in its holder just
prior to exposure are useful in minimizing this type of defect. Buckling of film occurs
much more frequently with large than with small negatives. The film holders should
be inspected to see that they hold the film properly flat. In extreme cases, it maj^ be
necessary to use plates rather than film.
4F. Remedy. —None, although retouching may be used in many cases to counteract
the undesired fuzziness due to buckling.
Multiple Images.
1. Distinguishing Characteristic. — Multiple images appearing superimposed on the

same negative.
Cause.
2. —
Exposure of the same film more than once.
Prevention.— Cevlava. modern miniature cameras cannot be operated until the
3.
roll film has been wound so as to have a new frame in place. Thus, double exposure
is automatically prevented. For other roll-film cameras, turn the roll film until a
new (unexposed) portion of the film is in place immediately after each exposure. For
film-pack cameras, pull the exposed negative after each exposure to the back of the
pack with the paper tab provided for that purpose. For plate cameras, remove
exposed plates from the cameras immediately after exposure, and mark the holders to
indicate plate has been exposed.
4. Remedy. —
None.
Distorted Images on Negatives

Distorted images on negatives, like blurred negatives, are to be regarded more
correctlj^, as a general rule, as being due to defects in the manufacture, application, or
use of the optical system of the camera rather than negative defects per se. The
discussion of distorted images included here is intended as an aid to the photographer
in perfecting his technique and in locating possible trouble in or improper use of his
equipment.
Distortion Due to Buckling of Negative.
1. Distinguishing Characteristic. —
Part of negative out of focus and fuzzy, although
remainder of negative may be quite satisfactory.
2. Cause. —
Buckling of film in the plateholder before or during exposure.
3. Prevention. —
Care in inserting film in film holder and making sure that the film
is held perfectly flat; inserting film in camera just prior to exposure; maintaining film
at constant temperature and humiditj^ are effective aids in minimizing buckling.

Buckling is greater with large film than with small films. In extreme cases, plates
rather than films may be required.
4. Remedy. —
None, aside from retouching negative.
Distortions Due to Camera Adjustments.

There are several possible distinguishing charac-
due to camera adjustments or misadjustments. The most
teristics for distortions
common and most important of these include: (o) too much of subject included in the
picture; (6) insufficient amount of subject included in the picture with, perhaps, part
of desired subject not included; improper perspective; {d) vertical lines converging;
(c)
(e) too much or too foreground included; (/) slight lateral distortion.
little
2. Cause. —
Generally the defects mentioned above are caused by improperly using
the camera adjustments, or may result because the camera is not provided with adjust-
ments, which are required for the type of work being undertaken and which would
enable the photographer to prevent these distortions. More specifically, the causes
may be given, respectively, as follows: (a) If the perspective is satisfactorj^ but the
image is too small, the difficulty was that the camera was too far removed from the
desired subject. If the perspective is bad, this may mean that a lens of too short focal
length or too wide an angle of view was used. Bad perspective may also be due to
viewing the picture from incorrect distance, when either a contact print or an enlarge-
ment is made, (fe) This defect may be the reverse of (a) or may be due to improperly
aiming the camera at the desired subject. If the image is of proper perspective and
size but the subject is not entirely included in the picture, faulty aiming of the camera
is indicated. While such results can always be avoided with view cameras, cameras
provided with precise view finders corrected for parallax, and single-lens reflex cameras,
results of the type mentioned are not infrequently encountered with less expensive
cameras having view finders at the edge of the camera and which are not corrected for
jjarallax. The condition will be most aggravated in photographing subjects near the
camera. If the perspective is poor, a lens of too long a focal length may have been
used for the conditions under which the print is to be viewed. If the^ perspective is
correct but the full subject is not included in the picture, the camera was placed too
close to the subject. The matter of perspective depends not only on the focal length
of the lens used, but also on the degree of enlargement and the normal viewing distance
of the print, (c) Improper perspective may be due to using lens of improper focal
length, improperly viewing the picture, or enlarging the picture so that when viewed
in the normal manner it does not present proper perspective, (d) Convergence of
vertical lines is often caused bj^ pointing the camera up at an angle in order to include
the top of the desired subject. This type of distortion is frequently encountered in
architectural photography where its effects are also most objectionable, (e) Too much
foreground results from pointing the camera down or, more usually, by not properly
raising the rising and falling front. Too little foreground results from the reverse
condition. (/) Lateral distortion, especially objectionable in portraiture, often results
from attempting to photograph a long object at an oblique angle. Relatively few view
cameras are provided with lateral swing backs, use of which would prevent this defect.
3. Prevention. —
(o) Bringing the camera closer to the subject and using lens of
proper focal length will assist in preventing these distortions. The focal length of
the lens should be approximately equal to the diagonal of the negative for good per-
spective. (6) Faulty pointing of the camera may be prevented by using a ground-glass
back for focusing. For the case of small cameras provided with a reflecting view finder
or wire iconoscope having no provision for correcting parallax, it is frequently possible
to obtain better results by focusing as well as possible with the view finder and then
correcting for parallax bj^ turning the camera slightly about a vertical axis through the
lens. Some experience is required to obtain the proper degree of shift, although judg-
ment of the proper shift is aided by sighting along the camera as close as possible along
the optical axis. A lens of shorter focal length or of wider angle will also allow more
of the subject to be included on the negative, although perspective considerations
must be given attention. Otherwise the camera should be removed farther from the
subject, (c) For prevention of incorrect perspective, see pages 26 and 94. {d) Con-
vergence of vertical lines can be prevented by making use of the swing back. Swinging
front, and rising front, if these adjustments are provided on the camera. The back of
the camera (or more strictly, the plane of the negative) should always be vertical when
making architectural photographs, to prevent distortions. The reason for this is one
of convention and in having become accustomed to artists' drawings, rather than one
of intrinsic correctness. It is also preferable that the axis of the lens be horizontal
when normal architectural subjects are photographed. The tops of tall buildings may
then be included by raising the rising front, and if this adjustment is insufficient, by
tilting the bed of the camera upward to further raise the lens with respect to the nega-
tive, (e) By raising the rising front, less foreground is included; by lowering the
front, more foreground may be included. (/) Lateral distortion may be prevented or
minimized by making use of the vertical tilt back, if the camera is provided with this
adjustment..
4. Remedy. — In general, there is no remedy for negatives containing the distortion
defects enumerated above, except retouching of the negative, or making a new photo-
graph under more desirable and correct conditions. In certain cases some forms of
distortion may be corrected or minimized in projection printing by tilting the bed of
the enlarger to compensate for distortion in the print. But while satisfactory in some
cases,such corrective measures are inferior to the results which might be obtained
from a negative originally without distortion.
Distortion Due to Film Shrinkage.
1. Distinguishing Characteristics. — Shrinkage of film so that negative is not a

properly scaled image of the subject.
2. CoMse.-^Swelling, expanding, and contraction of gelatin.
3. Prevention. —
Some swelling of the gelatin always takes place when it is wet.
Distortions to film expansion or contraction can be minimized by processing in solu-
tions, all of which are at the same temperature. In copying or process work where
slight distortions due to shrinkage are most serious, plates will be found preferable to
film.
4. Remedy. — Xone.
Distortion Due to Improper Monochromatic Rendition of Color.
In monochromatic photography, the brightness
of the grayimage on the negative is not inversely proportional to the brilliance of the
colored image as evaluated by the human eye. This is sometimes difficult to deter-
mine in the negative but is usually apparent in a print, since the monochromatic
rendition of colors does not bear a close direct relation to the visual brilliance of the
corresponding part of the subject.
2. Cause. —This defect may be due to any one or more of the following causes:
(a) use of orthonon (noncolor sensitive) or orthochromatic materials, which are
deficient in sensitivity for some regions of the visible spectrum (b) failure to use proper
;
light filters, or failure to use any filters whatsoever; (c) use of light source having such
spectral-energy distribution as to produce incorrect or undesired results with the type
of negative emulsion and filter employed. For a more complete discussion of this
subject, see chapter on Light
Filters, page 312.
3. Prevention. —The
proper use of the correct type of negative emulsion, filter,
and light source to give the desired result.
4. Remedy. —
None, aside from retouching the negative or prmts made from it.
Distortions Due to Lenses.
When the distortions of an image on the nega-
tive aredue to distortions produced by the lens system, a wide variety of distinguishing
characteristics may be observed, depending upon the lens defect, or the improper use
and application of the optical system of the camera. The most common distinguishing
characteristics (although hardly common even in inexpensive cameras of good manu-
facture) are (a) same image does not appear identical when taken under conditions
identical in all respects except that the lens (and consequently the camera) is rotated
90° about its central or optical axis; (6) colored images are lacking in detail and sharp-
ness and are difficult to focus sharply on ground glass, although sharp focusing may be
obtained with monochromatic subjects; (c) images are curved, so as to give effect of
barrel or pincushion distortion which is especially objectionable when photographing
architectural subjects or copying line drawings; (d) distortion of bright point into a
pear-shaped image; (e) center of picture in focus, but outer edge out of fpcus, or vice
versa; (/) image cannot be sharply focused under any conditions with either colored
or monochromatic subject, and consequently fuzzy and unsharp negatives result;
(g) unequal illumination of field; {h) negative shows image in a circle, usually with
diffused edges.
2. Cause. —These distortions are due, respectively, to: (a) astigmatism, (fe)
chromatic aberrations, (c) curvilinear distortion, {d) coma, (e)curvature of field,

(/) spherical aberrations or perhaps scratches in the lens, (g) probably due to lens
being off center from center of camera, and (h) using lens which will not cover the
entire negative area.
3. Prevention. —
Since these defects are inherent in the lens system itself, there is
usually nothing that the photographer can do which will prevent or correct these dis-
tortions without changing his lens system. Every lens contains some defects and
distortions although in most cameras these have been reduced to the point where they
are of no consequence for the ordinary run of work. In certain classes of work, where
high precision, sharp definition, and absolute freedom from distortion are required,
the best possible lenses will be required.Under (g) the photographer may be able to
align the lens and camera so as to produce even illumination if the defect is caused
simply by improper alignment. In (h) the difficulty may be due to use of a lens of
insufficient covering power for the plate or film used, rather than an inherent lens
defect. Replacing by lens of greater covering power, or using a smaller plate which
the lens will cover, will correct this trouble.
4. Remedy. —
The remedy for a defective optical system in a camera consists in
obtaining another but satisfactory lens system, or returning the defective lens to the
manufacturer for whatever grinding, polishing, or other corrections may be required.
Items ig) and {h) may be corrected by the photographer as enumerated under
Prevention,
Fogged Negatives
Fog may be defined as a uniform darkening of the negative due to a deposit of
silverwhich does not form a part of the image and which may partially or completely
obliterate the image. Fog tends to increase the density and decrease the contrast of
the negative. Fog may be general, in which case the entire negative is more or less
uniformly darkened, or it may be local, in which case only a part of the negative is
darker than it should be.
Aerial Fog.
1. Distinguishing Characteristic. —General veiling of the negative or portions of the
negative exposed to air during development.
2. Cause. —Exposure to air during development. The tendency toward aerial fog
is especially marked with certain freshly prepared developers or by developers contain-
ing formaldehyde. Aerial fog is produced only with hydroquinone under ordinary
processing conditions, but developers such as pyro, glycine, and para-aminophenol
produce aerial fog in the presence of traces of copper or tin salts. Even slight traces
of salts of copper produce decided aerial fog. Fogging increases as the proportion of
alkali and hydroquinine is increased in metal-hydroquinine developers. It is especi-
ally bad in some methods of processing motion-picture film.
3. Prevention. —
Aerial fog may be reduced by the use of desensitizers, by the
addition of sulphite or bromide to the developer, or by the use of partially oxidized
developers. Under ordinary conditions, the addition of 2 parts of pinakrytol green
per 1,000,000 parts of developer will prevent aerial fog. A predevelopment bath of 1
part of pinakryptol green to 25,000 parts of water is also effective in preventing aerial
fog.
4. Remedy. —Sometimes reduction may be resorted to, but frequently there is no
remedy.
Dichroic Fog.
1. Distinguishing Characteristic. —Two-color fog which appears as green or reddish-
green sheen by reflected light and red by transmitted light.
2. Cawse.—This type of fog is produced by a deposit of finely divided particles of
silver, the size of the particles determining the color as seen by transmitted light. It
may, produced wherever free silver is encountered such as in the develop-

therefore, be
ing or fixing baths. In development, dichroic fog is formed in the presence of some
silver bromide solvent such as ammonia, an excess of sulphite or alkali, or hypo.
Thus, in single-tank processing, residue of hypo in the tank may produce dichroic fog
the next time development is done. If the fixing bath is not acid, or if it is exhausted
or contains an excess of dissolved silver, dichroic fog may be produced in the fixing
process.
3. Prevention. —
Dichroic fog may be prevented from being produced in the devel-
oper by adding lead acetate to the developer or cleaning the processing system with a
hot sodium hypochlorite solution. This procedure prevents the formation of sulphide
accumulations. The addition of 1.5 g. of potassium iodide per Uter of developer will
tend to decrease formation of fog by converting dissolved silver bromide into relatively
insoluble silver iodide. In the fixing bath, dichroic fog may be prevented by main-
taining the bath at its normal acidity and by using an intermediate bath of clear water
between developing and fixing so as to diminish the amount of developer carried over
into the hypo. Hardening the gelatin before development also tends to reduce tend-
ency for the formation of dichroic fog.
4. Remedy. —
-Dichroic fog may be removed by rinsing the negative in a solution
of 0.5 gr. of potassium permanganate (KMn04) to each ounce of water until the fog
has disappeared. The brown stain of manganese oxide which forms during this rinse
may be removed by washing the negative in a 5 per cent solution of potassium meta-
bisulphite or of sodium bisulphite.
Chemical Fog. —-(See Development Fog.)

Development Fog.
1. Distinguishing Characteristic. — General or local veiling of image due to deposit

of silver on the negative.
2. Cause. —
Practically all fogging troubles not directly caused by light are grouped
together under the general classification of chemical fog or development fog. Devel-
opment fog may result from any number of factors (some of which are treated sepa-
rately in this section) and includes certain types of fog which are likewise treated
elsewhere in this section. Thus development or chemical fog may be due to (a) the
nature of the negative emulsion, (6) the factory processing of the emulsion (emulsion
fog), (c) the age and past history of the negative, {d) the nature of the developer, (e)
impurities in the developer, (/) the time of development processing, {g) the tempera-
ture of development processing, {h) the presence of metallic salts in the developer,
{i) the presence of sodium sulphide in the developer, {j) the general processing during
development which may give rise to aerial fog, or (/c) the nature and intensity of the
darkroom illumination, for example.
3. Prevention. —The manner
of preventing the various types of development or
chemical fog depends upon the specific cause of the fog. According to the classifica-
tion given above, the following preventive measures have been found useful.
a. The amount of fogging of a negative is proportional to the speed of the negative
or its sensitivity to light. Consequently, most difficulty from fogging maj^ usually
be expected from fast panchromatic emulsions, with minimum fogging resulting when
slow noncolor-sensitive emulsions are used. Some fog always occurs, although under
proper conditions this may usually be neglected for practical purposes.
Emulsion fog results from the presence of developable grains of silver halide in
h.
the unexposed portions of the emulsion. Emulsion fog is usually greater in fast emul-
sions than in slow emulsions and may be produced in the process of manufacture by
contact with fogging materials or by deterioration with age.
c. During storage, emulsions may show a tendency to fog. This tendency is

aggravated in the presence of moisture and heat and in the presence of such gases and
vapors as hydrogen sulphide, coal gas, and fumes of turpentine and benzol. Conse-
quently, preventive measures should be those which will protect the stored negative
material from exposure to chemicals, gases, fumes, light, undue heat, and other radia-
tions. Keep on hand only such material as will meet normal demands for negative
material.
d. When properly used, none of the common developers produce sufficient fog to
be serious in practical photography, except possibly in certain kinds of scientific

work. Fresh and properly compounded developers are the best preventive against
fog produced by the developer itself. The developer should be free from impurities,
especially those of metallic salts, and should be used at the normal recommended
temperature. This will ordinarily be between 60 and 70°F.
e. Impurities in the developer may produce appreciable fogging. Excess of sul-
phite or the presence of metallic salts in the developer or the metals themselves are a
relatively common source of fog. The only preventive is to use properly com-
pounded developers of chemical purity and to ascertain that impurities do not con-
taminate the developing solution. Traces of metals or metallic salts may easily come
from metallic developing tanks.
/. The amount of fog is roughly proportional to the time of development, so that,
so far as fog is concerned, it is inadvisable to prolong development beyond the normal

time recommended by the manufacturer of the photosensitive material.
g. Development, as practically all chemical reactions, proceeds at a more rapid
rate at high than at low temperatures. Consequently the tendency toward fog
increases as the temperature of the developer is increased. For normal processing, the
usual recommendation of manufacturers is that the developer temperature should not
exceed 70°F. or 21 °C.
h. The presence of metallic salts or of metals in the developers is to be avoided.
i. The presence of excess sulphite in the developer should be avoided.
j. Since aerial fog results from exposure of the wet negative to the air during devel-
opment, this type of fog may be reduced or eliminated by keeping the negative material
completely submerged in solution during development.
k. Too intense a darkroom light or the wrong type of safe-light filter for the type
of emulsion being processed may result in light fog or in partial or complete reversal
of the image during development. The darkroom safe light should (1) pass only those
wavelengths for which the negative is insensitive or (2), in the case of panchromatic
emulsions, should transmit freely only in the region for which the human eye is most
sensitive at low light intensities. The recommendations of the manufacturer may be
taken for the type of safe-light filter to use with a given emulsion. Manufacturer's
recommendations concerning the amount of light to use may be taken as a general
guide, but practical tests will indicate whether or not any particular situation produces
fogging.
Generally speaking, development or chemical fog may be eliminated or niinimized
by (1) using fresh, pure, and properly compounded developers, (2) developing for the
correct time and at the correct temperature, (3) keeping the negative completely
submerged in developer, (4) developing in absolute darkness or with a safe light which
has been proved satisfactory.
4. Remedy. —
General reduction of the negative may sometimes be helpful.
Emulsion Fog.
1. Distinguishing Characteristic. — General veil of fog on negative not accounted
for bj^ light or chemical fog.
2. Cause. —Presence unexposed por-

of developable grains of silver halide in the
tions of the negative. Probably due to
contact of negative with fogging materials,
(a)
(b) deterioration of negative material with age, or (c) as a result of manufacturing
operations.
3. Prevention. — (a) Store so as to be free from light, undue heat, or other radiations
or from gases and fumes, (b) Use materials within the expiration date established
bj' the manufacturer.Store in cool, dry atmosphere, (c) There is no remedy in this
case,although the amount of emulsion fog due to manufacturing processes should

never be appreciable with products made by a reliable concern.
Light Fog.
General fog may be produced by light as well as by chemical action. Light fog is
the more common tj'pe of fog, especially if a properly compounded, fresh dcA'eloper of
chemical purity is used,
1. Disti7iguishing Characteristics. —
General fog or darkening of the negative; also
local fog which may
appear as streaks, often with straight edges.
2. Cause. —
In general light fog is caused by light striking the negative prior to
fixation in the hypo bath. The manner in which the light may strike the photosensi-
tive material varies considerably, but among the possibilities may be mentioned:
{a) fog produced wdthin the camera due to imperfect, old, or loose construction which
permits passage of light through various parts or through joints; (6) by the improper
use of camera equipment, such as inserting the slide of the plateholder by one corner
instead of by the entire edge; (c) use of camera and accessory fittings not intended to
be used together, such as incorrectly fitting plateholders; (d) loading or unloading the
photosensitive material in light which is too strong; (e) by using too strong a safe
light in the darkroom or a safe light with filter unsuited for the emulsion or by permit-
ting the negative to be exposed too long to the darkroom lamp; (/) by chemical emana-
tions from the finish of camera parts.
3. Prevention. —
In general, the best prevention for light fog is to handle and process
the photosensitive material in sufficientlj^ subdued light (or in the case of panchromatic
emulsions, in complete darkness), so that light radiations can produce no fog. Pre-
ventive measures for items (a) to (e) above will suggest themselves when the true
cause of the fog has been determined. In the case of (/), exposure of camera parts to
strong sunlight and painting interior of the camera parts with a weak solution of potas-
sium permanganate have been found helpful.
4. Remedy. —
Reduction may sometimes be useful in remedying general fog.
Local Fog.
Fog or uniform darkening of parts of the nega-
tive in a manner having no relation to the photographed image.
2. Cause. —
Same as Light Fog (see above).
3. Prevention. —
Same as Light Fog; see above. A frequent cause for local light
fog pinholes in the bellows of the camera.
is In this case, the pinholes may be
detected by placing a lighted electric lamp inside the bellows, and watching for the
a darkened room. The pinholes may be repaired by cementing a piece
.spots of light in
of thinblack opaque leather or cloth over the hole.
4. Remedy. —
Local reduction of the more dense portions of the negative may
sometimes be helpful.
Incorrect Contrast
It is sometimes difficult for the beginner to distinguish between incorrect density
and incorrect contrast in negatives, especially since a given negative may possess both
defects simultaneously. For this reason it is suggested that the section following, i.e.,
Incorrect Density, be read in conjunction with this one if any doubt exists as to the
proper interpretation of density and contrast. It is also suggested that reference be
made to the chapter on Photographic Sensitometry, where the matter of proper expo-
sure and rendition of tones in negatives is taken up in some detail.
Incorrect contrast is usually caused by incorrect development if it may be assumed
that the original subject had satisfactory contrast and was correctly lighted.
Contrasty Negatives.
1.4. Distinguishing Characteristic. —Shadows lack detail and other tones are too
contrasty.
—
2A. Cause. Underexposure and overdevelopment. Overdevelopment may have
been caused by using too strong a developer, developing too long a time, or developing
at too high a temperature.
3.4. Prevention. —
Give longer exposure and less development. Use developer of
proper strength at proper temperature for proper time.
—
AA. Remedy. Excessive contrast can be corrected by printing on a soft-grade or
flat printing paper. No remedy for lack of detail in shadows.
Detail in all tones, but all tones too contrasty.
—
2B. Cause. Proper exposure but overdevelopment.
35. Prevention. —Develop for proper time and at proper temperature.
4fi. Remedy. —
Printing on soft grade of paper will correct contrast. Since the
negative is correctly exposed, full correction can be made in printing.
High lights lack detail; other tones too con-
trasty.
2C. Cause. —Overexposure and overdevelopment.
3C —Less exposure and development.
Prevention. less
4C Remedy. — Printing on grade
soft paper ofcorrectwill for excessive contrast.
No remedy for loss of detail in high lights.
Drying Down.
Negative appears properly exposed and devel-
oped when wet, but contrasty and overexposed in the high lights after being dried,
2. Cause. —
Slow drying of negative at high temperature and high humidity.
3. Prevention. —
The temperature at which drying takes place should usually not
exceed 95°F. unless the negative is hardened. Best drying is obtained with the rela-
tive humidity between 40 and 70 per cent.
4. Remedy. —
Contrast may be lessened in printing by printing on a soft or flat
paper. No remedy if high-light detail is lacking because of overexposure.
Flat Negatives.
lA. Distinguishing Characteristic. —

Shadows lack detail and the other tones are
too and lacking in contrast.
flat
—
2A. Cause. Underexposure as indicated by lack of shadow detail; underdevelop-
ment as indicated by lack of contrast.
3.4. Prevention. —
Proper exposure and proper development. A good exposure
meter will assist in properly determining exposure. The recommendations of the film
manufacturer should be followed in developing, both as to time and to temperature.
AiA. Remedy. —
Density may be increased by intensifying, although lack of shadow-
detail cannot be corrected. The best corrective measure is to make a print on con-
trasty paper, although shadow detail will still be lacking.
\B. Distinguishing Characteristic. — Detail in all tones, but all tones too flat.
—Proper exposure, but

2B. Cause. development. Developer too
insufficient cold;
insufficient developing time.
ZB. Prevention. — Develop at time and temperature recommended by the manu-
facturer.
4B. Remedy. —This condition may be remedied the print by printing on a
in final
contrasty grade of paper.

IC. Distinguishing — High
Characteristic.lack and tones are too
lights detail, all
flat.
2C. Cause. — Overexposure and underdevelopment.

3C. Prevention. — Correct exposure and development. Give exposure. less
Develop for a longer time or at higher temperature. Make sure the developer is not
exhausted.
4C Remedy. —Printing on contrasty paper will remedy lack of contrast in the
negative, but lack of detail in high lights cannot be corrected.
Reversal of Image.
1. Distinguishing Characteristic. —All or part of the negative shows positive

rather than negative image when viewed by transmitted light. The type of image
seen by reflected light cannot be considered as giving true indication.
2. Cause. —Reversal image may be due to excessive exposure or, more usually, to
light fog of the negative during development. In the latter case the image which first
develops serves as a negative for the exposure from the darkroom illumination during
development. Thus the already developed image is impressed on the silver grains in
a lower layer of the emulsion, so that a positive image results. Reversal of image due
to operation on the negative slope of the H and D curve requires excessive exposure
time in most cases but can be obtained for exposures of reasonable time when photo-
graphing the sun or other bright bodies.
3. Prevention. —
Sufficiently subdued darkroom illumination and protection of
negative from exposure during development, or manipulation of entire photographic
processes in complete darkness. Reversal of image due to overexposure is sufficiently
difficult to produce that any reasonable exposure will prevent this occurrence.
4. Remedy. —None.
Incorrect Density
As incorrect density and incorrect contrast are frequently present simultaneously
in thesame negative, it is suggested that this section be read in connection with the
previous section on Incorrect Contrast if any doubt exists as to proper interpretation
of characteristics of the negative.
Dense Negatives.
1.4 . Distinguishing Characteristic. — Negative generally dense, with detail lacking in
high lights; other tones too fiat.
—Overexposure and underdevelopment.

2 A. Cause.
— exposure and greater development.
3.A. Prevention. ^Less
4A. Remedy. — Print on contrasty grade printing paper. Dense negative
of will
require relatively long printing time. No remedy for lack of detail high in lights.
IB. Distinguishing — Negative dense. High
Characteristic. lack other lights detail;
tones correctly rendered.
2B. Cause. — Overexposure but correct development.
SB. Prevention. — exposure.
^Less
4B. Remedy. — Print on normal grade paper. No remedy for lack
of high-light of
detail.
IC Distinguishing Characteristic. — Negative dense with detail lacking in the high

lights; other tones too contrasty.
2C —Overexposure and overdevelopment.
Cause.
— exposure and shorter development, or development at lower
3C. Prevention. ^Less
temperature.
AC. Remedy. — Print on grade paper.
soft Dense negative
of require will relatively
long printing time. Printing time may be reduced by reducing negative. No remedy
for lack of high-light detail.
Thin Negatives.
lA. Distinguishing Characteristic. — Negative fairly transparent without much
deposit of silver. Shadows lack detail; other tones too flat.
—
2A. Cause. Underexposure and underdevelopment.
—
ZA. Prevention. Greater exposure and development.
4A. Remedy.—Thin negatives will require short printing time, which may be
increased by intensifying negatives. Print on contrasty paper. No remedy for lack
of detail in shadows.
IS. Distinguishing Characteristic. —
Negative thin and lacking in shadow detail;
other tones correctly rendered.
—
2B. Cause. Underexposure and correct development.
—
35. Prevention. Increased exposure.
—
45. Remedy. Print on normal grade of paper. No remedy for lack of shadow
detail.
Negative thin and lacking in shadow detail;
other tones too contrasty.
2C. Cause. —
Underexposure and overdevelopment.
3C. Prevention. —
Greater exposure and less development.
—
4C Remedy. Print on soft or flat grade of printing paper. No remedy for lack
of detail in shadows.
Uneven Density.
1. —Streak or area
Distinguishing Characteristic. of incorrect density.
2. Cause. —Uneven development or uneven fixing.
3. Prevention. —Immerse rapidly and
entire film completely in developer and
agitate solution during development. Kept negative moving with
respect to both
solution and tray or tank by shaking or tilting tank or tray. If due to incomplete
or uneven fixing, refixing to completion will prevent uneven density.

4. Remedy. —
If due to uneven development, local intensification may be of some
help. If due to uneven fixing, refixing to completion will sometimes help.
Markings and Spots

Air Bells or Gas Bells.
Round transparent spots with well-defined
edges. Occasionally in motion-picture processing the spots may be elliptical rather
than round.
2. Cause. —Formation of air or gas bells on the emulsion side of negative during
processing which prevents the solution from acting upon the emulsion, (a) A light
or transparent spot indicates the formation of the air bell during development. (6) A
dark or opaque spot indicates formation of bubble during fixing, (c) A spot which
appears as a brown or yellow-brown discoloration upon aging indicates the formation

of air bubbles during washing, but this is infrequent as negatives arc usually agitated
during washing sufficiently well as to prevent formation of air bells. Shaded edges
which may be fuzzy rather than sharp indicate that the size of the air bell changed
during processing.
3. Prevention. —Sufficient agitation of the negative in the processing solutions is a
general preventive for the formation of air or gas bells. Bubbles may also be elimi-
nated by brushing the surface of the negative with a soft camel's-hair brush during
processing. Formation of air bells during development may often be eliminated by
rinsing the negative in clear water prior to development.
4. Remedy.- —
^Local reduction or intensification may be effective, although retouch-
ing will probably be required.
Bare Spots.
1. —Spot of bare glass or
Distinguishi7ig Characteristic. from emulsion. film free
2. —Defect manufacture. Occurs very infrequently, especially with
Cause. in
negative materials manufactured by concerns. reliable
3. Prevention. — None, far as photographer
so concerned. is
4. Remedy. —None, except possibly retouching. Manufacturers usually will

replace defective materials.
Black Spots.
Dark or opaque spots of various shapes, usually
sharply defined at the edges.
2. Cause. —
Foreign matter imbedded in the emulsion during fixing, developing,
washing, or drying.
3. Prevention. —Keep negative free from contamination of dust, lint, and other
particles. See that all solid particles are dissolved before using solutions. Filter all
solutions if necessary.
4. Remedy. —Retouching.
Brown Spots.
1. Distinguishing Characteristic. —Brown spots, usualh^ sharplj'^ defined, irregular,

and often small.
2. —Dry
Cause. developing agents
particles of on dry negative before
settling
processing.
3.Prevention. — Cleanliness processing. Avoid mixing chemicals where they
in
may come into contact with photosensitive materials.
4.Remedy. —Sometimes such spots may be removed by hardening the a film in
10 per cent solution of formalin for several minutes to prevent swelling and frilling,
after which the film is washed in water. The film is then bleached in a solution of
equal parts of (a) 5 g. of potassium permanganate per liter of water, and (6) 75 g. of
sodium chloride (common table salt) and 15 cc. of sulphuric acid per liter of solution.
The solutes (a) and (b) must be thoroughly dissolved before the solutions are
combined. After bleaching for 3 or 4 min., the brown stain of potassium perman-
ganate is removed bj^ immersing the negative in a 5 per cent solution of sodium bisul-
phite. The negative should then be rinsed in water and developed in strong light with
a nonstaining developer, such as metol-hydroquinone.
Cinch Marks.
Fine transparent parallel scratches on emulsion.
2. Cause. —From the produced when adjacent layers of film in a roll slide
friction
past one another. Thej^ are frequently produced when attempts are made to tighten
a looselj'^ wound roll by pulling on the free end.
3. Prevention. — Cinch marks can be prevented only by proper and careful handling
of rolled films. Loosely wound rolls should not be tightened except by complete
rewinding onto a new spool or reel.
4. Remedy. —None.
Cloudy or Wavy Appearance.
1. Distinguishing Characteristics. — Cloudy or wavy appearance of negative; uneven

density.
2. Cause. —
Insufficient developer to cover the negative or failure to agitate the
negative in the developer, resulting in uneven development.
3. Prevention. —
Use sufficient developer to completely cover negative. Immerse
negative quickly and completely in solution, and agitate solution during development,
4. Remedy. —
^Local intensification or dodging in printing may help in certain cases.
Drop Marks.
1. Distinguishing Characteristics. — (a) Spots with gray halos. (6) Dark-gray
spots with small white centers, (c) Hazy white spots, (d) Spots with dark narrow
outlines.
2. Cause. —^These
marks are due to water marks on the film during the drying
process, This type of spot is most commonly formed by drops of water on the
(a)
base side of the film, although in some cases the water mark may have been on the
emulsion side, (b) This type of spot often occurs when a large spot of water is left on
the film which is subjected to rapid drying at high temperatures, (c) Sometimes hazy
white spots occur if processing has been carried on at temperatures well above 70°F. or
when the ffim is dried rapidly at high temperatures even though all excess moisture has
been removed, (d) Spots having the same density as the rest of the film but with a
dark outline at the edge of the drop are caused by large drops of water on the emulsion
side of the negative.
3. Prevention. — Careful and systematic habits in processing will guard against
such spots. The negative should be protected from splashing solutions. Squeegeeing
to remove surplus and excess surface moisture or removing this water by blotting
the surface with lintless cloth or a sponge before drying is also effective.
4. Remedy. —
In some cases it may be possible to eliminate water-drop marks by
rinsing the negative in water and redrying under proper drying conditions. Water
marks on base side of ffim sometimes may be removed by breathing upon the film and
then wiping it with a clean soft cloth.
Dust Marks.
1. Distinguishing Characteristic. —Dust or lint imbedded in film.
2. Cause. —^Drying in dust- or lint-laden atmosphere.
3. Prevention. —
Drying under properly controlled conditions. Removal of surface
moisture and drying negatives in dustproof frames covered with closely woven fine-
mesh cloth which has been starched or glazed will help to prevent dust reaching the
negative.
4. Remedy. —
Frequently none. Sometimes washing and drying a second time
under proper conditions may be useful.
Halation.
1. Distinguishing Characteristic. — Dark band, circle, or area surrounding high

lights and frequently suggestive of double image.
2. Cause. —Halation is due to the reflections which occur from the back of the
negative support when brightly lighted objects, such as street lamps in night street
scenes, are photographed. The condition is usually worse with plates than with film
negatives, because the greater thickness of plates produces a larger area of
halation.
3. Prevention. —
The use of films or plates having light-absorbing or "antihalation^'
backing will usually prevent halation. Films usually produce less objectionable
halation than plates. In processing films or plates likely to show halation, give full
exposure and full development. The developer should contain initially a small
amount of accelerator, and the amount of accelerator should be increased in small
amounts, gradually, as development proceeds.
4. Remedy. —
Local reduction or reto\iching may help sometimes.
Fading.
1. Distinguishing Characteristic- —
Brown, yellow, or sepia tones in the negative,
appearing some time after processing.
2. Cause. —
Incomplete fixation, or, more usually, incomplete washing after fixing.
Use of old or exhausted fixing bath containing excess of silver. Insufficient agitation
when first immersing films in fixing solution. Tendency to stain increases with old
fixing baths which have become neutral or alkaline rather than acid and with strongly
alkaline developing baths.
3. Prevention. —
Complete fixing and washing. A rule which is often followed is
to fix the negative twice as long as the tjme required for the white opalescence to dis-
appear completely. Wash until all traces of hypo are removed. Make sure that the
fixing bath is acid.
—
Remedy. No remedy is available which is entirely satisfactory in all cases
4.
although printing or copying the negative through a yellow filter has sometimes proved
quite successful. These yellow silver stains sometimes may be eliminated by remov-
ing hypo by washing thoroughh'^ in water, and dissolving sodium thiosulphite with a
1 per cent solution of potassium cyanide in which the negative is washed. Potassium
cyanide is a deadly poison and gives off poisonous fumes of hydrocyanic acid.
Extreme care should be taken to keep this solution from the mouth and to prevent
breathing cyanide fumes. The operation with potassium cyanide should be carried
out in a well- ventilated room. The film should be removed from this bath as soon as
signs of reduction of the image appear and should be washed thoroughly in clear water.
Finger Marks.
1. Distinguishing Characteristic. —Finger marks, frequently showing Bertillion

fingerprint lines.
2. Cause. — Impressing moist, wet, dirty, or greasy fingers on the wet or dry nega-
tive. Damage is most easilj' done when the negative is wet, especially if the finger
print is made on the emulsion side of the negative, (a) Marks showing the lines of the
fingers aremost frequently caused by handling the dry negative with dirty, moist, or
greasy fingers, ih) If the dark marks show mereh'^ an outline of the finger, the prob-
able cause is that of handling the negative with wet or greasy hands, (c) If the finger
marks are dark, contamination of the fingers with developer is indicated, {d) If the
finger marks are light or semitransparent, contamination of the fingers with hypo is
indicated.
3. Prevention. — Cleanliness and care are the best preventatives, as these defects
are due only to lack of cleanliness.
4. Remedy. —
-Grease fingerprints impressed on a dry negative may frequently be
removed by wiping negative with lens tissue or soft lintless cloth dampened with
carbon tetrachloride. No remedv for other causes.
Irregularly Shaped Spots.

Spots of irregular shape; often along the edge
of the negative but rarely uniformlj' over the entire negative.
2. Cause.— Exhausted developer.
3. —Use
Prevention. of fresh and properly compounded developer.
Microscopic Spots.
1. Distinguishing Characteristic. —Small, light, or transparent spots, irregular in
shape and small or microscopic in size.
2. Cause. —
Dust deposited on the negative.
3. Prevention. —
Keep negative free from dust, in the camera as well as in the dark-
room. Keep camera bellows clean by brushing dust out regularly. In the darkroom
keep negative protected until ready for processing. Dust may be removed from the
dry negative by playing a camel's-hair brush over the negative.
4. Remedy. —
Careful spotting or retouching.
Mottled Appearance.
1. Distinguishing Characteristic. — Mottled appearance of part or all of image.
2. Cause. —Probably due to (o) lack of agitation during development, (b) absorp-
tion of moisture by the film before development, (c) use of old film, or (d) possibly
oil spots.
3. Prevention. —
(a) Keep developing solution agitated, (b) Store unused nega-
tives in cooldry atmosphere until ready for use. (c) Use films before date of expira-
tion of manufacturer's guarantee.
4. Remedy. —
None.
Oil Spots.
1. Distinguishing Characteristic. — (a) Chain of small gray areas. (6) Irregular

light-gray areas, (c) Mottled areas, {d) Black spots, (e) Black spots with white
centers. (/) Stippled streamline effects.

2. Cause. — Oil on the surface of the negatives. The
fine small areas are due to
thin spray of fine oil drops; the larger areas are due to
spread over negative. oil
3. Prevention. —
Keeping oil from contact with negative. Ordinarily this is not
difficult, and oil spots are probably most frequent in machine processing of motion-
picture film. In this case, proper design and use of processing equipment will do
much to reduce to a minimum damage from oil spots.
4. Remedy. —No remedy if begun before detection of oil spots. If

processing is
oil marks are discovered prior to development or other processing, they may be
removed by (a) emulsification of the oil with sodium carbonate solution previous to
development or (b) dissolving the oil through the use of carbon tetrachloride or ben-
zene, after which the negative should be squeegeed and dried thoroughly before
developing.
Opaque or Semiopaque Spots.

1. Distinguishing Characteristic. —Small, irregularly shaped dark or black spots.
2. Cawse.— Most commonly caused b.y undissolved particles in the developer, but
may be result of iron in solution in the wash water.
3. Prevention. —All chemicals should be thoroughly dissolved before solutions are
used. When two sohitions are used, the constituents of each should be thoroughly
dissolved before the solutions are mixed. Filtering solutions is also helpful.
4. Remedy. —None.
;
Purple Spots.
1. —Purple spots on negative.

2. — Dry
Cause. the developer
particles of on negative.
settling
3. Prevention. — Keep negative protected from chemicals. Do not mix chemicals
in same room which processing
in being done.
is
4. Remedy. — See remedy Brown Spots, page 524, for remedy which useful
for is in
some instances.
Rack Marks.
Single or double line markings which may
sometimes be mottled; marks uniformly spaced.
2. Cause. —
Dr^'ing roll film on wooden or metal racks. The marks are produced
where the rack touched the film and prevented free circulation of solutions. Most
frequent in motion-picture processing.
3. Prevention. — In
motion-picture processing, continuous machine rather than
rack processing will prevent these marks. If rack processing is used, some means of
shifting or rolling the film on the racks so that the same portion of film is not always
adjacent to the racks during processing will help prevent rack marks.
4. Remedy. —None.
Small Circular Spots.
1. Distinguishing Characteristic. —Small, circular, light or transparent spots.
2. —Air water used
Cause. in for making or diluting developer, or excessive
agitation during development.
Prevention. — Use
3. of distilled or boiled water free from air. If this is not
possible, let water stand for at least an hour before using it to make up solutions.
If due to excessive agitation, less vigorous agitation is required.
4. Remedy. —
Possibly local intensification.
Small Circular Spots with Shaded Edges.
1. Distinguishing Characteristic. —Small, circular, transparent spots with shaded

edges.
2. Cause. —Air or bubbles forming on negative during development.
bells
3. Prevention. —Removing wetting the negative completelj'
of air bells bj^ prior
to development. Agitate negative in developer to prevent formation of bubbles, or
brush over the surface with soft camel's-hair brush. Agitate developer.
4. Remedy. —
None.
Spots of Irregular Shape.
Light or transparent spots of irregular shape,
usually distributed along one side of negative and less frequentlj' over entire negative.
2. Cause. —
Exhausted or improperly compounded developer.
3. —Use fresh or correctly compounded developer.
Prevention. of
4. Remedy. —Retouching.
Transparent Spots.
1. Distinguishing Characteristic. —Light or transparent spots indicating a deficiency

of silver deposit.
2. Cause. —Such spots may be caused by: (o) dust or dirt on film during exposure
or development; (6) air bells (q.v.); (c) air in water making up developing solution
(d) chemical or other dust floating on surface of developer; or (e) a solvent of free
silver acting on the negative after development.
3. Prevention. —
(a) See Microscopic Spots, page 527. (b) See Air Bells, page 523.
(c) See Small Circular Spots, page 528. {d) Make sure that developer is free from
undissolved particles or other foreign matter. Particles which have gathered on the
top as scum may be removed by means of a wire frame covered with cheesecloth or bj'
patting the top of the solution with an absorbent cloth. Filtering the solutions is
also helpful, (e) Cleanliness and protection of the negative from chemicals other
than those intended to act upon it will prevent the last-mentioned defect.
4. Remedy. None. —
Yellow Spots.
1. Distinguishing Characteristic. —Yellow spots, circular in shape, with fairh'

sharply defined edges.
2. —Air
Cause. or bubbles
bells the bath. in fixing
3. —Agitate negative and developing
Prevention. solution. Remove air bells by
bi-ushing the surface the negative with
of brush during soft fixing.
Remedy. — observed after negative has just been
4. If fixed, they may be removed
by brushing off air bells and refixing.
Water Spots. — (See Drop Marks, page 525.)
Mechanical Defects and Injuries

Under this heading are listed those defects and injuries in which the negative
fails to meet the normal mechanical or physical requirements or in which the negative
is mechanically damaged. These defects may be in addition to other defects which
are given in this chapter.
Blisters.
Emulsion raised from the gelatin, when the
negative wet with an appearance similar to blisters of the flesh. After the negative
is
has dried, blisters appear as small craterlike depressions in the emulsion.

2. Cause. —
Blisters are caused by gas pockets forming between the emulsion and
the film support due to loosening of the gelatin as a result of (a) permitting wash
water to fall directly on the emulsion side of the negative (6) processing solutions too
;
warm; (c) developing or fixing bath too concentrated; or {d) insufficient rinsing of the
negative after developing, especially if this is followed by placing negative in a
strongly acid fixing bath. The blisters are produced by the formation of carbon
dioxide gas during processing especially at relatively high temperature when the
gelatin is too soft to withstand the disruptive effect of the gas. Carbon dioxide is
evolved when the sodium carbonate of the developer is neutralized by the acid in the
fixing bath. Tendency toward the formation of blisters is increased during hot
weather, when the processing solutions are too warm, and when the film is not suffi-
ciently hardened.
3. Prevention. — (a) Do not permit wash water to fall directly on negative with
appreciable force. (6) Solutions should not normally be at a temperature exceeding
70°F. unless the negative is hardened and tropical development is being used, (c)
Using solutions at their normal concentration and temperature will help prevent
formation of blisters, {d) Washing the negative in clear water between developing
and fixing will remove most of the developer so that the tendency toward the for-
mation of carbon dioxide is diminished when the negative is placed in the fixing bath.
Hardening the negative prior to processing

will also help prevent formation of blisters,
especially in hot weather. Replacing carbonate in the developer by a noncarbon
dioxide forming substance, such as borate or phosphate is another way of avoiding
blisters.
4. Remedy. —None.
Brittleness.
1. Distinguishing Characteristic. —Film is too brittle and dry.

2. Cause. —Brittleness is usually the result of (a) drying the film too completely
or in an abnormally dry atmosphere, (6) the use of hardening stop baths, or (c) excess
hardener in the fixing bath.
3. Prevention. —
To maintain its pliabilitj^, film must contain a certain amount
of natural moisture, which can be provided bj^ maintaining the film in an atmosphere
of 70 per cent relative humidity. The relative humidity of the atmosphere during
the drjdng of the film should be between 40 and 70 per cent.
4. Remedy. —
Brittleness can be remedied by submitting the films to storage in an
atmosphere of 40 to 70 per cent relative humidity, as in humidifying tanks.
Buckle.
1. Distinguishing Characteristic. — Waviness in the center or along the edges of the

film.
2. Caiise. ^Buckle is due to nonuniform expansion or contraction of the negative.
Buckle is commonly produced by (a) drying the film in an atmosphere of high humidity,
(fe) forced drying at high temperature, or (c) drying in atmosphere of too low humidity.
3. Prevention. —
Buckle can usually be prevented by proper drying conditions.
For proper drjîng the relative humidity should be between 40 and 70 per cent and the
temperature should not exceed 90°F.
4. Remedy. —
Buckled film frequent!}^ vn&y be improved by soaking in water and
drjîng in a properly conditioned atmosphere. Buckled motion-picture film may often
be freed from buckle by winding the film on a dry reel and placing it in a relatively
humid atmosphere.
Creeping.
1. Distinguishing Characteristic. — Creeping or movement of emulsion on its

supporting surface..
2. Cause.— ventilation and high temperature during drying.
Insufficient
3. — Proper drying conditions.
Prevention.
Curled Negatives.
1. Distinguishing Characteristic. —Negatives not flat but curled. In extreme cases

they may be curled up into a tube.
2. Cause. —
^Difference in contraction or expansion coefficient between that of the
emulsion and that of the gelatin support. Since the emulsion contracts more than
the gelatin, the film curls with the emulsion on the concave or inside surface.
3. Prevention. —
Modern films are so made that excessive curling is largely elimi-
nated. Drying negatives with clips or weights attached to the bottom edge will keep
the negatives straight during drying and will help prevent curling. Storing dry
film fiat tends to keep it so, whereas storing films in rolls tends to aggravate curling.
4. Remedy. —
After films are thoroughly dry, they may frequently be relieved from,
curling by placing them between sheets of clean white paper and applying pressure
as by placing them between the leaves of large books. Another method, which may
be used if care is taken, is to press the film between two sheets of clean white paper
with a warm (not hot) flatiron. For negatives badly curled, soak in water and dry
with weights as described above.
Frilling or Softening.
Emulsion at edges of negative loosened from its
support. Edges may
be corrugated.
of negative
2. Cause. —
Frilling may occur as a result of: (a) using solutions which are too
warm; (b) insufficient hardening of the emulsion; (c) exhausted fixing bath; {d) fixing
bath containing insufficient hardener; (e) too strong a fixing bath; (/) excessive wash-
ing, especially in warm water; or {g) careless handling.
3. Prevention. —The manner depends upon the contributing causes,
of prevention
(o) Keep processing between 60 and 70°F. During the summer it may be
solutions
necessary to immerse tanks in cold water solution to which ice may be added. Ice
should never be added to the processing solutions, as this dilutes them and may intro-
duce undesirable contaminations. (6) The negatives may be hardened before process-
ing in a 10 per cent solution of formalin. Contributing causes (c), (d), and (e) are
the result of improperly prepared or improperly used fixing baths and may be eUmi-
nated by using properly prepared fixing baths at temperatures between 60 and 70°F.
(/) Ordinarily, excessive washing is not harmful if the temperature is 70°F.
or less.
{g) Proper handling technique, involving care and cleanliness, is essential in
all
photographic operations.
4. Remedy. None.—
Lint or Dust Particles.
1. Distinguishing Characteristic. — ^Lint or dust particles adhering to the surface

of the negative.
2. Cause. —Drying the negative in dust- or lint-laden atmosphere. The emulsion
gets tacky during drying, and at this stage particles floating in the air may easily
adhere to the negative, especially if this is a film.
3. Prevention. —
Clean atmosphere during drying is the best preventive, although
much can be done to prevent this defect by removing the surface water from the
negative before hanging it up to Avy. A lintless cloth or blotter or a viscose sponge
should be used for this purpose. The film should be blotted or patted rather than
rubbed with absorbent, as scratches may occur in the latter case.
4.. Remedy. —
Frequently there is no remedy for the removal of dust or lint particles,
and these will show up on the finished print. The situation is especially
as white spots
from which enlarged prints are made. Some-
serious in the case of miniature negatives
times improvement can be made by rewashing the negative in plain water and redrying
in a clean atmosphere.
Pit Marks.
1. Distinguishing Characteristic. —Fine holes or pits in the emulsion.
2. Cause. — (a) Excessive amount alum in the fixing bath. (6) Precipitate of
of
sulphur from the fixing bath present when the negatives are fixed in tray or tank.
(c) Too rapid drying of the negative.
3. Prevention. —
The prevention becomes obvious when the cause is definitely
determined.
4. Remedy. — Retouching of negative or print.
Reticulation.
1. Distinguishing Characteristic. — Emulsion wrinkled and indented, having the

appearance of leatherlike grain.
2. Cause. —Subjecting the sudden strains through sudden changes in

gelatin, to
temperature. The may
be produced by transferring the j&lm from one sohition
strain
to another at appreciable temperature difference. This condition is especially serious
when the solutions are warm, as in this case the gelatin swells and is then miore likely
to contract unevenly.
3. Prevention. —
Keep solutions between 60 and 70°F. Whenever possible, all
processing solutions should be at the same temperature within this limit. This may
be accomplished by storing the solutions side by side so that they may be exposed to
the same temperature variations. If it is necessary to cool solutions, all the solutions
required may be cooled simultaneously in the same water bath, which should be agi-
tated for best results.
4. Remedy. —
Reticulation may sometimes be removed by placing the negative in
a 10 per cent solution of formaldehyde for a few minutes and drying quickly at elevated
temperatures. This procedure is not recommended except as a last resort.
White Transparent Spots.

1. Distinguishing Characteristic. —Transparent spots, marks, or scratches on
the negative from which the emulsion has been removed.
2. Cause. —
Removal of emulsion from the support during processing, caused bj^
gouging the emulsion with the fingernail, edge of film, or other relatively hard sub-
stance. This difficulty tends to increase when processing at elevated temperatures
when the emulsion is soft and swollen.
3. Prevention. —
Carefulness in processing, maintaining processing solutions below
70°F., and hardening the film before processing will all help to prevent and minimize
such gouge marks.
4. Remedy. —
None, except retouching negative or print.
Scum, Slime, and Deposits

Crystalline Siirface.
Surface of emulsion takes on a crystalline appear-
ance similar to frosted windowpane or some forms of "crackle" enameling.
2. Cause. —
From crystalUzation of hypo remaining in the film after incomplete
washing.
3. Prevention. —
Complete washing of the negative after fixing.
4. Remedy. —
The crystals of sodium thiosulphate are soluble in water, so the nega-
tive may be freed from these crystals by rewashing completely.
Greenish-white Scum.
1. Distinguishing Characteristic. — Greenish-white scum deposited upon the sur-
face of the negative.
2. Cause. —Precipitate chromium hydroxide or
of of basic chromium sulphite
deposited on the negative when chrome alum stop or fixing baths are used.
3. Prevention. — Use developer containing as little alkali as possible. If necessary,
acidify developer at intervals. Formation of scum may also be prevented bj^ agitating
the negative thoroughly while immersed in the stop or fixing bath.
4. Remedy. —
The scum may be removed while the negative is still wet, by means of
moist lintless cloth, paper, or cotton. Difficult or impossible to remove after negative
is dry.
Scum.
1. Distinguishing Characteristic. —Deposit of scum on film.
2. Cause. —A deposit of scum on film occurs as a result of the accumulation of solid
matter floating on the surface of the processing solutions. It may l>e picked up when
the film immersed in the sohition or when the negative is withdrawn from the
is first
sohition. The scum may be composed of oil, grease, insoluble particles of the process-
ing solution, oxidization products of the developer or other processing solutions, etc.
A frequent cause of scum on negatives is the precipitation of hardener in the fixing
bath by excess developer carried over by the negative.
3. Prevention. —
The formation of scum may be prevented by washing the process-
ing equipment with a hot solution of sodium hypochlorite. Scum may be removed
from the surface of the solution by a skimming device consisting of a wire framework
over which fine-mesh cloth has been stretched. "Patting" of the surface of the
solution with a blotter or cloth is also effective in removing surface scum.
4. Remedy. —
The remedy for scum, if any, will depend upon the nature of the
scum deposit. Oil and grease may be removed with carbon tetrachloride. Alcohol
is a solvent for some waxes and resins but should not be used on acetate films. The
use of a scum-resistant hardening fixing bath, such as the Eastman F5 or FIO will
help if the scum is due to precipitation of hardener in the fixing bath.
Silvery Deposit.
1. Distinguishing Characteristic. —A silvery deposit or scum on the surface of the

negative.
2. Cause. —
Such a deposit may be (a) silver sulphide formed by the interaction
of hydrogen sulphide of the air with silver salts of the developer, the silver sulphide
resulting from the sodium sulphite of the emulsion or (b) metallic silver precipitated
during development as a fine colloid and settling on the film.
3. Prevention.— (a) The formation of silver sulphide may be prevented by scouring
the processing equipment with a hot solution of sodium hypochlorite. (6) The silver
is probably caused to precipitate owing to the presence of a silver solvent, such as hypo.
The preventive measure is therefore to scrub the developing tanks thoroughly to

free them from hypo. Agitation of negatives during development aids in preventing
formation of silver deposit.
4. Remedy. —
The deposit of metallic silver can be removed by rubbing it off the
film if this is done before the film has dried.
Slime.
1. — Deposit of slime on negative.

2. —The slime formed on the walls tanks containing running water may
Cause. of
become loose and deposit on the film.
Prevention. —Slime may be prevented by cleaning the tanks periodically, espe-
3.
cially they are made

if wood, andof with a solution
sterilizing sodium hypochlorite.
of
Remedy. — discovered while the negative
4. If wet, the slime maj^ usually
is still
be washed off with clear water.
White Deposit Covering Negative.

1. — White granular deposit on negative.
2. Cause. —Sulphur deposited on the surface the negative during
of fixing when an
improperly compounded or exhausted fixing bath is used. The deposit may also result
from incomplete washing.
3. Prevention. —
Properly compounded, fresh fixing bath, and complete washing.
4. Remedy. None.—
White Opalescent Deposit on Film.
1. — White opalescent deposit on fUm or
Distinguishing Characteristic. plate.
2. Cause. —Often caused by use of undiluted alcohol and too high temperatures
in quick drying. This causes excessive desiccation of gelatin producing opalescence.
3. Prevention. —
For drying negatives quickly using alcohol bath, the alcohol
should be diluted slightly with water. Ten parts of alcohol to one part of water
is approximatelj^ correct. The temperature of the drying air should not exceed 95°F.
4. Remedy. —
The white opalescence may be removed by soaking the film in water
and redrying slowly.
Stains and Discolorations
Aluminum Sulphite Stains.
1. — White powdery stains on negative.

2. Cause. —Aluminum sulphite stains caused by an acid insufficiently fixing bath
as a result of using an exhausted or incorrectly compounded fixing bath. When
sodium from the developer, is added to a fixing bath containing alum, the
sulphite, as
acid fixing bath is and ultimately a white precipitate of aluminum sulphite
neutralized,
is formed which turns the bath milky white and settles as a white sludge.
3. Prevention. —
Avoid a developer containing excessive alkali. Between develop-
ment and fixing, the negative may be washed in clear water or in an acid stop bath. If
an acid stop bath is used, care must be taken to see that the acid carried over into
the fixing bath is not sufficient to cause sulphurization of the fixing solution.
4. Remedy. —
Aluminum sulphite stains may be removed by hardening the negative
in an alkaline formalin solution. The negative should then be washed for several
minutes in a 5 per cent solution of sodium carbonate, after which the negative should
be washed thoroughly in clear water.
Blue-green Stain.
1. Distinguishing Characteristic. —Blue-green stain after fixing.
2. —Frequently caused
Cause. by using chrome-alum fixing bath at elevated
temperatures.
Prevention. — Maintaining
3. fixing bath at temperatures not exceeding 70°F.
Blue Stains.
1. —Blue stains covering part or

Distinguishing Characteristic. negative. all of
2. —Usually due to presence iron the processing
Cause. of but
in some- solutions, is
times due to the presence amidol. of

Prevention. — In making up
3. use water.
solutions, iron-free
4. Remedy. — stains are due to
If they may be removed as indicated under
iron,
Developer Stains, page 535. If due to Amidol, they may be removed by immersing
the negative in a 10 per cent solution of sodium bicarbonate, washing, and drying.
Brown Areas.
1. Distinguishing Characteristic. — Brown areas on negative often occurring as
scum deposit on the surface.
2. —Probably from scum oxidized developer or deposits
Cause. of of silver sulphide
in the developing or fixing baths.
Prevention. —Use
3. fresh and properly compounded processing
of solutions.
Remedy. — (See under Developer
4. page 535.) Stains,
Colored Areas. — (See Dye Stains, page 535.)

Colored Negatives.
1. Distinguishing Characteristic. — General, over-all stain on negative, usually

yellow, brown, or sepia.
2. Cause.—Stains produced during development (see Developer Stains).

3. — (See Developer Stains.)
Prevention.
4. Remedy. — (See Developer Stains.)
Developer Stains.
1. Distinguishing Characteristic. —^Local or general staining of the negative.

Developer stains are usually yellow, brown, or sepia, although the color depends upon
the developer used. May be produced either in developing or fixing bath.
2. Cause. —
Developer stains may be caused by: (a) alkaline or old fixing bath,
(6) old or discolored developer, or (c) developer containing impure or insufficient
sulphite. Certain developers, such as pyro, for instance, are much more likely to
stain the negative than other developers. If the stain is general and uniform, the
contrast may be altered, and the printing time may be increased without other unde-
sirable effects being present.
3. Prevention. —
The use of fresh and properly compounded processing solutions is
essential. Care should be taken to see that the developer contains the proper amount
of sulphite. Nonstaining developers, such as metol-hydroquinone, may also be used.
Increasing the amount of sulphite in the developer will help prevent stains.
4. Remedy. —
Harden the negative in a solution of 10 cc. of formalin and 5 g. of
sodium carbonate per liter of solution, and wash in clear water for 5 min. Bleach
in equal parts of: (o) 5.3 g. of potassium permanganate per liter, and (b) 75 g. of
sodium chloride and 16 cc. of sulphuric acid per liter, making sure that all particles are
thoroughly dissolved before the two solutions are mixed. Bleaching should be com-
pleted in about 4 min. The brown stain which is produced may be removed by
immersing the negative in a 1 per cent solution of sodium bisulphite. The negative
should then be rinsed well and developed in strong light with a nonstaining developer.
Local yellow stains may be handled by making a new negative or a print from the
stained negative through the use of a strong yellow filter.
Dye Stains.
1. Distinguishing Characteristic. —Areas of negative that are colored red, green, or

other color, especially at the edges where developer may not have reached negative
completely, as in tank development.
2. Cause. —These stains are those used in the manufacture
of the sensitizing dyes
of some orthochromatic and panchromatic films. The
due to incomplete
stains are
removal of these dyes because the developer and fixing bath are kept from free cir-
culating contact with the back of the negative. The effects are often observed in
tank development where the film has been inserted in a holder or frame which prevents
free circulation at the edges of the negative.
3. Prevention. —Thorough agitation of the. negative during development.
4. Rem,edy. —Thfese dye stains are soluble in water and consequently may be
removed subsequent to fixing by immersing in clear water until the stains have
disappeared.
Fading.
1. Distinguishing Characteristic. —Brown or yellow stains on parts of the negative,

or covering the entire negative, apparent some time after fixing.
2. Cause.—Incomplete fixing or, more usually, incomplete washing.
3. — Complete
Prevention. fixing and washing.
4. Remedy. — (See remedy for removal of Developer Stains, above.)
Green Dichroic Stain.
1. Distinguishing Characteristic. —Green metallic sheen by reflected light and red

or pinkish color by transmitted light.
2. Cause.— (See Dichroic Fog, page 517).
3. — (See Dichroic Fog, page 517).
Prevention.
4. Remedy. — (See Dichroic Fog, page 517; also see page 165, Motion-picture
Laboratory Practice 1936.1
Green Stain.
1. Distinguishing Characteristic. — Negative has appearance of being dyed green:

occurs in stop bath.
2. Cause. —
Stain appearing in stop bath is a function of the relative amounts of
carbonate and sulphite in the developer and the concentration of the chrome alum in
the stop bath, and it increases with increasing temperature of solution.
3. Prevention. —
Properly compounded and fresh processing solutions maintained
at a temperature not exceeding 70°F.
4. Remedy. —
Usually this green stain can be removed by immersing the film in a
5 per cent solution of potassium hydroxide or 5 per cent solution of potassium citrate.
This treatment destroys the hardening properties of film negatives.
Purple Stain.
1. Distinguishing Characteristic. —Purple discoloration on negative.

2. Cause. — (a) Purple stains may
be due to presence of iron in the water used in
making up processing This stain occurs frequently in the fixing bath if
solutions, (b)
negatives stick together so that complete fixing cannot be accomplished. The stain
occurs where the negatives make contact, because of the continuance of developing
action in the fixing bath.
3. Prevention. — (a) Use of distilled or at least filtered water for making up process-
ing solutions will assist in removing iron particles. (6) Agitation of negatives in
fixing solution.
4. Remedy. (See remedy under Bhie Stains, page 534.)
Silvery-white Opalescence. — (See Yellowish-white Opalescence, below.)

Stains from Ferricyanide.
1. — Green or blue discoloration.

2. Cause. —Sometimes caused when ferricyanide reducer employed. is
3. Prevention. —-Do not use ferricyanide reducers.

4. Remedy. — Immerse negative, until stain removed, a solution
is in of 6 cc. of
nitric acid and 6 g. of alum per liter of solution. Wash in clear water and dry.
Yellowish -white Opalescence.
1. Distinguishing Characteristic. —-Yellowish white or silvery white opalescence

on part or all of the emulsion, suggestive of opal.
2. Cause. —This opalescence may be due incomplete fixing; (b) use of alcohol
to: (a)
to hasten drying; (c) drying rapidly in warm high temperature of
air; (d) excessively
fixing bath; or (e) presence of colloidal sulphur in improperly compounded fixing bath
containing excess acid.
3. Prevention. —
Complete fixing with properly compounded, fresh fixing batt,
(a)
(6) When used to hasten drying, it should be diluted with water to give a
alcohol is
solution having 80 per cent alcohol, (c) Dry negative less rapidly in atmosphere of
from 40 to 70 per cent humidity and at a temperature not exceeding 90°F. (d) The
temperature of the fixing bath should be between 60 and 70°F. (e) Properly com-
pounded fixing baths will prevent formation of colloidal sulphur.

4. Remedy. —
(a) If the opalescence is discovered while the negative is still wet,
it may be removed by immersing the negative in the fixing bath until opalescence has
completely disappeared. (6) Wash negative in clear water and dry slowly. If nega-
tive was incompletely fixed or incompletely washed, this treatment is not effective.
(c) Wash negative in clear water and drj^ slowly at temperature not above 90°F. and
preferably with atmosphere of 40 to 70 per cent humidity, {d) and (e) The stain or
opalescence of free sulphur on the negative may be removed by hardening the film
in a 5 per cent solution of formalin and by washing well with clear water. The nega-
tive should then be washed in a 10 per cent solution of sodium sulphite at 100 to
110°F. Obviously with such high temperatures, extreme care will be required in order
not to damage the negative in other respects.
Yellow Stains.
1. Distinguishing Characteristic.— Portions or all of negative colored yellow.

2. Cause. —Yellow stains are frequent sources and may be caused by
of trouble
a number of factors, among them being: (a) weak, exhausted, or improperly com-
pounded fixing bath; (6) exhausted or oxidized developing solution; (c) failure to rinse
negatives between developing and fixing, either with clear water or stop bath; {d)
uncleanliness in developing or impurities in the developer; {e) hypo or fixing bath in
the developer; (/) washing; {g) too much carbonate in the developing
insufficient
solution; and {h) leaving negative incompletely covered in the fixing bath.
3. Prevention. —
When the most probable cause of the stain has been determined,
the preventive action will usually become apparent.
4. Remedy. —
Most of these stains can be removed by the methods suggested for
Developer Stains, page 535.
Unevenness
Directional Effects.
1. Distinguishing Characteristic. — Developed image appears to have "tail."

2. Cause. — Directional which enables image to be built up
effect of developer
more rapidly at one portion of the negative than at other. Also due to fresh developer
working on first parti of moving film during processing and partially exhausted
developer acting on later portions of film. Especially noticeable in certain types of
motion-picture processing.
3. PreveJition. —Thorough agitation of solution during development so that the
developer at the surface of the negative is changed uniformly and rapidly during
processing.
4. Remedy. —None.
Uneven Development.
Streaks or areas of density different from the
normal density remaining portion of the negative.
of the
2. Cause. —
Failure to immerse the negative entirely and completely in the develop-
ing bath, or permitting two or more negatives to come in contact in the developer for
appreciable time.
3. Prevention. —
The negatives should be immersed quickly and uniformly in the
developer and should be agitated during development, so that the solution may work
uniformly and completely over the entire surface of the negative.
4. Remedy. —Local intensification may sometimes be employed to bring up the
density of the areas protected during development.
Uneven Emulsion.
1. —Variations thickness emulsion.
Distinguishing Characteristic. in of
2. —Faultj^ manufacture and inadequate manufacturing inspection.
Cause.
Prevention. — None, except that such instances, which are fortunately
3. rare,
are even more so with the products manufacturers.
of reliable
Remedy. — None.
4. the defective material
If returned to the manufacturer
is
with a complete statement of all conditions, replacements may be made.
Uneven Fixing.
Variations in density in areas of the negative
not related to the image produced on the negative.
2. Cause. —
Improper or incomplete immersion of the negative in the fixing bath.
The same result is obtained by allowing two or more negatives to come into contact for
prolonged periods in the fixing bath.
3. Prevention. —
-This defect may be prevented by separating the negatives in the
fixing bath, agitating the negatives and solution, and completely and entirely immers-
ing the negatives in the fixing bath.
4. Remedy.— Isione.
DEFECTS IN PRINTS
This section deals with defects in prints made by contact or projection printing on
bromide or chloride papers. No consideration is given to defects due to coloring,
toning, retouching, or other aftertreatments ; other methods of producing prints, such
as printing with salts of other metals, bichromated colloids, the gum bichromate
process, oil processes, etc., are not considered here. For details on printing methods
other than those using silver halide salts, reference should be made to the appropriate
section of thebook dealing with these other printing processes.
Defects in negatives may show up as defects in prints. In this section it is
assumed that the negative is free from defects and hence that the defects actually
occurring are those due only to the printing process.
Blotches, Lines, and Streaks

Abrasion Marks or Streaks.
1. Distinguishing Characteristic. —Surface of paper abraded or scratched, often
resulting in fine scratches, especially when glossy-surfaced paper is used.
2. Cause. —Scratching, abrading, or frictionon the emulsion side of the paper.
3. Prevention. —Store paper that
so it stands vertically and is free from applied
pressure on its faces. Handle carefully. Make sure that processing solutions are
freefrom grit, undissolved matter, or foreign particles.
4. Remedy. —
Sometimes these abrasion marks may be removed bj^ adding ^g gr.
potassium iodide to each ounce of developing solution.
Blurred Prints
Bad Definition in Spots.
Spots of print blurred, as if out of focus.
2. Cause. —Imperfect contact between negative and paper in contact printing,
so that those portions of the negative which are slightly removed from the surface
of the print do not print sharply.
3. Prevention. — Make sure that the printing device presses the printing paper into
firm contact with the negative during contact printing. Frequently the difficulty is
due to worn padding on the pressure top of the printer or loosening of the pressure
springs of the printer. In the case of printers with pneumatic pressure plates, the
difficulty may usually be prevented by keeping the pressure pad fully inflated.
4. Remedy. — Retouching.
Blurred Print.
1. Distinguishing Characteristic. —Print generally blurred and lacking in sharpness,

although negative is satisfactorily sharp.
2. Cause. —
(a) In contact printing, this lack of sharpness maj' be due to printing
with the emulsion side of the negative away from the emulsion side of the print.
This is definitely the cause if the picture is reversed left to right. (6) In enlargement
printing, the difficulty is probably due to relative motion between the negative and the
print during printing or to an unsteady and perhaps vibrating enlarger.
3. Prevention.— {a) The emulsion side of the print and the emulsion side of the
negative must always be kept in contact during printing. (6) Solidity of the enlarger
is the only prevention for blurred prints in enlarging which are caused in the manner
suggested above. Mechanical adjustments, repairs, or reinforcements of parts may

be required. Vibration may sometimes be prevented by mounting the enlarger on a
resilient support, as rubber pads, or suspension from springs.
4. Remedy. —
None.
Fog
Fog.
1. Distingxdshing Characteristic. —
General gray cast over entire print, especially
(a)
noticeable in parts which should be white. (6) Gray or granular appearance of print.
2. Cause. — Fog of printing paper which may be due to (a) light-struck paper;
(6)use of too strong a safe light, safe light too close to printing paper, safe light acting
on printing paper for too long a time, or safe light with improper filter; (c) forced
development so that silver halides not acted upon by light are reduced; {d) improperly
compounded or impure developer.
3. Prevention. — (a) Protect printing keeping it in black lighttight
paper bj^
envelopes, boxes, or drawers when not in use. Do
not permit paper to lie around in
the darkroom unless protected from the safe light. (6) Test safe light to ascertain
that light is not too intense and that the safe-light filter used is suitable for use with
the printing paper. Do not expose printing paper to safe light longer than necessary,
(c) Develop printing paper in accordance with directions provided by manufacturer.
Avoid forcing development, {d) Use properly compounded developers made up with
fresh pure chemicals. Do not use exhausted, old, or deteriorated developer. Use
developer recommended by the manufacturer of the printing paper, and develop
according to manufacturer's directions.
4. Remedy. — Make new print.
Incorrect Contrast
Contrasty Prints.
1. Distinguishing Characteristic. — Prints have excessive contrast, or are lacking

in detail, so that they present a "soot and whitewash" eifect. Detail may be lacking
in both high lights and dark tones.
2. Cause. —Use of too contrasty a printing paper for the range of densities in the
negative.
3. Prevention. —Use a less contrasty printing paper. Such papers are also known
as soft or fiat papers.
4. Remedy. — Make a new print.
Flat Prints.
1. Distinguishing Characteristic. —Prints lack contrast; dark parts too light, light
parts too dark, or both.
2. Cause.— Use of improper grade of printing paper for the range of densities in
the negative.
3. Prevention. — Use a printing paper suited for flat negatives, i.e., one having
greater contrast. Contrasty printing papers are also known as "hard" papers.
4. Kennedy. — Make a new print.
Incorrect Density
Prints too Dark.
lA. Distinguishing Characteristic. —Print generally too dark. High lights (dense
portions of the negatives) lacking in detail, (a) Other tones too flat. (6) Other
tones correctly rendered, (c) Other tones too contrasty.
2A. Cause. — Overexposure. In and incorrect printing paper for the range
(a) (c)
of densities in the negative has been used.

3A. Prevention. —Less exposure in printing. In
(a)a more contrasty grade of
paper should be used. In (6) the grade of contrast of the printing paper is correct.
In (c) a less contrasty grade of printing paper should be employed.
—
4A. Remedy. When defects of this type occur in prints, it is usually cheaper,
quicker, and generally more satisfactory to make another print than to attempt
remedial measures.
Prints generallj'' too dark, with granular gray
appearance over entire print.
—
2B. Cause. Overexposure and overdevelopment. In addition, a grade of printing
paper unsuited for the range of densities in the negative may have been used (see
items above).
—
3B. Prevention. Proper exposure and correct development according to the
recommendations of the manufacturer.
4fi. Remedy. — Make a new print.
—Prints generally too dark.
IC. Distinguishing Characteristic.
2C. Cause. — Too strong a developer or too bromide the developer, causing
little in
development to progress too rapidly.
3C. Prevention. — Properly compounded developer, made with fresh pure ingre-
dients.
4C Remedy. — Make new print.
Prints Too Light.
1^4.. Distinguishing Characteristic. —Prints generally too light so that there is a

deficiency of silver on the print. Shadows lack detail, (a) Other tones too flat.
(6) Other tones correctly rendered, (c) Other tones too contrasty.
—
2A. Cause. Underexposure. In (a) and (c) incorrect printing paper for the
range of densities in the negative has been used.
—
3A. Prevention. Greater exposure in printing. In (a) a more contrasty grade
of paper should be used. In (6) the grade of contrast of the printing paper is correct.
In (c) a less contrasty grade of printing paper should be used.
—
4A. Remedy. Make a new print with greater time of exposure.
Print generally too light; detail only in the
dark parts of print (light parts of negative).
2B. Cause. —
Underdevelopment.
3JB. Prevention. —
Proper development. Increase time of development. If the
developer is exhausted, replace with new developing solution.
AB. Remedy. —
Make a new print.
Print generally too light (too weak) when
washed and dried, although satisfactory after developing. Delicate shading and
detail destroyed; print lacking in snap.
2C Cause.—Bleaching of print in strong fixing bath, or too long in fixing bath.
3C —Proper
Prevention. fixing of prints.
AC. Remedy. — Since and gradations is due to the strong fixing
loss of fine detail
bath attacking and partially reducing the metallic silver, it may sometimes be possible
to remedy this defect by putting the print through a bath of a reducing agent, such
as a developer, and following this with subsequent fixing and washing. Usually it is
more desirable to make a new print.
Marks and Spots

Air Bells.
Round spots with shaded but fairly well defined
edges. The spots may be (a) lighter or (6) darker than the rest of the print, (c) Spots
which show up as discoloration upon aging.
2. Cause.- —
The spots are due to air bells adhering to the print during the process-
ing, and hence preventing the processing solutions from reaching the print, (o) If
the spots are lighter than the rest of the print, the air bells (bubbles) were formed
during development so that the developer could not act on the print where the bubbles
formed. (6) If the spots are darker than the rest of the print or are discolored, the
bubbles have formed in the fixing bath, (c) Spots which show up discolored after
some time are due to formation of air bells in the washing operation, so that hypo was
not entirely removed.
3. Prevention.— IvciVLiexse the print quickly in the various solutions, agitating it in
solution so that air bells may be prevented from forming. Brushing the surface of the
print with a camel's-hair brush or soft cloth or chamois is helpful in removing bubbles.
4. Remedy. —
Local retouching will be required.
Brown Spots.
1. Distinguishing Characteristic. — (a) Brown-red stains, usually small, well defined,

and of irregular shape, although sometimes covering a large area somewhat uniformly.
(b) Brown stains or smudge covering part or all of the print.
2. Cause. —The
red-brown stains in (a) are caused by particles of rust being
deposited upon the print from oxidized iron processing utensils, such as tanks or
trays, hanging clips, ferrotype plates, etc. They may also be caused by the deposit
of chemical particles or dust on emulsion of the print, (b) Brown smudges, marks, or
spots, are probably caused by exhausted or oxidized developer.

3. Prevention. —
(a) When the brown spots are due to rust, the rusted utensil
should either be discarded or should be cleaned by removing the rust and lacquering
or enameling to prevent further rusting. Spots which are due to loose particles of
chemicals may be prevented by mixing chemicals in a room separate from that used
for processing prints (or films), and by keeping the printing paper protected in its
black envelope, cardboard box, or in a drawer until ready for use. (6) Brown spots
due to exhausted or oxidized developer may be prevented by using properly com-

pounded developer made from pure fresh chemicals.
4. Remedy. —
In some instances it may be possible to wash off rust particles,
thereby ridding the print of stains. Usually, however, it is best to make a new print.
Fading.
Fading upon aging of the print, especiallj^ when
accompanied by yellow or brown discoloration.
2. Cause.— Incomplete fixing or washing of the print.
3. Prevention. —
Proper fixing and washing.
4. Remedy. —
None.
Finger Marks.
Imprint of fingers on the print, the finger marks
being (a) lighter or (6) darker than the rest of the print or (c) showing up upon aging
as a discoloration.
2. Cause. —Impressing
the fingers on the emulsion side of the print, especially
when the wet with processing solution, (o) If the finger marks are lighter
print is
than the rest of the print, grease from the fingers may have been deposited on the
print prior to development. White fingerprints may also be due to touching the print
with hypo-contaminated fingers. (6) If the fingerprints are darker than the rest of
the print, grease from the fingers may have been deposited prior to development but
after fixing, (c) The appearance of finger marks, upon aging, as a discoloration indi-
cates inadequate washing, which may be due to grease preventing full action of the
wash water in removing hj'^po.
3. Prevention. —
Cleanliness in handling prints. Wearing rubber gloves or rubber
finger tips will prevent grease from fingers from reaching the print and, since the
rubber is smooth and nonabsorbent, will assist in keeping the hands clean.
4. Remedy. —
Make a new print.
Freaks. Uneven Marks and Spots.
1. Distinguishing Characteristic. —Uneven marks and spots, sometimes appearing
as if deposit of oil or grease has been made on
the print.
2. Cause. —
(a) This may be due to uneven development, (6) a weak developing
solution, or (c) an actual deposit of oil or grease.

3. Prevention. —
Causes (a) and (6) may be prevented bj* proper development.
The developer should be properly compounded from pure and fresh materials. The
print should be immersed quickly and thoroughly in the developer and should be
agitated in solution so that even development, without the formation of air bells,
may result. In case (c) cleanliness is the only preventative.
4. —
Remedy. None; make new print.
Greenish-brown Spots.
1. — Greenish-brown spots on
Distinguishing Characteristic. print.
2. —These spots may be caused by excessive amount of potassium
Cause. (a)
bromide developer,
in exhausted or old developer, or
(b) overexposure. (c)
Prevention. —In
3. and the defect may be prevented by using fresh and
(a) (b),
properly prepared developers and by discarding exhausted or oxidized solutions. In

(c), correct exposure is the preventive.
White Spots on the Print.
1. Distinguishing Characteristic. — (a) Small irregular white spots with sharply

defined edges. (6) Round white spots with fairly well-defined edges.
Cause.— (a) These spots are often caused by dust or dirt either on the negative
2.
itself upon the glass top plate of the printer. If the particles of foreign matter are
or
on the emulsion side of the negative, they will produce sharp images on the print,
whereas they are on the plain side of the negative or upon the glass plate of the
if
printer, the images will be less sharply defined. (6) Formation of an air bell on the
print during development prevents the developing solution from acting on the spot
covered by the bubble, so that no development takes place and a white spot results.
3. Prevention.- —
(o) Cleanliness is the only preventive where spots are due to
dust, lint, dirt, or other foreign matter, (b) See Air Bells, page 541.
4. Remedy. —
Careful spotting and retouching will be required.
Mechanical Defects
Curling of Prints.
1. Distinguishing Characteristic. —Prints curled upon drying.
2. Cause. —The emulsion contracts to a greater extent than the paper backing
on prints, so that, upon drying, prints tend to curl with the emulsion on the concave
side.
3. Prevention. —
Curling may be prevented by washing the print in a bath con-
sisting of from 1 to 2 parts of glycerin in 10 parts of water. The print should be
washed in this bath for 5 min. (or until the back paper support is thoroughly saturated
with the solution), after which the print may be dried in the usual manner without
further washing. The prints may also be dried fiat by laying them (emulsion side
down) on the drying stretcher and sponging the back paper slightly with alcohol or
water. With this method, the total time required for drying will be increased, but the
prints will dry much fiatter than with ordinary drying.
4. Remedy. —
Prints may be straightened by drawing the print, emulsion side out,
over a smooth, rounded corner of a drawing board, table, or similar surface in such
a way as to impart concavity to the back of the print. While this method is quite
satisfactory, care should be exercised. Care is especially necessary with prints having
a glossy surface, as the surface of the prints may be cracked.
Frilling.
1. Distinguishing Characteristic. —Emulsion separating from the paper backing.

2. Cause. — (a) Processing solutions too warm. (6) Careless handUng of print.
3. Prevention. — (a) All solutions should be between 60 and 70°F., and all solutions
should, preferably, be at the same temperature. They may be brought to the same
temperature by setting them in a water bath for a length of time sufficient to have all
solutions reach equilibrium. (6) Care in handling prints is the only prevention in this
case.
4. Remedy. —None.
Spotty Glazing.
1. —Surface print not uniformly
Distinguishing Characteristic. of glossy.
2. Cause. —Imperfect or improper ferrotype glazing due imperfect contact
to (a)
between ferrotype plate and improperly prepared surface of ferrotype tin,
print, (6)
or (c) failure to squeegee the print on the ferrotype tins.
3. Prevention. — (See chapter on Washing, Fixing, and Drying for proper method of
ferrotyping.)
4. Remedy. —
Sometimes spotty glazing may be remedied by soaking the print in
water and again drying on the ferrotype plate.
White Deposit on Print.
White deposit covering emulsion side of print.
2. Cause. —Use exhausted or incorrectly mixed fixing bath; impurities in fixing
of
bath. White precipitate in bath deposits on print.
3. Prevention. —Properly prepared fixing bath made with fresh pure chemicals.
Swab print before washing, but after fixing.
4. Remedy. —
The deposit may sometimes be removed by soaking the print in water,
removing the white or milky deposit, and washing in fresh water, after which it is dried
in the usual manner.
Stains, Discolorations, and Improper Tone Reproduction

Gray or Granular Appearance.
1. Distinguishing Characteristic. — Gray or granular appearance of the print,

especially at the edges.
2. Cause. —
Among the causes may be listed: (a) use of old printing paper; (6)
underexposure and forced development, (c) printing paper kept in moist atmosphere,
(d) insufficient amount of potassium bromide in the developer, (e) light fog.
3. Prevention. —
When the true source of the gray or granular appearance is
determined, the preventive measures will suggest themselves.
4. Remedy. —
None.
Gray or Lead-colored Print.
1. Distinguishing Characteristic. — Gray or lead-colored instead of white high lights

in print.
2. Cause.- —-(See Gray or Granular Appearance.)
3. Prevention. — (See Gray or Granular Appearance.)
4. Remedy. — (See Gray or Granular Appearance.)
Green, Contrasty Prints.
1. Distinguishing Characteristic. —Prints are too contrasty and have green appear-
ance.
2. Cause. — (a) Overexposure and underdevelopment, (b) Excess bromide in
developer.
3. Prevention. — (a) Correct exposure and correct development. (6) Properly
compounded developer, made from fresh pure chemicals.
4. Remedy. —None; make new print.
Purple Discoloration.
1. —Print contains purple discoloration.

2. — Improper
Cause. in which the developer
fixing permitted to act on the
is
print during fixing.

Prevention. —Immerse print quickly and entirely in
3. solution, agitating fixing
itwhile in solution. Do not permit print to on surface of solution.
float fixing
Remedy. — Make new
4. print.
Tones in Print Are Muddy.
Prmts have muddy appearance.
2. Cause. —
Muddy tones in a print may be due to (a) overexposure and over-
development, (6) excess potassium bromide in developer, (c) exposure of printing
paper to dampness, {d) exposure of paper to chemcal fumes.
3. Prevention. —
When the real cause for the muddy tones has been determined,
the necessary preventive measures required will be self-evident.
Yellow Stains.
1. Distinguishing Characteristic. —Yellow stains on portions of print.
2. Cause. —Yellow stains are a fairly frequent source of difficulty and may be due
to a number of causes, among them: (a) exhausted fixing bath which permits develop-
ment to proceed, (6) forced development, (c) weak or exhausted developer, {d) hypo
carried into the developer, (e) failure to rinse prints between developing and fixing
baths, (/) uncleanUness or impurities in development, {g) incomplete washing of the
print after fixing, {h) exposure of print to light after development but before fixing
has been completed, {i) prolonged exposure of paper to moist salty atmosphere.
3. Prevention. —
-The preventive measure which will be required will suggest
itself when the true cause of the yellow stains has been discovered.
4. Remedy. —Make new print.
Unevenness
Small Black Spots.
1. —Small black
Distinguishing Characteristic. usually
spots, on thecircular, print.
2. Cause. —Print made from negative which has unretouched pinholes.
3. Prevention. — Printing from perfect or retouched negative.
4. Remedy. —The black spots the print may be bleached out by applying a small
in
amount with a fine brush or sharpened stick of wood,
of tincture of iodine, applied
afterwhich the print is washed in hypo. The black spot is changed to a white spot
which may be retouched in the usual manner with a spotting brush (see Camera,
December, 1937, p. 404).
Uneven Development.
Streaks of varying density in the print, some-
times accompanied by yellow discoloration.
2. Cause. —
Uneven development.
3. Prevention. —
Immerse print in properly prepared, full-strength developer
quickly and thoroughly, agitating it during the first few seconds. The print should
be thoroughly immersed in developer solution, it should not be permitted to float on
top of the solution, and the tank or tray should be rocked.
4. Remedy. —
^Local intensification may be used to build up the less dense portions
of the negative.
Uneven Fixing.
1. Distinguishing Characteristic. —Uneven density in print, which bears no relation

to image.
2. —
Cause.- Uneven fixing. More specifically the cause may be due to (a) air
bells forming on print (see Air Bells); (6) failure to agitate print sufficiently well in
fixing bath; (c) prints sticking together during fixing, so that protected areas do not
become fixed.
3. Prevention. —Immerse print quickly and thoroughly in fixing bath. Agitate
print during fixing.
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,
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,
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,
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and J. H. Waddell: Directional Effects in Sound Film Processing, J. Soc. Motion Picture
,
Engrs., 18, 351 (1933).

Jones, L. A., and J. H. Webb: Reciprocity Law Failures in Photographic Exposure, J. Soc. Motion
Picture Engrs., 19, 142 (1934).
Sheppard, S. E.: Uniformity in Photographic Sensitometry, J. Soc. Motion Picture Engrs., 20, 512
(1935).
Parker, H., and J. I. Crabtree: Rapid Processing Methods, J. Soc. Motion Picture Engrs., 21, 406
(1936).
Books:
Neblette, C. B. "Photography Principles and Practice," Van Nostrand.

:
"Motion Picture Laboratory Practice," Eastman Kodak Co.

"Elementary Photographic Chemistry," Eastman Kodak Co.
"Commercial Photofinishing," Eastman Kodak Co.
CHAPTER XVIII
INTENSIFICATION AND REDUCTION

By Beverly Dudley
The ideal situation to be striven for in the technique of the photographic process is
to produce negatives and prints that are free from blemishes and in which the opacities
of a portion of the image are properly related to the visual brightness of the corre-
sponding areas of the original subject. When the negative or print departs from
these ideal — —
or other desired conditions, corrective processes maj' sometimes be
employed to advantage. Among the most important corrective processes may be
listed intensification and reduction which are chemical in their characteristics.
Physical or mechanical corrective processes, such as retouching, spotting, and the
various control methods which may be used in printing will not be discussed in this
chapter. The chemical corrective processes may
be applied either to the negative or
to the print. Usually, however, it is more make a new print than to
satisfactory to
attempt to correct for certain defects, so that intensification and reduction are used on
prints relatively infrequently. Consequently, the majority of the material in this
chapter refers primarily to intensification and reduction of negative materials.
INTENSIFICATION
Intensification isthe photographic process by which the density and contrast of the
silver image are increased. Intensification may be necessary or advisable for several
reasons: (1) The negative may be underexposed and so thin that the printing time to
obtain the desired result may be inconveniently short. (2) The negative may be
underdeveloped and therefore lacking in contrast, in which case intensification may be
used to increase contrast. (3) Portions of the negative may be so thin that the
resultant print is dark and lacking in detail. In this last case, local intensification of
the negative may be quite helpful.
In a negative, intensification may be effected by any chemical or dye process which
decreases the transmission of light through the negative. Because such light-
absorbing substances may not be neutral, i.e., gray, in color and because the sensi-
tivity characteristics of the human eye differ from those of the photographic paper
upon which the negative is to be printed, the visual effect of intensification may differ
from the photographic effect. Consequently, it is not always possible to determine
the degree of photographic intensification from visual examination or measurements
made on an intensified negative. In positive prints, intensification may be effected
by any chemical process which increases the visual density of the deposit of silver on
the paper, but where prints are concerned, it is highly desirable that the intensification
produce a neutral rather than a colored effect.
Classification of Intensifiers. —Intensifiers may be classified according to the three
common methods by which intensification may be accomplished:
1. A new film or deposit of silver may be added to that already existing on the
negative or print. The silver intensifiers are the only ones producing intensification
of neutral color. They have the further advantage in producing a permanent effect.
547
:
2. The original silver deposit may be treated with substances which will unite with
the metallic silver so as to produce a combined deposit of greater density than that
provided by the metallic silver grains alone. Chromium, mercury, lead, copper, and
other metalsmay be used to combine with the original silver. While some of these
methods produce an appreciable increase in density, the intensified image may not be
neutral in tone.
3. The may
be altered to provide greater opacity to
color of the original deposit
the passage of light through the negative. In such cases the visual and photographic
intensification may be quite different, so that visual inspection does not give a good
indication of the photographic effect which this type of intensification produces.
This is especially true where the color of the intensified negative is yellow, for a
yellow stain has relatively high absorption in the blue end of the spectrum to which
printing materials are most sensitive.
Instead of classifying the intensification process, as we have done, according
to its modus operandi, a classification based on the visual and photographic effects
is sometimes employed. According to this classification there are three types of
intensification
1. Intensification methods giving both visual and photographic intensification.
This is the most common and useful class of intensifiers.
2. Methods giving photographic intensification but visual reduction.
3. Methods giving visual intensification with photographic reduction obtained
only when intensifiers having a bleaching effect are employed with negatives which
were originally considerably colored or stained.
Considerations in Intensification. —
The characteristics of intensifiers as they
affect the original negative should be considered in selecting an intensifier for any
particular purpose. Permanence of the intensified image is important when prints
are to be made over a long period of time from the same negative. Another factor of
considerable importance, especially in scientific work, is preservation of gradation of
the original image.
Since the desired degree of intensification may not be obtained with a single
treatment, it is important to determine whether or not the particular method chosen
permits repeated intensification by successive treatments. The color of the intensified
image may also have important practical consequences, for it may be extremely
difficult to determine by visual inspection the extent of photographic intensification
when the intensified image is colored. Thus colored images which result from the use
of such intensifiers as uranium and the copper-tin mercuric iodide intensifier followed
by Schlippe's salt or an alkaline developer may produce considerably greater photo-
graphic intensification than might be judged from visual inspection.
Excessive intensification may have been attained in the intensification process.
In such cases it is advantageous to know the conditions under which the intensified
image may be reduced.
The important characteristics of the more useful intensifiers are given in Table I.
For details on other intensifiers, or for additional data not given here, the reader is
referred to more complete articles given in the bibliography.
—
Sensitometry of Intensification, The quantitative measurement of the inten-
sification which is possible through the use of various intensifjdng agents may be
determined and expressed in much the same manner as the sensitometric character-
istics of photographic materials.^
In determining the characteristics of intensifiers, a strip of film is given a series of
known, graded or stepped exposures and is then developed, washed, fixed, and dried in
' Suitable methods for determining sensitometric characteristics have been given in the chapter on
Photographic Sensitometry.
INTENSIFICATION AND REDUCTION 549
S
,
the usual manner. The density of the various steps is then measured, and the den-
sities are plotted against the corresponding exposure in the form of the usual Z)-logio E
characteristic. Such a curve gives the sensitometric characteristics of the test film
under the specified processing conditions.
The test strip is then processed in the intensifying bath, according to the conditions
required for the particular intensifier in question. After the strip has been dried, the
Subpropor+i'onoil
'n+ensif icoi+fon
log,oE log,oE lo3io^

Fig. 1.- -Characteristic curves of intensified materials for various types of intensifiers.
densities of the various steps are again measured and plotted as a second D-logio E
curve. We thushave two density determinations for various exposed portions of the
test strip; one made before and one made after intensification. The characteristics
of the intensifier in altering the original density of the unintensified test strip may
Originoil Density
Fig. 2. —
The characteristics of various types of intensifiers, plotted against the density of
the unintensified material. This type of curve shows the same characteristics as Fig.
1
although in a different form.
then be interpreted from such a graphical plot. Figure 1 illustrates the Z)-logio E
characteristics of a test strip without intensification, as well as for three idealized types
of intensifiers. In curve A, represented by a proportional intensifier, all the densities
of the original negative are increased in the intensification process by the same per
cent. In curve B, the higher densities are increased a relatively greater amount than
the lower densities, whereas in curve C the lower densities receive greater intensifica-
tion than the higher densities. The desired characteristic of practically all intensifiers
is that given by curve A, and most intensifiers have, at least approximately, this
general characteristic of proportionality.
As shown in Fig. 2, another method of showing the characteristics of intensifiers is
to plot the percentage increase in density due to intensification as ordinates against the
original density of the test strip as abscissas. The curves of Fig. 2 correspond to
similarly lettered curves of Fig.
1. The curves of Figs. 1 and 2 are idealized for the
purpose of illustration, and do not represent the measured characteristics of any
particular intensifying agent.
According to whether the slope of the curve of Fig. ? is positive, zero, or negative,
intensifiershave been classified as positive-gradient, proportional, and negative-
gradient intensifiers, respectively. According to the published work of Nietz and
Huse,i and Crabtree and Muehler,^ the following classification of intensifiers with
examples of each type, is permissible:
1. Proportional or zero-gradient intensifiers

Chromium intensifier
Mercury intensifier (Monckhoven's intensifier)
Silver intensifier
2. Positive-gradient intensifiers
Copper-tin
3. Negative-gradient intensifiers
Mercuric iodide and Schlippe's salts
Mercuric iodide and paraminophenol
Bichromate and hydrochloric acid and Amidol
Because all densities are increased by the same per cent in proportional intensifiers,
such intensifiers have the eff'ect of increasing the y of the developed film. The effect is
much the same as if the negative had been developed for a longer time or at a higher
temperature since the contrast is increased. Because of their desirable characteristics
and their extensive use, only proportional intensifiers will be discussed in this chapter.
For details of the other types of intensifiers, reference should be made to the paper by
Nietz and Huse.
Intensifiers. —
Chromium Intensifier Intensification with chromium is a favorite
method moderate degree of intensification and lends itself to various control
for
methods, depending upon the composition of the bleaching bath.
In chromium intensification, the original silver image is bleached in a solution of
potassium bichromate and hydrochloric acid or hydrobromic acid or, alternatively,
a solution of chromic acid and sodium chloride. The bleaching process is then
followed by redevelopment in any ordinary developer and by washing.
Although the exact proportions of the various constituents may be varied over
rather wide limits, a suitable bleaching bath may be made as follows:
Potassium bichromate 8 g. 1 oz.

Hydrochloric acid 6 cc. ^ oz.
Water 11. 1 gal.
Research by Carnegie and Piper^ has indicated that the degree of intensification
depends upon the concentration of the constituents, especially that of the acid. By
1 Nietz and Huse, Phot. J., 58, 81 (1918); /. Franklin Inst., March, 1918; Brit. J. Phot.. 65, 179, 191
(1918).
" Crabtree, J. I., and L. E. Muehler, Reducing and Intensifying Solutions for Motion Picture
Film, /. Soc. Motion. Picture Engrs., 17 (No. 6), 1001-1053 (1931).
3 Carnegie, D. J., and C. W. Piper, Intensification and Redevelopment, Am. Phot, 40, 336, 1904.
:
varjang the concentration, various degrees of intensification are possible. The great-
est intensificationis produced with relatively small amounts of acid (2 cc. per 1.) and
bichromate (10 g. per 1.), whereas the degree of intensification decreases as these con-
centrations are increased. The quantity of acid cannot be increased indefinitely, as
the rate of bleaching slows down. The maximum concentration recommended by
Carnegie and Piper was 20 g. bichromate per liter and 40 cc. acid per liter. The
formula given on p. 551 is that recommended bj^ Crabtree and Muehler^ and gives an
increase of 40 per cent in density for a single treatment when redeveloped in D-72
developer. The intensification can be increased and greater speed of bleaching results
if 5 g. potassium bromide is added to each liter of solution. If desired, the solutions
can be made up for storage with ten times the concentration given above and may be
diluted 10 to 1 for use as required.
Bleaching will require about }4 to 3 min. Incomplete bleaching results in rela-

tively greater intensification of the lower densities compared with the higher. After
bleaching, the negative is washed in running water until all trace of bichromate has
been removed. The negative is then redeveloped in a nonstaining developer. Since
the sulphite may result in reduction of lower densities, the developer is preferably one
in which the sodium sulphite concentration is low. Suitable developers include those
composed of Amidol, metol-hydroquinone, metol, or paraminophenol. See chapter on
Developers and Theory of Development. A suitable developer is the Eastman D-72,
which is prepared as follows
Hot water (approximately 125°J 500 cc. 64 oz.
Metol (Elon) 3 . 1 g. 180 gr.
Sodium sulphite (desiccated) 45 g. 6 oz.

Hydroquinone 12 5 . g. 1 oz. 260 gr.
Sodium carbonate (desiccated) 67 5 . g. 9 oz.

Potassium bromide 1 .9 g- Yi oz.
Water to make 1 1- 1 gal.
Develop from 3 to 10 min. (depending upon degree of intensification desired)

at 65 to 70°F. Rinse the negative and immerse in fixing bath for 5 min., wash thor-
oughly, and then dry.
The intensification process may be repeated, if desired, although the degree of
intensification decreases with each treatment as the number of treatments is increased.
—
Mercury Intensifier. Intensification with mercury is accomplished by depositing
metallic mercury or one of its compounds on the silver image. This is accompHshed
by first bleaching the silver image in mercuric chloride or mercuric bromide to produce
silver mercurous chloride. The compound thus produced is reduced, in the process of
development, to silver and mercury compounds or mercury and compounds of silver
and mercury, according to the character of the redeveloper.
A suitable bleach consists of
Potassium bromide 22 . .5 g. 3 oz.

Mercuric chloride^ 22. 5 g. 3 oz.
Water to make 1 1- 1 gal.
1 Mercuric chloride is extremely poisonous and should be handled accordingly.
It is essential that negatives be free from hypo before bleaching, or local stains
maj-- result. bleached until the image is white. After bleaching,

The negative is
wash the negative in running water for 5 to 10 min., and redevelop.

Several suitable redeveloping solutions are possible, but the silver cyanide redevel-
oper (forming with the above bleach what is known as Monckhoven's intensifier)
is one of the most suitable and best known. Monckhoven's intensifier results in
a high degree of intensification, although reduction occurs for the very low densities.
:
This intensifier is consequently well suited to black-and-white line work, or where

high contrast is desired. The silver cyanide redeveloper consists of
Sodium or potassium cyanide (poison) 15 g. 2 oz.
Silver nitrate 22 5 . g. 3 oz.
The cyanide and should be dissolved separately, and the latter

silver nitrate
added to the former until a permanent precipitate is just formed. After the mixture
has stood about an hour, it should be filtered and is then ready for use. After redevel-
oping, the negative is washed and dried. The intensified images are not entirely
permanent.
Silver or Physical Intensifiers. —
Intensification with silver, sometimes called
"physical intensification," produces a permanent image of neutral color. The
degree of intensification may be easily controlled bj'' varying the duration of the
intensification bath or through the use of successive treatments. Silver intensification
is accomplished by immersing the negative in an acid solution of silver nitrate which
contains a reducing agent such as metol. In this solution silver is precipitated in

colloidal form upon the original silver image. This colloidal silver deposits differen-
tially on the silver image substantially in proportion to the amount of silver in the
original image. Consequently all densities are increased to the same extent, and true
proportional intensification results. Furthermore a permanent image of neutral color
is obtained, since the products of the intensification are the same as those of the
original image.
The following silver intensifier, taken from Crab tree and Muehler^ is more stable
and satisfactory than those previously recommended
Solution 1
Silver nitrate 60 g. 2 oz.

Solution 2
Solution 3
Sodium thiosulphate crystals 105 g. 3.5 oz.
Solution 4
Sodium sulphite (desiccated) 15 g. 219 gr.
Elon (metol) 24 g. 351 gr.

To prepare the intensifier, add one part of solution 1 slowly to one part of solution
2,obtaining a thorough mixture by stirring or shaking. A white precipitate will form
which is dissolved by the addition of one part of solution 3. The resulting solution
should be permitted to stand until clear, after which three parts of solution 4 should
be added, with constant stirring. The film should be treated immediately in this
solution. This mixed solution is stable for about 30 to 45 min. at 70°F.
The degree of intensification obtained depends upon the length of time the film
is immersed in the solution, but because the solution is not stable for a much longer
time, this should not exceed 25 min. After intensification, the film should be immersed
and agitated hypo bath for 2 min. It should then be washed
in a plain 30 per cent
thoroughly. Since it has been found that hypo baths have some reducing action on
the silver image, the film should not be left in the hypo bath too long.
A 50 per cent increase in density can be obtained by immersing the film in the
but a much higher degree of intensification
silver intensifier for 10 min., may be
obtained through the use of successive treatments.
Reduction of the intensified image may

be accomplished by the use of such sub-
tractive reducers as Farmer's and These reducers do not affect
Belitzski's reducers.
the contrast of the intensified image. Suitable formulas giving proportional reduction
with the silver image have not been developed to date, so that the desired contrast will
have to be determined in the intensification process.
—
Uranium Intensifier. Uranium intensification produces an extremely high degree
of intensification 1 primarily because of the color of its'image, which varies from reddish
brown to bright red. A disadvantage of uranium intensification is that the photo-
graphic intensification is considerably greater than visual intensification, so that the
desired effect may be difficult to judge. Moreover, the intensified image is not com-
pletely permanent. Because of the high intensification produced, the method is
suitable for use wdth very thin negatives where other intensification methods might
be unsuitable, or it may be used as a local intensifier.
A suitable uranium intensifier may be made with the following two solutions:
Solution 1
Potassium ferri cyanide 50 g. 384 gr.
Water 11. 16 oz.
Solution 2
Uranium nitrate 50 g. 384 gr.
Potassium bromide 20 g. 154 gr.
Water •. 1 1. 16 oz.
Immerse the negative in solution 1 until bleached, then wash thoroughly in water.
Immerse in solution 2 until no further action takes place, and wash in a dilute bath of
acetic acid. Finally wash in plain water, and dry.
Because of the change in color produced, uranium intensification is sometimes
considered as a toning process.
REDUCTION
Photographic reduction is by which the effective density of the photo-
the process
graphic deposit is Reduction of the photographic image may be desirable
diminished.
for several reasons: (1) It may be desired to diminish the average density of the nega-
tive so that the printing time may be reduced; (2) reduction may be used to increase or
decrease the contrast; (3) traces of fog may be removed by reduction; (4) effects of
overexposure or overdevelopment of a positive image may be modified by reduction.
The process of reduction consists in dissolving away some of the silver deposit of the
image. Depending upon the differential action of the reducing agent on the density
of the original silver image, the effect of photographic reduction varies with the type
of reducer employed. This gives rise to the following convenient classification of
photographic reducers:
Types of Reducers.—Subtractive reducers are those which remove an equal amount
of silverfrom all parts of the image or from all densities. Through their use the gen-
eral or mean density of the negative is diminished but the density range (and con-
sequently the contrast) is usually increased. Subtractive reducers are used mainly to
improve overexposed negatives and positives, or for the removal of fog. Subtractive
known as "cutting" or "surface cutting" reducers.
reducers are also
Proportional reducers are those which remove the silver deposit in proportion to
the amount originally present in the image. Thus, all densities are reduced by the
same percentage, and contrast is decreased. Proportional reducers are used mainly
to reduce excessive density and contrast due to overdevelopment.
Superproportional reducers remove a greater percentage of silver from the high
densities than from the low. Accordingly the decrease in density due to reduction is
1 NiETz and HuSE, Phot. J., 68, 81 (1918); J. Franklin Inst., 185 (No. 2), 231 (1918).
proportional to the amount of silver originally present in the image. Such a reducer
decreases the contrast and is used chiefly for the reduction of overdeveloped negatives
of contrasty subjects.
Superpropor+ionoil
Reduc+ion
Fig. 3. —Characteristic curves of original and reduced photographic materials for various
types of reducers.
Sensitometry of Reducers. —
The characteristics of reducing agents may be deter-
mined in exactly the same manner as the
characteristics of intensifiers are determined,
and the results may be plotted in the same
form. Figure 3 shows the D-logio E charac-
teristics of an assumed photographic
material, together with hypothetical charac-
teristics of the three idealized types of
reducers. Figure 4 shows the character-
istics of reducers plotted in such a way that
their classification is somewhat more readily
recognized. In Fig. 3, curve A represents
the subtractive reducer, curve B the pro-
portional reducer, and curve C the superpro- Original Densi-hy
portional or "flattening" reducer. These Fig. 4. — The characteristics of vari-
ous types of reducers, expressed in per-
three types of reducers, as may be seen from
centage change of the original density.
Fig. 4, maj^ be labeled as positive-gradient,
zero-gradient, and negative-gradient reducers, corresponding, respectively, to super-
proportional, proportional, and subproportional reducers of Fig. 3.
According to this classification, the following three types of reducers together with
representative formulas are permissible:
1. Superproportional or positive-gradient reducers

Farmer's reducer
Haddon's reducer
Iodine-cyanide reducer
Ferricyanide and cyanide reducer
Modified Belitzski reducer
Potassium permanganate reducer
Bichromate reducer
Ceric ammonium nitrate reducer
Ceric ammonium sulphate reducer
Ferricyanide and ammonium sulphocyanide
Iodide-hypo reducer
Copper reducer
2. Proportional or zero-gradient reducers
Ferrocyanide-hypo
Permanganate in acid state
Quinone vu sulphuric
u -j
^
•
I
.
1^ Mvitn
,
i
acid
Cûmone sulphonates )
Deck ammonium persulphate

Ferric salts
3. Subproportional or negative-gradient reducers
Alkaline persulphate (ammonium persulphate)
Persulphate reducer
Bensoquinone
Erdmann's salt
Potassium permanganate with ammonium sulphocyanide
The literature on photographic reducers is so voluminous that no attempt will be

made to describe more than the most common and satisfactory reducers in general
use. For additional information, the reader is referred to the references given in the
bibliography.
Subtractive Reducers. Farmer's Reducer. —A popular reducer introduced by
Howard Farmer consists of a mixture of potassium ferricyanide and sodium thio-
sulphate. In this reducer, the silver image is attacked and oxidized by the ferro-
cyanide, and silver ferrocyanide is formed. Since this silver ferrocyanide is soluble in
hypo, the silver removed from the negative goes into solution.
Farmer's reducer is used as a single solution reducer, although it is made up in two
stock solutions since the mixture does not keep well. A satisfactory formula is
Solution 1
Potassium ferricyanide 37.5 g. 13^ oz.
Solution 2
Sodium thiosulphate (hypo) 480 g. 16 oz.
For use, 30 cc. (1 oz.) of solution 1 and 120 cc. (4 oz.) of solution 2 are diluted with
water to make 1 1. (32 oz.) of reducing solution. The negative is immersed in this
working solution until the desired reduction is obtained, after which the negative is
washed and dried. The reducing action continues slightly after the film is removed
from the reducing solution, so that it is well to remove the negative to the wash bath
just before the desired reduction is obtained. The action may best be carried out in a
shallow white tray which facilitates easy inspection of the degree of reduction taking
place. The mixed solution does not keep well, and if sufficient reduction is not
obtained after about 5 min., the film should be transferred to a fresh bath until the
desired result is obtained.
While classed as a subtractive or cutting reducer, the effect produced by this
reducer depends to a large degree upon the nature of the reducing solution and the
image Avhich is being reduced. Crabtree and Muehler have found that a two-solution
reducer is more satisfactory and permits greater control than the Single-solution
Farmer's reducer. A vigorously acting formula such as one containing 1 per cent of
potassium ferricyanide and 10 per cent sodium thiosulphate, produces almost purely
subtractive reduction of the silver image. The color of the reduced image may be
slightly brown, but this is ordinarily not objectionable.
Farmer's double-solution reducer is made up as two stock solutions, according to

the formula:
Solution 1
Potassium ferricyanide 7 5 . g. 1 oz.
Solution 2
Sodium thiosulphate fhypo) 200 g. i lb. 11 oz.
The negatives are agitated in solution 1 for from 1 to 4 min. (depending upon
the reduction desired) at 65 to 70°F. The film is then immersed in solution 2 for
5 min., after which it is washed thoroughly. If more reduction is desired, the process
may be repeated.
—
Haddon's Reducer. A single solution made of ferricyanide and ammonium sulpho-
cyanide, formulated by Haddon, is of the subtractive type but has the advantage that
the solution is stable. The reducing solution is made as follows:
Potassium ferricyanide 5 g. 22 gr.

Ammonium sulphocyanide 10 g. 44 gr.
The negativeis immersed in this solution until the desired reduction is obtained,
after which the film is washed in running water and dried. With this reducer, there
is a tendency for a slight white deposit to form on the film. The deposit is soluble in
sodium thiosulphate as well as in sodium cyanide and may be removed by immersing
the negative in hypo. A small quantity of sodium cyanide may be added to the
reducer to prevent formation of this deposit.
Iodine-cyanide Reducer. —
A subtractive reducer which removes a slightly greater
quantity of silver from the denser portion than from the lower densities may be made
of a dilute solution of sodium or potassium cyanide with a small amount of iodine.
A suitable formula is
Sodium cyanide (poison) 5 g. 22 gr.
Iodine crystals 1 g. 4 . ,5 gr.
solution is highly unstable and must therefore be prepared immediately before

The
use. Approximately 30 per cent reduction in density may be obtained in 10 min.
After suitable reduction has been obtained, wash in clear water, and dry.
Ferricyanide and Cyanide Reducer. —
A solution of potassium ferricyanide and
sodium cyanide forms a stable reducer of the subtractive type. Its disadvantages
are that it is highly poisonous and softens the gelatin, so that preliminary hardening
in a formalin bath (see Chapter on Fixing, Washing, and Drying) is necessary. A
suitable formula is:
Potassium ferricyanide 2 5 . g. 10 5 gr.

.
Sodium cyanide 2..5 g. 10.5 gr.

By
doubling the concentration of the ingredients, a more rapid rate of reduction
is obtainable.After the desired reduction, wash the negative in water, and dry.
—
Modified Belitzski's Reducer. This reducer partakes of the characteristics of both
subtractive and proportional reducers. It reduces the slope of the Z)-logio E curve of
the photographic material, although a greater proportion of silver is removed from
the lower than from the higher densities. The solution keeps from 3 to 5 days. The
modification recommended by Crabtree and Muehler is
Ferric chloride (crystals) 25 g. iî oz.
Potassium citrate 75 g. 10 oz.
Citric acid 20 g. 'ZVs oz.
Sodium thiosulphate crystals 200 g. 1 lb. 1 1 oz.
Water to make 11. 1 gal.
—
Potassium Permanganate Reduce?: A dilute solution of potassium permanganate
acidifiedwith sulphuric acid may be classified as a subtractive reducer, although like
the modified Belitzski's reducer, it shows characteristics intermediate between sub-
tractive and proportional reducers. The solution is not stable in contact with the
air for more than a few hours when a single-solution reducer is used. Accordingly
the reducer may be made up in two stock solutions as follows:
Solution 1
Potassium^ permanganate 1 . g. lî oz.

Water to make 0.5 1. 32 oz.
Solution 2
Sulphuric acid (concentrated) 5.0 cc. 1 oz.
Water to make 0.51. 32 oz.
The working solution is made up of one part of each of the stock solutions.
After the desired reduction has been obtained, the film should be immersed in a
1 per cent solution of sodium bisulphite for several minutes, or in an acid fixing bath,
and should then be rewashed. This reducer has the characteristics of a subtractive
reducer, but by decreasing the amount of sulphuric acid or by using a weak acid, such
as acetic acid, the reducer is more nearly proportional in its characteristics.
Proportional Reducers. Krauss' Ferric Ammonium Sulphate Reducer. —A reducer
having little or no action on low values of density but appreciable action on densities
greater than about 0.5 may be made of ferric ammonium sulphate in acid solution.
The formula, originally suggested by Krauss, but modified by Crabtree and Muehler
is
Ferric ammonium sulphate 15 g. 0.5 oz.

Sulphuric acid (concentrated) 10 cc. 0.3 oz.
In order that stains may

not result, it is essential that the film to be reduced be
freed of hypo and silver salts and that the film be not permitted to come into contact
with the air during reduction. A disadvantage of this reducer is that it softens the
gelatin during treatment, so that prehardening in a formalin bath is desirable.
The film is immersed in the above solution until the desired reduction is obtained,
but this should not exceed about 8 min., as otherwise the low values of densities are
reduced and the property of proportional reduction is no longer maintained. Treat-
ment about 30 per cent reduction in density.
for 6 min. gives
—
and Huse Reducer. Subtractive and superproportional reducers may be
Nietz
combined to produce a proportional reducer. Such a proportional reducer may be
made by combining potassium permanganate and ammonium persulphate reducers.
The following, worked out bj' Nietz and Huse, is a satisfactory formula for pro-
portional reduction:
Solution 1
Potassium permanganate . 25 g. 38.0 gr.

Sulphuric acid (10 per cent) 15 cc. 0.25 oz.
Distilled water to make 1 1. .35 oz.
Solution 2
Ammonium persulphate 25 g. . 75 oz.
Distilled water to make 1 1. 35 oz.
For use one part of solution 1 is added to three parts of solution 2. The keeping
properties of the combined solutions is very poor so the solutions should be mixed
immediately before use. After reduction, which requires from 1 to 3 min., the nega-
tive should be immersed in a 1 per cent solution of potassium metabisulphite. This
bath will remove the stains produced by the manganese salts precipitated in the
gelatin.
Superproportional Reducers.— Only a few substances produce superproportional
reducers, and of these the alkaline persulphates (usually ammonium) alone are of
practical utility. As photographic reducing agents, the persulphate reducers are
erratic in their behavior. Since they act more rapidly as reduction proceeds, nega-
tives reduced in persulphate reducers should be wâtched carefully in order that reduc-
tion is not carried beyond the desired degree. The reducing action maj^ be halted by
placing the negative in an acid fixing bath. A suitable formula is
Water oOO cc. 5 oz.
Ammonium persulphate 60 g. 262 gr.
Sulphuric acid (concentrated) 3 cc. 15 minims

Because of the erratic behavior of persulphate reducers, it is best to make up this

solution just prior to use. The quantity of acid controls the rate of reduction.
When the desired degree of reduction is attained, immerse the film in an acid fixing
bath for several minutes and then wash in clear water. If the action of this reducer
is too vigorous, the rate of reduction may be decreased by further dilution.
—
Harmonizing. A corrective treatment which stands midway between intensifica-
tion and reduction is the process commonly known as "harmonizing." Essentially
this process carries out intensification of shadow^ detail without affecting the high
lights or reduces the high lights without altering the shadows or lower densities.
This method is useful in treating highly contrast}'' negatives or negatives which have
been underexposed and overdeveloped.
The negative is first bleached in a solution consisting of
Potassium bichromate 8 g. 1 oz.
Hycrochloric acid (concentrated) 6 cc. . 75 oz.
Potassium bromide '.
5 g. 0.6 oz.
When the negative has been completely bleached, it is redeveloped in a dilute

developer composed of the foUowdng:
Elon (metol) 2 g. K oz.

Sodium carbonate (desiccated) 10 g. Ijr^ oz.
Redevelopment of from 1 to 2 min. results in superproportional reduction of the

higher densities, but proportional intensification of the low values of density. After
bleaching, the negative is immersed in an acid fixing bath for 5 min., washed in clear
water, and dried.
Local Intensification and Reduction. —So been given only to
far consideration has
general intensification and reduction of the entire negative. In some cases, however,
it may be desired to intensify or reduce portions of the negative without affecting
other portions. Treatment of a portion of the negative is called "local intensification"

or "local reduction," and this may be highly useful in bringing out certain shadow
details or in reducing the density of a high light.
Local intensification or reduction may be carried out by applying the proper
solution directlj^ to the negative by means of a soft camel's-hair brush. If fairly largo
areas must be treated, tufts of absorbent cotton saturated with the solution may be
preferred to the use of a soft brush. If the negative has been dried, it should be soaked
in clear water for 10 or 20 min. before attempting to apply the solution. The negative
should be moist for this afterwork, but should not contain too much water. Best
results are usuallj' obtained when the surface moisture has been removed by means of
lintless blotters or sponges.
taken with this method, few difficulties will be encountered. In order
If care is
that the desired intensificationmay be obtained, it is preferable to choose an intensifier
which does not stain appreciably. It may be desirable to dilute the intensifying or
reducing solutions to prevent too rapid action and to keep the treatment completely
under control. The main difficulty with this method of correction, especially for the
inexperienced, is one of keeping the applied solutions from spreading to undesired
portions of the negative. This difficulty may be reduced to a minimum hy working
over small areas and by removing the surface water from the negative.
Yellow or orange dyes or well-diluted water colors maj^ be applied to portions of the
negative to obtain local reduction. These colors should be applied with a moist,
rather than wet, brush, and only a small amount of coloring should be added at a
time. The surplus water should be removed as soon as the desired area has been
treated. Through the use of successive applications, the densitj" may be built up to
the desired amount. A disadvantage of this system is that it is difficult to determine,
bj" visual inspection, the degree of photographic intensification which has been
obtained.
Intensification may also be carried out bj^ darkening the negative with lead or
lithographic pencils, although this process is, perhaps, more properly to be regarded as
one of retouching than of intensification.
A
simple method of intensification which does not involve treatment of the partic-
ular negative may be effected by making a duplicate negative with a higher scale of
density than the original. Intensification may be carried out in the making of the
positive from the original negative and again when making the final negative.
The use of a duplicate negative, having a lower contrast than the original, may
also be used for reduction.
A simple method of reduction consists of removing some of the silver through the
use of an abrasive reducing paste applied to the image on the negative or through the
application of an abrasive pencil or rubber eraser.
The contrast of a negative may be reduced by practically any desired degree
by printing from a negative a positive transparency, and binding this positive mask
with the negative. The mask may be made on sensitive material on a slow film or
plate and may have low or high contrast, according to the degree of masking required.
Bibliography
Periodicals:
Haddon, a.: Potassium Ferricyanide and Ammonium Sulphocj-anide Reducer, Brit. J. Phot., 39,
49, 60 (1892).
Piper, C. W., and D. J. Carnegie: Intensification and Redevelopment, Amateur Phot., 40, 336 (1904).
HusE, K., and A. H. Nietz: Proportional Reducers, Brit. J. Phot., 63, 580 (,1916).
NiETZ, A. H.. and K. Huse: The Sensitometry of Photographic Intensification, J. Franklin Inst.,
185, 389 (1918).
Krauss, H.: Reduction of Photographic Plates with Ferric Ammonium Sulphate, Z. iviss. Phot., 18,
192 (1919).
BuNEL, L. J.: Harmonizing Negatives by Intensification with Chromium, Brit. J. Phot., 70, 625 (1923).
Crabtree, J. I., and L. E. Muehler: Reducing and Intensifying Solutions for Motion Picture Film,
J. Soc. Motion Picture Engrs., 17 (No. 6), 1001-1053 (1931).
Books:
Wall, E. .1.: "Intensification and Reduction," Am. Photographic Pub.

"The Tinting and Toning of Eastman Positive Motion Picture Film," Eastman Kodak Co.
CHAPTER XIX
DARKROOMS AND DARKROOM PRACTICE
By Keith Hennet
—
General Characteristics of Darkrooms. The darkroom is the photographer's
laboratory and as such deserves special consideration with regard to (1) size, (2)
layout and location of apparatus, (3) location, (4) lighting, (5) ventilation, (6) treat-
ment of walls and ceiling, (7) temperature, humidity, and dust, and (8) water supply
and drain.
Size. —
The dimensions of the darkroom will depend on the space that is available,
on the nature of the work to be done, or on the financial or mechanical ability of the
photographer to make his laboratory exactly what he wants it to be.
r.S.- INDIRECT SAFELIGHT
Fig. 1. —Layout of darkroom for photofinishing plant.
Although it is probable that no darkroom was ever too large, a rambling place with
apparatus at opposite ends of the room is more tiring and time consuming to work in
than a small but well-arranged room. Many amateurs accomplish remarkable work
in small closets, in the bathroom or kitchenette of a small apartment, or in a corner of
the basement. These workshops must be considered as distinct handicaps to the
serious worker, although, perforce nothing much can be done about it. Photography
with the miniature camera, of course, requires much less space than work with large
plates or films.
A large commercial studio may have several darkrooms, or several divisions of a
main laboratory. A
small darkroom (loading room) is frequently placed next to the
exposing studio or gallery so that plateholders may be handed to the cameraman
through some sort of lighttight cabinet. This loading room need not be large, but
it should not be a part of the place where negatives are developed or printed, if this
561
separation is possible. Neither should the loading room be part of a room \Yhere
chemicals are stored or are mixed.
Whenever possible, a room at least 10 by 10 ft. should be available, even for
amateur activities.
Layout. — If a single room must suffice for all operations, it must be carefully
planned and arranged. The layout should be flexible, however, since no one can tell
in advance of having worked in the darkroom exactly how and where the several
pieces of equipment should be situated. After the room has been in service for a time,
the photographer may wish to reorganize it so that he may work with greater ease and
efficiency.
Sufficient space, and proper arrangement, are vitally necessary to the photographer
who will make color prints. More equipment and more chemicals will be needed.
Every facility must be provided the worker so that he does not waste material.
Adry place to load film or plateholders is essential. It should be as far from the
sink as possible so that no drop of water or chemical can fall upon and ruin an impor-
tant negative. Chemicals should not be stored, weighed, or mixed in the processing
room. Dry specks of chemical are sure to fall upon the workbench, later to be blown
into the air and perhaps to settle on a wet film or plate.
If possible, sensitive materials should be stored somewhere else than in the proc-
essing room. Because the processing room tends to be humid, plates, films, and
papers tend to deteriorate unless pains are taken to keep them free from moisture.
The layout should be such that an easy flow of work can take place.
—
Placement of the Darkroom. Because of the quantities of liquid exposed to the air
in the processing room, this room tends to be damp. If, at the same time, it is cooler
than the surrounding rooms, moisture will condense from water-laden air entering
from warmer rooms. For this reason the basement is a poor place for a darkroom.
The surrounding earth keeps the room cool in summer, and it is then that most
trouble is had with humidity. Wooden apparatus is likely to swell and stick, metal
parts to oxidize, and sensitive materials to mildew.
The operator of a commercial studio has greater choice of a proper place than has
the amateur and can locate the processing rooms on the first or other floors above the
level of the ground.
The attic is hot in summer and cold in winter and may be far from sources of
water or from drainage.
The first or second floor of the house is the ideal place for the amateur's darkroom.
Here the workroom is easil}'^ heated, drainage is simple, and water can usually be had
without too much trouble. Wherever placed, the darkroom must be above the drain
pipes for the house. Otherwise trouble may be experienced in disposing of waste
liquids (see Water and Drain, page 564).
Lighting. —
It is a mistake to paint the darkroom walls and ceiling or benches in
dark colors. A light green or buff color will be easy on the eyes and under safe-light
illumination will enable one's work to be viewed much easier than if the walls and
ceiling are black. Under ordinarj^ illumination (not safe light) the photographer
should have as much light as he can conveniently get into the room. Prints should be
viewed bj'' illumination by which they will finally be judged. A print that is to be
looked at in daylight, should be criticized by the photographer in that light, or as near
as he can attain it, before it is termed finished or ready to be released. Several hun-
dred watts of incandescent "daylight" illumination are not too much, particularly
if color printing is part of the photographer's work.'
In the darkroom there should be numerous outlets for electricity. More outlets
should be installed than seem necessary. All will be used at some time or other. A
1 Recent introduction of fluorescent lamps has provided the photographer with an excellent source
of illumination which is very efficient and which has characteristics approaching daylight.
DARKROOMS AND DARKROOM PRACTICE 563
consistent scheme of switching should be employed, e.g., snap switches for safe lights,
push switches for general illumination. Then in the dark, there is little chance of
turning on the wrong lights. A still safer system is to make it necessary to insert a
key into the switch that controls the general illumination; but the trouble with this
is that the key may be lost, unless it is permanently attached to the switch in some
manner. A foot switch controlling a light used for inspecting a print, frees both
hands for rocking a tray, etc..
Special paints are available for darkroom use. For use on trays, benches, sinks,
etc., these paints should be acid and alkali resistant, and light in color. Kodacoat of
Eastman Kodak, Larkaloid of Larkin Co., Tornesite of May Products Co., and Pliolite
of Pratt and Lambert are recommended. It seems to be extremely difficult to get a
paint which certain developing agents will not stain, but frequent painting will assure
that benches, etc., are kept clean and in good condition.
Ceilings and the upper parts of the walls may be painted with a light buff or
green. Equipped with an indirect illumination scheme, the light-colored ceiling will
contribute to general illumination which will be much better than that secured by
directly illuminating the object to be inspected bj^ rays from the safe light. Lower
parts of walls, likely to be touched with wet hands, may be painted a darker color and
with a paint which may be more stain resistant.
Ventilation. — It is highly important that those who work in a processing room be
provided with a copious supply of fresh air and that stale and noxious air be constantly
withdrawn from the room. Since the room must be abso-
lutely dark at times, this ventilation problem is serious in
the small darkroom, although the commercial establishments
have the funds and facilities for doing a thorough job of
ventilation. If a vent is cut at the top and at the bottom of V
T
7^
the walls of the darkroom and if these vents are properly light- <5* V <8">
trapped, a circulation of air will take place, the warmer air at V
the top leaving through the upper vent, and the cooler air
coming in at the bottom. If sufficient circulation does not f V
take place naturally, a fan may be installed to force air out

of the room.
Eastman Kodak Co. and others provide simple blowers I
which may be installed in the wall and which provide a con-

stant and sufficient change of air for darkrooms of various
sizes. Clerc cites a French law requiring 10 cu. meters of fresh
Fig. 2. —Light-trapped
ventilator.
air for each person working in the laboratory, the air to be
completelj' changed at reasonable intervals.
Temperature and Humidity. —The darkroom should be maintained at a tempera-
ture of 65 to 70°. The latter a comfortable working temperature, and anj' tempera-
is
ture within this range is satisfactorj^ for processing of all kinds. It is difficult, however,
to maintain a darkroom at a constant and desirable temperature without special
efforts, which are usually beyond the means of any but the larger establishments.
If the darkroom temperature is outside the range 65 to 70°, the photographer is dis-
tinctly handicapped in doing consistently good work because he must engage in a
constant struggle to maintain his solutions above or below the ambient temperature.
Developers for paper prints should not vary much from 70° for best results; films and
plates will develop to different contrasts unless the temperature (and strength) of the
developer is always the same. This is particularly important to the worker in color
photography who is faced with the problem of making three negatives with exactlj^
the same contrast: virtually an impossible task if the developer cools or heats up dur-
ing the development period.
It is easier to warm the darkroom than to cool it. Warm air may be taken from
surrounding rooms; or electric, gas, or hot-water heaters maj^ be utilized. Open
flame is dangerous particularly if much nitrate film is used. It must be remembered
that warm air and water rises and that, if the darkroom is on the same level as the
furnace or heat supply, it may be difficult to force heat into the room.
Refrigerating systems are available for the commercial plants. The best com-
mercial plants are not only heated but air conditioned. Suitable equipment is
described by Crabtree and Matthews.^
If miniature camera negatives are to be processed or if color photography is to be
done, certain other requirements must be met. Miniature negatives are frequently
enlarged as much as ten to twenty times or even greater. The slightest flaw on the
negative, such as scratches, dust spots, or finger marks, are enlarged to the same
extent as the desired image and often form the practical limit of successful enlargement.
Negatives marred by scratches or with dust or lint will produce prints which
may require considerable time and labor in spotting.
It is necessary, therefore, that the darkroom worker who is responsible for minia-
ture film processing take extreme precautions to deliver clean negatives to the printer;
the printer also must work in a clean and not too dry atmosphere. Greatest trouble in
enlarging miniature negatives occurs on cool dry days when it may become practically
impossible to place the negative in the enlarger without getting it covered with dust
or lint floating about in the air.
Air coming into the miniature processing room should be cleaned if possible, and
if the room itself can be maintained slightly humid, dust troubles will be lessened.
Certain color processes may require rooms of given temperature range and of given
humidity. These requirements practically force the photographer to install air-
conditioning equipment.
—
Water and Drain. Hot and cold nmning water are essential. Hot water is
necessary for carbro and wash-off color printing and for certain print toning operations.
It is useful in maintaining solutions at temperatures above the ambient. Cold water,
of course, is absolutely essential.
There must be a drain to the sink. This makes it necessary for the darkroom to
be above the level of the drain pipes in the building, or it will be necessary to provide
a separate drain for waste water and solutions. One expedient is to place a large
metal tank, e.g., an oil barrel, in the ground below the darkroom level. If the tank
is equipped with pipes or vents running into the surrounding earth —
from which there
—
must be good drainage it will serve as an adequate disposal arrangement. Such a
^\aste disposal device may be against the sanitary laws of the community, however.^
Several faucets should be provided, or other arrangements should be made so that
the water may be utilized at various positions. Most city water is dirty and is con-
taminated with organic matter and iron rust from pipes. The water, therefore, should
be filtered before mixing solutions or washing films. This can be done by tjdng several
layers of cheesecloth over the end of a hose attached to the faucet; or by running the
water through felt. Commercial filters for this purpose are available.
It will be an advantage if the floor is smoothlj^ cemented, sloping to a drain in the
center. Over the cement may be placed boards which may be removed occasionally
1 " Photographic Chemicals and Solutions," Am. Photographic Pub. (1939). A considerable
quantity of valuable data will be found in " Motion Picture Laboratory Practice," Eastman Kodak Co.
(1936).
- The author has used a .50-gal. tank of this type in a small color laboratory for over a year. The
quantity of waste water at any one time is not very great and on Long Island, where the darkroom is
located, the soil is sand and glaciated gravel having good drainage. It is necessary to have an air vent
in such a tank, however, or water will not run into it.
for the purpose of flushing the cement with a hose. The wooden overcovering will be
easier to standand to walk upon than cement. There is the additional advantage that
beakers or graduates will not break so easily if dropped upon wood as if dropped upon
cement. Linoleum too is easier to stand and walk upon than cement. A layer of
air between the cement and the wooden decking will keep the feet warmer if the dark-
room tends to be cold.
—
Darkrooin Eqmpmeiit. Safe Lights. There is no truly "safe" light. Lights in
the darkroom are only relatively safe. The commercial devices known as safe lights
are safe in that materials viewed under them do not fog provided they are not held too
close to the source of illumination nor for too long a period. The "safeness" of such
sources of illumination depends upon their intensity and upon the color of light
emitted. Ordinary blue-sensitive films or papers may be viewed under a generous
amount of red or orange illumination; the more sensitive materials, however, must be
handled with greater caution. They must not be exposed to red or orange light for too
long a period. The more sensitive the material, the less exposure to the safe light will
be required to produce fog.
Orthochromatic materials should be processed under a red light which is quite
dim if the materials are highly sensitive (fast films or plates). Panchromatic materials
Ve/our black normal

c:
I /i I I I I 1 1 ns«^ I \i
1 1
400 500 600 700

Woivelengifh in Millimicrons
Fig. 3. —Transmission characteristic of OA and O filters and response of Velour Black paper.
are sensitive to all colors and must be processed in darkness or with the aid of a very
dim green light. The reason for choosing green lies in the fact that the eye is more
sensitive to green than to red and that this difference in favor of green increases as the
intensity of illumination is decreased. Orthochromatic films are verj^ sensitive to
green, but not to red, and for this reason a panchromatic green safe light should not be
used in processing orthochromatic materials.
If a 25-watt lamp is used in a Wratten safe light or a 10-watt lamp in an Eastman
safe light, no fog should be produced on the material for which the safe-light filter is
designed, provided the material is exposed no closer than 3 ft. for a period of 30 sec.
Red bulbs, which are cheaper than safe-light filters, are rarely safe. They must be
used with considerable caution to avoid fogged film or paper.
An electric coil heater emitting very little light will fog bromide paper if held too
close to a tray in which the paper is being developed.
The criterion of the best safe light for a given sensitive material involves the spec-
tral sensitivity of the material, the spectral transmission of the safe light, and the
physiological characteristics of the eye. The following data taken from the Defender
Trade Bulletin, September-October, 1938, are concerned with Defender Velour Black,
a projection paper.
The question may be asked, which is better for this paper, a Wratten OA (greenish
yellow) or a Wratten O (bright orange), with lamps of equal wattage behind them.
The series O is much brighter than the OA and produces more fog. If, however, the
distances are adjusted so that equal illumination is secured on the paper, the OA is
less safe. This may be proved from the spectral characteristics of the safe light and
the paper. Note that in the OA the far red is eliminated but that the safe light
transmits in this region.
an advantage in the OA even if it is adjusted, by distance,

Physiologically there is
so that it on the paper. Contrasts appear greater in red light

gives less illumination
than in yellow or green. The apparent contrast of a print under the yellow-green light
of the OA is more nearly the contrast under daylight than if the series O is used.
Relcji+ion of Safeligh-I-
Color +o Paper Sensi+ivi+y
Azo, Ad Type,
A+hena
Safeligh-I"
Series 00
I
Yellow
Opal, Projec-hion
juwKktit,
I I I
PMC, News
KodoiJine,
Bromide iOMKU
Soi-Feligh +
Series
I I
I
Red
Safeligh+
Series OA
J L
Green
Kodali+h
Or+ho Viw4l^^
Safeligh+
Series 1
Insurotnce
Bromide
So(-Feligh+
Series 2
,
I Deep
I
Red
Fig. 4. — Safe lights to be used with Eastman Kodak papers.
Therefore, with Velour Black, or any projection paper which has any sensitivity
in the red, e.g., chlorobromides, it is better to work in the yellow-green light of the
Wratten OA even if the illumination is less than with the series O.
safe light,
—
Trays and Tanks. Trays are universally employed for developing prints and
are very often used for processing negative materials. Trays may be made of steel
which has been enameled, or of stainless steel, hard rubber, glass or pyrex. In emer-
gencies kitchen dishes may be employed. If need arises for a tray of special size
or dimensions, it may be made of wood (or heavy cardboard) coated with a thick layer
—
Table I. Safe Lights
Agfa
at the proper temperature, itremain so for a reasonable period. Rubber or

will
bakelite tanks will break; metal tanks will dentif dropped on a hard surface.
Certain small metal tanks for plates or films have tight-fitting covers, rubber
gasketed, so that the tank may be inverted during development insuring that the
solution is properly agitated. They may be fitted with spigots and filling spouts so
that only the loading need be done in the darkroom.
Large tanks for photofinishing and motion-picture processing are best purchased
from manufacturers specializing in this type of equipment. They may be made of
wood, steel covered with thin soft rubber, earthenware, etc.
—
Tray Cleaners. Trays frequently become discolored from silver and dye or from
the oxidation products of developers. Two formulas for tray cleaners are given below.
Tray Cleankr (Eastman TC-1)

Water 32 oz. 11.
Potassium bichromate 3 oz. 90 g.
Sulphuric acid (pure concentrated) 3 fl. oz. 96 cc.
Silver-stain Remover (Eastman TC-2)
Water 32 oz. 11.
Potassium permanganate 73 gr. 5 g.
Sulphuric acid (pure concentrated) 2^^ drams 10 cc.
Add the acid slowly to the solution while stirring the solution rapidly.
Pour the solution into tray and swish around so that all tray parts are covered.
Then rinse and use the following:
Clearing Solution
Water 32 oz. 11.
Sodium bisulphite 145 gr. 10 g.
Wash trays well after applying the clearing solution. Acid dyes as used in imbibi-
tion color printing may be removed from trays by the use of ammonia.
Sinks. —The sink is a most important part of the darkroom equipment. It should
be centrally located so that no unnecessary steps must be taken to get to it from any
part of the darkroom. It must be large enough to accommodate the largest trays in
the laboratory. It should be so constructed that a portion of it may be blocked off
with a weir which divides the sink into two portions, one containing the drain and the
other either without a drain or fixed with a good stopper. In this manner, water at the
proper temperature maj^ be used in one portion while access to the drain is available
in the other portion.
Sink materials may be wood, properly treated, stoneware, lead-lined wood, or
porcelain. Wooden sinks are not expensive to make. Cypress or maple may be
used. Individual pieces of the wood should be tongued and grooved and then held
together with strong bolts or braces. The inner surfaces which come into contact
with liquids should be given several coats of a corrosion-resistant paint before being
used. Each coat must be allowed to dry thoroughly before the next is applied. If the
paint is light in color, it will probably stain, but will reflect light from the overhead
illumination and contribute to the general illumination.
A rack should be arranged to be moved about over the top of the sink so that trays
may be placed upon it with the certainty that liquid slopping out will fall into the sink
and be disposed of through the drain. Shelves back of the sink should be deep enough
so that bottles cannot fall off into the sink or into trays of solution.
Another useful adjunct to the sink is a float in which trays may be placed and
supported in a water bath of a required temperature. Such a float may be made of
wood in which a rectangular space has been cut of such a size that the overhang on
the tray top will prevent the tray from falling through into the sink. If, then, one
portion of the sink is filled with water at some desired temperature, while the weir
blocks off the remainder of the sink (the portion containing the drain) the tray of
solution may be floated in the larger body of water while the drain is available for
waste disposal.
Stone or earthenware sinks should be covered with a material which is softer than
the sink itself so that beakers or other glassware dropped on it will not break. Rubber
mats, floor mats, or door mats may be used; linoleum or asbestos is satisfactory.
Thermometers, and Weighing Scales. — Metric system weights are to be preferred,
although avoirdupois weights are satisfactory. Most formulas are now written in
both systems. In a small studio a maximum weight of SM oz. (100 g.) will probably
be encountered and so the smallest studio scales may be employed. Scales for larger
laboratories must, naturally, weigh greater quantities of material. Scales capable of
measuring up to 25 lb. may be placed upon a shelf or table; scales for greater quantities
exist in the form of platform scales.
The pans of a laboratory scales should not be permitted to touch any of the chem-
icals; a piece of paper should be placed upon the weighing pan and counterbalanced by
a similar piece on the other pan. If the scales are kept in a damp darkroom, the
wooden base may swell, the metal parts tarnish or become covered with verdigris, and
the bearings may become so dirty that accurate weighing is difficult. This is another
reason why the weighing of chemicals and the compounding of formulas should not
be done in the processing room itself.
It does not matter much whether thermometers are calibrated in Fahrenheit or
centigrade. Probably most American and English workers are more familiar with
Fahrenheit and have a better idea of the variation caused by 1° difference in tempera-
ture in this system than centigrade. Metal thermometers have a bad habit of tarnish-
ing so that the calibration is hard to see; they also peel off in thin layers of oxide.
Glass thermometers which are also used as stirring rods frequently lose the paint in
which the calibrations are marked, making it most difficult to read the temperature
scale in the semilight of the darkroom.
The Weston type of thermometer consisting of a long thin metal rod with a dial-
type indicator at the top does not seem to corrode; the action is remarkably fast, and
the dial is easy to read. It is inclined to be top heavy, however, and, when placed in
a tray which is rocked or tilted, has a tendency to roll around and get in the way or to
roll out and break. The "crystal" glass cover over the dial is heavy but it will break.
—
Darkroom Practice. Flow of Work. If the darkroom is properlj^ arranged, work
done there will flow easily from one stage to another. For example, sensitive paper
should not have to be moved over a tray of developer to be placed in a printer or under
an enlarger. In a photofinishing establishment this even and easy flow of work is very
important so that operators do not get in each other's way. Operations which may be
carried out in full illumination should be excluded from the processing laboratory if
possible, so that full advantage of better working conditions (better visibility etc.)
can be utilized.
If the photographer works out a standardized method of procedure, he will find that
he will have less waste and that his work will be less tiring. Thus developing, rinsing,
fixing, washing may proceed from left to right (or vice versa), and this should be
standardized no matter whether it is films that are being developed in absolute dark-
ness or whether prints are being processed under appreciable illumination.
—
Maintenance of Temperature. If the darkroom is warmer or cooler than the desired
solution temperature, the photographer must take steps to overcome the progressive
change in solution temperature. The simplest method is to float a tray containing
the solution in a larger tray filled with water of the required temperature. By means
of a mixing faucet in which cold and hot water may be brought to the desired tem-
perature, the water in the larger tray may be held continuously at the required tem-
perature above or below ambient.
If cold water is not available in the summer, or warm water in the winter, recourse
must be had to ice, or to water heaters. Ice should not be placed in the solution itself
because it will dilute the solution as it melts. It must be realized that it will be diffi-
cult to maintain a tray ortank of developer at a desired temperature by the use of ice
packed around the solution, and that only a cooling effect may be secured. The
temperature of melting ice is 32°F., and a tray floated on melting ice will tend to attain
this temperature.
heat trays or tanks of solution, electricity may be used. A tray may be placed
To
over a metal-topped box (or a portion of the workbench with a cut-away portion over
which is placed a metal plate or sheet). In the box, or below the cut-away portion of
the bench, ma}^ be placed electric lamps which are turned off or on as the conditions
require. They may be controlled automatically by means of a thermostat placed in
the solution to be maintained at a given temperature. Cheap bimetallic strips can
be purchased and often serve very well for this temperature-maintenance
purpose.
It is easier to heat than to cool a solution. Therefore it is a good plan to surround
a tray with melting ice which is raised in temperature by electricity. (See data on
floats in paragraph on Sinks above.)
—
Timing Photographic Processes. Many timing devices, mostly clocks, are on the
market. Equipped with a large second hand, they enable the photographer to time
accurately any process not taking place in absolute darkness. Some timers are
equipped with an alarm which warns the worker when a certain time has elapsed.
These are especialh^ useful when the worker is processing panchromatic materials in
darkness.
If exposures of only a few seconds are required to be made in darkness, e.g., in
making color-separation negatives from color transparencies, a useful device is one
which automatically turns off the exposing light at the end of a certain period. These
devices may be based on one of several principles.
A synchronous motor maj^ revolve a contactor through a series of cog wheels. In
general illumination the contacts may be moved to such a position that the exposure
will take place for a certain number of seconds; then the sensitive material is placed
in position in darkness, and a switch is thrown which will start the motor and at the
same time turn on the exposing lamp. When the motor has rotated the contact
wheel a certain number of degrees, contact with the light source is broken, and the
exposure is ended.
Other devices are electronic in nature, using vacuum tubes. In this case the funda-
mental principle is the charge and discharge of a condenser which is in the grid circuit
of the tube. The rate at which a condenser charges (or discharges) is a function of
the resistance in series or in parallel with it. A certain combination of resistance
and capacity may be chosen which will keep the grid of the tube overbiased for a cer-
tain period of time. At the end of this time the charge in the condenser is dissipated,
and the grid draws current which is reflected in a current in the plate circuit of the tube.
In this circuit is an electrical relay whose contacts control the illumination by which
the exposure is made. These electronic devices maj' be made to hold a circuit closed
(or open) from a fraction of a second up to 1 min. or more. In general they are less
stable and accurate over a period of time than a purelj^ mechanical contactor timer as
represented by a synchronous motor.
The cheaper synchronous-motor units have a tendency to stall. A loud buzz
indicates that the motor has stopped (or a relay in the unit has struck or is
chattering), with the result that the exposing light does not turn off.
—
—
Accuracy in Conipoundi?ig Solutions. Errors or inaccuracies iu making solutions
should not be greater than a few per cent. If the photographer wishes to convert a
formula written in metric units to avoirdupois, he will often "round off" the quantities
to get convenient values. Care must be taken in this rounding off to see that cumula-
tive errors are not caused. For example, the ratio between inetol and hydroquinone
in any MQ developer is important. In rounding off, if one uses a figure 3 per cent
low for metol and 3 per cent high for hydroquinone, the total error is 6 per cent, which
is about the limit that should be tolerated. Similar difficulties may arise in changing
the ratio between carbonate and sulphite in a solution.
The following table will be useful in converting formulas from metric to avoirdupois
and vice versa. Other conversion factors and tables wUl be found in Appendix A.
Table III. Avoirdupois to Metric Weight
Pounds
CHAPTER XX
STEREOSCOPIC PHOTOGRAPHY
By Vannevae Bush and John T. Rule
—
General Stereoscopic Theory. Types of Vision. Monocular vision consists in
the reception on a surface (the retina) of a single two-dimensional image, which has
been projected through the crystalline lens of one eye from a scene in space, and the
resultant interpretation b)' the brain of this image.
Except for the lack of color and the presence of the texture of the film, such an
image is closely reproduced on the film of a single-lens camera making black-and-white
pictures. The resultant print when properly \dewed reproduces an image on the
retina similar to that which it would have received had the eye occupied the position
of the camera lens when the picture was taken. From this two-dimensional image
the brain infers the original three-dimensional space scene.
Binocular vision consists in the reception on the two retinas of two images of a
single scene in space and the resultant fusion and interpretation by the brain of these
images. Since the position of the two eyes is not the same, different portions of objects
are visible and near objects obscure different areas of far objects. Thus the two
retinal images are not identical. The brain fuses these two different two-dimensional
images and interprets them as a single three-dimensional space scene in which depth
appears to exist as a definite reality.
If two photographs are taken from the positions occupied bj^ the two eyes and the
—
resultant prints are properly viewed the left eye viewing only the print taken from
—
the left and the right ejê only that taken from the right ^two retinal images are
produced which correspond to those which would have been formed had the eyes
occupied the positions of the camera lenses. With proper viewing aids the resultant
fusion and interpretation is substantially the same as that of binocular vision including
the sense of the reality of depth. This reproduction of the effect of binocular vision
by the use of two two-dimensional images is "stereoscopic vision."
Factors Influencing Judgment of Depth. —
For the purposes of this chapter the word
"depth" is always used to niean distance away from the eyes.
The important factors which contribute to depth judgment in monocular vision are
perspective, light and shade, apparent size of known objects, obscuring of remoter
objects by nearer ones, decreasing sharpness of detail with distance, and motion of
foreground objects against background objects.
All the factors entering into depth judgment in monocular vision are equally opera-
tive in binocular vision. In addition, without evaluating their importance here, the
following factors are present:
1. Two Views. —As stated above the two views of binocular vision are different.
This difference is a major factor in the resultant depth effect. The physiology of the
resultant fusion and interpretation are not well understood.
2. Convergence. —
In looking at a point in space, an angle is formed by the two rays
from the point to the eyes. The eyeballs turn inward until the axis of each is coin-
cident with its entering ray. This "angle of convergence" grows larger as the point
approaches. It always has a fixed value for any fixed position of the point with respect
to a given position of a pair of eyes.
572
.
STEREOSCOPIC PHOTOGRAPHY 573
3. Accommodation. —In viewing space the accommodation or focusing of the eyes

varies with the distance to the object and consequently gives some indication of depth.
Change in accommodation involves a change of shape of the eye lenses, whereas change
in convergence involves a change in direction of the eye axes.
All the factors, except that of motion, entering into depth judgment in monocular
vision are equally operative in stereoscopic vision. In addition the following factors
are present:
1 The presence of two views is the same as in binocular vision.
2. The theorjr of convergence is the same as in binocular vision.
However, the
two rays of light to the two eyes do not originate from a point in space but from the
two views of the point on the stereograph. Thus the actual convergence may differ
from that of the original space scene by varying separation between the two views or
by the use of various stereoscopes.
3. Accommodation in stereoscopic vision is fixed either at the distance from the
plate to the eyes or at infinity by the proper use of lenses. This is an important
fundamental difference between binocular and stereoscopic vision.
Leff (Bl
image\-'\
Right 'Right lens \<-

-^-H
Image
-->i
Fig. 1.- — Diagram of three-dimensional object for which conditions of stereoscopic vision
are derived.
4. The presence of a fixed plane as represented by the location of the print or

transparency.
5. The presence of a definite visible limit to the edges of the two views acting as an
enclosing frame which restricts the sense of size and depth.
—
Apparent Location and Size of Stereoscopic Images. Geometrically, convergence
gives an accurate method of determining the distance of any point from the two eyes.
Consequently it should give the brain a perfect depth-sensing device.
The following formulas are derived from the geometry of convergence. It should
be clearly imderstood that they are based upon the fundamental premise that the
apparent location of the stereographic image of a point can be obtained by projected
rays from the eyes through the respective stereographic views of the point, the image
being located at the intersection of the rays. In other words they are based on the
assumption that the convergence of the lines of sight is an absolute determinant of the
location of the image.
Itcan be stated definitely, however, that the absolute convergence of a single point
never determines its apparent depth in a stereoscopic image. Its relative convergence
with other points is used by the brain to locate it with regard to those points after the
general position of the image is fixed.
Thus the formulas do not accurately

indicate the absolute apparent location or size
of a stereoscopic seen through a stereoscope. They do determine the
image in space as
mechanical conditions under which stereoscopic viewing should take place and the
—
relative positions of points in the image. They also give an accurate method of deter-
mining the actual location of points in space from stereographs of them.
Figure 1* represents a plan view of a pyramid ABC photographed by the double-
lens camera focused on the plane AB, with sufficient depth of field to include the
entire object. The images of ^4, for instance, are at ^l and Ar, respectively, for the
left and right lenses. This figure is used because of its simplicity. Any other figure
would lead to the same formulas.
,L^ff eye
RigMeye \^ ^, _; |^ _ _^
K- d' ->l
Fig. 2. — Conditious existing when viewing object by means of a stereoscope.
Figure 2 represents the conditions which exist when the resultant plates are trans-
posed and enlarged m times and viewed as a stereograph. A'B'C is the resultant
stereographic image in space as fused from the two halves of the stereograph A'j^B'j^C'n
and A'j^B'i^C'j^
The following formulas can be derived from Figs. 1 and 2:
d'
~ /' f
(1)
AB ^h^ng
~ (2)
A'B' h' f
An orthostereoscopic view is one in which the resultant image is of exactly the
same size and shape and has the same location with respect to the observer's eyes as
the original space scene.
Formulas (1) and (2) indicate that the following conditions are necessary to obtain
an orthostereoscopic view:
1. Without enlargement, / must equal /'. With enlargement, mf must equal /';
i.e., the distance from the eyes to the plate, in viewing, must equal the distance from
the lens to the plate, in taking, multiplied by the enlargement of the plates.
It is illuminating to state this thus: the angle subtended by the object at the camera
nmst equal the angle subtended by the print at the eye.
2. B must equal e; i.e., the photographic base —
the distance between camera lenses
for the two views —
must equal the interocular distance.
The abo^ê mathematical treatment covers the basic features of the theorj' of con-
vergence. A complete mathematical analysis with especial reference to the conditions
necessary for obtaining orthostereoscopic views may be found in an article entitled
Orthostereoscopy, by Henry Kurtz, in the October, 1937, issue of the Journal of the
Optical Society of A merica.
—
The absolute location and size of a stereoscopic
Effect of Other Depth Factors.
image depend upon the degree to which the various depth factors listed above are
present, upon the particular method of viewing, and, being partly subjective, upon
the individual observer. No rigid rules for locating such images can be laid down.
Consequently the subject must be discussed in general terms. It is assumed in the
* After Hard\" and Perrin.
following discussion that mechanical conditions for orthostereoscopic view ing, such as
proper focal lengths and bases, have been achieved.
First consider the effects of viewing stereographs without a stereoscope. It is well
to restate that in such viewing absolute convergence is not of importance. In viewing

the stereograph of Fig. 2, for instance, the resultant image would not seem to be of
exactly the indicated size and shape and would not be located at the indicated distance
d' from the eyes.
A if it is remembered that in binocular vision
possible reason for this can be seen
there a fixed tie between accommodation and convergence. Thus in looking at a point
is
2 ft. away the eyes are focused for 2 ft. and the axes of the eyeballs intersect at 2 ft.
Regardless of the distance of the fixation point, nearlj'^ the same angle of convergence
always goes with any given focus, only varying slightly for objects not directly in front
of the observer. Both change together as objects of different depth are viewed.
In stereoscopic vision this established tie is broken. The two views of the point
on the stereograph determine the convergence. This convergence changes with
changes of separation between different points on the two views. However, the
accommodation remains constant, i.e., the focus of the eyes is either fixed for the dis-
tance froin the eyes to the stereograph or bj^ a distance dictated by the lenses of the
—
stereoscope usually infinity. This split of the accommodation-convergence habit is
the outstanding difference between binocular and stereoscopic vision. Since the eyes
are presented with a situation foreign to binocular vision, the psychological interpreta-
tion tends to differ from that of binocular vision.
In very simple stereographs containing only separate points and lines ^ and viewed
without a stereoscope, the resultant interpretation tends to place one prominent point
or plane of the picture —
called the "fixation" point or plane —
in or near the plane of
the plate. Thus one point is approximately determined from the accommodation.
The depth of the rest of the points of the picture are interpreted from this point in
accordance with both the relative convergence with this point and the other depth
factors relating the points and objects to each other.
This accounts for the fact that a change in the separation of the two views of the
stereograph causes no perceptible change in the position or size of the resultant image.
Regardless of what this separation may be, so long as fusion is maintained, the eyes
"draw the views together" until the fixation point appears in the proper plane. The
relative convergence of various points remains the same in any case.
The location of the final image differs for different observers. The resultant effect,
however, is that the image is drawn forward from where
should be on convergence
it
principles and is smaller with a proportionally greater decrease in the depth than in the
other dimensions.
As the views are made more complex bj'^ the use of planes which obscure each other,
perspective elements, and objects of known size, these added factors tend to dominate
the interpretation of the size and location of the image, while accommodation and
convergence become of increasingly less importance. The use of relative convergence
becomes so bound up with perspective elements that its effect cannot be separated
from them.
Regardless of the degree to which other depth factors are present, the tendencj'
to fix one point in the plane of the plate never entirely disappears, with the result
that the stereographic image, without the use of a stereoscope, always appears smaller
and less deep than the natural object.
When a stereoscope is used for viewing, a change in separation of the two views
still causes no change in the resultant image. The accommodation, if proper focal
1 French, J. W., Trans. Optical Soc. (London), vol. 24.
Trump, R. ,I., Trans. Optical Soc. (London), vol. 25.
:
lengths are maintained, is generally fixed at infinity. Consequently both absolute

convergence and accommodation are of little importance.
Eliminating these factors, each of the other depth factors has its own tendency as
follows
All the normal factors of monocular vision, perspective, known size of objects, etc.,
tend to make the resultant image of the proper size and at its proper location in space.
Relative convergence tends to place the parts of the image in their proper relation
to one another according to the final location of the image as a whole.
The tendency to find a fixation point in the plane of the plate is the greater the
more obvious the texture or grain of the plate.
The enclosing frame around the fused image tends to make any point near the edge
appear to lie in the plane of this plate. A stereoscope scene may appear quite natural
as a whole. Yet if successive points near the edges are fixed, they will all appear to
lie in or near the plane of the frame, regardless of the fact that they are obviously in
different planes in the whole view.

The enclosing frame is supplied either by the edge of the plate around the stereo-
graph or by the restricting parts of the stereoscope. Since the eyes normally see over
an angle of about 120° each, a camera capable of covering a field of 120° would be
necessary to eliminate this frame. A stereoscope would then be necessary which
would permit both eyes to cover this range such as a mirror stereoscope where the
mirrors superimpose the views. In a lens stereoscope the right eye cannot be per-
mitted to see the left view and vice versa. The usual camera and the usual lens
stereoscope both permit angles of less than 60°. Consequently the enclosing frame
is always present in one form or another.
The total resultant image is a compromise on the part of the eyes and brain between
these various factors. It is more perfect when the factors which place it correctly
are more obvious and the factors which draw it forward and decrease its size are more
nearly eliminated.
In normal photographic work the depth of any object in the scene is not exactly
known to the observer. Consequently he has no means of judging the accuracy of the
location and size of the stereoscopic image of it. So long as the illusion of reality is
maintained the tendency is to accept the image as correct.
From the above discussion the photographer should remember:
1. Extremely simple objects which primarily must depend on convergence to give
depth judgment will tend to appear smaller, nearer, and somewhat distorted. If
the accurate judgment of the size and shape of rather uniform objects, such as cubes
or geometrical figures, is desired, other elements should be added to the picture which
will aid in this judgment.
2. Scenic views appear quite natural though they have a tendency to be cramped.
As more elements are added which normally aid depth perception in monocular vision,
the scene will more closely approach its true size and shape in space.
3. Every effort should be made to eliminate print or plate textures and the obvious-
ness of the enclosing frame.

4. No absolute criteria for depth judgment exists; consequently the experience
and capabilities of the photographer will inevitably play a large part in determining
the degree to which the illusion of reality is approached.
It must be realized that the entire discussion of depth judgment in stereographs is
put forth only tentatively in the absence of a more exact knowledge of the subject.
The sense of depth in a stereograph is so striking that no great sensibility to its vari-
ability has yet been developed. As stereographs become more common the interpreta-
tion of their realistic and artistic effects will become more acute. The field offers an
enormous opportunity for research on the part of the photographer.
— :
Limits of Stereoscopic Vision. —Binocular vision and consequently stereoscopic

vision occurs only within relatively near distances. The maximum distance depends
upon the minimum relative convergence that the eye is able to detect. This distance
differs considerably with different individuals.
Helmholtz considered the minimum difference in convergence
angle that could be resolved to be 1 min. of arc. Later experi-
ments show the average value to be in the neighborhood of 20
sec. of arc, possibly less.
Given two points at the same distance from the eyes, di.
They appear to be equidistant. If one point then recedes
from the eyes while the other remains stationary, the eyes are
not capable of detecting that a difference in distance exists until
the convergence angle for the receding point has diminished 20
sec. of arc. Calling the difference between the two distances
D and the distance to the far point ^2, there is, for any value of
di,a minimum value of D for which the difference in conver-
gence angle becomes 20 sec. of arc.
This can be very closely determined from the formula
xdi^
D = e — ad\
(3)
where e = interocular distance; i_Qff Ri'ghi-

a = difference in convergence angle between di and d^ eye eye
expressed in radians (1 rad. = 57.3°). Fig. 3. — Diagram
Using 2.5 in. for e and 20 sec. of arc for <x, the following from which the data
^^^
table gives the separation away from the eyes that two ° + i
H
objects must have if a stereograph of them taken with a
2.5-in. base is to show any depth. These are only approximate values that will give
the photographer some idea of the sort of depth effects he may expect with various
spacing of objects. The things to be noticed are the rapidity with which D must be
increased beyond 100 ft. and the fact that binocular vision disappears entirely near
2000 ft.
Table I. Conditions for Binocular Vision

D Must Equal or
If di Equals Exceed, Ft.
10 inches 0.005
2 ft 0.002
5 ft 0.01
10 ft 0.05
25 ft 0.3
100 ft 5.0
200 ft 20
500 ft 160
1000 ft ; 925
2000 ft oo
The limit of stereoscopic vision on the near side is generally considered to be the
minimum distance for clear focusing by the eyes. A minimum value of 15 in. is
recommended.
Stereography with a Single Camera or with Two Single Cameras. With Single
—
Camera. Stereographs of motionless scenes may be made with any single camera.
It is important to remember, however, that in stereographs sharpness of detail over the
whole scene is more important than in ordinary photographs, as blurred details greatly
detract from the depth effect and the illusion of reality that a sharp stereograph gives.
:
As short-focal -length lenses have more depth of fociis and the distance beyond which
everything is in focus is less than in lenses of long focal length, shorter focal lengths are
preferable for stereoscopic work. Several methods of making stereographs with a

single camera are possible.
—
Camera May Be Shifted between Exposures. If the distance to the object is small, the
camera should be pointed at the same spot near the center of the object in both views.
If the distance to the object is greater than 6 ft. a simple lateral displacement is all
that is required.
The distance between the two positions of the lens should be about 2 '^'2 in. unless a
hyperstereoscopic effect is desired.
The lens nuist be at the same distance from the object in both views.
The camera should be at the same elevation and level in both views.
The stops and lighting conditions should remain the same.
Many devices can be made to aid in shifting the camera (see "Stereoscopic Photog-
raphy," A. W. Judge). For cameras with flat bases, such as the box types, a tray may
be constructed, the width of the tray being equal to the width of the camera plus the
interocular distance. It is then necessary only to push the camera against the opposite
ends for the two views.
A rigid frame may be built around the camera which slides in another frame and
locks in the proper positions.
Some manufacturers (Leica, Rolleiflex) furnish devices for this purpose. In gen-
eral these are constructed to fit between the tripod and the camera. They either swing
or slide the camera the requisite distance. Leica furnishes a Stereo Slide Bar which
^
permits the camera to be locked in any position up to a separation of 15 cm., thus

permitting the taking of hyperstereoscopic views up to that maximum base.
—
The Object May Be Shifted the Interocular Distance. The object must be against
a plain background with no other objects in the view unless such objects are also
shifted.
The shift must be level and perpendicular to the axis of the camera.
The object should not be much closer than 6 ft. from the camera. At shorter
distances the camera should preferably point to a spot between the two positions of
the object.
The light should preferably be uniform, not from a concentrated source.
The stops and the lighting conditions must remain the same.
This is a convenient method for photographing small objects that are easily shifted
on a table.
The Object May Be Rotated. —This is a more accurate method than shifting the
object particularly for short distances between the object and the camera.
The object should be against a plain background. If it is not or if other objects
not rotated around the same center also are in the view, the background and these
objects will show no relief in the stereograph.
The proper angle of rotation for orthostereoscopic views can be calculated from
the formula
a = 2 sin-i (~) (4)
A greater rotation gives a hyperstereoscopic effect.

A
simpler method of rotation is to pick out or mark two points on. the object in
line with the lens of the camera and the center of the object. Then rotate the object
until a line through these same points passes 2^2 in. to the right or left of
the lens.
' See Leica Manual.
above methods demand that the scene be motionless for the time required
All the
to change the film or plateand to reset the camera or object.
—
Use of Ste?-eoadapter. By the use of a stereoadapter a stereograph with a single-lens
camera and a single exposure can be obtained. This permits moving objects to be
photographed.
Such adapters consist of arrangements of mirrors or prisms designed to bring the
two views into the left and right halves of the lens, respectively. Figure 4 shows the
simplest arrangement of mirrors for accomplishing this purpose.
A distinct advantage of such adapters lies in the fact that the refraction through
the lens reverses the views so that they
appear in proper position upon the nega-
tive and do not have to be transposed.
Leica manufactures a stereoadapter,
called a Stereoly, using prisms. The device
fits in front of the lens. It divides the
standard 36- by 24-mm. picture into two
of 18 by 24 mm. A special viewer for rolls
Cctmeroi lens
of films of this type is also furnished.
The use of a stereoadapter involves a
great reduction in the amount of light reach- V
/\
ing the film. Splitting the lens cuts the
/ \
intensity to one-half, while the absorption of )^ \
prisms or mirrors further reduces it. Con- Fig. 4. —
Simple arrangement of using
sequently longer exposures are necessary. two sets of mirrors to provide stereoscopic
effects with a single-lens camera.
The camera should be of such a type
that the film used in it can be divided into two areas which are approximately
square.
Stereographs with Two Cameras. —
If cameras are small, two may be clamped
together so that the lenses are separated by 2H in. or slightly more. This means that
the plates must not be larger than 2I2 in- in width. If the separation between lenses
is greater than 2H in., a hyperstereoscopic effect results.

Care must be taken that the following conditions are fulfilled:
The lenses must be well matched. The manufacturer should be willing to do this
when the cameras are purchased.
The line between lens centers must be level with the resultant base of the combined
cameras.
Indicated equal shutter speeds and diaphragm openings must be in reality equal.
In cheap cameras there may be considerable variation in shutter speeds causing a
difference in exposure times.
The shutters must work simultaneously. Leverages or connecting bars must be
designed for this purpose for the particular cameras to bemused.
With inexpensive cameras this affords a very cheap and satisfactory method of
making stereographs. The beginner who cares to experiment with stereoscopic
possibilities willdo well to start in this manner.
—
Double-lens Cameras. A stereoscopic camera with two matched lenses separated
by the interooular distance permits the taking of stereographs of any type of scene in
exactly the same manner that ordinarj^ photographs are taken. As long as the shut-
ters, focusing devices, and diaphragm openings are each linked together and each set
by one adjustment, the operation is no different from that of the usual camera.
Most stereoscopic cameras are fitted with lens caps so that one lens may be covered
if it is desired to take single pictures or hyperstereographs. In the latter case the right
lens is covered for the right view while the left lens is covered for the left view. The
camera is shifted the desired distance between views. This ehminates the necessity
for transposing the plates.
As it is desirable that a stereograph be level, the more expensive cameras are fitted
with levels and the lenses are held in a sliding front which permits of a small vertical
displacement for centering objects slightl.v above or below the level of the lenses.
A list of the chief types of camera on the market follows. The list is not complete
l)iit gives an idea of the field.
Eho. An inexpensive box-type camera. 2}^- by S.^^-in. roll film, //ll lenses.
Fixed focus. Time and single-speed shutter. Direct-vision wire view finder. Sands,
Hunter & Co., London. (Price about $15 in England.)
The Puck. Similar to the Eho. Central brilliant-type view finder. Messrs.
Thornton Pickard, London.
Heidoscope. A high grade, precision camera. Plate changing box for twelve
plates. Two sizes:
45 by 107 mm. Focal length, 5.5 cm. Ziess anastigmat
Ziess Tessar lenses //4.5.
view-finder lens //3.2 centrallj^ located. Variable-speed shutter. Variable focus.
Lens caps. Spirit level. (Price about $270 in England.)
60 by 130 mm. Ziess Tessar lenses //4. 5. Focal length, 7.5 cm. Ziess anastigmat
Adew-finder lenses //4.2. Other features the same as above. R. F. Hunter Ltd.,
London. (Price about $290 in England.)
RoUeidoscope. The 60 by 130 Heidoscope made for roll films. (Price about $260
in England.)
Voigtlander. 45- by 107-mm. plate changing box for 12 plates. //4.5 lenses.
Focal length, 6 cm. Variable-speed, Compur sector shutters to >2 5o sec. Variable
focus. Lens caps. Spirit level. (Price about $270.)
lea Plaskop. An inexpensive camera. 45 by 107 mm. six individual plateholders.
lea Novar anastigmat //6.8 lenses. 6-cm. focal length. Time- and single-speed
shutters. Direct-vision wire view finder.
lea polyskop. 45 by 107 mm. Plate-changing box. Ziess Tessar lenses //4.5.
Compur sector shutters to Mso sec. Direct- vision view finder.
Variable focus.
lea Minimum Palmos. 60 by 130 mm. Folding-bellows type. Ziess Tessar
lenses //4. 5. Focal-plane shutter to Kooo sec.
Verascope. Numerous types. 45 bj^ 107 mm. and 60 bj^ 130 mm. All have
plate-changing box. Standard, and roll-film adaptors, optional. Lenses //6.3 on
cheapest type; //4.5 on others. Central view-finder lens. Variable speed shutters.
— —
Manufacturer J. Richard, Paris. Agent R. J. Fitzsimons, 75 Fifth Ave., N. Y.
Other sizes and types of camera, many having been made to order, many of dis-
continued makes, can be obtained secondhand by watching photographic periodicals.
—
Viewing Instruments. Viewing without Aid. The viewing of stereographs with-
out the aid of some form of viewing instrument always causes eyestrain. With con-
siderable practice it can be done with a fair amount of ease but is certainly never to be
recommended as a common practice. The judgment of depth by this means is never
accurate. This was discussed on page 572.
If it is desired to experiment with this form of viewing, a piece of cardboard or
other flat shield should be placed normal to the two views and between them to render
them mutually exclusive to the two eyes. Without this shield three views will be seen
of which the center one will be the stereoscopic image.
In this form of viewing the two views will seem to draw together until they are
superimposed. It is helpful to fix on some prominent feature and draw this feature
together before attempting to focus the eyes. Once the views are together, an effort
is required to bring them into focus. This focus cannot be held more than a few
seconds without considerable strain.
It is also possible to fuse stereographs by looking at them cross-eyed. This pro-

—
duces a small image in front of the plate which is psuedoscopic reversed in depth.
This method can be employed on stereographs before they are cut apart and trans-
posed, in which case they will not be psuedoscopic.
—
Lens Stereoscopes. The usual type of stereoscope for general work is the lens
stereoscope. The purpose of the lenses is primarily to relax the accommodation. In
split-lens stereoscopes the views are also partiallj^ drawn together by refraction.
The lenses thus serve to keep the ejês focused on infinity which is approximated in
normal vision by all objects more than a few feet away. Thus the normal accommoda-
tion-convergence ratio is not too seriously violated as it is when the eyes are forced to
remain focused at the distance of the plate.
—
Full-lens Type.- In stereoscopes of short focal length, full lenses are usual Ij- used
separated by 2J-^ in. They are available as box or as folding types.
The box type is used for transparencies. It is a simple box with a ground-glass
screen in one end and the lenses mounted in the other end. The lenses are usually
fitted with a rack-and-pinion focusing device much after the manner of a pair of opera
glasses. The plate is inserted through a slot in front of the glass screen. The latter
serves to diffuse the light over the entire scene. The instrument must be pointed at a
satisfactory light source unless it is fitted with a light in back of the glass screen.
The folding type is convenient for carrying in the pocket for use with prints. It
consists of a collapsible metal framework containing the lenses and a rack for the
plate. These may be constructed of two pieces which slide in each other in order to
permit focusing; or they may be of one piece with a fixed focus.
The value of this type of stereoscope is that it can be made very cheaply and is of a
convenient size for carrying. However, the cheaper forms lack rigidity and easily
get out of alignment.
Spectacle Type. —
Pairs of lenses much like a pair of spectacles are also obtainable.
These require that the plate be held in the hand and moved until fusion is made. This
requires a certain amount of practice. This type is very convenient for use with books
in which stereographs are published.
—
The Camera as a Stereoscope. For theoretically perfect orthostereoscopic viewing
the stereograph should be viewed with the pair of lenses with which the pictures were
taken. Some cameras on the market are so constructed that they may also be used
as viewers. However any pair of lenses of the same focal length and a comfortable
diameter will give excellent results.
Split-lens Type. —The common hand type, or Brewster stereoscope, the American
parlor stereoscope, is This system is shown in Fig. 5. The
of the split-lens type.
single lens is split and the two halves are mounted with
vertically through the center
the optical centers out. These centers are separated somewhat in excess of the inter-
ocular distance. (Keystone telebinocular, 95 mm.) This allows wider separation
of the prints and consequently larger prints may be used without overlapping.
The alteration of depth of the objects in the stereograph in this type of stereoscope
when used with a camera of interocular separation is nOt detectable in the ordinary
photograph. It need only be given serious consideration in technical work where the
accurate judgment of depth relative to width and height is of importance. In such
cases the use of a camera of lens separation equal to the distance between optical
centers in the stereoscope eliminates the distortion though the image is theoretically
nearer and smaller on hyperstereoscopic principles.
In general this type of stereoscope has a longer focal length than the full-lens type.
The difficulty here is that the focal length is usually longer than that of most cameras.
On the other hand the splitting of the lens allows of a larger and consequently flatter
full lens. This reduces both chromatic and spherical aberration.
—
Small full-lens type stereoscopes are also made for
Stereoscopes for Roll Films.
(isewith standard-size motion-picture films. The Tru-Vievv Co., Rockford, 111.,
manufactures one of these in America. The prints are small, so that it is possible to
interlock them. The first and fourth, third and
and eighth, seventh and
sixth, fifth
tenth, etc., views being paired. The second view
a blank never appearing before
is
either lens. A roll of films is fed through a vertical slot at the right side of the viewer.
A lever shifts the films the requisite distance. The stereoscope is of the box type with
a fixed focus. The films are positive transparencies.
Z 670^ eye
Righi- eye
j< Focal lengih

Fig. 5. — Stereoscope using split lenses.
Fig. 6. — Mirror stereoscope, as originally used by Wheatstone.

Leica also manufactures a stereoscope of this type already mentioned under
stereoadaptors.
Lens-type stereoscopes should be fitted with side shields to eliminate stray light
around the eyes, a shield between the two views to render them mutually exclusive,
and a sliding plateholder or lens adjuster for focusing. If for use with transparencies,
they should completely exclude all light except that coming through the ground glass.
—
Mirror Stereoscopes. There are many types of mirror stereoscopes possible. In
all of them the two views are superimposed by reflection.
The original mirror stereoscope was that of Wheatstone shown in Fig. 6.

The two prints are mounted facing each other at A and B and are reflected into the
eyes from the mirrors C and D. The prints may be moved together or apart by means
of the screw.
As but a single reflection occurs, the resultant view is reversed from the right to
the left. Printing, for instance, reads backward. This can be remedied by ha^'ing the
prints reversed from the negatives.
Polished metal or front-silvered mirrors should be used as a faint second image is
received off the front surface of ordinary mirrors.

A refinement and extension of this type is used extensively for îewing X-ray
stereographs. Transparencies are used and placed in the machine reversed.
The most common form of mirror stereoscope is of the double-reflection type shown
in Fig. 7. It is extensively used in aerial photography work. The path of the light
is as shown in the figure. The double reflection eliminates the reversal effect of the
original Wheatstone stereoscope.
any size. Prints of varying
It is possible to design this stereoscope for prints of
size may
be used in any given machine, provided focal lengths are approximately
correct. The use of large prints has the advantage of minimizing the obviousness of
the print texture with relation to the picture.
/.eff view Righi-
Fig. -Double-reflection type of mirror stereoscope which eliminates the reversal effect
of the Wheatstone type.
The from the print to the eye corresponds to

total distance that the light travels
the focal length of the instrument. Asquite large in comparison to lens stereo-
this is
scopes, considerable enlargment should be made of views taken with ordinarj'- cameras.
This can successfully be done as the probleni of overlapping does not present itself.
For observing aerial photographs the machine is usually placed so that the observer
looks down on the prints. Such views usually have onlj^ a portion of their areas
in common. These are adjusted by eye until they fuse.
A single large metal plate polished on both sides maj^ be used as a single mirror
stereoscope. The plate is placed between the eyes and normal to them. The eyes
look into the plate at the reflections of the prints. Here the prints are reversed from
right to left due to the single reflection.
Many other types of mirror stereoscopes are possible. Unusual designs are occa-
sionally resorted to for some technical purpose. For general purposes the double-
reflecting type is undoubtedly the most satisfactory.
—
Anaglyphs. An anaglyph is a stereograph in which the two views are respectively
printed in complimentary colors. Red and green have been universally used for this
purpose. Since a picture of one pure color disappears when viewed through a glass of
the same color and is most visible, appearing black, through a complimentary color,
the views can be rendered mutually exclusive by a pair of spectacles of the same colors.
Thus, if the right view is red, the right spectacle must be green. The light spaces in
the scene appear in both views but, being complimentary colors, fuse as white.
The advantages of this system are (1) the two views may be superimposed, thus
allowing prints of any size to be used; (2) the space is only one-half that used for the
same size in other systems; (3) the spectacles may be simple cellophane masks and
consequently flat and very cheap.
These facts make the system the best for publication work. Numerous magazines
have published anaglyphs inserting masks in each copy of the issue. The system has
been, and is, extensively used in aerial photography publications.
The disadvantages of the system are (1) the difficulty of getting proper dyes, (2)
the great absorption of light through the masks, (3) the inherent impossibility of mak-
ing colored stereographs, (4) the green and red colors do not fuse into white around
the edges of objects against a light background, but (5) leave an edge of color over
that part of the background which is obscured by a foreground object in one of the
views but not in the other.
-Grounc^ glass
-Righ+ view
-V Pofaro/d
-CHatf
silvered
mirror
Ground cf Ioiss — •'
Leff view — '''/

] j
H Polaroid ^
\
\l
\
/ \ /
lefl-eye o © Right eye

Fig. 8. —Stereo viewing device using polarizing plates. It is necessary for the observer
to wear polarizing glasses to obtain the fusion of images.
Negatives used for anaglyphs should be very sharp for satisfactory fusing. Stop-
ping down the lens aperture is consequently recommended when making negatives for
this purpose.
In viewing an anaglyph the plane of the paper is usually obvious. The best
impression is received if the scene seems to stand out from the paper rather than recede
into it. This is achieved by printing so that correspondingly distant points in the two
views are coincident in the superposition. If foreground points are coincident, the
scene will recede into the paper.
Polaroid System. —
A very convenient, recently developed form of viewer involves
the use of Polaroid, a material which polarizes light. This viewer is shown in Fig. 8.
The H
and V are sheets of Polaroid mounted at right angles to each other. They
polarize the light from the two lamps horizontally and vertically, respectively. The
transparencies representing the right and left views are inserted between the ground
glass and the Polaroid. The sheet C which makes 45° angles with the Polaroid sheets
is a half-silvered mirror which transmits one-half the incident light and reflects one-
half. Thus an observer at A receives the reflected one-half of the horizontally polar-
ized light and the refracted one-half of the vertically polarized light.
the observer wears a pair of Polaroid spectacles in which the right glass is polar-
If
ized verticallyand the left glass horizontally, the views are rendered mutually exclu-
sive and a stereoscopic fusion results.
Theoretically there is only one possible position in which the observer may place
his eyes and see the views orthostereoscopically. This can be approximately found by
moving the head back and forth until the view appears most natural. However, where
the accurate judgment of depth is not of great importance there is a considerable area
within which a normal scenic view of objects or persons appears quite natural. This
area is large enough for six or more persons to view the scene at the same time. The
size of the area depends upon the size and the correct viewing distance of the plates.
The larger these are, the larger the area and the more persons who can view
the stereograph.
As a device for showing stereographs to small groups of people, this system is
unequaled by any other unless projection is resorted to, as it enables more than one
person to view at the same time.
A further advantage is that Polaroid offers the possibility of making stereographs
in color in which the illusion of reality is very startling.
The only objection to the system is that the resultant view being enclosed in a
visible box tends to seem restricted in size to the size of the box. At the present time
it is fairly expensive.
Processing, Mounting, and Viewing Stereographs. Developing and Printing. —
The photographic processes of developing and printing stereographs are exactly the
same as for ordinary photographic work. In developing negatives the photographer
should aim at sharp detail, low contrast, and lack of graininess. All these are par-
ticularly important in stereographs of small size where the magnification of the stereo-
scope is large. The elimination of graininess is particularly important in view of the
effect of the presence of the plane of the plate on the location of the image.
For transparencies either glass plates or films may be used. The problem is exactly
the same as that of making lantern slides.
Methods of obtaining the desired results with respect to detail, contrast, and
graininess are discussed elsewhere in the volume and need not be duplicated here.
Reversal of Views. —
In taking stereographs with a double-lens camera, the two
—
views must be transposed interchanged, the right view being put on the left and vice
—
versa before viewing. The reason for this can best be understood by remembering
that the negative in the camera has the image on it upside down and reversed from
right to left. The stereograph consequently has two upside-down views side by side.
If the plate is rotated through 180°, the two views come right side up and correct from
left to right, but the view taken by the right lens is now on the left and vice versa.
Consequently either the negative or the resultant positive must be cut apart and
remounted.
If prints or negatives are separated and it is desired to determine which is for the
right eye and which for the left, this can almost always be done by inspection
as follows:
Pick a sharp point or vertical line in the foreground which appears quite close to
some sharp feature of the background. The horizontal distance between these two
will differ in the two views, the difference being greater when the difference in depth is
greater. The view in which the foreground point is farthest to the right with respect to
thebackground is the left-eye view.
Many of the methods for making stereographs are primarily for use with cameras
already on hand or readily available. Since the stereoscope should have the same focal
length as the camera, either a stereoscope must be ol)tained of approximately equal

focal length or, if the stereoscope has a greater focal length than the camera (generally
the case), the resultant prints should be enlarged.
Reference to formula (1) shows that, if the stereoscope has a focal length times m
that of the camera, the print must be enlarged m
times for orthostereoscopic viewing.
As an example, the most common American hand stereoscope has a focal length of
20 cm. With this instrument and a camera of 6 cm. focal length, the prints should be
enlarged 3^3 times.
As the centers of the prints should remain a distance apart equal to or less than the
distance between the optical centers of the stereoscope,any considerable enlargement
will cause the prints to overlap necessitating trimming. If a portion is trimmed off
one print, the corresponding portion must be trimmed off the other. Since the left
and right sides must be trimmed off the right and left views, respectively, both sides
must be trimmed off both views. If this is to be done, the photographer must remem-
ber when taking the picture that objects near the edge of the finder maj^ be out of the
final stereograph.
To avoid overlapping much smaller enlargements than are theoretically called
for can be used for general work. Though the resultant depth will be exaggerated
this may add to the effectiveness of the stereograph rather than detract from it.
A compromise is usually the best answer. It is recommended that the prints be

enlarged to the point where overlapping begins, taking into consideration the possible
maximum separation of the prints. The result can then be viewed in the stereoscope
to determine if the scene is objectionably distorted.
Alignment of Prints. Horizontal Separation between Prints.— On convergence
principles the distancebetween the two views of an infinitely distant point on the
plates should be equal to the distance between the lenses of the camera and of the
stereoscope. This can easily be done by picking some sharp point in the background
of one view and measuring the required distance in the proper direction for the same
point in the other view.
Mounting should be done by measurement whenever possible. However, the
distance between prints can be considerably lessened without any effect on the result-
ant image. With split-lens stereoscopes it is customary to mount the prints with less
separation.
Thus it is possible for the photographer to mount the prints arbitrarily at a chosen
distance less than the theoretical distance or by adjustment while viewing them in the
stereoscope. If the latter method is used and the photographer has a greater than
average interocular distance, he should be careful to place the prints somewhat closer
together than his maximum fusion distance.
Vertical Alignment. —
A line drawn between the two views of any point must be
parallel to the line between optical centers, i.e., parallel to the line through the eyes.
The eyes actually allow a small amount of vertical variation between the two
views. The physiological reasons for this are not clearly understood.
The best way of achieving proper alignment is to place a straightedge over the
center of the two prints parallel to the lower edge of the mounting card. Then adjust
the prints so that the straightedge intersects the same points on each. This assures
both vertical and rotational alignment. The center of the card and the center of the
prints should be used, as this insures the prints being in the center of the viewing area
with a consequent minimum of aberration.
Proper alignment may be obtained by observation through the stereoscope. The
breakdown of fusion as the prints get out of alignment is quite sharp. One print can
be placed in the center of its viewing area and the other moved until it is in the center
of the fusion area.
If the latter method is used, care should be taken that the rotational alignment
is correct. One central point of both prints may
be in vertical alignment, while one
print is slightly rotated The eyes will allow an appreciable
with respect to the other.
rotation accompanied by a twisting distortion of the image without breaking fusion.
This can be avoided by watching the outside edges of the image, where fusion breaks
down with the least rotation while the center of the image remains fused.
If possible, prints taken with a double-lens camera should not be cut apart until
ready for mounting as the distance between the views and the vertical alignment of
the prints is perfect in the uncut prints. By aligning corresponding points on the
prints, parallel to the base of the mounting card, with the prints centrally located, the
four corners of each view may be marked on the card. The prints can then be cut
apart and each mounted in the space formerly occupied by the other.
—
Alignment of Transparencies. Transparencies are made with exactly the same
materials of which lantern slides are made. They may be made by printing directly
from the uncut negative as follows: Place the left half of the transparency plate in con-
tact with the right half of the negative being sure that the edges are parallel. Shield
the halves not in contact and expose. Place the right half of the transparency in con-
tact with the left half of the negative. Shield the halves not in contact and expose.
A simple frame can be made for this purpose composed of three sections each the
size of one view. The two end sections are shielded and the center one is open.
The negative and the transparency plate occupy two sections each, overlapping
in the center section. After exposure they are shifted to opposite ends and exposed
again. Zeiss manufactures such a frame.
The value of this method is that, once the frame is properly constructed, the align-
ment and spacing of the resultant transparency is automatically correct.
—
Alignment for Mirror Stereoscopes. In mirror stereoscopes where large separate
prints are used, the prints can be cut to fit against stops in the stereoscope or they can
be aligned by observation. The latter requires a little knowledge on the part of the
observer of how to move the prints.
Correct Vieioing. —
The prints or transparencies being properly mounted must still
be properly inserted in the stereoscope and the latter held level. In showing stereo-
graphs to persons unfamiliar with them, fusion is frequently not achieved, either
because the slide is not level in the stereoscope or because the stereoscope is not held
level with the eyes. Both of these should be checked for persons having difficulty with
fusion.
—
Adjustment of Stereoscope. The viewing of stereographs after they have been
properly placed in the stereoscope is quite simple. Most lens-type stereographs have
focusing devices. It will be found easier to achieve fusion and involves less eyestrain
if the carriage or the lenses are brought forward to the proper position rather than
started forward and moved back.

In mirror-type stereoscopes no focusing occurs. Views set in a particular position
may be made to fuse by changing the distance of the eyes from the mirrors.
An effort should be made to obtain an even illumination over both views whether
prints or transparencies are used. which illumination may differ and
The degree to
satisfactory fusion occur is However, uneven illumination
certainly considerable.
makes the initial fusion a great deal more difficult and certainly detracts from the
resultant effect.
Stereoscopes for both prints and transparencies can be equipped with a light
mounted in such a way as to give an even illumination.
When a light used on prints care must be taken to avoid glare. As a glossy piint
is
makes a more background than a dull one, this glare can be considerable.
satisfactory
It is sometimes eliminated by warping the prints into a slight curve.
Transparencies Prints.
vs. —
The question of the use of transparencies as opposed
to prints is largely a matter of personal preference.
The light effect of transparencies gives a much greater illusion of the actual exist-
ence of light-filled space. They also have a brilliance which cannot be obtained with
prints. Furthermore they permit the use of color in the same way that it is used in
colored films. For these reasons they are generally considered to be superior.
On the other hand prints are much easier to handle and not so susceptible to dam-
age. They are much easier to view as individual photographs. They require less
light intensity and can usually be viewed in any position without searching for a source
of light, up to which they can be held. A number may be viewed, as single photo-
graphs, at once for purposes of selection. For these reasons they usually give greater
satisfaction to the beginner.
Hjrperstereoscopy. —
If the separation between camera lenses is increased beyond
the interocular distance the two resultant photographs of any object will be the same
as could have been taken, using the interocular distance, of an exactly similar object
both smaller and nearer the camera.
On convergence principles if the base is increased m times the object will appear
1/m the distance and l/m the size. Thus, if the base is doubled, the resultant object
should appear as a "reduced model" of half the size at half the distance.
Since the ability to detect depth is much greater at greater convergences (see Table
I)the objects in this "reduced model" will appear to stand out from their backgrounds
much more obviously than in an orthostereoscopic view. The perception of depth is
consequently enhanced.
As the base increases, the convergence angle consistent with a reduced model inter-
pretation becomes greater and soon passes beyond any value natural to binocular
vision or stereoscopic viewing. Certainly at some point the eyes cease interpreting
the image as a reduced model and begin interpreting it as a similar object of increased
depth. This exaggeration of depth then increases as the base is further increased.
The entire phenomenon of the interpretation of hyperstereoscopic images needs
more thorough investigation before more exact statements can be made concerning it.
In aerial photography it is usually assumed that the most natural relief, or the
nearest approach to a properly shaped image, is obtained when the two views of a
point on the ground appear the interocular distance apart in relative position on the
two plates. The base for this most natural relief can be calculated from the formula
B=f (5)
where B = distance between exposures in feet;

e = interocular distance in inches;
d = height of camera above ground in feet;
/ =
focal length of camera in inches.
the base as obtained from this formula is exceeded, the resultant stereoscopic
If
image is certainly exaggerated in depth. Bj^ this means low buildings can be made to
appear as skyscrapers and normally imperceptible details of relief can be made
apparent.
The hyperstereoscopic effect, if judiciously used, can add greatly to a stereograph's
effectiveness by its strong emphasis of the depth quality. It is best used on mountain
or landscape views which have few foreground objects.
From considerations of the limits of stereoscopic vision, objects over 2000 ft. away
must be photographed with an increased base if any stereoscopic effect is to be
obtained. The photographer need not expect any pronounced binocular effect of
depth on objects over 1000 ft. unless he uses an increased base.

Projection Systems. Fundamental Problems. —The projection of stereographs

involves certain problems not present in individual viewing. These are:
1. The projected stereograph must be viewable from a number of different posi-
tions. This presents two major problems: that of keeping the stereographs at equal
distances from the eyes and that of distortion due to oblique viewing.
If the projected stereographs are large and side by side they will be at different
distances from the eyes of all observers, except those near the normal to the center
of the screen. This difference in size increases as the observer moves farther to the
side or nearer to the screen. If fusion can still be maintained, the question of eyestrain
arises.
This difficulty cannot be cured by devices involving mirrors, prisms, or lenses at the
eye unless each observer has a device suited to his particular position. It is com-
pletely cured by systems which permit the superposition of the two views. Anaglyphs
and the polaroid system are of this type.
The problem of distortion is much the same as that in a motion-picture theater
complicated and emphasized by the presence of depth. Theoretically there is but one
correct viewing point. From this point there is an increase of depth as the observer
moves back and a decrease as he moves forward. In addition, as he moves to the
side, the scene appears narrower and twisted, objects on the near side of the screen
moving toward the observer with respect to objects on the far side.
Such distortions are, in general scenes, not too annoying. In the event of three-
dimensional movies on a large scale, theaters may be made somewhat narrower than
is now the custom.
2. The stereographs must be made mutually exclusive to the eyes of a number of
individuals. This necessitates some form of stereoscope or spectacles at the eye of

every observer. This introduces the problem of expense, and, as a commercial proposi-
tion, the overcoming of the slight annoyance entailed.
The only possibility of separating the stereograms for every observer at the screen
rather than at the eyes seems to lie in the Ives' system (see page 590) in which other
difficulties are almost insuperable.
3. The increased the proper separation between views. This
difficulty of getting
problem does not the system permits superposition on the screen. If views are
arise if
placed side by side, one above the other, or in any other position, mirrors or prisms
must be used at the eyes to effect fusion.
4. Ifmotion pictures are contemplated, the additional problems of synchronization
of shutters and films presents itself together with the doubling of a number of expenses.
No detailed discussion of the above problems or of the following systems is given, as
the the laboratory stage.
field is still in
The anaglyph systemis the same as that discussed on page 583. Its advantages
and disadvantages are the same as set forth there. Its chief advantages for projection
work lie in the ability to superimpose the views and in its cheapness. Its chief dis-
advantages lie in the loss of light due to the colors employed and its inadaptability to
color work.
In anaglyphic movies the edges of color around moving objects against a light field
causes an annoying flashing of color. However, anaglyphic movies have been success-
fully shown as a novelty in American and Continental theaters.
The Polaroid system is the same as that discussed on page 584. The two views are
projected through Polaroid and superimposed on the screen. The advantages of the
system lie in the possibility of superposition and of using color. On the other hand
powerful light sources are needed owing to the cutting out of a large portion of the
light in polarizing. This demands that an adequate system of cooling the bulbs be
devised. The Polaroid Corp. is rapidly conquering the difficulties in this system.
Ives' System. — Figure 9a represents a scene in space photographed by a battery of

cameras. Figure 96 represents the scene replaced by a screen which has the charac-
teristic of reflecting all incident light in a horizontal plane directly back upon itself
r"
Scene n Unio//recfiona/ screen
in space
. Cameras
cameras ^^ O^r^
<J r.
(a) (b)
Fig. 9. — Diagram illustrating the steoescopic system devised by H. E. Ives of the Bell.
Telephone Laboratories.
while diffusing it vertically. The cameras are replaced by projectors projecting the
respective pictures.
It will be seen that the eye located anywhere in view of the screen sees a vertical
strip of the projected view from each camera. The eye, being below the direct rays
from the projector, does not interfere. It
thus builds up from the various strips the
complete image of the original scene as it
appeared from its location. Since each eye
does this for itself, the two images are different
and mutually exclusive. Consequently a
stereoscopic image results.
A screen
having the necessary characteris-
can be made from vertical transparent rods
tics
ground cylindrically on the front and rear sur-
faces with the rear surface painted with a
white diffusing paint.
This is the method of H. E. Ives.
Such a system would be perfect if the
number of cameras approached infinity and
the width of the screen rods approached zero.
As the number of cameras decrease and the
width of the rods increases, the resultant
image becomes more obviously a series of
Fk;. 10. —
Stereoscope viewing device
vertical strips.
The systemdemonstrated
has been
designed for educational purposes.
experimentally. enormously
Obviously it is
expensive and commercially entirely impractical. It is of interest as being the only

projection system which can be viewed by a number of persons without any device at
the eves.
—
Full technical information is obtainable in the Journal of the Optical Society of

America, vol. 21, pp. 109-118; or Bell Telephone System, Techjiical Publications,
Monograph B-550.
Distortions and Aberrations. — Any change in shape of a stereoscopic image from
the original scene should be classified as a distortion. For purposes of convenience
changes in size have also been included in the following discussion. Certain of the
Table II. Distortions and Aberrations in Stereophotography

Distortions in Stereoscopic Images
Improper mounting may cause distortions:

If both views are rotated around their individual centers in the same direction
the entire scene is twisted in that direction. This is liable to occur if mounting is done
by eye, for, if the first print is not level, the second will be rotated to obtain
fusion.
If the views are rotated in opposite directions, say the bottoms separated and the
tops brought together, then the bottom area will recede and become smaller while the
top area approaches and becomes larger.
If the stereograph is improperly placed in the stereoscope, the following distortions
may occur: If it is tipped forward or backward from the vertical, the image loses height
while the approaching portion comes nearer.
If the stereograph is not parallel to the line between the lens centers while fusion is
maintained, the image is twisted in the same direction while losing width.
An occasional individual has no capacity for stereoscopic vision. The chief rea-
sons for this are the habit of depending on a master eye or the fact that one eye is
considerably weaker than the other. No accurate figures are available, although the
number of such individuals is said to be in the neighborhood of 8 per cent of
the population.
With lens-type stereoscopes chromatic aberration occurs. In full-lens stereoscopes
in which the eyes are centered on the optical centers, white areas to the left of center
appear blue on the left side and red on the right. Areas to the left of center appear
the reverse.
In split-lens stereoscopes white areas in the left-side view appear blue on the right
and red on the left. White areas in the right-side view appear the reverse. In the
fused image these somewhat cancel each other though a band of color remains.
These effects are never bothersome, the edges of color generally being very fine and
only detectable if attention is directed to them. Such aberration can be corrected by
the use of crown and flint glass in the stereo-
scope. In general the expense of doing this is
greater than warranted.
The presence of residual color in anaglyphs
was mentioned under that subject.
If the lenses of the stereoscope are exact
duplicates of those of the camera, no spherical
aberration will occur. If the curvature of the
lenses is mirror stereoscopes are
different or if
used, such aberration does occur. It is exactly

the same problem as is present with an ordinary
single-lens camera and need not be discussed
here.
Miscellaneous Applications. Astronomy. —
Stereography has certain limited uses in astron-
omy. All these are based on motion of the
T-
I'iG.
11
11. —
n a
Graflex camera £ix J
fitted •'
•
i i i
•
i
with two lenses for stereoscopic astronomical body with respect to the earth,
photography. Stereographs may be made of the moon,
owing to its librations. These slight oscillations
are the same as a rotation of the moon. Consequently two views taken at opposite
ends of a libration cycle will show a stereoscopic effect.
Stereographs may be made of astronomical bodies which move appreciably against
the background of the stars. This is done by photographing them twice so that they
appear shifted against the background. Aside from the fact that the object photo-
graphed, a comet or a planet, does stand out from the background in a stereoscopic
manner such stereographs have no technical value whatever, as the resultant depth is a
completely false one. The object shows no depth within itself.
Cloud stereographs can be made in the same manner, provided there is some
lateral motion of the clouds without an accompanying change of shape. The farther
the clouds move between views the nearer the earth they will appear.
The possibility of applying stereography to other astronomical phenomena are
extremely limited. They certainly are restricted to the solar system. The maximum
possible base is twice the distance of the earth from the sun or 186,000,000 miles.
From formula (3) this means that a star would have to be within ^2 light year of the
sun to show any relief against an infinitely distant background. The nearest star is
greatly in excess of this distance. This shift is, of course, used to

measure the distance of near stars, as a much smaller angle can be
measured than the eye can detect in a stereograph.
—
Wide-angle System. The angle of view of a normal eye runs to 120°
or more. The average stereoscopic camera covers an angle in the
neighborhood of 60°. This imposes a restriction on stereographs
which detracts from their reality.
A lens system is available which satisfactorily increases this angle
up to 90°. The system is practically free from chromatic aberration
and is corrected for distortion. It involves two lenses as shown in
Fig. 12. Complete technical information on this system can be found Fig. 12.—
in L. E. W. von Albada, A Wide Angle Stereoscope and a Wide Angle Diagram of
View Finder, Trans. Optical Soc. {London), vol. 25, no. 5; and in A. wide-angle lens
system for ster-
W. Judge, "Stereoscopic Photography."
Pseudoscopic Views. —
If the two views of a stereograph are trans-
eoscopes.
posed so that the right eye sees the left view and vice versa, a pseudoscopic view results.
If the stereograph is of separated objects the order of depth of these objects is
reversed, i.e., the background objects appear in the foreground and vice versa.
If the stereograph is of a simple geometric figure or of such a nature that the solidity
of the object can be reversed without destroying its meaning, such reversal will occur.
Thus a pseudoscopic stereograph of the pyramid in Fig. 1 would appear to be a pyramid
with the base in the foreground and the apex in the background.
In normal scenes including persons, buildings, or landscapes, the pseudoscopic
stereograph leads only to confusion as the depth factors indicating the true scene are
opposed to the pseudoscopic factor. Confusion and loss of depth are the result.
Bibliography
The Hterature of stereography is extremely limited. The following list contains the most important
works on the subject;
Periodicals:
Wheatstone, Charles: Contributions to the Physiology of Vision, Phil. Trans. {London), (1838).
French, W.: Stereoscopy Re-stated, Trans. Optical Soc. {London), vol. 24 (1922-1923).
J.
Albada, L. E. W. von: A Wide Angle Stereoscope and a Wide Angle View Finder, Trans. Optical Soc.
{London), vol. 25 (1923-1924).
Trump, R. W.: Binocular Vision and Stereoscopic Sense. Trans. Optical Soc. {London), vol. 25 (192.3-
1924).
Kurtz, Henry; Orthostereoscopy, /. Optical Soc. Am., October, 1937.
Much of the literature has been in the form of short articles. Some of these have appeared in the
following journals:
Philosophical Magazine-
Photo Miyiiature.
American Photography.
British Journal of Photography.
o94 HANDBOOK OF PHOTOGRAPHY
Transactioits Optical Society of London.

Technoloyi) Revieir.
Journal «/ The Optical Society of America.
Hooks:
Brewstek, David: " The Stereoscope, Its History, Uses and Construction " (1858).
Cazbs, L.: "Stereoscope de precision, theory at practique," Paris (1895).
ROTHWBLL, C. F.: "The Elements of Stereoscopic Photography," London (1896).
Drottin, F.: "The Stereoscope and Stereoscopic Photography," London (1897).
PuLFRicH, C: " Neue stereoskopische Methoden und Apparate fiir die zweckeder Astronomie, Topo-
graphic und Metronomie," BerUn (1903).

Hartig, Th.: "Das Stereoscop." Leipzig (1907).
PuLFRicH, C: "Stereoskopische Sehen und Messen," Jena (1911).
.ItJDGE, A. W.: "Stereoscopic Photography," Am. Photographic Pub. (19.So).
RoHR, Montzvon: "Die Binokularen Instrumente," Berlin.
CHAPTER XXI
PHOTOGRAPHY BY ULTRAVIOLET AND INFRARED
By Walter Clark
The visible spectrum, ranging from wavelengths 3900 to 7600 A., covers a very-
small portion of the known spectrum of radiation which extends from the short cosmic
rays to the long waves of radio. The invisible wavelength region shorter than 3900 A.
constitutes the ultraviolet, which may be considered to have its short wavelength limit
at 136 A. It merges into the X rays and
customarily divided at about 2000 A. into
is
two parts known as the far and near ultraviolet, the latter being the region which
borders on the visible spectrum. The invisible portion of the spectrum which is an
extension of the visible into longer wavelengths is known as the infrared. As the
infrared wavelengths become longer, they constitute the heat rays, and these merge
into the long Hertzian or radio waves.
The first invisible part of the spectrum to be discovered was the infrared, by Sir
William Herschel in 1800. Herschel passed a thermometer through the spectrum of
the sun and found that the temperatures recorded were higher beyond the red than in
the visible region. The ultraviolet was discovered shortly after the infrared by Ritter
and WoUaston, who showed that the blackening action of sunlight on silver chloride
occurred readily in the part of the spectrum beyond the visible limit in the violet. All
salts of silver —in particular the chloride, bromide, and iodobromide used in photo-
—
graphic papers, plates, and films are sensitive to ultraviolet radiation. There is
also sensitivity in the visible violet and blue and, in the case of the bromide and iodo-
bromide of negative materials, in the blue-green. In order to extend the response to
the remainder of the visible green, the red, and the infrared, it is necessary to resort
to sensitizing bj'^ means of dyes. Commercial photographic plates and films are avail-
able which permit photography of the whole spectrum from about 2000 A. in the ultra-
violet to beyond 13,000 A. in the infrared. They provide the physicist and astronomer
with their most convenient means of recording spectra over this region, and have manj'
other special applications in the fields of science and technology.
ULTRAVIOLET PHOTOGRAPHY
Although all normal photographic plates and films are sensitive to radiation in the
near ultraviolet, at a wavelength of about 2500 A. the gelatin of the emulsion begins to
absorb the rays, and at 2000 A. this absorption is so great that plates and films will no
longer respond. This wavelength, therefore, represents the shortest which can be
recorded on commercial plates and films unless special conditions are employed. If
it is desired to photograph by wavelengths shorter than 2000 A., it is necessary to use
plates having very little gelatin, such as the so-called "Schumann plates," or to treat
normal plates with a substance which fluoresces in the short wavelength radiation,
emitting light of longer wavelengths to which the plate is readily sensitive. If the
camera is fitted with lenses of quartz instead of glass, wavelengths down to 1850 A.
are passed to the plate, provided they do not have to travel through a long path of air,
the oxygen of which begins to exert a strong absorption at about 2000 A. Optical
glass, such as is normally used in camera lenses, absorbs the ultraviolet strongly at
595
wavelengths shorter than about 3300 to 3500 A., the actual limit depending on the
nature of the glass. For photography in the region from this point to 2000 A. it is
necessary to use quartz lenses.
There are two distinctly different ways of using ultraviolet radiation for taking
photographs. The first of these, called the "reflected ultraviolet method," is strictly
analogous to ordinary photographic methods, whereby the photograph is taken by the
light which is reflected from the subject. In the case of ultraviolet photography by
this method, the source of radiation, or the camera, is provided with filters which
transmit only the invisible ultraviolet and allow no visible light to pass. The second
method, known as the "fluorescent light method," depends on the ability of ultraviolet
to induce visible fluorescence in some materials. The ultraviolet is absorbed by the
material, and energy is reemitted in the form of visible light. The wavelength of the
fluorescent light is always longer than that of the ultraviolet which excited it, and its
color may range from violet to red according to the nature of the material. In addi-
tion to the fluorescent radiation there is always present some ultraviolet which is
reflected directly by the object. This reflected ultraviolet is invisible, but it is much
more effective photographically than the fluorescent light. In the fluorescent-light
method it is desired to make the exposure by the fluorescence alone, and it is therefore
necessary to prevent the reflected ultraviolet from reaching the lens of the camera.
This is achieved by placing over the lens a filter which absorbs all the ultraviolet but
which allows the visible light to pass freely. Although the reflected ultraviolet method
is very frequently used, the fluorescence method is the more important. There is no
general rule, however, by which the appropriate method can be chosen. If it
is required to show detail which can be seen by the fluorescent light, it can be photo-
graphed by the fluorescent-light method. If detail is not shown in this manner, it may
be possible to reveal it bj^ reflected ultraviolet photography, but only experiment will
tell. The reflected ultraviolet method is the quicker of the two, and, if convenient, it
should be tried first.
—
Sources of Ultraviolet. SmiUght. Ultraviolet is present in the radiation from the
sun but to an extent of less than 5 per cent, as compared with 41 to 45 per cent in the
visible and from 50 to 58 per cent in the infrared. No radiation of wavelength shorter
than 2900 A. reaches the earth from the sun, and the actual threshold varies with the
atmospheric conditions and the elevation of the sun. Some ultraviolet photographs
have been made out of doors using sunlight as the source, and some of the planets have
been photographed by the ultraviolet in the sunlight which they reflect. Means have
been proposed for using the sun as a source of ultraviolet for photography indoors, but
thej^ are inefficient, and in general the sun can be eliminated as a source for general
ultraviolet photography.
Incandescent Tungsten-filament Electric Lamps. —
The amount of ultraviolet energj^
in the radiation from the normal type of electric lamp is so small that the lamps are
not suitable sources. By using overvolted lamps the ultraviolet intensity is increased
but not sufficiently to make the lamps of importance for general use.
—
Carbon-arc Lamps. The carbon arcs provide the highest temperatures available
in artificial light sources, and together with the sun they are the sources most used for
ultraviolet therapy. By introducing metal salts into the cores of the carbons, manu-
facturers have been able to increase the emission of radiation in various parts of the
spectrum, including the ultraviolet. Such carbons are made for therapeutic purposes,
an example being the National Carbon Company's Therapeutic "C" carbons. Most
carbon arcs, including the Sunshine, Sun, High Intensity, and White Flame arcs, have
a strong emission at about 3900 A. They are suitable sources of near ultraviolet inso-
far as energy is concerned, but they have certain disadvantages which include disin-
tegration of the carbons, inconvenience due to heat, and need for attention during
PHOTOGRAPHY BY ULTRAVIOLET AND INFRARED 597
operation. If a studio is equipped with them, however, thej^ might well be used.
Enclosed metallic arcs, such as the Pointolite and Tungsarc lamps do not have suffi-
cient energy in the ultraviolet to be of general use.
Gaseous-discharge Lamps. — The gaseous-discharge lamps, particularly the mercury
arcs, provide the most convenient sources for ultraviolet photography. The earliest
form was the Cooper-Hewitt mercury- vapor lamp, which consists of an evacuated
glass tube containing mercury and two metal electrodes connected to a source of elec-
tric supply. An arc discharge is caused to pass between the electrodes by tilting the
tube to make and break a conducting link of mercury or by applying a high potential
across the electrodes. The light from the tube consists of the emission spectrum of
mercury vapor. The strongest line in the near ultraviolet, and the one most useful
photographically, is that at 3650 A. Improvements in the lamp consisted in introduc-
ing a considerable pressure of mercury vapor and introducing rare gases into low-
pressure mercury tubes, provided with electrodes of oxides of the rare earths and
heated by a tungsten filament. A very efficient type is the high-pressure mercury
lamp in which oxide-coated electrodes are used and the mercury is at a relatively high
pressure, the amount present being limited so that it is all vaporized before the normal
operating temperature is reached. The most recent types consist of a short narrow-
bore quartz capillary tube, and they operate at mercury- vapor pressures up to 40 atm.
in the open air and several hundred atmospheres when water-cooled. These capillary
lamps emit energy of very high intensity, but there is a strong background of continu-
ous spectrum in addition to the mercury lines. In addition to ordinary glass, mercury
lamps are made of glass having transmission farther in the ultraviolet, such as Corning
Corex A, Corex D, and Pj^rex. For the highest ultraviolet emission, quartz tubes are
used instead of glass. The lamps are of various shapes, mainly long straight tubes
and tubes bent into U or M form, and are manufactured by the General Electric Vapor
Lamp Co., Hoboken, N. J., and the Hanovia Chemical and Mfg. Co., Newark, N. J.
Most of these lamps are designed for general studio illumination, laboratory work, and
as light sources for enlargers. They can obviously be readily adapted for copying by
ultraviolet. In order to ensure the maximum of convenience for this type of work,
L. Bendikson, of the Huntington Library, San Marino, Calif., designed a quartz
mercury-vapor lamp in the form of a spiral, which could be placed in a metal reflector
round the camera lens. The sun lamps S-1 and S-2, made by the General Electric
Co., may be classed as mercury-arc lamps, although some light is emitted from incan-
descent tungsten electrodes. There are two electrodes bridged by a filament in an
evacuated bulb containing mercury. When a voltage is applied to the filament
through an appropriate transformer, an arc forms in the mercury vapor between the
electrodes. There is high energy emission at the 3650 A. line and a strong continuous
spectrum due to the filament. The bulb is of ultraviolet-transmitting Corex glass, and
the lamp may be used for ultraviolet photography if steps are taken to filter out the
visible spectrum. The lanips are not so efficient as the other mercury-discharge
lamps for photographic purposes.
Other Sources.— There are many other sources which have a strong emission in the
ultraviolet. They include metallic arcs, such as those with electrodes of iron, electric
sparks, and Geissler tubes. They are of great importance for spectrography but are
not convenient for general ultraviolet photography.
Filters. —FUters for ultraviolet photography are of two kinds: (1) those which
transmit the ultraviolet and absorb visible light, and (2) those which absorb the ultra-
violet and transmit visible light. In photography, filters of the first kind are used over
the source, or over the lens, by reflected ultraviolet. They generally consist of a
special glass containing nickel oxide and are of a very deep purple or opaque appear-
ance. Those in most common use are the Wratten No. 18A filter, which is usually
employed in the form worked sheets over the lens, and the Corning glass
of optically
Violet Ultra No. 586, which is molded and polished squares
available in the form of
for use over the source and which can be optically worked for use over the lens. Some
other Corning glasses are suitable provided a certain amount of transmission in the
red can be tolerated. They are the glasses: Heat Resisting Red Purple Ultra No. 587;
Red Purple Ultra No. 597; Red Ultra No. 584; and Red Purple Corex A No. 986. An
ultraviolet-transmitting glass made in England by Chance Bros, and Co., Ltd., is
known as No. 14 Ultraviolet, while the Jena Glass Works of Schott und Gen, in Ger-
many, make similar glasses known as UGl, UG2, and UG4. All these filters transmit
a relativel}^ narrow band of ultraviolet, extending roughly from 3000 to 4000 A., with
a maximum at about 3600 A. They are therefore very suited for isolating the 3650 A.
line of the mercury spectrum. The General Electric Vapor Lamp Co. manufactures
Cooper-Hewitt lamps in which the tube is made of a visually opaque, ultraviolet-
transmitting glass known as Nico. Manj^ other filters transmitting ultraviolet and
absorbing visible light have been described, but in general they are not so convenient
or efficient as the glass filters. Perhaps the most interesting is a plate of quartz or
ultraviolet-transmitting glass coated with silver, \yhich has a transmission band at
3200 k.
Filters of the second kind, absorbing ultraviolet radiation, and transmitting the
visible freely, are used in fluorescent light photography on the lens of the camera. The
most used of these is the Wratten No. 2A filter, which absorbs all radiation of wave-
length shorter than 4100 A., and transmits the visible fully. The Wratten No. 2
Aesculine filter absorbs below 3900 A. but is fluorescent, and the No. 2A is to be pre-
ferred. Many types of liquid filter have been proposed for this purpose, but some of
those which are often recommended are not verj^ efficient absorbers. A layer of a
solution of cerium ammonium nitrate, 1 cm. thick and containing sulphuric acid to
dissolve the salt in a concentration of 0.1 per cent, absorbs below 3750 A. and in 1 per
cent concentration absorbs below 4600 A. A layer of triphenylmethane solution (0.5
g. in 75 cc. cf ethyl alcohol) 1 cm. thick, a filter often recommended, is not satisfac-
tory since it transmits freely above 3000 A.
—
Cameras. Any camera employed for normal photograph}^ is satisfactory for use
in the ultraviolet by either method. For the fluorescent-light method the normal lens
may be used, as the photograph is made by visible light. The ordinary lens can also
be employed for the reflected ultraviolet-light method, provided it transmits the
wavelengths it is desired to record. For wavelengths shorter than about 3500 A. it is
necessarj^ to use a quartz lens, and, if records are required below 2000 A., the lens must
he made of fluorite. However, photography in this short-wavelength region is only
possible if the air is evacuated from the camera and if plates containing little gelatin
are used. It falls, therefore, outside the sphere of operation of the ordinary photog-
rapher and is chiefly of interest to the physicist recording spectra. The focus of a lens
in the ultraviolet is not quite the same as in the visible region, but little difficulty is
encountered on this score if a small aperture is used.
—
Photographic Plates and Films. All plates and films are sensitive in the near
ultraviolet to about 2000 A., although on account of the absorption by the gelatin
their sensitivity begins to fall off at 2800 A. and is noticeably reduced at 2500 A. In
the region from 2500 to 3900 A., however, and in the visible region, normal photo-
graphic materials may be used. The plate or film selected will depend on the speed
and contrast desired, the choice being made in the same manner as for photography by
should be borne in mind that the contrast in the idtraviolet
visible light, except that it
is lower than in the visible, and plates and films of high contrast are preferred. For
photography by the reflected ultraviolet method the highest sensitiAnty is given by
the uoncolor-sensitized plates which have the highest speed to visible blue light, such
as the Eastman 40. If contrast is desired and some sensitivity can be sacrificed, plates
of the type of the Eastman 33 and Eastman Process and films like Eastman Commer-
cial and Eastman Process will be satisfactory. For fluorescent-light photography it
isnecessary to use materials which are sensitive throughout the visible spectrum. All
panchromatic plates and films will be suitable, although usually fair contrast is desired,
and a material of the type of the Wratten Panchromatic Process or Wratten plate M
will be selected.
Methods of Ultraviolet Photography. Reflected-iiltraviolet Method. The subject —
to be photographed is irradiated with ultraviolet from one or two sources and is placed
at the appropriate distance to give the evenness of illumination desired. To prevent
visible light from reaching the plate in the camera, an ultraviolet transmitting filter
220v Uvlarc
D.C. auxiliary Ô^
Camera
Fig. 1. — Diagram showing illuminant for reflected ultraviolet photography.

A— G. E 220-volt Horizontal Uviarc burner
—
S Subject
—
F Ultraviolet transmitting filter, Corning "Ultra" glass. No. 586
—
L Ultraviolet absorbing filter, for photography of fluorescent effects, Wratten No. 2A
Exposure on Wratten Process Panchromatic Plates
With filter L about 20 min. at //4.5.
Without filter L about 1 min. at//16.
must be used over the source or lens. In the former case the mercury- vapor lamp, or
other source, should be placed in a ventilated reflector which is completely covered
with a filter, such as the Corning Violet Ultra No. 586, and the operations must take
place in a totally darkened room. If the filter (Wratten No. 18A) is used on the lens,
the room may be lightened. There is a convenience in applying the filter to the source
rather than to the lens, since the same lighting unit can then be used for the fluorescent-
light method as well. If the arrangement shown in Fig.
1 is used, employing a single
General Electric Uviarc 220-volt horizontal burner with a Corning No. 586 filter over
the lamp and placing the lamp at 20 in. from the subject to be copied, the required
exposure will be of the order of 1 min. at //16 on the Wratten Panchromatic Process
plate.
Fluorescent-light Method. —The same arrangement of the lights can be used as in

the previous method, but it is essential that the ultraviolet transmitting filter be used
in front of them. A filter must be used on the lens to absorb the reflected-ultraviolet
and transmit the visible fluorescence radiation freely. The arrangement shown in
Fig. 1 is satisfactory, using a single Uviarc burner in conjunction with the Corning
No. 586 filter and the Wratten No. 2A filter on the lens. In the conditions depicted,
the exposure will be of the order of 20 min. at//4.5, using the Wratten Panchromatic
Process plate.
Applications of Ultraviolet Photography. Criminology. —The use of ultraviolet
photography documents, in the examination of watermarks
in detecting alterations in
and postage stamps, and in revealing invisible writing will be dealt with in the section
on Documentary'- Photography. One of the most important applications of ultraviolet
documentary photography in the field of criminology is in the detection of forgery.
Forged bank notes have been detected by the fluorescence of the papers but particu-
larly by that of the printing inks, which may be of a different nature and so fluoresce
differently. Alterations in the inks of written or typewritten documents may be
detected by the fluorescence method, although it is not always reliable for identifying
a particular ink. Writing may be deciphered on stained and worn documents and
specific inks detected on used blotting paper if they have characteristic fluorescence.
Textile fibers, dyes, stains, and markings may be compared by their fluorescence.
Stains of blood, urine, seminal fluid, and manure on clothes or other objects, and
vegetable particles, organic chemicals, pigments, grains of mineral origin, and other
clues have been identified or differentiated by fluorescence photography. Finger-
prints cannot usually be identified directly, but they are revealed quite clearlj^ if
dusted with a fluorescent powder, such as anthracene, before photographing. The
method shows some promise for the detection of drugs, etc., in body fluids. Adhesives
and sealing wax which may appear identical to the eye may show differing fluorescence,
so that tampering with letters and packages may be detectable. Its importance in
the determination of the authenticity of works of art will be treated in a later section.
—
Documentary Photography. One of the most important applications of ultraviolet
photography is in the examination of documents, particularly those which have been
altered by age, or wear, chemical or mechanical erasure, substitution, and overwriting,
and in the detection of secret writing. The fluorescence method is the more useful
because paper, parchment, pigments, etc., fluoresce when irradiated with ultraviolet.
The extent of the fluorescence varies with the nature of the material and the treatment
which it has undergone. One of the earliest and most successful applications of the
method was in the deciphering of the original writing on palimpsests. These are
manuscripts, usually on vellum, from which the original writing has been mechanically
erased by fine pumice, in order that the clear surfaces so obtained may be used again
by another scribe. Invisible traces of ink or pigment left embedded in the vellum maj^
fluoresce to a less or greater extent than the vellum itself. Usually it is less, and if
a fluorescent-light ultraviolet photograph is made, the original writing will be revealed
in the negative as lighter than the background. The method may be applied to other
documents in which erasures have left invisible traces of the original writing. Era-
sures due to wear may be photographed iij the same manner.
Chemical erasures may often be successfully revealed by the fluorescent-light
method. Ink eradicators are frequently used by forgers to remove original writing for
which other writing or typewriting is substituted. Bj^ visible light the rewriting
alone is usually seen, while ultraviolet photograph}'- will often disclose the original
writing. In many cases it provides the only reliable test. Secret writing by so-called
"invisible inks" may be similarly revealed. In general, where the paper has been
chemically treated locally for any purpose, it is probable that the areas of change can
. .
be shown by fluorescence photography. Examples are the removal of foxmg marks,

collectors' markings, names, dates, and invisible marks due to presence of saliva, milk,
soap, urine, etc. Papers themselves fluoresce differently in the ultraviolet, according
to the nature of the pulp, the sizing and other treatment of the paper, the age, and the
kind of pigment or dye added to color it. Paper deliberately stained or dyed to repre-
sent another in color may be detected by the ultraviolet if the dyes fluoresce differently.
Watermarks have been studied by the ultraviolet in order to distinguish between
genuine and false ones. Artificial watermarks produced by the application of an oil
or a wax generally fluoresce brightly. Others may be produced by impression with a
Incas, Pa., January 23, 3 93P.

This Is my will made this, day because
I am not well. I give all of my property of
all kinds to ray friend, Jacob C. 'Trustlg.
He is to settle my estate and can either sell ,
the house or keep it as It is, I do this for

Jake because he Is my best friend and has done
so much for me
Signed.
-<^^..y^?C.^^Seal,
,."> Pa.,, January 25, 1932,

Ifi&a's.,
A.C t t* ?/<^Sts 1-8 my will made this day because
Î.ara Dofe well. I give all -of my croperty of
^m- kiria& Vb-my' tT%bnd!, 'if|;^T^r'5ru^lg.
^He Îs, Jt9 ,9etfcle estrfe-^jfe ancfe/jfta.,>ed^her sell
/iiijr'
^ ^ ,
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^^ î^s -Aecs^jse^ 4ie?^*^<<Er<^t($wîê'nd and has done
so much for rae
/^ ^Signed. ,'-^~yyvS><CJ^^^.^^^T<i
—f-âry^yi e^ x Seal.
Fig. 2. — Photographs showing detail which may be obtained through ultraviolet

photography. The top photograph shows a copy of a letter made with ordinary photo-
graphic methods. The bottom illustrations shoM's additional detail made "visible through
ultraviolet photography.
rubber roller before the paper is This renders parts of the paper thin by com-
dried.
pression, although the fibers are more densely packed in these parts. In a genuine
watermark the wet fibers are pushed aside, in making the paper, by the wire design,
so that the mark actually thinner than the surrounding paper.
is Although it is not
possible to distinguish between these two types of watermark directly by fluorescent
photography, they can be identified after application of a sizing test solution which
consists of water or an oil containing a fluorescent material. The solution will pene-
trate a genuine watermark more quickly than the surrounding paper, so that it will
fluoresce before the paper. In an artificial watermark made by compression, the rates
of penetration are the same, so that the watermark will not be distinguished by
fluorescence.
Postage stamps may
be examined by the ultraviolet, and eradicated cancellations,
repairs to the paper, changes in the dye or pigment, or false watermarks detected.
Sealing wax varies markedly in its fluorescence according to its origin, color, age. and
the method of manufacture, so that fraudulent seals can often be detected, especially
if a genuine seal is available for comparison. Adhesives and binding materials may
be identified or compared by the fluorescence method.
—
Works of Art. Ultraviolet photography is an important instrument for the deter-
mination of the authenticity of works of art and for the detection of repairs, over-
paintings, and forged signatures. In the field of sculpture, marble, alabaster,
limestone, sandstone, and granite can be examined by ultraviolet fluorescence to
determine the origin of the stone, its age, and the presence of restorations and rework-
ing. Precious and semiprecious stones can sometimes be distinguished from paste
stones and artificial pearls from the natural variety. Old ivory can be distinguished
from the more recent material and from bone and the artificially aged material from
that colored naturally. The method has also been successfully applied to the examina-
tion of textiles and ceramics, glass, enamels, prints and drawings, and particularly
paintings. In this case it is used in conjunction with chemical analysis and photog-
raphy by Xrays and the infrared. Restorations may be distinguished by the differ-
ence in fluorescence between old and new paints and by changes in the fluorescence
of the varnish if the restoration is made over the varnish. Sometimes a varnish will
fluoresce to such an extent as to mask the fluorescence of the underlying pigments, and
allowance must be made for this. The use of the method in the examination
of palimpsests and other documents has been described in the preceding section.
—
Other Applications. It is impossible to enumerate all the uses to which ultraviolet
photography can be put, and the interested reader should consult the works listed at
the end of this chapter, particularly "Fluorescence Analysis in Ultra-violet Light,"
by Radley and Grant. Important applications are in the field of photomicrography,
particularly photographing by the 3650 A. line of the mercury spectrum, which results
in increased resolving power over that obtainable by visible light. Fluorescence
photography can also be satisfactorily carried out through the microscope. These
subjects and the very important physical applications in spectrography and astronomy
are beyond the scope of this chapter, but there is a very extensive literature devoted
to them.
—
Warning. Attention should be drawn to the ease with which wrong conclusions
can be drawn from idtraviolet and fluorescence photographs. The photographer
will require considerable experience before he can use the method reliably, but when
once this has been acquired, the method is an extremely important one. It should be
remembered that many dyes are bleached by exposure to ultraviolet radiation and
that it is much used for artificially aging materials. Caution should, therefore, be
used in its employment.
INFRARED PHOTOGRAPHY
Infrared photography is by no means a new subject, since methods of making
photographic plates responding to the infrared were known to scientists during the last
century. The subject assu-med a new interest, however, in 1931 when infrared sensi-
tive plates began to be made which could be used with the ease of ordinary plates and
films. Within a few years it became possible to record the spectrum out to beyond
13,000 A. in the infrared, and many discoveries of great importance to physics and
astronomy resulted. At the same time the subject grew to be of great importance in
other fields of science, technology, medical and aerial photography, long-distance
photography, criminology and documentary' photography, cinematography, and the
commercial and amateur spheres.
The usefulness of infrared photography is due to the discovery of classes of dyes by
addition of which photographic emulsions could be made to respond readily to wave-
lengths longer than those which could be recorded on panchromatic materials. The
dyes belong to the classes known to the organic chemist as the cyanines, the most
important for recording the longer wavelengths being the carbocyanines and the
di-, tri-, tetra-, and pentacarbocyanines. By proper selection of the sensitizing dyes
during the manufacture of the emulsions, it is possible to make plates and films which
respond to bands of wavelengths from the visible red to the infrared beyond 13,000 A.
Those which sensitize in the longer wavelength regions are mainly of interest for scien-
tific purposes, while those which permit photography in the region from 7000 to 9000 A.
are most used for general applications.

There is no fundamental difference between the practice of infrared photography
and that in which visible light is used. Any photographer equipped for work with
panchromatic plates and films can make infrared photographs with no extra expendi-
ture other than that necessary to purchase the proper kinds of plates and films and a
filter for use on the camera lens. The light sources commonly found in photographic
studios for ordinary practice happen to be the most suited for infrared photography.
Some precautions necessary in handling infrared materials differ slightly from those
necessary in common practice, but they present no difficulties and will be mentioned
in the following text. The value of photography by infrared lies in the fact that the
radiations are very often transmitted and reflected by materials to an extent which
bears no relation to the way in which they behave toward ^dsible light. Generally
they penetrate more freely.
—
Sources of Infrared. All sources which depend on incandescence for the produc-
tion of light emit infrared radiation freely. They include sunlight, arcs, electric-fila-
ment lamps, oil lamps, gas burners, candles, and other sources which rely on a material
being raised to a high temperature. They are not all equally efficient, however, and
the discussion here will be limited to those which might be of value. In addition
to the incandescent sources, there are some gaseous-discharge lamps which produce
spectra containing lines in the infrared, but they are little used in practice.
—
Sunlight. About one-half of the energy in sunlight lies in the infrared, and the
sun is therefore a very satisfactory source. It cannot be conveniently used in the
studio, but it is the natural source for outdoor photography and permits very impor-
tant work to be done in the infrared. There is much variation in the intensity and
quality of the sunlight which reaches the surface of the earth, and it is necessary for
the photographer to adapt his exposure to meet the changing conditions. The chief
causes of the variation are changes in the amount of heat energy radiated from the sun;
variations in the distance of the earth from the sun; variations in the amount of water
vapor, dust, etc., in the atmosphere of the earth; the zenith distance of the sun; and
the altitude of the photographic station above sea level. In a clear atmosphere at
sea level at midday in midsummer, about one-third of the energy from the sun is in
the part of the infrared which can be photographed. This figure can be considered
as a maximum and will be decreased as the factors above mentioned come into play.
There is no strict relationship between the intensity of infrared and of visible light from
the sun, a fact which makes ordinary exposure meters unreliable for estimating infra-
red exposures. The intensity of infrared in sunlight is much higher than that in any
other source.
Incandescent-filament Electric Lamps. — ^The earlier types of electric lamp consisted
of filaments of carbon or metals, particularly tungsten, in an evacuated glass bulb.
Later lamps have filaments made exclusively of tungsten wire and contain an inert, gas,
usually a mixture of 80 per cent of argon and 20 per cent of nitrogen, and the filament
is in the form of a coil. The gas-filled coiled-filament lamp is very much more efficient
than the older types of vacuum lamp. For general infrared photography it is not
necessary to use more of the spectrum than the region from aboiit 7000 to 10,000 A.
It is desirable, therefore, to select sources of infrared which have as great as possible a
proportion of their energy in this region. It so happens that the types of incandescent
tungsten-filament electric lamps most used for illumination and for photography by
visible light possess this characteristic. The wavelength of maximum energy and the
actual amount of energy in the infrared varies with the kind of lamp. For lamps
used for general lighting, the maximumranges in position from 9500 to 10,500 A. In
the case of lamps for special purposes it may be at still shorter wavelengths. For
instance it is at 8000 to 8500 A. for the photoflood types of lamp, and at 9000 A. for
the 500-watt projection lamps. In general, the higher the wattage of the lamp, the
greater is the energy at the maximum. It will be clear that any of the higher wattage
lamps and those of the overvolted photoflood types will be suitable for infrared photog-
raphy. Those in common use are the studio types of lamp, the 500-watt projector
lamps, and photofloods. Since carbon-filament lamps and certain types of electric
radiant heaters have been much recommended for infrared therapeutical treatment, it
has often been supposed that they would be very suitable as sources for infrared
photography. They are not nearly so useful as the common incandescent tungsten-
filament lamps, however, because they emit very inefficiently in the spectral region in
which photographic plates can be sensitized.
—
Carbon-arc Lamps. The spectrum of the radiation from the carbon arcs consists
of a continuous background extending from the visible far into the infrared, and on
this are superposed lines and bands caused by the arc vapors. By modifying the
composition of the carbons, it is possible to modify the characteristics of the radiation
so that the spectrum consists mainly of tines. In the plain carbon arcs the chief source
of the radiation is the electrically positive carbon, while, in the case of those arcs using
carbons which are cored or impregnated with salts to give the flame arcs, the chief
source is the luminous flame between the electrodes. The carbon arcs provide the
highest available artificial temperatures, and they are very suitable sources for the
infrared. As was mentioned in the section on Ultraviolet Photography, the inclusion
of certain metals in the cores produces arcs having a very strong emission in the ultra-
violet. The carbons may be similarly modified, by incorporation of other metal salts,
to give high emission in the red and infrared. All carbon arcs may be used for infrared
photography, the most suitable being those with carbons of the following types:
National Carbon Co. Sunshine and Motion Picture Studio carbons; White Flame arc
carbons; Low Intensity Projector arc carbons; Suprex positive carbons; High Intensity
Projector carbons; High Intensity Sun Arc carbons. The Pointolite and Tungsarc
lamps are convenient sources of infrared of moderate efficiency.
Gaseous-discharge Lamps. —
The mercury-vapor lamps, described under Ultraviolet
Photography, are not very useful sources for general infrared photography. The
greatest emissions in the photographic infrared are at the 10,140 and 11,289 A. lines.
This is at too long a wavelength for general purposes, although, for cases where it might
be desired to work at these wavelengths, the mercury arcs would be very suitable.
None of the other gaseous-discharge lamps are of importance for practical infrared
photography.
Photoflash Lamps. —
The photofiash lamp emits its maximum energy at about
9000 A. ; a very good source of infrared radiation and is very convenient.
it is
Special applications of infrared photography will be surveyed in a later section

of this chapter. At the risk of anticipating this somewhat, we shall include here a
table of the sources most useful for a variety of purposes of infrared photography.
Filters. —
Infrared plates and films are sensitive to the ultraviolet, to the violet
and blue, to part of the green, and to a particular region in the infrared. To confine
the exposures to the infrared, it is therefore necessary to use a filter which does not
transmit the shorter wavelengths to which the material responds. The filters are
made of dyed sheets of gelatin used alone or cemented in glass, or of plates of glass
: — —
Table I. Sources of Infrared for Various Purposes

General Infrared Photography:
Sunlight
Tungsten-filament lamps of high efficiency
Studio- and projector-type lamps
General-purpose lamps of 500 watts and higher
Carbon arcs: flame, neutral-cored, and plain arcs and all types of studio and projection arcs
Photoflash lamps
Cinematography
Sunlight
All types of tungsten-filament lamps used for studio illumination
Medical Photography:
All the sources grouped under General Infrared Photography
Photomicrography:
Tungsten-filament lamps used in normal photomicrography, especially the ribbon-filament lamps
Carbon arcs and enclosed metallic arcs, such as the Pointolite and Tungsarc lamps
Mercury-capillary lamps
Documentary, Graphic Arts, Criminology, Scientific Record:
All the sources grouped under General Infrared Photography
Photography in Total Darkness:
The artificial light sources given under General Infrared Photography, especially the tungsten-
filament lamps and photoflash lamps
which is itself colored. The filters most useful for general infrared work are red in
color, and if it is desired to confine the exposure to the invisible infrared when the plate
filters must be opaque.
or film has some sensitivity in the deep visible red, the Filters
may be by the wavelength below which they absorb radiation and above
characterized
which they transmit it. They must also be sharp cutting, i.e., the transition from
absorption to transmission must cover as short a range of wavelengths as possible.
The following table shows filters commercially available which are suitable for infrared
photography, as well as the wavelengths at which they cut. The filter selected for a
particular purpose will be chosen according to the minimum wavelength it is desired
Table II. Filters for Infrared Photography
Manufacturer
to record, bearing in mind the region of the spectrum to which the plate or
film responds.
All filters absorb some radiation to which plates and film respond, so that it is
necessary to give longer exposures than would be necessary without the filter. The
factor by which the exposure must be multiplied is known as the "filter factor." It
has no significance in infrared photography, because infrared plates and films are not
used without a filter. It is customary, therefore, merely to denote the time of expo-
sure required for a certain subject under definite conditions when used with a particu-
lar filter. Since there is usually a gap in the spectral sensitivity of infrared materials
from the middle of the green to at least as far as the middle of the red, all filters having
their transmission threshold in this region will require the same exposure. On the
other hand, if absorbs some of the infrared to which the plate or film responds,
the filter
extra exposure will be required. For instance, with the Eastman Infrared Sensitive
plate, the exposures will be identical through the Wratten filters Nos. 25 and 29,
whereas through the No. 87 filter, twice this exposure will be necessary.
—
Cameras. There is no difference in principle between cameras used for normal
photography and those for the infrared. There are, however, a few precautions which
must be observed. The bellows, the shutter blades, and the dark slides must be
opaque to infrared; otherwise fogging of the plate will occur. Bellows used on most
modern cameras are quite satisfactory, particularly if they are made of leather or arti-
ficial leather containing black-carbon pigment and backed bj'' a sheet of black cloth.
Certain kinds of hard rubber and wood are very transparent to the infrared and must
be avoided in plateholders and shutter blades. Some manufacturers test the hard
rubber of their dark slides for opacity to the infrared. Those made by the Eastman
Kodak Co. and the Folmer Graflex Corp. carry five dots embossed on the metal tops
if they have been tested for safetj^ in the infrared. Metal is quite safe.
Photographic lenses made for good quality photography with panchromatic mate-
rials are designed so that their focus is the same for light in the violet and yellow^
Other wavelengths are not in the same focus, but achromatizing for these two gives
quite satisfactory results for white light and modern plates and films. The position
of correct focus changes rapidh^ as the wavelengths increase into the infrared, so that
it is sometimes necessary to make a correction of focus if sharp pictures are to be
obtained. Lenses differ Aêry markedly in their infrared focus, and it is not possible
to give a general rule as to the change in bellows extension which must be made after
focusing visuallj' on the ground glass or by scale. In all cases where a correction is
required, the lens must be racked out for a distance slightly longer than that necessary
for good panchromatic focus. This is equivalent to focusing on a nearer object. One
recommendation has been to increase the bellows extension by „r>^^, of the focal
•'
200th
length of the lens, but this rule is by no means general. For Tessars of //4.5 and
//3.5 and of moderate focal length, Zeiss recommends an extension of 3 per cent of the
focal length. Leitz lenses of the Elmar series should be set at a scale reading of 100 ft.
in order to focus distant objects by infrared. The Hektor series requires somewhat
less compensation. The Summar lens is provided with a special index mark on the
mount for focusing liy infrared. The Ross //4 Wide Angle Xpres lens is specially
corrected for the infrared, and the following Cooke lenses are corrected for coincidence
of focal planes of 7500 A. and white light: 6 in., //2.5; 919 in.. //2.5; 6M in., //3.5;
814 in., //4.5; 10^ in., //4.5; 25 in., //4.5; 13 in., //6.3. The Kodak Anastigmats, of
aperture //4.5 and of focal lengths shorter than 10 in., and the//7.7 Anastigmat are
generally satisfactory. In the case of lenses of short focal length used at small relative
aperture, the correction is so small that it can be neglected. Long-focus lenses may
require a correction. If there is doubt as to the correction to be applied, the lens
: :
can be calibrated by making a series of photographs at shghtly different settings of the

lens, starting with the position of correct visual focus. The lens mount or focusing
scale can then be marked at the position corresponding to the sharpest negative of the
series. Much help is obtained if the picture is focused with a red filter on the lens.
This reduces the brightness of the image, however, so that focusing should be done at
full aperture, after which the lens may be stopped down to the opening desired.
Apochromatic lenses are generally in correct focus in the near infrared.
—
Photographic Plates and Films. Infrared plates and films are made by treating
noncolor-sensitized emulsions with djês which confer sensitivity in the desired region
of the infrared. Many of these dyes are available, so that plates may be obtained
sensitive in relatively narrow regions in the infrared out to beyond 13,000 A. Most
of the plates sensitive to the longer wavelengths are very slow and suited only for
spectrographic work. For general infrared photography, those sensitized between
7000 and 9000 A. are most useful and of highest speed. The selection of the material
will depend on the purpose in mind, being made according to the requirements of
speed, contrast, and region of sensitivity. For aerial and snapshot photography and
3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000 7,000 8,000 9,000 10,000 11,000 12,000
X
Fig. 3. —Spectral response of Eastman Spectroscopic plates. The cross-hatch areas
maximum
show regions of good sensitivity, whereas the black areas show regions of
sensitivity.
cinematography, materials of high speed are available. On the other hand, for
photoengraving and other purposes where contrast rather than speed is the require-
ment, materials corresponding to the process type of plate are made. For scientific
and special purposes the Eastman Kodak Co. manufactures six types of emulsion,
differing in contrast, speed, and resolving power; these types are sensitized in eight
different regions of the infrared. They are known as Eastman Spectroscopic plates,
and the spectral regions to which they respond are shown in the chart in Fig. 3. The
letters at the sides of the chart indicate the class of sensitizing, the shaded areas repre-
sent the spectral regions of total sensitivity,and the black areas show the region for
which the sensitizings are particularly valuable. The following is a list of the infrared
plates and films available in the United States for general purposes
Plates
Eastman Infra-red Sensitive Plates
Eastman Infra-red Process Plates
Films for miniature cameras:
Agfa Infra-red Film (Agfa Ansco)
Kodak Infra-red Film, Type IR-135
Films for motion-picture photography:
Agfa Infra-red Film Series 158
Agfa Infra-red Film Type B, Series 159
Eastman Infra-red Sensitive Motion Picture Negative Film
Films for Aerial Photography:

Agfa Infra-red Aero Film
Eastman Infra-red Aero Film
All the foregoing materials are sensitive in the near infrared in a band somewhere
between 6500 and 8500 A. They have the general characteristics of fast negative
emulsions with the exception of the Eastman Infra-red Process plate, which is a
process-type material.
Methods of Infrared Photography. —
For general infrared landscape photography a
plate camera or a miniature camera using 35-mm. film is used with the Wratten
No. 25 or a similar filter on the lens. The plates or films sensitive in the region
between 6500 and 8500 A. are the most satisfactory. Correction for infrared focus
should be made if necessary. Exposure meters which measure visible light are not
reUable, and the manufacturer's exposure guides should be used. Typical exposure
for a sunlit open landscape in summer is ^5 sec. at//5.6 through the Wratten No. 25
filter using the Eastman Infra-red Sensitive plate or Kodak Infra-red film type
Background Background
Subject Subjeci
Phol-of/ood To current
lamfi supply
Koc/aflecfor L-1 Kodaflecior L-2

Level iv/M camera Level with camera Kodaflector L-1 ^^ Koda fleeter L-2
Level with camera l y
- '
..
'
,'.'A Level with cam.era
Camera
To current supply
A B
Fig. a. —
Typical arrangement of lights for infrared photography. The diagram at A shows
the use of photoflood lamps, whereas B shows a method of using photoflash lamps.
IR-135. In practice it appears that on dull days the increase in exposure for infrared
materials isabout double that which would be required for panchromatic plates and
films.
For photography indoors using artificial light, two arrangements are possible. In
one case, the lights are used open, with a filter on the lens of the camera. In the other,
it is desired to make pictures in total darkness, and in this case filters must be used over
the lamps to absorb all visible light and to transmit the infrared freely; no filter is
necessary on the lens. For infrared portraits in the lighted studio, the normal studio
lamps are employed, but the lighting should be rather flat, because it is rarelj'' required
to produce modeling in the subject, but merely differences in reflection and trans-
mission of the skin. This is particularly so with medical subjects. In infrared
copying of documents and photography of general objects, the normal arrangement of
flat lighting is used. Typical arrangements of the lights are shown in Fig. 4. In
arrangement A two pairs of photoflood lamps or 500-watt projector type lamps are
used in reflectors arranged symmetrically to the subject at 45°. If a single photoflash
lamp is employed, it should be placed as near the camera axis as possible. Better
results are obtained by using two photoflash lamps as shown in arrangement B. They
are fired simidtaneously by an appropriate switch wired to the two lamps. A single
—
PHOTOGRAPHY BY ULTRAVIOLET AND INFRARED 60»
photoflood or other lamp is used for focusing and composition and is wired into the
circuit as shown in the diagram. The following table gives exposure data for (a)
the Eastman Infra-red Sensitive plate, the Eastman Clinical Camera (with //7. 7 lens),
and the Kodak Recomar "33" (with //4.5 lens); the Wratten No. 87 filter over
the lens; photoflood or photoflash lamps in Kodaflectors; development for 5 min. in the
Eastman D-19b or the Eastman X-ray developer at full strength at 65°F. (6) the
Kodak Retina and Retina II using Kodak Infra-red Film, Type IR-135; the Wratten
I
No. 87 filter over the lens; photoflood or photoflash lamps in Kodaflectors; develop-
ment for 12 to 15 minutes in Kodak fine-grain developer DK-20 at 65°F.; if D-76
developer is used, one-half the indicated exposures should be given and the film
developed for 10 to 15 min. at 65°F. If the Wratten No. 25 filter is used instead
of the No. 87, one-half the exposures indicated may be given.
Table III. Exposure Data for Infrared Materials

a. Exposure Data for Infrared Photography with Eastman Clinical Camera and
Kodak Recomar "33"
Scale-setting
ments of the lamps will just be visible to the subject as a deep red if he looks straight
toward them, although the onlookers will normally see no light. Complete darkness
for all concerned can be attained by using indirect illumination, the lamps being
arranged in reflectors pointed toward the ceiling and covered with sheets of the No. 87
filter. Exposures in this case will naturally be longer and must be determined by trial.
In cinematography by infrared using 35-mm. Agfa Infra-red Film Type B, or Eastman
Infra-red Sensitive Motion Picture Negative film, using a 180° shutter and 24 frames
per second, an aperture of about //4.5 will be required outdoors in bright sunlight.
Infrared materials should be handled and developed in total darkness or by the
light of special green safe lights. The green safe lights made for use with panchro-
matic materials are quite unsuited, because they transmit infrared freely. No special
methods of development are necessary. The manufacturers' instructions should be
followed.
Applications ofInfrared Photography. Aerial and Long-distance Landscape
Photography. —The most important application of infrared photography is in the
photography of landscapes from the ground or air. Its particular usefulness lies in
the ability of the infrared to penetrate atmospheric haze more readily than does
visible light, so that improved rendering of distant detail is attained. Haze scatters
violet and blue light, and so blurs distant detail when it is photographed on ordinary
noncolor-sensitive plates and films. As the wavelengths become longer, the scattering
becomes less, so that improved penetration of haze results if panchromatic plates
and films are used in conjunction with a yellow, or particularly a red, filter. With the
longer wavelengths of infrared and a filter to absorb the shorter wavelengths, still
greater penetration is effected. By using the infrared, therefore, it is possible to
photograph over longer distances than are attainable with panchromatic materials,
and in the case of aerial photography, where haze normally seriously decreases the
rendering of detail on the ground, the infrared offers a special advantage. In refuta-
tion of claims made by overenthusiastic newspaper correspondents and inventors, it
should be clearly stated that it is not possible to penetrate dense fog by infrared
photography. The ability of the infrared to penetrate an atmospheric suspension
such as haze, smoke, and fog increases as the sizes of the suspended particles decrease
or as the wavelength of the infrared increases. The sizes of the particles of dust,
water vapor, etc., which form haze are small enough to permit penetration by infrared
of the wavelengths which can be photographed. On the other hand, the droplets of
water present in mists, fog, and clouds are so large that they are impenetrable by the
photographic infrared. It can be stated as a general rule that the less the visibility
through the atmosphere, the less is the chance of increasing it by infrared photography.
In the case of a fog which presents a danger to safe navigation at sea or to safe landing
of aircraft, infrared photography offers no advantages over the eye. On the other
hand, however, haze which limits visibility to a few miles can be further penetrated
by the infrared, so that photography with these longer wavelengths can be of special
benefit in photographic survey from the ground and the air, in reconnaissance, and so
on.
In addition to showing detail at greater distances through haze than is attainable
by normal photography, the infrared landscape photograph has other particular
characteristics, which may or may not be an advantage. Grass and the leaves of
deciduous (hardwood) trees are rendered very light, somewhat as if they were covered
with snow. This is because the chlorophyll which imparts the green color is very
transparent in the near infrared, so that the rays can pass through it to the tissues
of the leaves, which reflect it back again. They thus photograph as if they were light
in color, whereas in normal photographs they appear dark owing to the absorption
of visible light by the chlorophyll. Coniferous (softwood) trees usually reproduce
darker than the hardwoods, and dead trees can also be distmguished by their darker
rendering. These facts make infrared photography of interest to the forest survej'or.
The sky is rendered as very dark, because blue skylight is relativelj^ devoid of infrared.
Clouds appear white, because they reflect sunlight which contains infrared. Shadows
are very dark, especially if the sky is clear and the only light in them comes from the
blue sky. Water generally reproduces as black. Buildings will be reproduced in
tones which depend on the manner in which their materials of construction reflect
the infrared, and soil and rock may also appear in tones which are different from their
visual appearance. These effects all assist in determining the characteristic appear-
ance of infrared landscape photographs. They may be attractive to the pictorial and
commercial photographer and maj^ offer advantages or otherwise to the surveyor
whose prime interest is in rendering and identifying detail.
Criminology. —In the field of criminology, infrared photography has found many
applications which include the following: detection and (deciphering of erasures and
forgeries; deciphering of charred documents, or those _which have become illegible
as the result of age or abuse; differentiation between inks, dyes, and pi|;ments which
are visually identical; distinguishing between cloths which are visuallj^ identical but
dyed with different dyes; detection of stains and irregularities in cloth; examination of
oloth, fibers and hair which are dyed too darkly to be easy of study by visible light;
study of fingerprints; examination of the contents of sealed envelopes; detection of
certain kinds of secret writing; detection and demonstration of blood stains on cloth;
determination of carbon monoxide impregnation of victims of gas poisoning; photog-
raphy in the dark. All these applications rely on the fact that the reflection and
transmission of infrared by materials is frequently very different from tlje behavior to
visible light. Straightforward infrared photographic methods are used, due regard
being paid to the region of spectral sensitivity and the contrast desired.
—
Documentary Photography. Some of the most elegant uses of infrared photography
are to be found in the field of the examination of documents. The most important
application is in the deciphering of writing made illegible by charring, deterioration as
a result of age or the accumulation of dirt, obliteration by application of ink as by a
censor or forger, invisible inks, and deliberate chemical bleaching or mechanical
erasure and subsequent overwriting. In these fields, the infrared method forms a
valuable adjunct to ultraviolet photography. Inks, pigments, and other materials
which may appear identical to the eye are frequently rendered quite differently in an
infrared photograph. If an ink transparent to the infrared is applied over one opaque
to the underlying ink will show up in an infrared photograph. The original writing
it,
on charred documents may be revealed, although success will depend on the degree of
charring of the paper. Writing which has been mechanically erased may be revealed
by virtue of traces of carbon or other pigment left embedded in the paper fibers.
Chemically bleached writing is often deciphered if the product resulting from the
reaction of the bleach with the ink absorbs infrared radiation more fully than the
surrounding paper. Dyes and pigments visually identical can be distinguished if they
differ in theirtransparency to the infrared.
—
Medical Infrared Photography. Infrared photography shows promise of being a
valuable means of diagnosis. By the use of infrared-sensitive plates and films it is
possible to make pictures showing the superficial veins, some of which are not dis-
cernible either visually or in ordinary photographs. Distinct changes from the normal
venous pattern have been recorded in connection with several diseases: axillary
thrombosis, cirrhosis, and some tumors, for instance, show a marked disturbance of the
adjacent venous circulation. On the basis of this, it has been suggested that in
surgery for carcinoma of the breast, an infrared photograph made before the operation
might reveal very useful information. Changes in the superficial venous pattern
of the thorax and abdomen during pregnancy can be shown distinctly, and there is a
marked difference in the appearance of infrared photographs of primipara and multi-
para. In dermatology, infrared photography may be useful in various ways. In
cases of eczema, the exterior eczematic appearance does not show in the infrared
photograph, while the underlying varicose veins which usually accompany this con-
dition are rendered clearly. In lupus cases under treatment by ultraviolet radiation,
the whole of the lesion covered by a scab, and it is impossible to see how the clear-
is
ance is progressing. The infrared rays penetrate the scab, however, and present a
clear picture of the healed areas. In ophthalmology, photographs of the iris of the
eye by infrared present detail which escapes ordinary photographic materials. Dark-
brown pigmented irides appear lighter in tone than blue pigmented irides, and the
deeply pigmented trabeculae register lighter than the rest of the iris. If atrophy has
Fig. 5.4.- — Photograph made on ordinary plates with general illumination.

begun in the iris, resulting in the destruction of the pigment and replacement by
grayish-white tissue, the infrared photograph will show this region of atrophy as
darker than the normal tissue of the iris would appear. Abnormalities of the margin
of the pupil, not readily visible in black-and-white or color photographs, are clearly
recorded by the infrared technique. Since infrared penetrates turbid mediums better
than does visible light, it can be used to photograph the iris through a cornea which
is so opaque that visual examination is impossible. Infrared photography is of value
in the examination of gross specimens, particularly in the case of injected specimens
for checking the completeness of the injection without clearing. Since most tissues
transmit infrared more readily than visible light, infrared photomicrographs of deeply
pigmented tissues and relatively thick histological specimens, such as celloidin and
frozen sections, frequently show details which are not discernible in those made by
visible light.
Photography in the Dark. —Since infrared radiation is invisible, it is possible to
make photographs in total darkness. Although the ultraviolet is also invisible, it is
not satisfactory for dark photographs, because it induces visible fluorescence in many
common materials. Infrared photographs can be made in the dark by using radiators
which emit only infrared and no visible light or, preferably, by powerful sources of
light from which the visible radiations are absorbed by filters which permit the infrared
to pass freely. These photographs are primarily of interest for amusement, although
the attempt has been made to use them in the detection of criminals at work and in
the observation of spiritualist seances. Of more interest are the photographs of hot
bodies made in total darkness by the infrared radiation which they emit. By using
infrared plates it is possible to obtain an idea of the distribution of temperature over
heated materials, such as electric heaters, hot metal ingots, radio tubes, and cylinder
heads and exhaust manifolds of internal-combustion engines.
Portraiture. —Infrared portraits can readily be made in the manner described in
the section on Methods of Infrared Photography. They are, however, of little interest
except for amusement and medical purposes. They differ entirely from those made
by visible light. The flesh has a white translucent appearance, the lips are light, the
eyes dark, all lines in the face are strongly emphasized, and the beard appears as if it
Fig. 5B. — Infrared photograph of the same subject made on infrared plates using heat of
the flatirons as the only source of "illumination."
were a stubbly growth, even on a clean-shaven face. The skin of negroes is repro-
duced light in tone.
Scientific and Technical Applications. —
Infrared photography has proved of impor-
tance in many and its value is increasing as it becomes more
fields of investigation,
applied. It is not possible to mention more than a few special uses in this chapter,
but the imaginative photographer should have no difficulty in widening its field.
Useful references will be found in the attached bibliography. In plant pathology
the infrared has provided a valuable means of studying and diagnosing plant diseases
in which there is change in the pigment or cellular material. Different kinds of wood
show marked variation in their transparency to the infrared, and photographs have
shown that the infrared may be of much value in coal petrology and other fields of
paleobotany. In the textile industry infrared photography has been successfully
applied to the detection of irregularities in the dyeing and weaving of cloth and
damage to the fibers, particularly where the material is dyed in such a manner as to
render visual observation difficult. The graphic-arts industry has used infrared-
sensitive plates to differentiate between light and dark blues in multicolor printing
and in preparing the negative of the black printing plate from originals prepared in
specially selected colors. In the field of technology other applications are in the study
of the interiors of furnaces while they are operating, the detection of carbonaceous
matter in lubricating oils which have been used in internal-conabustion engines, and the
study of the porosity of tin plate. Infrared photography has proved of enormous
value in astronomy and spectrography. Hundreds of new lines have been recorded hi
the spectra of the elements, and much has been learned of the composition of the stars
and of the atmospheres of the planets. Photographs have been made through the
haze of nebulae, showing up stars normally invisible behind them, and large numbers
of new stars have been discovered by the infrared radiation which thej^ emit. It has
been found that the night sky is relatively much stronger in radiation of wavelength
8500 A. than in the violet and blue parts of the spectrum. In photomicrography
much use has been made of the infrared in the fields of entomology, cytology, histology,
embryology, and botany. In general, photomicrographs of deeply pigmented tissues
and the thicker microscopic sections and specimens show details of internal structure
when made by infrared which are not visible in ordinary photomicrographs.
Special-effects Photography. —
The dark skies, black shadows, and light grass and
trees, characteristic of outdoor infrared photographs, give them the appearance of
having been made by moonlight. Advantage is taken of this in the motion-picture
industry to make imitation moonlight photographs by operating in bright sunlight.
The method is superior to the use of underexposure of sunlit subjects, which has some-
times been proposed, and it has the advantages of not requiring the transportation of
lighting equipment outdoors at nighttime and of imposing no abnormal demands on
the players. Moonlight itself cannot be used because it would require exposures
which are unattainable in motion-picture practice.
—
Works of Art. Infrared photography has taken its place with chemical study and
X-ray and ultraviolet photography as an important means of determining the authen-
ticity of paintings. Pigments vary in the way in which they transmit and reflect the
infrared, even if they appear identical in color. Infrared photography can, therefore,
sometimes be of use in detecting the presence of overpainting and other alterations
and in distinguishing between an original and a later copy. Important factors are the
varnish and medium, which differ in their infrared transparency according to their
nature and age. Paintings which have so deteriorated due to darkening of the varnish
that detail can scarcely be seen may be revealed by infrared photography. Similarly,
photographs, daguerreotypes, engravings, drawings, maps, and other such documents
which have become badly discolored or faded by age or misuse have been successfully
photographed by infrared.
Bibliography
Ultraviolet
Periodicals:
Bendikson, L.: A New Type of an Ultra-violet Light Source for Documentary Photography, Library J.,
69, 690-692 (1934).

A Cycle of Ultra-violet Light Sources for Various Uses, Library J. 61, 16-17 (1936).
:
Btjttolph, L. J.: L^viarc Lamps and the Ultra-violet, General Electric Vapor Lamp Co., Hoboken, N. J.,
Engineering Dept. Bull. 105B.

General Electric Vapor Lamp Co. Various publications on Cooper-Hewatt lamps.
Books:
RoRiMEH, J. J.: "Ultra-violet Rays and Their Use in the Examination of Works of Art," Metropolitan
Museum of Art, New York (1931).
Radley, J. A., and Grant, J.: " Fluorescence Analysis in Ultra-violet Light," 2d ed., Chapman (1935).
Grant, J.: "Books and Documents. Dating, Permanence and Preservation," Grafton & Co. (1937).
Beck, H.: " Photographic des Unsichtharen," Photokino-Verlag, Berlin (1936).
"Ultra-violet Photography." Eastman Kodak Co. Pamphlet, revised frequently.
Infrared
Periodicals:
Clark, W.: Seeing the Invisible, Science Monthly, 41, 481-489 (1935).
Photography of the Infra-Red, Am. Ann. Phot., 61, 13-22 (1937).
:
Books:
Helwich, O.: "Die Infrarot-P'otografie," W. Heering-Verlag, Halle (1934).

IsEBT, G.: " Infrarotphotographie," 2d ed. Photokino-Verlag, Berlin (1934).
Rawling, S. O.: "Infra-red Photography," 2d ed. Blackie & Son, Ltd., (1935).
Beck, H.: " Photographie des Unsichtbaren," Photokino-Verlag, Berlin (1936).
Helwich, O.: "Practical Infra-red Photography" (translated from the German b.\- .J. L. Baring),
British Periodicals, Ltd. (1936).
"Photographic Plates for Use in Spectroscopy and Astronomy," 3d ed. Eastman Kodak Go. (1937).
"Infra-red Photography with Kodak materials," p. 5, Eastman Kodak Co. (1937).
Morgan, W. D., and H. M. Lester: "Leica Manual," 3d ed., Morgan and Lester (1938).
CliARK, W.: "Photography by Infrared. Its Principles and Applications," Chapman (19.39).
"
CHAPTER XXII
COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY
By Olindo O. Ceccarini
Introduction. —
It might be safely said that color photography began with the
formulation of the wave theory of light by Wtinsch and Young and the theoretical
work of Helmholtz and Maxwell.
White light can be decomposed into a very large number of colored radiations, and
the colors constituting the visible spectrum range from violet to deep red.
The three colors particularly striking to the human eye are blue, green, and red.
Maxwell demonstrated that a mixture of blue, green, and red lights in a suitable
,
proportion produced the physiological sen-
sation of white light.
Mixture of Colored Lights. In mixing —
colored lights the luminosity of the mixture
^î~gy^/Q,_^;^^^î^(:^^^L-— -V^/Zow is greater than the luminosity of each color
alone. Taking, for instance, blue and green
lights, it is possible to obtain all the possible
o/ a ^^^^^TttttTTI^^^^^ Green shades from the pure blue to the pure green
by suitable variations of the individual com-
ponents. The diagram of Fig. 1 represents
the colors to be obtained by mixing lights
"CvcM" ^^ ^^^ "primary colors," blue, green, and

„ taken two by two and three to-
FiG. 1. — Diagram snowing r
effect of
• •
mixing
red,
. . ^.
gether in proportions suitable to produce
-^ i i
all
, j
lights of "primary colors."
white light.
Yellow is evidentl}^ produced by the addition of red and green primary lights, and,
since it does not contain blue, it is called its "complementary," or "minus blue."
In a similar manner the addition of blue and green lights gives blue-green (also
known as "cyan"). Cyan is evidently "complementary" to red, or "minus red."
Red and blue lights produce "magenta" which is "complementary" to green, or
"minus green."
Pigments. —
The behavior of a mixture of colored pigments is entirely different
from that of the mixture of colored lights. For instance, a yellow pigment spread
evenly on a sheet of white paper, if observed with a spectroscope, shows practically
complete absence of blue light. The conclusion is therefore that the yellow "absorbs
or "subtracts" blue from the white light reflected by the paper. If now a magenta
pigment is added on the yellow, the resultant color will be a deep red, for both blue
and green colors have been subtracted from the light of the paper. Adding now a
cyan pigment to the two already existing the result will be "black" or the complete
absence of color.
The diagram of mixture of pigments is given in Fig. 2.
The photographic analysis of a color object is carried out with filters of primary
colors, while the synthesis can be performed by mixture of lights also of primary
colors giving rise to the so-called "additive process" or by mixture of pigments in
complementarj' colors by means of the so-called "subtractive process."
616
COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY 617
The additive process finds its application in the making of color transparencies.
used sometimes for the projection of motion pictures in natural colors.
It is also
The subtractive process can be used for transparencies and for motion pictures in
natural colors the same as the additive process. It is in addition the only successful
process which permits obtaining natural-color prints on paper to be viewed by reflected
light. From this particular standpoint the subtractive process is by far the most
important of all the photographic color processes as yet evolved.
Ye/fow
Green - - — Red
Blue green Mogenia
cyan
Blue
Fig. 2. — Diagram showing mixing of pigments.
Description and working instructions of the various subtractive and additive color
processes practiced today will be given in the order of their importance.
Color-separation Negatives. —The production of color-separation negatives from
the original subject represents the first step in any color process. Three exposures are
necessary behind red, green, and blue filters, respectively.
An exception to this rule is in the case of the so-called "color screen plates" or
films by the additive method in which the original negative, containing the three-color-
100
cS 2>Q
m
40
20
when the characteristics of three-color printing pigments and inks are taken into
consideration.
The characteristic transmission curves of the Wratten three-color filters Nos. 25,
47, and 58 are given in Fig. 3.
The presence of a color filter in the path of the light reduces the total amount of
light reaching the photographic emulsion and therefore a longer exposure is necessary.
1.8
1.5
1.2
^
c 0.9
0.6
—
COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY &19
The various grey tints range from almost total black to almost the pui'e white of
the paper. A successful three-color process should permit a faithful reproduction of
the above wedge by means of the complementary printing pigments, yellow, magenta,
and cyan, taken in the correct amount and superimposed one on the other. If we
refer again to Fig. 4, it will be noticed that the light range represented by the straight-
line proportion of the curve (useful range) for this particular emulsion is just about
16 to 1 (density 0.4 to 1.6 or transmission 50 to 2.5 per cent).This is also the lumin-
osity range chosen for the gray wedge as indicated by the figures above each square.
In order to faithfully reproduce these luminosities in the negative, it is necessary
to choose such an exposure as to give, upon correct development to gamma of unity, a
density of 0.4 to correspond to step 1 and so on to density 1.6 for step 5. If the
exposure factor for each one of the three-color filters is correctly chosen and the three
negatives are developed to exactly the same gamma, the three wedges will appear
identical and will have the same densities by actual measurement. Under these con-
ditions each successive step of the wedge from light to dark in the negative represents
the same increment of density, or the light transmission of each step is one-half that
of the previous step.
Now let it be assumed that one of the negatives (the green-filter negative, for
instance) has been exposed twice as much as the others. In this negative the density
and transmission of the various steps will be as given in Table I (dotted curve of
Fig. 4):
Table I. Density and Transmission of a Typical Sensitometric Strip
Step,
number
The fallacy of a totally fiat light can be best seen by an extremely elementary
example. Assume a red cube placed on a white cardboard. The camera lens looks
at the cube at 45°. If the cube is illuminated by a uniform light all around, the
finished picture will appear as in Fig. 6 which, although it shows a red object on a
white background, does not give the faintest indication of the actual shape of the red
object. Illuminate now the red cube with a single light source at an oblique angle.
The results will now be as in Fig. 7.
Evidently proper lighting is giving perspective, and it shows correctly the geo-
metrical shape of the object. Color in this case adds the additional information of a
red cube onto a white background.
To be of real practical value, color photography must be made to extend the scope
of black-and-white photography.
Since the filtervary considerably with the type of light, it is not permissible
factors
to mix lights of different types. If it is necessary to diffuse the source of light, this
should be done with wire gauze or any diffusing device which does not introduce any
change in the color value of the light. For the same reasons discolored reflectors
should also be avoided.
The light source should also be steady. Daylight, incandescent, and photoflood
are all equally satisfactory. Each type obviously requires different filter factors.
Fig. 6.— Cube illu- Fig. 7.— Cube Ughted

minated by flat lighting obliquely. Several tones
fails to show tone are present.
gradations.
The bestmethod of measurement consists in reading with a photometer the light

reflected by a white card placed directly over the high lights of the subject. This
exposure should be shghtly below the overexposure mark. Exposure meters, such
as Weston, carry this information.
Flash bulbs also can be used satisfactorily, but great experience is necessary. It is
advisable to arrange the lighting and composition first by means of incandescent bulbs
placed in proximity with flash bulbs. Just before the firing of the flashes the incan-
descent lights can be turned off.
not always possible to identify the three color-separation negatives and in

It is
order to avoid errors three patches of colors corresponding to three filters or, if desired,
to three complementary printing colors should be placed along side the neutral-gray
wedge.
When the gray wedge and color patches are properly illuminated to correspond
approximately to the high light of the subject, they will serve several purposes; i.e.,
identification of the negatives, measurement of contrast, and measurement of printing
ratio. The identification of the negatives can be obtained also by suitable marks
along the edges of the holders or of the contact with the emulsion, and
filters in close
the contrast of development can be assured by standardizing time and temperature.

However, the possibility of being able to measure the printing ratio is a convenience
which must not be underestimated if one wishes to avoid disappointments and waste
of time and material.
Sensitive Material. —
Panchromatic films and plates sensitive to all colors are
ordinarily used for obtaining color-separation negatives in connection with the three
—
primary-color-separation filters red, green, and blue.
It is possible to deviate from this rule by using an ordinary plate or film sensitive
to the blue end of the spectrum only for the blue-separation negative without blue
filter. This type of material approaches very closely the characteristic of the standard
blue filter.
For the green-separation negative it is possible to use an orthochromatic emulsion

which is sensitive to blue and green in connection with a yellow filter or the standard
green-separation filter.
For the red the usual panchromatic emulsion and red filter is always used, as an
emulsion sensitized for red only to be used with either a yellow or the standard red
filter is not easily obtainable.
The combination of ordinary emulsion for the blue, orthochromatic emulsion for the
green, and panchromatic emulsion for the red can be obtained assembled as a unit
under the commercial name of Tripac. Put up in this form the ordinary and ortho-
chromatic emulsions are placed face to face, and the panchromatic emulsion is placed
behind.
Fig. S. —Photometric wedge for emulsion tests.
The ordinary or blue-sensitive emulsion carries a yellow dye which prevents the
blue light from penetrating into the followmg two emulsions. The orthochromatic
negatives carry on their backs a layer of gelatin containing a red dye acting as filter
for the back emulsion.

The tripack can be exposed in any ordinary camera provided with a suitable holder
for maintaining the three emulsions in good contact. It has many disadvantages,
however. It is slow as compared with other arrangements. The green-separation
negative which prints magenta is slightly diffused owing to the light scattered by the
front emulsion, and the red negative or cyan printer, which should contribute most
to the definition, is decidedly diffused. The tripack represents solely a compromise.
Other combinations involving the use of tripack and bipack will be described in con-
nection with various types of color cameras.
Negative Develop7nent. —
The development of color-separation negatives should be
caref ulljr standardized and a developer which can be discarded immediately after use
is much preferred over others which allow repeated use. Very satisfactory types of
developers for this purpose are the three-solution pyro developer, the two-solution
pyro developer, and the three-solution metol-pyro developer. Eastman formulas
Nos. Dl, D21, and D7 are typical.
A standard temperature for the developer should be decided upon and maintained
to assure uniform results.
In order to determine the correct time of development, a photometric wedge (Fig.
8) and a densitometer (Fig. 9) are necessary.
The following is the usual procedure An incandescent light source over which can
:
he placed in succession the three standard color-separation filters should be arranged

conveniently in the darkroom. Five pieces of the negative material to be tested
should be exposed, each for the same length of time, in contact with the photometric
wedge with the red filter in front of the light source. A similar number of exposures
are to be made with the green and with the blue filter, allowing, of course, for the
proper filter factor. When all the exposures are complete, each group can be put away
temporarily in a lightproof box w^hile preparing for development. Of course, the
negatives of each group must be properly identified with respect to the other groups.
The rate of development is materially affected, not only by the composition and
temperature of the developer, but also by the agitation during development. Further-
more, a moderate amount of agitation is necessary in order to prevent irregularities
and streaks around areas of heavy exposure. The most satisfactory method is to use
Fig. 9. — Densitometer for measuring the transmission density of films or the reflection
density of prints.
a tank appreciably larger than for ordinary black-and-white negatives. With 5- by

7-in. negatives, for instance, the 1-gal. hard rubber tank with the regular No. 4 East-
man developing hangers is very convenient. Use it for onlj^ six negatives at a time
with the standard pyro ABC developer made up as recommended, i.e., 9 oz. each of
A, B, and C and water to make up 1 gal. at a temperature of 68°F. The six negatives,
which are first loaded in the hangers, are immersed all together in the developer, pulled
out of the developer, reimmersed all together twice, and then pushed all together
toward one end of the tank. Then one by one the negatives are slid toward the
opposite end of the tank and so on back and forth until the time of development is up.
During these back and forth movements, the negatives should always be maintained,
fully immersed in the developer. At the completion of development the negatives
are lifted outall together, given a brief rinse, and then immersed in the fixing bath.
For carrying out the development test with the negatives exposed behind the
photometric wedge described, the following is a convenient procedure: The developer
is carefully compotmded and its temperature adjusted to 68°F. Three tanks con-
taining developer, rinse water, and hypo are placed alongside each other
with the
developer at the left. The exposures made with the red filter are loaded in the
hangers, they are placed in the developer, and agitation is started in the manner just
described. At the end of 6 min. the first negative at the right is removed, rinsed for an
Densities of Negative
Density
of wedge
The negatives exposed behind the green and blue filters are developed in exactly
identical manner with the developer renewed each time.
When all the negatives are dry, they can be measured in the densitometer and the
values thus obtained plotted on cross-section paper with the density of the wedge on
the horizontal axis and the density of the negative on the vertical axis.
Three families of curves are thus obtained, one for each filter. The value of gamma
or contrast for each curve is the ratio of the intercept on the horizontal axis to the
intercept on the vertical axis by the straight line passing through the straight section
of the curve and prolonged to meet the horizontal and the vertical axis.
Figures 10, 11, and 12 are typical tests conducted on Dupont panchromatic films.
Densities of NEGATrv'E
Density
of wedge
The still-life subjects indoors can be made by succes-

color-separation negatives of
sive exposures with an ordinary camera rigidly mounted to preclude any chance of
movement while changing negative holders and color filters. The filters can be slipped
onto the lens in the usual manner. Care must be taken that the three film or plate-
holders register correctly.
Several devices to shorten the total time required for the triple exposure have been
invented, among which outstanding is the repeating back by Miethe.
Colour Photographs, Ltd., London, has introduced the fully automatic repeating
back, in which the sliding of the plateholder and the operation of the shutter is accom-
plished automatically in accordance with a predetermined setting.
A repeating back in its simplest form is obtainable from the Autotype Company,
London. The three-color-separation filters of a repeating back are placed imme-
diately in front of each negative.
The most satisfactory method of obtaining color-separation negatives by simul-
taneous exposure is hj subdividing the light emitted from the lens by means of partial
reflecting mirrors.
Single-mirror Camera. —The simplest form of
camera designed on this principle is the one involv-
ing the use of a single partial reflecting mirror and
shown schematically in Fig. 13. To obtain three-
color-separation negatives with this type of camera,
it is necessary to expose two of the negatives in
bipack arrangement. The location of the bipack ^''
in the camera depends entirely on the nature of the
partial mirror. The following important points
must be carefully considered in designing the
camera:
1. The commercial bipack available today is
composed of an orthochromatic emulsion in front

and a panchromatic emulsion in the back. The Fig. 13. —
Diagram illustrat-
two emulsions are facing each other, but the front ing optical system of single-
mirror camera.
emulsion has an additional layer of gelatin carrying a
reddish filter dye. If the bipack is exposed through a magenta or minus green filter
(Wratten No. 32), it yields a blue-sensation negative (front emulsion) and a red-
sensation negative (back emulsion). If, on the other hand, the bipack is exposed
through a yellow filter (Wratten K3) it yields the green-sensation negative (front
emulsion) and red-sensation negative (back emulsion). Under this condition the
sensitivity of the red negative overlaps somewhat too much into the green.
In any case the red negative, which gives a positive in blue-green or cyan color,
is decidedly diffused due to the separating layer of gelatin carrying the red filter and the
light-scattering effect of the front emulsion. The blue-green color of the positive
print the most important color for assuring the definition of the whole picture, and
is
therefore the use of the standard bipack for this type of camera should be avoided if
possible.
2. The commercial tripack can be split up for use with the single-mirror camera in
two parts by removing the back emulsion be exposed separately. The two front
to
emulsions exposed as bipack, but without any filter, yield a sharp blue-sensation
negative (front emulsion) and a very slightly diffused green-separation negative
(second emulsion). Since a yellow filtering dye is incorporated in the first emulsion
without any extra layer of gelatin, the contact between the two front emulsions is
much closer than in the case of the standard bipack, and the resulting green-separa-
tion negative is sufficiently sharp for all practical purposes.
3. In case of a partial mirror made of plain white glass aluminized and camera
Imlanced for incandescent and photoflood light, the mirror must be metal coated to a
ratio of reflected to transmitted light of 3:1. By making the reflected beam the
greater of the two, the secondary image created by the back surface of the mirror is
not suflicientlj^ strong to record. With this arrangement the two front emulsions of
the tripack are exposed at right angles in the reflected beam without filter, and the
third or back emulsion of the tripack in the transmitted beam through the standard
red filter (Wratten No. 25). The ground glass for focusing can be placed in the
reflected beam. The glass mirror, of course, must be optically flat but not too thick,
otherwise the distoi'tion caused by the refraction of the glass might become too great.
A moderate amount of distortion can be compensated by tilting the plateholder
carrying the red negative.
4. the refraction error and the presence of any secondary image, the
To avoid
partial mirror can be made of extremely thin transparent material, such as collodion,
stretched on an optically flat frame. This transparent film can be also coated with a
thin deposit of evaporated gold or aluminum to the desired reflection-transmission
ratio. In this case it is immaterial as to which of the two beams is the greater.
Obviouslj' the bipack will be exposed in the path of the stronger beam. The idea of
using pellicular mirrors for color cameras is quite old (see L. Geisler, U. S. Pat. 1060444,
Apr. 29, 1913). Geisler also suggested coloring the thin transparent mirrors for the
purpose of using them for filters as well.
When the reflected beam of a pellicular mirror is much lower than the transmitted
beam, then the angle of the mirror with respect to the optical axis should be preferably
lessthan 45° unless a very long focal-length
lens is used, otherwise there is a danger of
uneven distribution of light throughout the

area of the reflected beam. This becomes
immediately evident from Fig. 13.
The angles of the boundary rays in Fig.
4-
4
10 20 30 40 50 60
Angle of Incidence
Fig. 14. — Uneven angle of reflection Fig. 15. —
Reflection coefficient of a glass
of boundary rays for mirror placed at surface in air as function of angle of incidence.
45°. Index of glass = 1.55.
14 are, respectively, 35° and 55°. The coefficient of reflection for a pellicular sur-
face having an index of reflection of 1.55 would be 5 and 9.5 per cent, respectively,
for the surface without any metallic coating. The unevenness of illumination is there-
fore quite apparent. This unevenness, however, decreases materially as the thick-
ness of the metallic coating increases.
The construction of this type of camera is quite simple as the only necessary
requirement is to maintain the length of the optical paths identical with respect to
both beams.
Double-mirror Camera. —
The most satisfactory type of camera for three-color-
separation negatives is the double-mirror type. The mirrors in this camera can be
arranged in various manners, each of which offers its own advantages and disad\an-
tages. In Figs. 16 to 21 are shown the arrangements most commonly used.
For convenience of reference the three partial beams are indicated throngliout as
No. 1 for the first reflection, No. 2 for the second reflection, and No. 3 for the beam
straight through.
Fig. 16. — Optical system Fig. 17. —Optical system of

of two-mirror camera with two-mirror camera in which
mirrors at right angles. first mirror is at 45° angle and
second at smaller angle to inci-
cent light. ",
There is indeed very little difference between the various arrangements and each
one can be properly set up to give satisfactorj^ performance, provided that the necessary
precautions are taken in carrying out each design. In addition it might be said that in
general the weak points of one particular arrangement are not necessarily shared by
the others.
Fig. 18. —
Optical system of Fig. 19. —
Optical system
double-mirror camera in which of double-mirror camera in
both mirrors are at angles which both mirrors are
smaller than 45° to the incident parallel and at 45° to the
light. incident beam.
The following general remarks apply to all the various arrangements:

1. Partial mirrors of plain white optical glass should have the reflected beam
equal to the transmitted beam. This is necessary to reduce
gi'eater than, or at least
the secondary image to a negligible quantity imless the back surface is evaporated
with a transparent substance of refractive index lower than that of the glass itself,
or unless the surface of the glass is chemically treated to reduce its index in contact
with Colored glasses are in general more satisfactory but are more expensive and
air.
the sequence of the colorfilters becomes fixed once and for all. It is also obvious that
with plain white glass the three light beams cannot be of equal magnitude, but No. 1
beam is the strongest and No. 3 the weakest. This arrangement is satisfactory when
designing a color camera balanced to incandescent light. The angular position of both
Fig. 2U. — Optical system of double-mirror camera when the mirrors are not on the same
vertical plane and are at an angle less than 45°.
mirrors can be then less than 45° for evenness of light distribution as previously
explained.
2. any desired ratio between reflected and transmitted
Pellicular mirrors permit
light. The straight through or No. 3 beam is generally preferred strongest. This,
however, demands that greater attention be given to the question of evenness of light
distribution. Furthermore, the light scattered by the surface of the filters interposed
in the path of beams 1 and 3 is directed toward
negative 2 with the result of a very slight fog
appearing in negative 2, particularly with extremelj'
intense light and short exposure. This results in an
apparently lower gamma which is in general not seri-
ous but should be avoided. The effect of scattered
light is materially reduced b}^ making the reflection
of the second mirror greater than its transmission
or by adopting the arrangement of Fig. 20. The
arrangement of Fig. 19 is also free from this defect,
but greater emphasis must be given to the problem
of evenness of light distribution, unless the lens is
Fig. 21. — Double-mirror color of exceptionally long focus. In general the dispos-
camera with mirrors crossed at
45°. can be considered as the most satis-
ition of Fig. 20
factory with any type of mirrors.
In considering the subject of scattered light and the path which it follows it is
solely necessary to compute its amount, which ordinarily is of the order of 41^2 per cent
of the incident light for normal incidence, and to consider that the partial mirrors
behave in identical fashion with respect to the light which arrives from the lens or
from a different point within the camera.
In order to achieve the greatest possible speed, the first mirror is sometimes made
only verj- lightly coated, and the negative material facing beam 1 is a plain blue-
sensitive emulsion of very high speed exposed without blue filter. Beam 2 from the
second mirror, also lightly coated, faces a very fast orthochromatic emulsion with a
yellow filter, and the major amount of the light in beam 3 faces a fast panchromatic
emulsion with the standard red filter. Other alternative variations are also possible,
but all these special arrangements seem to be hardly justified in view of extremely fast
panchromatic emulsions available today. ^
Whatever the type or combination of negative material used, a careful study of its
development characteristics must be made or obtained from the manufacturer in order
to standardize the various processing operations.
Color-printing Methods for Prints on Paper. Of the — many color-printing processes
developed, only those of practical value and in actual use today will be considered.
Their description follows in the order of their practical importance. These processes
are
Carbro
Imbibition —
Eastman wash-off relief and Pinatype
Dyebro (Combination of Carbro and imbibition)
Chemical toning-— Chromatone
Gelatin relief with color pigment in suspension —
Duxochrome
Dye toning by the mordant process.
—
The Carbro Process. Outline. Bromide prints by contact or enlargement are
made from each color-separation negative. Carbon tissues containing soluble gelatin
with colored pigments in suspension are sensitized in suitable solutions and then
squeegeed onto the appropriate bromide. During the time of contact, the sensitizing
chemicals of the tissues react with the silver image of the bromide, and a partial
insolubilization of the gelatin of the tissue takes place in a manner proportional to the
quantity of the silver of the image of the bromide. After several minutes of contact,
the tissues are stripped from the bromides and transferred onto temporary supports.
After another brief lapse of time, the temporary supports with the adhering tissues are
placed in hot water in which the gelatin of the tissue, in still soluble condition, washes
away, leaving a colored image in relief adhering to the temporary support. The three
color images in relief are then finally transferred in register onto a final support.
—
Measurement of the Negatives. After the three color-separation negatives have
been exposed and developed, they must be measured to determine the correct printing
ratio. This is done by measurement of the densities of the various steps of the neutral-
gray wedge of each negative. The results of measurement should be entered in a
notebook in tabulated form somewhat as in Table II.
The density of all the steps of the gray wedge need to be measured only when
checking the correctness of development. For the purpose of determining the printing
ratio it is only necessary to measure the densest step of the wedge in each negative.'*
Another important measurement, particularly in portraits, is the density of the fore-
head (F.H.). This measurement is used to compute the basic exposure for the blue
bromide. In addition an empirical factor based on the measurement of the forehead
density in the three negatives can be readily deducted, and this information will be
found useful at other times when for some reasons the gray wedge is omitted. The
measurements of the forehead are of value only in case of female studies. Great
The effective speed to daylight of a panchromatic film in a double-mirror camera might range from
1
Weston 3 to about Weston 12. This last value can be realized only with extremely fast emulsions such
as Eastman Super-Panchro-Press with No. 25 filter for the red negative and Eastman Super-Ortho-
Press with the K3 and No. 47 filters for the green and blue negative respectively.
- Theoretically this would be correct only for properly exposed negatives. Departure from true
color balance, however, is mostly noticeable in the light tones of a finished print, and, therefore, it is
. desirable to adjust the color balance with respect to the densest step of the wedge. In case of portraits
it is best to compute the printing ratio from the step of the \fedge which most nearly matches the density
of the forehead of the red filter negative.

—
Table II. Measurements on Color-separation Negatives
Printing color
obtained at once by taking the ratio of the standard reference transmission above
(5 per cent) to 2.52. This gives 5/2.52 = 2 approximately. The blue-green bromide
for this new set should therefore be exposed 12 X 2 = 24 sec, approximately, at//8
and 3X magnification. Its correct exposure for different values of lens stop and
different magnifications can be derived quickly from the enlargement exposure
calculator. 1
The saving of time and material and the uniformity of results which can be realized
by a systematic procedure must not be underestimated.
—
Carbro Solutions. The carbro solutions for sensitizing the carbon tissues consist
of a bleaching agent as potassium ferricyanide with potassium bromide as accelerator,
and hardening agents as potassium dichromate with chromic acid for controlling the
contrast.
Alternative solutions consist of potassium ferricyanide, potassium bromide, and
potassium dichromate as bleaching and hardening agents and glacial acetic acid and
hydrochloric acid as controlling agents.
Potassium chrome alum or formaldehyde are added in small quantities to the above
solutions for the purpose of producing a slight superficial tanning in order to preserve
the high lights.
Typical Stock Solutions

(Type I Solutions Using Chromic Acid)
Stock Solution .4.
Potassium ferricyanide 1 oz. 50 g.
Potassium bromide 1 oz. 50 g.
Water (distilled) to 10 oz. 500 cc.
Stock Solution B
Potassium dichromate (c.p.) 180 gr. 18 g.
Chromic acid 40 gr. 4 g.
Chrome alum 100 gr. 10 g.
WoBKiNG Bath 1
Stock solution A 1 part
Water 4 parts
Working Bath 2
Stock solution B 1 part
Water 4 parts
Each color tissueimmersed in working bath 1 for 3 min., drained for 10 or 15 sec.
is
or squeegeed gently face down on a clean piece of plate glass to remove the surplus
of bleaching solution, and then immersed in working bath 2 for a time which might
vary from 15 to 40 sec. depending on the type of bromide paper used and on the degree
of contrast desired.
After removal from bath 2, each tissue is squeegeed on its appropriate bromide and
left incontact with it for 10 or 15 min.
The precautions to be followed in sensitizing and the method of squeegeeing, etc.,
will be considered later.
With Type II solutions also each color tissue is immersed in working bath 1 for
3 min,, drained for 10 or 15 sec, and then immersed in working bath 2 for a time which
might vary from 15 to 40 sec. depending on the type of bromide and degree of contrast
required.
It has been often recommended, particularly with tissues which had too great a
tendency to frill, to reduce the time of immersion in the No. 1 bath down to 2 min.,
1 A photoelectric exposure meter with a full scale sensitivity of 7.5 ft. -candles can be obtained from
the General Electric Co. on special order and at a price slightly higher than the standard model. The
shape and sensitivity of this meter are such as to permit any kind of measurements of the light from
enlargers. Its indications are, of course, equally correct with diffused- and condenser-type light sources.
particularly during hot weather. Too short immersion, however, prevents even
absorption of chemicals throughout the full depth of the gelatin layer, and this ordi-
narily results in large irregular color patches particularly noticeable in the blue-green
image. These irregularities are readily avoided by treating the tissues in the first bath
for a full 3-min. period.
Type II Solutions (Using Acetic and Hydrochloric Acid;

Stock Solution A
Potassium dichromate 1 oz. 28 g.
Potassium bromide .,
1 oz. 28 g.
Water (distilled) to , 20 oz. 566 cc.
Stock Solution B
Glacial acetic acid 1 oz. 35 cc.
Hydrochloric acid (c.p.) 1 oz. 35 cc.
Formaldehyde 22 oz. 770 cc.
Water (distilled) IJ'z oz. 50 cc.
Working Bath 1
Stock solution A 1 Part

Water 3 parts
Working Bath 2
Stock solution B 1 Part
Water 32 parts
While it is comparatively simple to carry through small carbro prints by the two-
solution method, it becomes decidedly awkward when prints larger than 8 by 10 in.
are to be handled.
Since the single-bath method in which the controlling chemicals are mixed with
the bleaching and hardening agents has all the conceivable advantages with adequate
control, it will be described in detail.
The manner of handling carbon tissues applies naturally to both methods.
C.\RBRO Solutions for Single-bath Method

Type I Solutions (Autotype)
Stock Solution A
Potassium dichromate 1 oz. 28 g.
Water (distilled) to. . . 20 oz. 566 cc.
Stock Solution B
Chromic acid 150 gr. 9.7 g.
Chrome alum 300 gr. 19.4 g.
Working Bath
Stock solution A Part
1
Stock solution B Part

1
Water 3 parts
Type II Solutions
Stock Solution A
Potassium dichromate J^ oz. 14 g.
Stock Solution B
Glacial acetic acid 1 dram 3.5 cc.
Hydrochloric acid (c.p.) 1 dram 3.5 cc.
Formaldehyde (40 per cent) 10 drams 35 cc.
Water 12 drams 42 cc.
For convenience of accurate measurement the stock solution B could be made up in
one-third the normal strength or

:
Stock Solution BB
Stock solution B 1 part
Water (distilled) 2 parts
Working Bath
Water . 20>2 oz.
Stock solution A 3 oz.
Stock solution BB 11 dram
The above Type II single-bath formula and the compounding of the working bath
have been highly recommended in the past by outstanding color workers. With this
proportion of chemicals, however, the deep shadows of the image in the bromide do not
completely bleach out, and there is danger of losing proportionality. On the basis of
very careful investigations it has been found desirable to increase the amount of
bleaching chemicals in the working bath.
The following is a very dependable working bath
Working Solution Ml
Water 19% oz.
Stock solution BB 11 H dram
With the single-bath method, irrespective of the type of solution adopted, each
tissue should be immersed in water for 3 min., drained for 15 or 20 sec, and then
immersed in the carbro solution for about 45 sec; after this it is squeegeed onto the
appropriate bromide without draining and left in contact for 10 or 15 min.
The single-bath method with the Type II solution is to be preferred over any other
because, although not as critical as the double-bath method, it offers nevertheless an
appreciable amount of control, by increasing or decreasing the length of time of
immersion in the carbro bath. The preliminary water bath for 3 min. must not be
reduced, otherwise irregularities might result.
It isimportant also to note that the contrast increases with successive tissues owing
to the fact that the consumption of acid is greater than that of bleaching chemicals.
This effect could be made use of by treating the tissues in the sequence magenta, :
yellow, and blue-green because, as it will be seen shortly, the magenta tissue should be
the least contrasty of all.
Greater flexibility of control, however, can be best obtained by mixing up the

carbro solution in sufficiently large quantity, dividing it in three parts and using one
part for each tissue.
A convenient amount for an 11- by 14-in. set would be (Type II)
Working Solution M2
Water 59 oz.
Stock solution BB 4H oz.
For use take approximately 25 oz. for each tissue. For larger or smaller tissues
the quantity of solution should be proportional to the ratio of the tissue area as com-
pared with the 11- by 14-in. set.
Since the area of an 11- by 14-in. tissue is 154 sq. in., an 8- by 10-in. tissue measur-
ing 80 sq. in. would require 154/80 = 1.93 less solution or 25/1.93 = 13 oz.; hence a
total quantity of 39 oz. of working bath should be made up if dealing with an 8- by
10-in. set.
If the above quantity is considered too large for 11- by 14-in. tissues, a total amount
of 45 oz. ofworking bath can be made up using 15 oz. for each tissue.
It must be pointed out, however, that a smaller quantity of solution for a given
area increases the contrast, and therefore the stock solution BB must be slightly
increased.
For a -io-oz. total solution a suitable compounding would be
/"Water 34J'2' oz.

M3< Stock solution A 7 oz.
(stock solution BB 3J.2 oz.
Use 15 each tissue.

OZ. for
not advisable to decrease the quantity of solution below 15 oz. for each tissue.
It is
It is a well-known fact that the color contrast of a blue pigment (spectral reflecting
power) is much less than that of a magenta and yellow pigment.
This difficulty is greatly accentuated when copying a color print. The Eastman
Kodak Co. has lately advocated an automatic masking method in making paper
prints from original Kodachrome slides. But even when working from color-sepa-
ration negatives made directly from the original subject a vast improvement in
general color balance can be secured by chemically reducing the contrast of the
magenta and yellow tissues with respect to the blue. This procedure, however,
necessitates considerable increase in the exposure of the bromides for the magenta
and yellow tissues and a subsequently longer immersion in the carbro solution.
It is necessarj^ to emphasize strongly at this time that the color contrast of the
tissues and the exposure of the bromides, although related to one another, are two
entirely different things. For instance if the three tissues are processed in strictly
identical manner and the bromides are so exposed as to give correct balance in the high
lights, then the shadows will tend toward orange. If now the contrast of the magenta
and yellow tissue is decreased to match the contrast of the blue without any change in
the exposure of the magenta and yellow bromide, the result will be a preponderance
of blue both in the high lights and in the shadows.
With a correct set of negatives developed to gamma of unity and printed on an
Illingworth de luxe bromide paper, normal grade, and developed in Amidol, correct
color contrast will be obtained by sensitizing the blue tissue for 45 sec, the magenta for
1^2 min., and the yellow for 1 1<4 min. in the Type II single-bath method just described.
This applies equally well to M2 and M3 formulas.
With the above treatment of the tissues it will be necessary- to expose the bromide
for the magenta tissue 1.6 times and the bromide for the yellow tissue 1.2 times the
exposure of the bromide for the blue tissue.
A slight variation in this factor might be foimd necessarj^ with different stocks of
tissue. The above figures, however, will be found sufficiently accurate to start with.
This is the factor appearing in column 5 of Table II.
As the carbon tissues are removed from the carbro solution, they must be brought
into intimate contact with the corresponding bromide. It is necessarj' that each
soaked bromide be held in readiness by placing it face up on a piece of plate glass and
covered with an even pool of water. At the expiration of the time of sensitizing, the
tissue is withdrawn and, without draining, brought down face to face on the bromide.
The thin pool of water prevents intimate contact and allows time for squeegeeing.
The tissue and bromide are held together by steady pressure with the left-hand fingers
along the safe edge at the extreme left, and a flat rubber squeegee held with the right
hand moved across the sandwich from left to right with a steady, gentle, but quite firm
stroke. The next stroke of the squeegee is taken in the opposite direction by holding
it with theleft hand and holding down the tissue and bromide with the fingers of the
right hand along the safe edge at the extreme right.
Four strokes of the squeegee, two in each direction, will be foimd ample.
It is extremely important to avoid any movement of the tissue when once in con-
tact with the bromide as the chemical action begins at once and any movement would
give rise to a double image and spoil the results.
The three tissues are handled in succession in a similar manner.

The actual operation of squeegeeing the tissues on the appropriate bromides is veiy
critical and the chances of spoiling the results are altogether too many. Although the
correct technique can be satisfactorily mastered, the serious color worker is advised
to resort to the use of an automatic mechanical squeegee which can be readily put
together without any difficulty.
Figure 22 represents a schematic plan of the automatic squeegeer which consists of
a usual photowringer mounted horizontally under a table top with the top cut out and
beveled as shown. The two rollers should be geared to prevent slipping.
An apron made from two pieces of matte celluloid (0.010 in. thick) and hinged
together with a strip of Kodatape will be found indispensable. Three aprons should
be provided, one for each tissue.
The various operations leading up to a carbro print are listed as follows in a sys-
tematic manner:
1. Negatives are measured and printing exposure decided upon. A test exposure
for the blue-green bromide (red-filter negative) can be made if desired. Information
thus obtained should be entered in the notebook: Exposure, lens stop, magnification,
type of bromide paper, developer, and time of development.
Pencil outline Pencil outline

for correct position for correct position
of tissue, of bromide
yjA^'*^ Photo ivringer
j^ ^-<r-Koolatape
hinge
f^^
Fig. 22. — Wringer for placing bromide and carbro tissue in contact.
Bromides are exposed and developed in succession (large quantity of developer

2.
moderate quantity of developer prepared in advance

to avoid irregularities or a fresh
for each bromide, making sure that the temperature remains sufficiently constant).
The bromide paper recommended is the Illingworth de luxe bromide, normal grade,
special for carbro, with grain cut in the same direction. Defender Velour Black C
(double weight) or N (single weight) special for carbro are also satisfactory.
The developer recommended is Amidol compounded as follows:
Water 1000 cc
Sodium sulphite (dry) 25 g.
Amidol 5 g.
Potassium bromide (10 per cent) 4 cc.
Develop for —
IH to 2 min. temperature 68°F.
3. Fixing of bromides should be done in plain hypo for about 15 min. (water,
32 oz.; hypo crystals, 4 oz.). A stop bath or an acid in the hypo should be avoided,
as it will affect the action of the carbro solutions unless the washing operation is carried
out for a very long time.
4. The bromides should be washed in running water for 15 to 20 min. A large
tray and a siphon will be found very convenient for the purpose. (The Eastman
Automatic Tray Syphon is a good typical example.)
:
5. While the bromides are washing, the celhiloid temporary

supports must be pre-
pared by treating the surface with waxing solution. A suitable waxing solution can be
made up by taking 1 g. of Autotype trichrome waxing compound, breaking it up in
very small pieces and letting it dissolve in 500 cc. of benzine (cleaner's benzine) or
in 500 cc. of benzol. One gram of pure beeswax dissolved in 500 cc. of benzine or
benzol will be found equally satisfactory. Benzol is to be preferred in any
case. This waxing solution must be prepared well in advance as the wax
dissolves very slowly. A small tuft of cotton is soaked with the waxing solution
and used to go over the entire surface of each celluloid. The evaporation of the solvent
wilt take place very quickly particularly if benzol is used. As soon as dry, the cellu-
loids will be immersed in a water bath containing a small amount of chrome alum; a
teaspoonful of chrome alum in 2 gal. of water is satisfactory. When immersed, the
celluloid should be given a lateral shaking and left to settle on the bottom of the
tray until ready to be used. It is generally agreed that the most convenient thickness
for the celluloids is 0.020 in. Thinner celluloids are difficult to handle and thicker
ones resist too much the bending force of the transfer paper during the drying stage.
Furthermore, the celluloids should be matte on one side, and this is the surface to be
waxed and used to carry the colored image. It will be found that the colored image
on a matte celluloid surface is more resistant to abrasions which readily occur when
superimposing the celluloids with the dried colored images in order to judge the color
balance.
The weak chrome-alum bath for the celluloids is very desirable. By means of it
the waxed surface of the celluloid becomes completely wet, and this condition is
necessary to produce intimate contact between the tissue and the waxed surface,
thus permitting complete avoidance of air bells and any tendency to frill during hot-
water development.
6. To avoid any deleterious effect from wash water, the bromides should be placed
at the completion of wash, in a tray containing 1000 cc. of water and 4 cc. of glacial
acetic acid. The tray should be rocked and moved about to insure uniform action
for 4 min. The three bromides can be treated in this acid bath all together. At the
expiration of 4 min. the bromides are washed again in running water for another
4 min., after which, pending the preparation of the tissues, they are placed in a tray
containing a small quantity of water.
7. The carbro solution is prepared as outlined above, divided in three parts and
each amount located conveniently at hand. The two trays for the preliminary water
bath and for the carbro solution are placed next to each other. It is assumed that
the three tissues are already cut to size with the grain in the same direction. Since
the bromides have a white safe margin, the tissues can be of the same outside dimen-
sions as the bromides.
8. The apron is inserted in the automatic squeegee, as indicated in
first celluloid
Fig. 22, and opened up. A few drops of water should be sprinkled on its surface.
This water is necessary to decrease the adhesion of both the bromides and the tissues
with the celluloid apron, otherwise creases might result while passing through the
squeegee. This is not necessarj^ for double-weight bromide paper (Defender C) but is
absolutely necessary for single-weight bromide paper and for the tissue.
9. A stop watch or a timing clock hung in a visible place is started, and the follow-
ing operations are carried out in accordance with the time schedule as indicated below
Time Schedule for Carbro Process

. Blue tissue is placed in the tray of water, face up, and forced under.
30 sec. Tissue turned face down ia water and forced under, holding it down with left hand; each
corner of tissue can be folded slightly back to help uncurling.
1 mill. Tissue is turned face up again and forced under water by rocking the tray. The tissue,
being now quite limp, will remain under water with gentle rocking.
2 min. 15 sec. The blue bromide is now removed, without draining, from water in which it was placed
after the final wash, is placed on the apron in coincidence with the pencil outline, as
indicated on Fig. 22, and is left in this condition.
2 min. 55 sec. The blue tissue is now removed from water and held in a vertical position to permit
draining for 15 sec.
3 min. 10 sec. Blue tissue is placed, face up, on bottom of adjacent tray.
3 min. 15 sec. First part of carbro solution poured onto it and tray quickly rocked to insure even
flowing of solution over entire surface of tissue. The tray is kept rocking to insure that
tissue is always covered with solution.
3 min. 52 sec. The tissue is removed from the carbro solution and, without draining, placed on the
apron at the opposite side of the bromide and in coincidence of the pencil Unes, as
indicated also on Fig. 22.
4 min. Tissue and bromide are rolled into contact through the squeegee and the apron with the
sandwich inside removed from the chute at the lower side of the automatic squeegee.
Theapron is gently lifted to avoid separating the bromide from the tissue; the sandwich
is completely peeled off the apron and placed on a clean blotter; and the surface
moisture is gently blotted off with another clean blotter, after which the bromide and
its adherent tissue are placed away, preferably on a clean blotter, until ready to be
stripped apart.
The used apron is now wiped off with a clean rag and hung up to dry in a convenient
corner. The second dry apron is inserted in the automatic squeegee, opened, and a
few drops of water sprinkled onto it in the same manner as was done for the first apron.
The carbro tray is next emptied in preparation for the second quantity of fresh solution.
6 min. The red tissue is now placed in the tray of water face up and handled in the same manner
as the blue tissue.
6 min. 30 sec. Red tissue turned face down in water and corners gently bent back to help flattening.
7 min. Red tissue turned face up and kept under water by rocking tray.
8 min. 15 sec. Red bromide placed on the celluloid apron.
8 min. 55 sec. Red tissue lifted out of water and drained- for 15 min.
9 min. 10 sec. Red tissue placed face up on bottom of tray.
9 min. 15 sec. of carbro solution poured over red tissue and tray rocked quickly and
Second portion
continuously to insure even flow of carbro solution over the full area of tissue.
10 min. 37 sec. Red tissue removed from solution and without draining placed on apron.
10 min. 45 sec. Red tissue rolled into contact with bromide.
Sandwich is removed from within the apron surface, moisture blotted off and placed
away to allow chemical action.
Apron wiped off and put away. Third apron placed in the automatic squeegee and
sprinkled with water.
Second part of used carbro solution thrown away.
12 min. Yellow tissue is immersed in water bath face up and forced under water.
Yellow tissue turned face down and again treated in same way as previous tissues.
Tissue turned face up in water and kept immersed by rocking tray.
Yellow bromide placed on celluloid apron.
Yellow tissue removed from water and drained for 15 sec.
Yellow tissue placed face up on bottom of tra5'.
Third part of carbro solution poured onto yellow tissue and tray rocked.
Yellow tissue is removed from solution and, without draining, placed on apron.
Yellow tissue and bromide are rolled into contact in automatic squeegee. The sand-
wich is removed from within the apron, surplus moisture blotted off and put away.
The used-up carbro solution is now thrown away and a plate of glass prepared for
squeegeeing the tissues on the celluloids. This operation is best done by placing the
glass on a wood rack in the sink. A very convenient arrangement is to place the
glass plate on two small wood blocks within a large tray for the purpose of collecting
the water thrown off during the squeegeeing operation.
18 min. A piece of celluloid temporary support is removed from the dilute alum bath and rinsed,
the surplus moisture from its back removed by sliding it on a piece of blotter and
placing on top of the prepared glass with the waxed surface (which is now completely
wet) face up. If too much moisture is left on the back of the celluloid, it will not
adhere sufficiently to the glass surface, and it will slide during the squeegeeing opera-
tion. The blue tissue is stripped by a steady pull from its bromide, passed face down
in cold-water bath, and, without draining, placed face down on the celluloid support.
A piece of thin Kodaloid (0.005 in. thick) is now laid on the tissue to prevent it being
damaged with the flat squeegee and the whole thing firmly squeegeed back and forth
with firm hand to expel the moisture from between the tissue and the celluloid. Eight
or ten strokes will be sufficient and the celluloid support with its adherent tissue
placed under moderate pressure (four pieces of plate glass) between blotting paper
until the next celluloid and tissue are ready to take its place.
24 min. The next celluloid support is removed from the alum bath, handled in the same manner
as the first one, and placed on the piece of plate glass. The red tissue is now stripped
from its bromide, dipped in water, squeegeed and placed under pressure with its
celluloid in place of the blue sandwich, which is now laid out in the open, after care-
fully wiping off any trace of moisture along the edge of the tissue.
30 min. The third celluloid and yellow tissues are handled in the same manner as the two pre-
vious ones. Hot-water bath at about 105°F. is now prepared.
36 min. The third celluloid with its yellow tissue is removed from under pressure and laid out in
the open.
The blue tissue on its celluloid support is now placed in the hot-water bath and after
about 13-2 min. the paper backing is stripped off by pulling gently from two opposite
corners.
The blue image is now fidly developed by lateral shaking of the celluloid under water.
This operation will take about 2 min. to fully develop (a condition which can be
readily judged).
The celluloid with its blue image is passed in cold water and rinsed until no appreciable
amount of blue color runs off, after which it is hung up to dry.
42 rain. The red image is now developed in hot water, rinsed in cold water, and hung up to dry.
48 min. The yellow image is finally developed in hot water, rinsed in cold water, and
put to dry.
The three colored images, when dry, are to be assembled together in correct register
upon a final paper support. This assembling operation can be carried out in two
ways: bj^ single- and by double-transfer method.
Single Transfer. — Decision as to which method is to be followed must be made

before printing the bromides because with the single-transfer method the bromides
must be printed from reversed negatives, otherwise the final image will be laterally
reversed with respect to the original subject.
With the single-transfer method the yellow image must be transferred first to the
final paper, then follows the magenta, and finally the blue-green image uppermost.
For final support a fixed-out bromide paper or the regular transfer paper which is
available commercially could be used.
The final paper should be soaked in cold water for at least V^ hr., and, when ready
to make the first transfer, the celluloid carrying the yellow image should be also
immersed in the cold water for a few minutes and the two lifted out together, avoiding
air bells between them. A moderate squeegeeing with the flat squeegee is desirable,
after which the sandwich can be hung up to dr3^ When completely dry, the celluloid
will automatically detach itself leaving the yellow image on the final paper. A slight
amount of wax always transfers with the image, and it must be carefully removed
before proceeding with the next transfer. This is best done by going over the yellow
image with a tuft of cotton dipped in rectified spirit of turpentine. The turpentine is
allowed to remain for a minute or so. Another tuft of cotton is now soaked in benzine
and applied gently to the jêllow image, after which the benzine and turpentine
together are cleaned off with a piece of dry cheesecloth. The cleaning of the print by
means of benzine should be repeated three or four times and each time cleaned off with
cheesecloth. Finally the surface of the print should be gone over with a large piece
of clean cotton flannel.
The final support with its yellow image should now be placed again in cold water
or better still in a traj- containing a weak solution of gelatin (1 oz. of Nelson's gelatin
No. 1 dissolved in 32 oz. of water). The gelatin solution is highly desirable to permit
intimate adhesions between the yellow image and the magenta image which has to
follow. The celluloid bearing the magenta image is also placed in cold water and
finally passed into the gelatin solution and placed in approximate registration with the
yellow image. The two are withdrawn together and laid on a sheet of plate glass
with the paper support uppermost. The flat squeegee can be applied gently to the
sandwich to remove the excess of gelatin solution, after which the sandwich can be
reversed right side up and a final registration carried out by gently sliding the celluloid.
When a satisfactory registration is accomplished, the sandwich can be hung up to dry.
Occasionally it may be necessary to bend the celluloid to secure accurate registration,
particularly after the paper support with the yellow image has been soaked too long
in the water. This, however, should not be necessary if the soaking of the paper
support is not carried out beyond Wi min.
Instead of a fiat squeegee the surplus gelatin solution can be forced out by applying
a dry cloth over the back of the paper support. When dry and the celluloid is
detached leaving the red and yellow images together, the image surface is again
cleaned free of wax in the same manner as before and the blue-green image transfer
carried out in exactly the same manner.
—
Double Transfer. The double-transfer method has many points of advantage,
and it is highly recommended in preference to the single-transfer method. It is very
difficult to register the red to the yellow image, particularly if the transfer has to be
carried out with incandescent light, for the yellow image is almost invisible with
artificial light. With the double-transfer method, however, the blue-green image is
first transferred to a temporary support which consists of soluble gelatin on a thin
paper base. With a soluble temporary support it is not necessary to use the gelatin
solution as recommended for the single-transfer method. The removal of the wax
after each transfer should be carried out in the same way as previously described.
The sequence of transfer with the double-transfer method is blue-green image first,
then the magenta image, and finally the yellow image on top. It will be found very
easy to register the yellow image by this method. The wax must be again removed
from the yellow surface after the three transfers are complete.
The temporary soluble support with the complete color image is now placed again
in cold water and brought into contact with the fuial paper support which could be
also a fixed-out bromide paper or regular single-transfer paper available commercially.
The two are squeegeed together with a flat squeegee and placed under pressure
between blotting papers for 15 or 20 min. The sandwich is finally placed into hot
water at 100°F., and after 1 or 2 min. the paper backing of the temporary soluble sup-
port can be readily stripped, leaving the complete image on the final support. The
soluble gelatin left by the temporary support can be gently washed off, and the com-
plete picture is put away to dry.
By the double-transfer method it is possible to trim the temporary support, with
the color image on it, down to the exact size of the latter, but if this procedure is
followed it is necessary to allow the soluble support to remain in contact with the final
paper until completely dry. When this is done, the stripping of the paper support in
hot water should be preceded by a bath in cold water for 10 or 15 min. Unless this
precaution of drying the sandwich first is taken, there is a danger of the image frilling
and becoming damaged because of lack of the safe margin which was removed by the
trimming operation.
With the double-transfer method the bromides must be printed right side up.
Concluding Remarks. — In carrying out a carbro process great care must be
exercised to avoid contamination with the usual darkroom chemicals. Developing
chemicals have a tendency to bleach the blue tissue, and therefore if small circular
white spots occur in a blue tissue, these can invariably be ascribed to traces of devel-
oper. These spots ordinarily disappear in a span of 24 hr. Their disappearance,
however, can be expedited by treating gently the finished color picture, locally, with a
weak solution of hydrochloric or acetic acid.
There is no satisfactory way of reducing the strength of the blue image of a carbro
print. The magenta, however, can be reduced by treating the full print in a weak
solution of potassium permanganate rendered slightly acid with a trace of hydro-
chloric acid or sulphuric acid. When sufficiently reduced, the action can be stopped
at once by immersion in a weak solution of sodium bisulphite followed by a slight wash.
The yellow image can be reduced by treating the complete image in a weak solution
of plain hypo, again followed by careful washing.
It is not recommended, however, to resort to such chemical reduction of the
magenta and yellow images because the over-all contrast is invariably disturbed.
These reducing agents have an even effect throughout the image and therefore can be
classified among the so-called "cutting" reducers, the sole purpose of which is to
increase the contrast.
Small traces of bichromate always remain in suspension in the colored images and
a partial insolubilization of the soluble temporary support might take place if the
transfers are carried out in strong dajdight or sunlight. Insolubilization might also
occur if the last transfer onto the final support is delayed too long (over 30 hr.). A
safe rule is therefore to avoid too strong daylight and sunlight and to carry through
the various transfers within a span of a few hours.
When properly carried out the carbro process permits results of great beauty and
naturalness not readily achieved by other processes.
The room temperature for the carbro process is not critical. A comfortable value
of 65 to 70°F. will be found to be best. •
Eastman Wash-off Relief. —The Eastman wash-off relief method represents a

typical imbibition process.
Outline.— Vvmis, in natural color can be made by transfer of water-soluble dyes by
means of images produced in reUef on celluloid film. This process is based on the
property of the silver, forming the photographic image, to render the surrounding
gelatin insoluble when the development is carried out in a tanning developer or by a
subsequent treatment of the image with suitable bleaching chemicals. The Eastman
is typical among the processes of this type.
wash-off relief The positive prints from
corresponding color-separation negatives are made on a special film carrying a silver
emulsion made with highly soluble gelatin. The exposure of the film must be made
through the celluloid base. The development of the positive film is carried out in a
normal positive developer, after which the films can be given a brief wash and passed
to the bleaching bath without intermediate fixing.
—
Exposure and Development of the Positives. The wash-off relief films are printed by
contact or projection from the appropriate color-separation negatives. The exposures
should be such as to give a faint silver deposit in the highest lights of the subject.
The wash-off relief positives may be developed in Eastman developer DK-50 for
about 5 min. at 70°F. Developers DK-11 and D-76 may also be used. The three
films can be developed simultaneously in a tank suspended in the usual film-developing
hangers. Development can be also carried out in trays, treating such film individ-
ually in a fresh quantity of developer with uniform rocking.
The operations of washing, bleaching, and developing of the reliefs in hot water
could be made to follow the development without the intermediate fixing. This
requires, however, that these various operations be carried through in yellow light.
It might be preferable, however, to rinse briefly the wash-off relief films after the
development and then place them to fix in the nonhardening fixing-bath formula F-24.
Following this they can be washed for 5 min. in running water.
Bleaching. —
The bleaching of the silver image of the film is carried through in a
bleaching solution (R-lOa) diluted as indicated. The three films can be placed all
together in a tank if suspended in the usual hangers.
If must be placed separately in a fresh bleaching

trays are used, however, each film
solution. The quantity of working bleach solution recommended is 8 oz. for an
8- by 10-in. tray. The three films must be evenly rocked during the bleaching opera-
tion to avoid streaky effects. The bleaching solution should be discarded immediately
after use.
—
Hot-water Development. The bleached films should now be placed in a tank of hot
water at 110°F. and the hangers lifted out of the tank and replaced in it about every
10 sec. This is to allow the melted emulsion to be drained away from the films. In
carrying out this operation, the greatest possible attention must be paid to prevent
the films from rubbing against each other as the relief image at this time is extremely
delicate. It is advisable to change into a clean tank of hot water again at 110°F.
after 1 min., continuing the agitation. After about 3 min., the film should be given
another rise in clean hot water; it can then be passed again into the fixing-bath formula
F-5. One minute in a fixing bath will be sufficient, after which the films can be put
to wash for about 5 min. in cold running water. If the hot-water development of the
films is carried out in trays, each film must be handled separately and the hot water
changed two or three times, but in any case the hot water should never be poured over
the film. Three of four changes of hot water for each tray will be sufficient, after which
the films will be passed into a fixing bath and washed.
A faint trace of brown image remains in the relief film after treatment in a fixing
bath. This can be completely disregarded when the relief images are used to print
by dye transfer on paper. When making transparencies, however, it might be further
desirable to remove such a residual image by treating in a permanganate reducer
formula (R-2), followed by fixation in formula F-5 and additional wash.
It is advisable to dry the relief images before staining in the appropriate dye baths.
—
Treatment in the Dye Solutions. The three dye solutions are made up in accordance
with the instructions attached to each dye container, and in order to increase the
keeping qualities of the dye it is advisable to add 5 cc. of formalin to each 500 cc. of
dye solution. Each dye has placed in it a certain amount of 5 per cent acetic acid,
the amount controlling the amount of dye taken up by the matrix. Thus the color
contrast may be controlled. The amounts of acid are of the order of 5 to 20 cc.
It is also best to filter the dye solution through rapid filtering paper
before use.
Each relief film is now put in its appropriate dye bath for about 30 minutes at
68°F. and the tray occasionally rocked. The dyed relief films, when removed from
the dye baths, should be rinsed in two changes of 3^2 per cent solution of acetic acid and
distilled water. After this rinsing the three films can be placed in a tray containing
^2 per cent of acetic acid until ready for the dye transfer.
At this stage, the three stained reliefs can be superimposed to judge the color bal-
ance —
this is best done on the bottom of a white porcelain tray —
and examined in
strong white light, after which they can be returned to the tray containing }i per cent
solution of acetic acid or dried, the transfer process taking place at another time.
—
Preparation of a Transfer Paper. The transfer of the dyes can be made on any
ordinary type of bromide paper fixed in a fresh fixing bath (formula F-24) or the
especially prepared paper called imbibition paper.
The paper must be first prepared by treating it for 5 min. in a mordanting solution
(formula M-1). This treatment should be followed by a wash for 5 min. in running
water and then by a treatment, also for 5 min., in a buffer solution consisting of a
5 per cent solution of sodium acetate. Finally the paper should be washed again
for another 5 min.
Several papers can be treated at the same time and put away to dry for future use.
A transfer paper, which has been previously treated and dried, should be given a
preliminary soaking in plain water for at least 5 min. and then placed, gelatin side up,
on a sheet of plate glass. It is preferable to place over the paper a piece of a damp
blotter to maintain the paper in a moistened condition throughout the various
transfers.
The magenta-dyed relief is removed from the acidulated water bath and placed
image face down on the prepared paper. Holding one edge of the film with fingers
to prevent sliding, the surplus water and air bubbles are expelled by going over the
film with a flat squeegee a few times in both directions with increasing pressure. The
contact between the relief film and the transfer paper must be intimate. The sand-
wich can now be covered with another sheet of plate glass and allowed to remain in
this manner for a time which might vary from 10 to 30 min., depending on the strength
of the relief image.
The by increasing the pressure and keeping
transfer of the dye can be expedited
the sandwich warm. This can readily be done by placing some additional weight over
the plate glass and covering with towels dampened in hot water.
The relief film should be left in contact with the transfer paper long enough to
allow a complete transfer of the dye. When this is accomplished, the film is peeled
off the transfer paper and put away to dry or replaced in a magenta dye tray if addi-
tional prints are to be made. Without giving the transfer paper a chance to dry, a
thin sheet of Kodaloid or celluloid shovild be dampened and placed directly over the
transfer paper. On top of the Kodaloid place the second relief film stained in the
blue-green dye.
The Kodaloid sheet should not be placed entirely over the magenta image, but a
small safe margin at the extreme left should be left exposed to permit holding down
in contact the blue-green relief and the transfer paper, still permitting the Kodaloid
sheet to be pulled off when the right registration is accomplished. In this manner the
registration can be carried out with plenty of time without any danger of the blue-
green dye transferring out of the register and blurring the results. When one is satis-
fied with the registration, the blue-green relief should be clamped down on the
extreme left edge with fingers and then the right-hand edge bent back to allow
the removal of the Kodaloid sheet, after which the blue-green relief is allowed
to fall down in contact with the transfer paper. The surplus water and any air
bubbles are squeegeed off rapidly with increasing pressure, as was done with the first
transfer.
The time of transfer for the blue-green image is about 10 to 30 min., depending on
the pressure applied and the temperature.
The transfer of the jêllow dye is accomplished in identical manner, although the
time required for the yellow transfer is appreciably less than for the other two colors.
When the yellow relief is removed from the transfer paper, the final color print should
be dried quickly to preserve the sharpness of the image.
The following formulas for the developing of the relief images, the bleaching and
the fixing bath are those recommended by the Eastman Kodak Co. and it is advisable
to follow them very closely.
Developer (Formula DK-oO)

Water (about 125°F.) (52°C.) 04 oz. 2 1.
Elon 145 gr. 10 g.
Sodium, sulphite (desiccated) 4 oz. 120 g.
Hydroquinone 145 gr. '

10 g.
Kodalk 1 oz. 145 gr. 40 g.
Potassium bromide 29 gr. 2 g.
Cold water to make 1 gal. 4 1.
Without dilution, develop 5 min. at 65°.

Wash-off Relief Bleaching Solution (Formula R-10)

Stock Solution A
Water U> oz. 500 cc
Ammonium bichromate 290 gr.
Sulphuric acid (c.p.) (E. K. Co.) 4 cc.
Water to make 32 oz.

Stock Solution B
Sodium chloride (table salt) l,'-2 oz.
For use, take one part of A, one part of B and six parts of water.
Nonhardening Fixing Bath (Formula F-24)

Water (about 125°F.) (52°C.) 16 oz.
Hypo 8 oz.
Sodium sulphite (desiccated) 145 gr.
Sodium, bisulphite 365 gr.

utilized for thepurpose of transferring coloring dyes instead of producing the wash-off
reliefimage as described before. A process based on this principle was introduced
commercially several years ago under the trade name of Pinatype. Material for this
process is obtainable from the Agfa-Ansco Company.
Plates coated with gelatin and suitable as matrices for Pinatype-dye transfer are
available commercially, although the usual diapositi^'e plates fixed in plain hypo can
be equally satisfactory.
The usual procedure is to sensitize the plates for 3 or 4 min. in a solution of 2 or
3 per cent of potassium bichromate and to allow them to dry in the dark. Although the
plates are not sensitive until Avy, the sensitizing should be carried out in subdued day-
light or under incandescent light. The plates so prepared should be utilized within
24 hr.
The matrices must be printed from positives, and it is therefore necessary to first
print the negatives either by contact or by enlargement on positive plates or films of
the final size.
The necessity of preparing first positive transparencies constitutes an additional
step in disfavor of this process. this particular step can be utilized to com-
However,
pensate for exposure irregularities of the original negatives. The printing of the
bichromated plates must be made by contact with the positive transparencies in a
printing frame by means of sunlight or arc light. Since the image on the bichromated
gelatin is only slightly visible, it is best to place behind it, in a printing frame, a piece
of printing-out or proof paper to act as a photometer. The correct degree of printing
must be determined empirically and judged completely by the image on the printing-
out paper. After printing, the bichromated plates are to be freed of the bichromate
by washing in running water for 10 or 15 min. As the sensitivity to light ceases
immediately when the plates are immersed in the water, the washing can be carried
out under ordinary light.
The Pinatype printing plates must be carefully identified by suitable markings,
or they could be slightly stained in the appropriate dyes to avoid any later mix-up.
It is best to let them dry completely before the final staining. The dye solutions are
made up in a concentration in accordance with instructions of the manufacturer.
The order of transfer to the final paper can be the same as with the Eastman wash-off
relief, viz., red, blue and yellow or blue, yellow and red or blue, red and yellow. It is
becomes
best, of course, not to transfer the yellow first, as otherwise the registration
too difficult. The insertion of a thin Kodaloid sheet between the matrix and a final
paper for the purpose of obtaining correct registration will be found of great
advantage.
The time required for staining the matrix the first time will be about 15 min. each,
after which each matrix must be well washed until no appreciable color is given off.
The type of paper and its preparation for final transfer can be as described under
Eastman wash-off relief.
An alternative method consists in utilizing the positive transparencies as matrices.
With this method the positive transparencies fixed in plain hypo and well washed are
sensitized for 3 or 4 min. in a bath consisting of
Ammonium bichromate 12J-2 g.

Water 1000 cc.
Ammonia 25 cc.
The sensitized transparencies should then be put to dry in the dark and, when dry,
exposed to sunlight or arc light with the glass or celluloid sides toward the light source.
The amount of exposure to the light in this case also can be controlled by placing
behind each diapositive a sheet of printing-out paper. The diapositives must be then
— — .
washed for 10 or 15 min. to completely remove any trace of bichromate, after which
they can be stained immediately in the appropriate dyes or allowed to dry as before.
If it is considered desirable to remove the silver image before staining with dye, this
can be readily carried out with regular Farmer's reducer.
The advantages to be derived bj^ using the positive transparencies for dye printing
are as follows: Since the exposure to the light has taken place through the back, the
degree of relief is extremely small and the successive stainings take place in a much
more uniform manner, as compared with the previous method. The contact with the
final paper is a good deal more intimate and the delicate details are retained a great
deal more faithfully than with the straight Pinatype method.
With both methods, however, positive films can be used to advantage in place of
glass plates, as the squeegeeing operation can be carried out much more easily.
—
Dyebro Process. Relief images on thin celluloid supports can be produced also
by the carbro method. The only deviations from the standard carbro method are as
follows: Instead of trichrome tissues, an appropriate gray tissue with very slight
coloration is being used. All the various operations, however, are strictly identical to
the previouslj^ described carbro process. After being made insoluble in contact with
bromide papers, the tissues are transferred to the celluloids, without any waxing, and
developed in hot water as usual.
The reliefs, the final transfer paper, and the method of dye trans-
staining of these
with the Eastman wash-off relief. The carbro reliefs on the
fer is strictly identical
thin, transparent celluloids should be given an additional final hardening in a 5 per
cent solution of formaldehyde, before staining, to increase their durability.
—
Chemical Toning Processes. A positive silver image can be converted into a
colored image by replacing the silver of the image by means of metallic compounds.
Methods for producing satisfactory blue and yellow tones have long been known, but a
satisfactory magenta image by chemical toning has been made available only
recently by Defender and the complete process marketed under the trade name
Chromatone.
By from the three color-separation negatives are made on a
this process, prints
special paper from which the image can be stripped and transferred in register to a
final support. The emulsion of the printing paper is carried by an extremely thin
collodion sheet which detaches from the paper base during the washing operation.
Three developers are recommended for use with the Chromatone printing paper,
depending on the nature of the original three color-separation negatives.
Standard Formula 1 For Prints from Normal Negatives

Water 40 oz 2000 cc.
Metol 51 gr. 1 . 5 g.
Sodium sulphite (dry) . 5 oz. 22 . 5 g.
Hydroquinone ! 60 gr. 6 . 5 g.
Sodium carbonate (dry) . 5 oz. 22 . 5 g.
Potassium bromide 25 gr. 2 . 7 g.
Development: 1^9 min. at 70°F.
Formula 2 For Good Prints from Hard Negatives

Metol 44 gr. 3 g.
Sodium sulphite (dry) 1 oz. 88 gr. 36 g.
Sodium carbonate (dry) 263 gr. 18 g.
For use, one part stock solution, three parts water, and develop 3 to 4 min, at 70°F.
— 5
046 handbook of photography
Formula 3 Vigorous Developer for Good Prints from Soft Negatives

Solution A
Hydroquinone 1 . oz. 45 g.
Sodium sulphite (dry) 1 oz. 30 g.
Sulphuric acid 60 minims 4 oc.

Solution B
Sodium carbonate (dry) 4 oz. 130 g.
Sodium sulphite (dry) 3 oz. 90 g.
Use equal parts of solutions A and B and develop 5 min. at 70°F.

Assuming that the negatives are carefully balanced or that a satisfactory measure-
ment of the factor of the three negatives has been determined with a densitometer, an
additional factor with respect to the three chromatic colors is necessary. satisfac- A
tory print from the green-filter negative is first obtained. The exposure necessary for
the print from the red-filter negative must be increased 10 per cent and the exposure
of the print from the blue-filter negative by 25 per cent over the exposure given to the
green-filter negative. After development with the appropriate developer, the three
positives are fiixed in an acid fixing bath. The Eastman F-5 fixing-bath formula is
satisfactory for this purpose. The washing of the positive prints must be carried out
for at least 15 min. in running water to make sure that every trace of hypo has been
removed, otherwise the subsequent chemical operation might be badly affected. The
manufacturers of the Chromatone material recommend the following thiocj'ânate
fixing bath whenever speed is necessary, as even a trace of this chemical does not
interfere with the toning solutions if the washing is not carried out fully:
Water 1000 cc.
Potassium thiocyanate 100 g.
Potassium alum 50 g.
Glacial acetic acid 25 cc.
During the process of washing, the collodion emulsion ordinarily detaches from
the paper base, and it must be carefully handled to avoid tearing.
Before proceeding with the toning operations, the following miscellaneous solutions
must be made up:
Solution A — Dilute Hydrochloric Acid
Hydrochloric acid (c.p.) 16 oz. 500 cc.
Distilled water 48 oz. 1500 cc.
Solution B— Standard Hypo Solution

Granular or rice hypo 2,V4 oz. 70 g.
Wherever the text refers to standard hypo sohdion this is the formula that must be
used. A bath containing acid or alum will bring complete failure.
Solution C — Standard Ferricyanide Solution

Potassium ferricyanide i-i oz. 1 1 g.
Working Solutions for Chromatone Color Prints

(Sufficient Quantity for Toning 5- by 7-In. Prints)
Red and Blue Toner A Working Solution
Water 1 oz. 25 cc.
Red and blue toner A 1 oz. 25 cc.
Standard ferricyanide solution 13-5 drams 5 cc.
This solution does not keep well when mixed, and only sufficient should be prepared
for prints in process.
Yellow Toner A Working Solution

—
Yellow toner A No. 1 1 oz. 25 cc.
—
Yellow toner A No. 2 1 oz. 25 cc.
Standard ferricyanide solution IJ-z drams 5 cc.
Add No. 1 to No. 2, stirring gently until any precipitate that maj^ appear is com-
pletely dissolved.
This solution does not keep well when mixed, and onlj^ sufficient should be prepared
for prints in process.
—
Toning the Red and Blue Prints. The stripped-off black-and-white positive prints,
intended for the red and blue images, are placed together in one tray, and the red and
blue working solution (red and blue toner A), made up as outlined above, is added.
This preliminary A toning is actually a bleaching process. Care should be taken
that the films are thoroughly saturated with the solution. It is advisable to turn
them over repeatedly and to rock the tray to remove any air bubbles.
A swab of absorbent cotton or a wide rubber-set varnish brush is very useful to
prevent all kinds of smear marks and uneven toning. The brush or swab should be
used almost continuously and must not be transferred from one solution to another.
The swabs can be thrown away after use and the brush thoroughly washed before
reuse. This practice is valuable in the first toning stages of all three colors.
Swab the back to remove adherent back coating which may cause fading by
contamination.
Keep the toning solutions cool. Their temperatures should not exceed 70°F.
With higher temperatures, loss of high lights may occur.
Immersion in the A solution should be continued for at least 15 min. and, in any
case, until all the black silver is removed. When a print is thoroughly toned, it will
appear as a light greenish-brown image. It is then placed in running water and
thoroughly washed for about 10 min. As an alternative the print may be washed in
five complete changes of water in a tray. The washing operation after toning is of the
greatest importance and must not be slighted.
It is also very essential that the hands be kept clean at all times in order not to
contaminate one solution by transferring another solution to it.
After this washing, the red image is placed in the red toner B and allowed to tone
for about 10 min. (the toning proceeds to completion in this time; a little longer time
in the bath will do no harm). The solution is then poured off for use a second time,
and the print is immersed for 3 min. in a standard hypo solution. It is now washed for
about 15 min. in running water or in five or six complete changes of water. It is then
ready for assembling.
Similarly the blue image placed in the blue toner B and allowed to remain about
is
10 min., after which the toner is poured off for use a second time and the print is
immersed in a tray of weak hydrochloric acid solution for about 1 min. Use one part :
dilute solution with two parts water. The print is thoroughly washed in running water
for about 10 min. or in five complete changes of water, after which it is placed in a tray
containing standard hypo solution, made up as directed, until greenish tones have
changed to blue. It is then washed for about 20 min. or in six complete changes of
water. It is then ready for assembling;
—
Toning the Yellow Image. The yellow toning solution (yellow toner A) is supplied
intwo solutions and must be made ready for use as described. The print to be toned
yellow is immersed in this solution for about 10 min. This work may be carried on
simultaneously with the blue and red toning operations, separate trays being used.
After about 15 min. the solution is poured off into a graduate, and 10 cc. (3 drams)
standard hypo solution is added to every 50 cc. (2 oz.) working solution, and thor-
oughly mixed. Next wash the print for 1 min. in running water, or in one complete
change of water, return it to the tray and pour the solution back on the print. The
operation should be done quickly, and the tray should be vigorously rocked for about
1 min. to prevent any streaking of the yellow image. If some degree of streaking is
apparent at this point and is not too pronounced, it may be ignored. If care is taken,
however, no difficulty will be experienced. The print is now allowed to remain in the
solution for about 3 min., after which the solution is discarded, the print is washed for
1 or 2 min. in clear water, and then it is immersed for about 1 min. in a solution made
up of one part standard hypo solution and three parts water. Do not keep the print
longer than 1 min. in this solution, as the image at this stage is slightly soluble in hypo
and high-light detail may be lost thereby. Wash the film immediately for not less
than 20 min. in running water or in five or six complete changes of water in
a tray.
The yellow image, after thorough washing, is immersed for about 2 min. in the
yellow toner B, and then washed in running water for about 20 min. or in six complete
changes of water in a tray. It is then ready for assembling.
—
Assembling the Three-color Print. The third step in making color prints by the
Chromatone process is assembling the finished photograph.
The three-color images are now registered on a gelatin-coated paper (Chromatone
backing paper) which has been previously soaked thoroughly in water. Lay the
backing paper, gelatin side up, on a clean ferrotype tin, clean glass or Masonite tem-
pered hard board, or on any flat waterproof surface. The yellow image is placed first
on the paper and squeegeed firmly into place, emulsion side down, and allowed to
remain for a few minutes to prevent sliding while registering. The red image is then
placed on top of the yellow, pushed carefully into register, squeegeed lightly, the
register checked, adjusted if necessary, and the red image squeegeed firmly into place.
If at this point the two images do not appear exactly in register, the red sheet may be
peeled off carefully, remoistened, and registered again. It will be found easier to
register the red and yellow images if they are viewed through a light-blue filter.
The blue image is then superimposed upon the other two, precisely as described
above, completing the color print; all prints emulsion side down.
The collodion support of the emulsion, although extremely thin and transparent, is
to some extent objectionable, not only because it reduces the brilliancy of the final
image, but also because it tends to curl inward in drying and prevents the prints laying
absolutely flat. This difficulty can be avoided by removing the collodion support after
each transfer by dissolving it with acetone. This is best done by allowing each trans-
fer to practically dry before removing the collodion in order to avoid any damage to
the gelatin emulsion. If the removal of the collodion is decided upon, it is advisable
to use a weak gelatin solution between transfers to produce a more complete adhesion
of the partial images.
With with the others so far described, short cuts are not
this process, as well as
advisable and instructions issued by the manufacturers of the materials are usually
published after careful studies and should therefore be scrupulously adhered to in
order to avoid waste and disappointments.
Since variations are introduced from time to time in the quality of the material, it
is advisable to request up to date information from the manufacturers.
Gelatin Relief with Color Pigment in Suspension. Dtixochrome. —

Several years
ago H. J. C. Deeks introduced a process for color prints on paper consisting of silver
bromide emulsions coated on thin celluloids from which the emulsion could be stripped
at a later stage. The emulsion carried in suspension, the appropriate color pigments
and three different emulsions were supplied, each one with the corresponding comple-
—
mentary colors yellow, blue-green, and magenta. The printing exposure for each
emulsion Mas determined by comparison with a standard bromide paper. The expo-
sure, of course, was made through the celhiloid support and the development was
carried out with a tanning developer such as
Water 1000 cc.
Metol 1.5 g.
Hydroquinoiie 1 5 . g.
Sodium sulphite (dryj 2 g.

Sodium carbonate (dry) 17 5 . g.
Potassium bromide 1 .
5 g.
or
Water 1000 cc.
Hydroquinone "1 8-
Sodium carbonate (dry) 15. 5 g.

Potassium bromide 1 g-
or
Water 1000 cc.
Pyrocatechin 2 g.
Sodium hydroxide 1 .
5 g.
or
Water 1000 cc.
Pyrogallol 2 g.
Sodium carbonate (dry) 8 g.
Potassium bromide 0. 5 g.
These developers do not keep because of the small quantity of sulphite and
should therefore be made up just before use.
Immediately after development and without fixing, the silver images were passed
into a bath of hot water in which the emulsion, not affected by the tanning action of
the developer, washed away, leaving the colored image in relief. The black silver
image was subsequently removed by any of the well-known reducers. The color
images were later transferred and registered on a final support in the order yellow, —
magenta, and blue-green.
Although remarkably beautiful results were obtained from this process, it did not
meet with any degree of success for reasons not attributable to the process itself.
Recently a very similar process has originated in Germany and is being marketed
throughout the world under the trade name Duxochrome.
The Duxochrome color films are obtainable in packages containing an equal amount
of the three colors. The speed of Duxochrome film is approximately that of an ordi-
nary bromide paper. Exposure for this film also must be made through the celluloid
support, and the magenta and yellow emulsions require appreciably longer exposure
than the blue. The ratio of exposure is, roughly; blue, 1 magenta, 2; yellow, 3. The
;
developer recommended is the one supplied by the manufacturer of the color film and
is put up in two separate packages to make up stock solutions A and B.
The processing of Duxochrome film is best carried out by first preparing the various
solutions necessary in a stock form from which the working solutions can be quickly
prepared by simple dilution. The following stock solutions are necessary:
Stock solution A and B are made up in accordance with directions in the container.
Stock Solution C
Potassium metabisulphite 12 oz.
Plain water (warm) 24 oz.
Stock Solution D
Potassium ferricyanide 1 oz.
:
Stock Solution E
Glacial acetic acid 4 oz.
Plain water (warm) 24 ox.
Copper sulphate (c.p.) 3 oz.
Stock Solution F
Ammonium chloride 12 oz.
Stock Solution //
Hypo crystals 16 oz.
Warm water to make 32 oz.
The working developer is made up by taking
Stock solution A 2 parts

Stock solution B 2 parts
Distilled water 20 parts
Satisfactory results could be obtained also by using the tanning developer formulas
given above.
The time of development with the Duxochrome developer is of the order of 4 min.
at 70°F. when prints are made from normal negatives obtained directlj^ from the
original subject and processed to about gamma of unity or slightly less. When,
however, the printing is made from color-separation negatives of Kodachrome or Dufay
films, the required development time of the positive might be appreciably shorter
is ordinarily very contrasty.
since the original color transparency^ The correct time
of development must be ascertained in such cases by trial.
When dealing with very thin negatives an increase of contrast can be obtained by
increasing the strength of the developer such as, for instance,
Stock solutions A 3 parts

Stock solutions B 3 parts
Water 20 parts
In addition the time of development can also be appreciably increased.

It is imperative that the Duxochrome developer be made up with distilled water.
The development of the three-color films must be carried out with as much uniformity
as possible, either by developing the three films all together with a fair amount of
uniform agitation or by developing each film individually in fresh developer for the
same length of time and same agitation.
The degree of development cannot be judged by the appearance of the image as in
the case of bromide papers because the exposure was made through the celluloid sup-
port. Furthermore, under the darkroom safe light the images would appear appre-
ciably different because of the color pigments in the emulsion.
Following development, the color films should be quickly passed, without rinsing,
into a stop bath as follows:
Stock solution F 2 oz.

Stock solution H 2 oz.
Water 32 oz.
The films can remain in this bath for only a few seconds, after which they should
be transferred to the fixing bath made up as follows

Stock solution C _.
. J-2 oz.
Water 4 oz.
The time of fixing is about 10 min., and the films should be moved about occa-
sionally. The following operations can be now carried out in full daylight:
After fixing, the color films should be washed in running water for about 3 min.
:
The next operation the removal of the emulsion which has not been affected by
is
the developer. obtained by immersing the color films in a tray of hot water, at
This is
about 125°F., to which a few drops of glacial acetic acid have been added.
It is not advisable to treat the three films all together because of the danger of
damaging the delicate relief image by sliding one over another. The development of
each film in hot water can be carried out in succession or in separate trays. Each film
should be given a few rinses in hot clean water until no appreciable trace of color drains
out.
The bleaching of the silver image is next carried out in a solution made up as
follows

Stock solution D 2 oz.
Water 8 oz.
The bleaching time is about 5 min., or it should be continued until every trace of
black silver has disappeared.
Following the bleach, the image should be given a wash of 5 or 10 min. in running
water.
At this stage both the yellow and magenta images can be put away to dry. The
blue-green image, however, should be given a 3-min. treatment in a solution made up
as follows:
Stock solution E 1 oz.
Water 8 oz.
Then it should be briefly rinsed in cold water, after which it can be also put away to
dry.
A certain amount improve the color balance can be carried out
of correction to
before the emulsions are dry. purpose it is best to superimpose the three wet
For this
images together on the bottom of a white enameled tray to judge the over-all balance.
In case of a predominance of one color that particular film can be further treated in
hot water until reduced sufficiently. It is best, however, to avoid this partial correc-
tion as much as possible.
The assembly of the three colored images on the final paper is carried out in the
following manner: The yellowand a piece of final paper of the correct size are
film
immersed in cold water for about 5 min. The two are withdrawn together carefully,
avoiding air bells, and squeegeed with a flat squeegee to remove the excess
water. Then the two are placed between blotting paper under a heavy pressure, such
as a letterpress. After about 10 min. the sandwich is removed from under pressure
and placed to dry in a warm stream of air. When completely drj^ the celluloid sup-
port will readily detach, leaving the yellow image on the final paper.
The blue fUm is now soaked in cold water for about 5 min., after which the paper
carrying the yellow image is also passed into cold water for exactly 1 min. and the two
brought into contact and removed together from water, carefully avoiding air bells.
The two are squeegeed lightly together, carefully expelling any air bubbles which
might exist, and the correct registration is assured by sliding the film gently. Again
the sandwich is placed between blotting paper and under pressure for another 10 min.
The drying is then done by gentle heat.
The red image is finally transferred to the other two in the same manner.
The surface of the finished colored print will assume a semimatte effect if soaked for
several minutes in warm water and allowed to dry in cool air.
The Duxochrome process lends itself to the making of color transparencies.
The material for this process is marketed in the United States under the trade
name of Colorstil by Ruthenberg Color Photography Company, Hollywood, Calif.
: : 4
Color Prints by Dye -mordanting Process. —There are metallic compounds which
have a strong This property has been made use of for produc-
affinity for basic dyes.
ing color prints on paper as well as transparencies, although the process lends itself
much more readily for the making of color transparencies.
Copper mordant is very probably the most satisfactory, and it is the one used
extensively by Uvachrome. A satisfactory formula is one published by Namias' and
modified by Christensen in 1925. This can be made up in stock solution as follows:
Stock Solution A
Sodium citrate .37 . 5 g.
Copper sulphate (c.p.) 3 4 . g.
Water 1000 cc.
Stock Solution B
Water 40 cc.
For use
Stock solution A 130 cc.
Stock solution B 5 cc.
The printing is best made on positive films and the image should be decidedly on
the thin side when viewed by transmitted light. With a little experience, the strength
of images can be readily determined.
A satisfactory^ developer for a positive film is as follows:
Pyrocathechin 10 g.
Sodium sulphite 25 g.
Potassium carbonate 25 g.
Potassium bromide . 5 g.
Water 500 cc.
For use:
Stock solution 1 part
Water 7 parts
Develop films until the right contrast is obtained.

The can be carried out in an ordinary acid fixing bath
fixing of the positive films
following by a washing for about 20 min. The positives are bleached in the mordant
bath made up as given above. Although the bleaching can be completed in about 4
or 5 min., the action should be allowed to continue for 8 or 10 min. to make sure that
every trace of silver has been converted.
The positives should be washed again for about 15 min., after which each positive
will be passed into appropriate dye solution. Dyes satisfactory for this process are
the following
For Blue
Methylene blue H.G.G 1 . g.
Water 1 125 cc.
Fob Magenta
Pyronin red G (300 per cent) 8 g.
Glacial acetic acid -: 12 cc.
Water 1125 cc.
For Yellow
Theoflavin yellow 6 g.
Water 1125 cc.
iNamias, R., La fotographia a colori, 5th ed., 11 Progresso Fotografico (1930).

The positive film should be left in a dye bath for approximately 10 min. Following
a brief can be passed into a clearing bath for about 2 min. and finally washed
rinse, it
in several changes of water for about 10 min. It is not advisable to wash the positive
in running water. The clearing bath is made up as follows:

Hypo 50 g.
Sodium chloride 25 g.
Water 500 cc.
The assembly of the color positives on a final paper support can be carried out as
follows: A
gelatin-coated paper, which could be an ordinary fixed-out bromide of
smooth surface, is first thoroughly soaked in water and finally passed into a tray
containing a weak gelatin solution such as:
Nelson gelatin 1 oz.
Water 32 oz.
The celluloid containing the blue image is also passed into the tray of gelatin and
brought into contact with the bromide paper, emulsion to emulsion, and the two
withdrawn, avoiding air bells. The two are now thoroughly squeegeed together to
expel any adhering air bells and the surplus gelatin. Following this, the two can be
placed under pressure for a few minutes and then allowed to dry in open air.
When completely dry, the celluloid backing of the blue image must be removed by
treating it with acetone. This operation is not difficult as it is only necessary to
moisten the celluloid backing with acetone, after which the celluloid can be readily
scraped off. After wiping the surface off two or three times with a rag soaked in
acetone, the surface is ready for transfer of the second image, which may be either the
yellow or the red. Transfer of the yellow and red should also be done in a solution
of gelatin to assure perfect adhesion between images.
This process appears complicated, but beautiful results can readily be obtained.
It must be born in mind, however, that basic dyes are not so fast to light as acid dyes
and therefore prints made with basic dyes should not be unduly exposed to direct
sunlight.
Color Transparencies. —Color transparencies to be viewed
by transmitted light
or suitable for projection can be obtained by any of the processes so far described. It
is important to note, however, that not only must the positive images be printed
stronger but the contrast also must be practically doubled as compared with the paper
prints. This becomes immediately obvious by considering the fact that in the case
of the paper print the light is absorbed by the color layer in passing through, and
absorbed again when reflected back by the paper base. In this manner the densitj^ of
the image has a double effect.
Within moderate values of densities the contrast of the photographic image to be
viewed by reflected light is approximately twice as much when compared with trans-
mitted light.
Since the color pictures to be viewed as transparencies are ordinarily mounted
between very convenient to develop one color image to one glass and
glasses, it is often
another one to another glass to be mounted face to face with the first one. The third
image on a thin celluloid base can then be mounted in register in between.
If the transparencies are made entirely by the carbro process, the intermediate
step of developing the color tissues on a transparent celluloid base for two of the
images can be omitted by developing them directly on the final glass plates, which
must naturally have a gelatin coating for best results. The third color, preferably
the yellow, will be developed on the celluloid support as usual and finally transferred
to one or the other of the two images developed on glass. Since the two glass plates
will be ultimately bound together, emulsion to emulsion, one of the two images devel-
oped on glass must be reversed with respect to the other.
It is recommended that for the yellow image a specially transparent yellow tissue
be used instead of the standard yellow ordinarily employed for paper prints.
Other alternative arrangements suggest themselves. For instance, the blue-green
image could be obtained by iron toning, and the magenta and yellow either by dye
transfer or by the carbro method. A suitable formula for producing very acceptable
blue-green images by an iron toning is the following:
Ammonium persulphate 1 g.
Ferric alum (ferric ammonium sulphate) 2.5 g.

Oxalic acid 6 g.
Ammonium alum 10 g.
Hydrochloric acid (10 per cent) 2 cc.
Water to make 2000 cc.
The method of eompoimding this bath is rather important. Each chemical should
be dissolved separately in a small quantity of warm water, allowing it to cool and then
filtering it into a tank in the order given above —
with the water added to make the
required volume. A properlj^ compounded bath should be pale yellow and perfectly
clear. The ordinary toning time is about 10 min. Since this toning bath has a strong
intensifying action, the original positive must be rather thin.
It is not, in general, recommended, however, to make transparencies by combining
various processes because it is usually difficult to obtain an over-all satisfactory con-
trast except by very careful study of the chemical action of each method
employed.
—
Additive Processes. The additive process which permits color reproductions to
be obtained bj^ the addition of color lights has found extensive applications for color
transparencies. As far as the color prints on paper are concerned, however, it has not
met with any degree of success, although several attempts have been made from time
to time.
The chief drawback of is the great waste of light encountered
any additive process
in viewing the final color image. This point becomes immediately apparent if we
consider the additive synthesis obtained by means of three black-and-white positives
made from the original three color-separation negatives, these positives being pro-
jected by illuminating each one of them with light of the proper color.
When a single source of light is available, it simply means that the source of light
must be split up in three components and into each component the appropriate pro-
jection filter introduced. If it is assumed, for instance, that each filter will transmit
only one-third of the white light directed on it, then the total light available on the
screen will be approximatelj^ one-third of the light from the original source. In prac-
tice this efficiency isnever reached, and ordinarily the total amount of light available
will be nearer to one-fourth of the total light emitted by the source or even less.
Although theoretically both additive and subtractive processes are strictly iden-
tical, in practice the additive process is capable of permitting far more faithful results
than the subtractive process if the waste of light is not taken into consideration. This,
however, is not always the case, particularly in connection with motion pictures where
the amount of light available must be utilized with the greatest possible efficiency. In
such case the tendency is to reach a compromise between quality of results and
efficiency. This is done by utilizing very diluted projection filters and very thin
positives. When a suitable compromise is reached, it is ordinarily found that the
results are very comparable with the subtractive process or not as good. Since
mechanical difficulties are introduced by the requirement imposed by the additive
process of having to split up the Hght source, this process is invariably thrown into
discard.
In the case of single transparencies to be viewed visually, the so-called "screen
plates" and films in which the three-color filters are incorporated with the emulsion
in a regular or irregular pattern, a fairly high degree of success has been achieved. In
this class can be listed the Lumiere Autochrome plate and Filmcolor, and the Agfa
color plate. These three types carry the color filter elements coated on the support
in irregular mixture of very small transparent elements, stained with the three primary
colors. On this color screen layer, there is a protective coating and then the pan-
chromatic emulsion. The exposure of these plates or films is made through the
supports.
The processing of screen plates or film is very simple and consists in first developing
the original exposure, and then, without fixing, the developed silver image is removed
by a suitable bleach. The balance of emulsion, which" was not affected by the first
development, is exposed again to a white light and redeveloped, resulting in a final
positive image.
The reversal process, in order to be satisfactory, requires that the original exposure
be kept within fairly narrow limits in order to leave sufficient emulsion to later produce
the positive image. The development also must be carefully carried out as very little
latitude is permissible.
The manufacturers of these materials iss\ie complete instructions to be found
included in each package, and it is strongly recommended that these instructions be
carefully followed.
In order to permit an exposure under different light conditions, suitable com-
pensating filters are necessary; these filters can be obtained commercially from the
manufacturers. To assure correct results, compensating filters appropriate to each
light source must be used in accordance with the manufacturer's instructions.
—
Agfa Screen Plate. The following instructions in condensed form cover the process-
ing of the Agfa color plate, and for additional informations the reader should refer to
the instructions supplied with the negative material.
First Developer
Water 1000 cc.
Metol 3 25 g.
.
Hydroquinone 1 g.
Potassium bromide 1.5 g.
Ammonia (spec. gr. 1.91) 7.5 ce.
For a correctly exposed plate, the normal time of development will be approxi-
mately 3 min. at 65 °F. About 2 oz. of the above developer will be necessary
to develop a 3^^- by 414-in. plate. For larger plates the quantity of developer should
be increased in proportion. This developer can be used also for second development,
but, as it loses strength by the evaporation of ammonia, it should be discarded after
the second development.
When the first development is complete, the plate should be rinsed for about 1
min. in a large tray of water, or running water if it is conveniently at hand, and then
immersed in the reversing bath made up as follows:
Water 900 cc.
Potassium bichromate 50 6 . g.
Sulphuric acid (c.p.) 1 10 cc.
This is a stock solution; for use take 1 part solution to 10 parts water.
A few seconds after the plate has been immersed in the reversing solution, Mie white
light can be turned on and the processing continued under normal white light. The
: :
reversal will be complete in about 2 or 3 min. the plate should be washed in running
;
water for another 2 or 3 min. and then immersed again in the developer and left there
until the remaining emulsion is completely blackened. The plate should now be
given a final wash in running water and placed to dry.
Varnishing the emulsion of the plate with a 3 per cent solution of gum dammar in
benzol is recommended. The varnishing should be done by pouring a small quantity
in one corner and then gradually tilting the plate to allow the varnish to flow through-
out the surface, after which the surplus varnish can be drained back into the bottle.
The brilliancy of a color plate can be increased bj^ intensification, and for this
purpose the Agfa mercury intensifier put up for the purpose will be found very con-
venient. Intensification, of course, should be done before varnishing the emulsion
of the plate.
If the original exposure of a color plate has been too great, the final result will be
a thin positive after the reversal, and conversely, if not enough exposure was given
originally, the final positive will be very dark. In the previous case some correction
can be obtained by the intensification method already described, while in the latter
case, some kind of compromise could be obtained by reducing chemically the final
positive. In general, however, the reduction of the color plate does not lead to suc-
cessful results, and it is best to control the original exposure by correctly measuring
the light valueby means of an exposure meter.
—
Lumiere Auiochrome Plates and Filmcolor. The Lumiere Autochrome plates and
Filmcolor can be processed in the same, type of developer and reversal bath as recom-
mended for the Agfa color plate.
The manufacturers, however, recommend the following developer as the most
suitable
Distilled water 1000 cc.
Metoquinone (quinomet) log.

Ammonia (sp. gr. 22° Baum6) 32 cc.
For second development it is recommended to use an Amidol developer of the

following composition
Water 50 cc.
Amidol (Dinol) 2^2-
Intensification can be carried out with mercury intensifier. The Lumiere Auto-
chrome plate also can be varnished with gum dammar as described previously,
although this is not necessary with color film.
It is possible to make color-separation negatives from Agfa color plates as well as

from Lumiere color plates and and for the purpose very sharp filters should be
film,
used. The most Wratten filter Nos. 29, 61, and 50. In general, how-
suitable are the
ever, the results obtainable by using color screen plates and film as originals do not
approach in the least the results obtainable by making color-separation negatives
directly from the original subject.
—
Dufaycolor Film. Of late Dufaycolor film has come into prominent use. This
film is made up essentially in the same manner as the Lumiere Filmcolor with the
exception of the color-filter elements which consist of a geometric pattern of small
squares of the three primary colors, upon which is the regular panchromatic emulsion.
In the same way as the color-screen material previously described, the Dufaycolor
film requires special compensating filters when the exposure is made with various
:
light sources. The processing also is carried out in an essentially similar manner:
development, followed by a bleach, and a second development.
i.e., first
For the Dufaycolor film the following method of processing is recommended;

First Developer
Water 100 cc.
Metol 1 g.
Hydroquinone 8 g.
Potassium thiocyanate 9 g.
The time of development may vary from 4 to 6 min., according to the amount of
exposure, at about 68°F.
After a brief rinse in water, the Dufaycolor film is passed into a bleaching bath
made up as follows:
Water 1000 cc.

Potassium bichromate 5 g.
Sulphuric acid (commercial grade of sp. gr. 1.87) 10 cc.
The bleaching will be completed in about 4 min., after which the film can be given
a brief wash for about 2 min. and then immersed in a clear bath composed of
Water 1000 cc.
This immersion lasts for about 2 min.; the film is again washed for 2 or 3 min.
The purpose of the clearing bath is to remove any yellow .stain of potassium
bichromate.
After the film has been immersed in the bleaching solution, the white light can be
turned on and the bleaching completed in diffused white light.
For second development any MQ
developer can be used, the following being
recommended
Water 1000 cc.
Metol "
1 g.
Hydroquinone 5 g.
The bleaching of the film can be carried out with a solution of potassium per-
manganate instead of bichromate. The following is a suitable solution:
Water 1000 cc.

Potassium permanganate 3 g.
Sulphuric acid (specific gravity 1.87) 10 cc.
The bleaching in permanganate, however, must be preceded by a brief treatment

in the following hardening bath to avoid frilling:
Water 1000 cc.

Formalin (40 %) 28 cc.
Sodium hydroxide 1 . 5 p;.
Sodium sulphate 150 g.
The exposure to light after bleaching can be done with incandescent light instead
of diffuse daylight. One minute of exposure at a distance of 12 in. from a 100- watt
lamp will be found sufficient.
G58 HANDBOOK OF PHOTOGRAPHY
The exposure to white Hght can be omitted if the second developer i,s replaced hy
the following chemical reversal bath:
Water 1000 cc.
Sodium hydrosulphite 14 g.
One minute of treatment will be sufficient. This bath does not keep and it must
be made up just before use.
Following the second development or reversal the film must be again washed for
2 or 3 min. and fixed in a hardening bath made up as follows:
Water 1000 cc.
Hypo 360 g.
Potassium metabisulphite 12 g.
Dissolve separately:
Water 1000 cc.
Chrome alum 10 g.
This should be added to the first solution. P'ixing should be followed by a final
wash for about 15 min.

Dufaycolor film also can be intensified and reduced. The following mercury
intensifier is recommended:
Water 1000 cc.
Mercury bichloride 65 g.
Ammonium chloride 50 g.
The film should be left in this bath until entirely white. This requires 3 or 4 min.,
followed by washing in running water for about 15 min., after which the emulsion
should be blackened in a solution as follows:
Water 1000 cc.
The action of the sodium sulphite can be stopped when the right degree of intensi-
fication has been obtained.
A suitable reducing formula for Dufaycolor film follows:
Solution A
Water 1000 cc.
Potassium ferrieyanide -10 g.
Solution B
Water 1000 cc.
Hypo 200 g.
For use take equal parts ofA and B and dilute with 10 parts of water. After
sufficient reduction, the filmsshould be thoroughly washed in running water.
Although it is satisfactory to intensify the Dufaycolor film to increase the bril-
liancy, the reduction is not recommended, and it is best to calculate the original expo-
sure correctly by means of an exposure meter.
To make color-separation negatives from Dufaycolor film for color prints on paper
by any of the subtractive processes previously described, sharp cutoff filters must be
used. The filters recommended for this purpose are the Dufay separation filters,
although satisfactory results can be obtained by using for the red the Wratten 25 plus
33; for the green Wratten 52 plus 58; for the blue Wratten 34 plus 47.
Very satisfactory duplication of Agfa color plates, Lumiere Autochrome plates and
films, and Dufaycolor films cannot be made. When an original subject is to be photo-
graphed with the idea in view of making several duplicate color transparencies, it
is best to resort to another color process which permits any number of duplicates to be
obtained. This is the Finlay color process.

—
Finlay Process. The Finlay color process is identical with the previously described
screen color plates with the exception that the color-screen elements are independent
of the panchromatic negative emulsion and are carried to a separate glass plate (taking
screen) where the color elements are disposed in geometrical pattern in small squares
similar to the Duf ay color film. The usual procedure is to place the color-taking screen
in contact with the plate carrying a panchromatic emulsion and expose the two
together in an ordinary camera with the glass side of the taking screen toward the
lens. The contact between the taking screen and the panchromatic emulsion must be
fairly good, otherwise diffusion and poor color results will be obtained.
Suitable panchromatic plates for the above purpose are manufactured by Ilford in
England and by Eastman in the United States; they are marketed as a special Pînlaj^-
Ilford panchromatic plate and Finlay-Eastman panchromatic plate. Suitable com-
pensating filters for different types of lights are also available with this process.
After exposure, the panchromatic plate is removed from contact with the color-
taking screen and developed in the usual manner. When examined with a magnifying
glass, the developed negative plate shows an image broken up into very small squares
very similar to the usual photomechanical process screen used for half-tone printing in
book illustrations.
If now a positive transparency plate is placed in contact with the negative and
printed under artificial light in intimate contact in a printing frame, the positive image
that is obtained will also have the image broken up into minute squares, just as the
original.
To reproduce the original colors, the positive plate is now placed in intimate con-
tact with a positive viewing screen of very much similar composition to the original
color-taking screen and having color elements of exactly the same size as the original
color-taking screen.
The operation of registering the positive plate with the positive viewing screen
requires a little experience, but it represents no great difficulties. When satisfactory
registration has been obtained, as depicted by natural colors showing up satisfactorily
by transmitted light, the two are permanently bound together.
It is obvious that any number of positive prints can be obtained in this way from
the original negative on ordinary positive plates, each of which can be assembled
together with its own viewing screen, assuring identical results.
There are certain definite advantages with the Finla}^ color process as compared
with the other additive process alreadj^ described. These advantages consist mainly
in the facts that the negative emulsion is a standard panchromatic emulsion of very
high gradation and an appreciable latitude of exposure is permissible since one is not
concerned with the amount of emulsion left unexposed, this balance of emulsion not
being used to reproduce a positive by reversal methods.
For the purpose of color reproduction on paper, color-separation negatives from
the Finlay color transparency can be made up also by rephotographing the trans-
parency through sharp separation filters such as the Wratten Nos. 29, 50, and 61.
However, the most satisfactory method consists in utilizing a special blocking-out
screen manufactured exclusively for the purpose of photomechanical reproduction,
without any additional use of color-separation filters. Two of these block-out filters
are available. One of the screens is used for both the red and the blue printer and the
other for the yellow printer.
Because of better emulsion qualities permitted with the Finlay color process and
the use of block-out screens, color reproduction on paper from this process can be
obtained of a quality superior to that of the other screen plates and film on the market.
The only disadvantage of the Finlay process is in the fact that the individual color
elements are fairly coarse, equivalent to about a 175-line half-tone screen.
With the Dufaycolor film, Lumiere Autochrome plate and Filmcolor and the Agfa
color plate, a slight degree of enlargement in reproduction is permissible before the
broken-up structure of the image begins to show up. With the Finlay process, how-
ever, this is not permissible as the 175-luie half-tone dot formation is just small enough
to be invisible when viewed at normal distance, but any slight enlargement would
show up the screen immediately.
The processing of both the negative and positive plates for the Finlay process is
best carried out in the developers recommended by both the Eastman and Ilford com-
panies for their negative and positive material.
—
Color Cinematography. The successful production of color transparencies by
both the additive and subtractive processes has led to a great variety of attempts
to apply these processes to motion-picture photography. The degree of success along
this line of activity has been rather limited.
While the additive process is in itself the simplest, from the laboratory standpoint,
since the film does not need to be colored, it is nevertheless the least successful from the
standpoint of photographic and projection requirements. The reason lies with the
difficulty of producing three separate images side by side through the same optical
system free of parallax, which is unavoidable in multiple optical combinations. Simi-
lar optical systems must be also employed in projection, which means low light
efficiency caused by the necessity of splitting up the total light source into three differ-
ent components, each of which must be intercepted by the necessary primary
filter.
The various optical systems schemed out for the additive synthesis do not lend
themselves readily to the projection of ordinary black and white. This means that
the optical system must be changed during the transition period from color-additive
projection to standard black-and-white projection. As a matter of fact successful
optical systems which permit obtaining simultaneously three sharp images without
parallax and within the narrow space demanded bj' the internal arrangement of a
motion-picture camera, and also suitable for projection are not available as yet.
Other systems which involve running both the camera and projector at a double or
triple speed by arranging the three-color-separation negatives and positives one after
the other, are not practical, because they demand duplicate apparatus in theaters,
unless such color systems could be universally adopted and made to supplant com-
pletely black-and-white projection.
Possibly the attempt nearest to success has been bj^ means of the Dufaycolor film,
which can be exposed through the ordinary camera and projected through the standard
projector, except that in this case also, an adequate amount of light on the screen can
only be obtained by both powerful arc lights and extremely thin positive fUms.
Within this class can also be included the lenticular type of film, based on the Keller-
Dorian and Berthon patents, with the exception that this film needs an additional
projection filter, which, of course, could be easily swung in position in front of the
projection lens when required.
Most have been subtractive processes in which the color positive is
successful
produced either by dye transfer or by combination of chemical toning, dye toning, and
dye transfer.
The Technicolor process, which really is the only one being used to any great
'^
extent today, is based solely on the dye-transfer method by means of wash-off relief
matrices. The three-color separation negatives of Technicolor are produced by a
1 Ball, I. A., The Technicolor Process, J. Soc. Motion Picture Engrs., August, 1935, No. 2, p. 127.
combination of a bipack and a third separate film. The light beam emitted from the
lensis split up by a glass cube made up of two right-angled prisms cemented along the
hypotenuse, this being slightly coated with a reflecting metal, such as gold or silver, to
a definite reflection-transmission ratio. The lenses of a Technicolor camera are
specially designed to work in connection with the prism block. The fact that the
dyes have a slight tendency to wander and the difficulty of transferring three-dye
images in absolute register by automatic means tend to make any process of this type
not quite so critically sharp as black and white. In addition, one of the negatives is
in itself slightly diffused, being theback negative of the bipack.
Motion-picture film in color, by the combination of dye mordant and dye transfer,
is ordinarily carried out by using a positive film coated with emulsion on both sides
with the two most important colors, magenta and blue-green, printed back to back.
These two-color images are produced by first treating the silver images with a mordant,
such as copper or iodine, then floating each side on the appropriate basic dye
bath. The third color, yellow, is obtained by transferring a yellow dye to one side or
the other, by means of a wash-off relief matrix, in substantially the same way as is
done with Technicolor. Color-positive films by the Brewster and Cinecolor processes
are somewhat along these lines.
The positive blue image can also be produced by strictly chemical toning, such as
iron toning described before; the magenta can be produced by dye mordant, and the
yellow by dye transfer.
Presumably, the magenta and blue-green images on the double-coated stock could
also be produced by means of the Chromatone toning process, by first bleaching the
complete film in the red and blue Chromatone toner A, and then floating each side
onto the appropriate B toner. In this case also the yellow would have to be applied by
transfer.
Color images produced bj^ chemical toning or by dye mordant are usually sharper
than images produced by dye transfer. However, the problem of correctly printing
the partial images in exact register is common to both methods.
Very promising are the new tripack subtractive films issued by Eastman Kodak,
under the trade name Kodachrome, and by Agfa, under the name new Agfacolor.
The three emulsions in these tripacks cannot be separated.
The colors in a Kodachrome tripack are introduced in each layer after development
by very elaborate and carefully controlled operations. The new Agfa color film, on
the contrary, has embodied in each layer the nondiffusing color formers. When the
film is developed in a coupler developer, these color formers combine with the oxidation
products of development to form insolvible dyes. The new Agfacolor is obtainable in
both the reversal and negative-positive form. With the reversal type the coupler
developer is used only during the second development, while with the negative-positive
type the colors in a negative are produced during the first development, and the nega-
tive is subsequently fixed and cleared of the silver image. The positive is produced
by printing this negative on a similar film, which is again submitted to the action of a
coupler developer followed by fixing and removal of the silver image as done with the
negative.
The new Agfacolor will probably be available in the future for making color prints
on paper, as well as color motion pictures. Little is known at this time about the
stability of the colors produced by this chemical method.
The complicated manufacturing process of both the Kodachrome and new Agfa-
color might render these films too expensive for color-positive motion-picture releases
at the present time. It is therefore very likely that the immediate use of these films
will be for the purpose of replacing the multiple negatives in the present motion-
picture camera, thus permitting greater speed and economy of light. The release
positive prints might then bemade by dye transfer or a combination of dye transfer
and toning.
Another interesting process for making motion-picture prints in color is the
so-called Gaspar color. With this process a special triple-layer positive film carries
the corresponding dyes, which are destroyed afterward in a bleach bath and, to a
degree, controlled by the density of the silver image.
Bibliography
Periodicals:
Matthews, Glekn E.: Processes of Photography in Natural Colors, J. Soc. Motion Picture Engrs., 15,
188-219 (1931). This article contains a large list of references.
DtJBRAT, J. A.: The Morgane Color Process, J. Soc. Motion Picture Engrs., 20, 403 (1933).
Spencer, D. A.: Phot. J., July, 1935, p. 377; Penrose Ann. (1938).
Mannbs, L. D., and L. Godowsky: The Kodachrorne Process, J. Soc. Motion Picture Engrs., 24, 65
(1935).
Ball, I. A.: The Technicolor Process, J. Soc. Motion Picture Engrs.. 24, 127 (1935).
Hamlin, L.: Composition of Baths for Color Sensitizing by Bathing, Am. Phot., December, 1935, p. 784.
Strong, J.: On a Method of Decreasing the Reflection from Non-metallic Substances, J. Optical Soc.
Am., 26, 73 (1936).
Renwick, F. E.: Phot. J.. January, 1937.
Baitmbach, H. L.: New Metallic Toners for Three Color Photography, Camera, January, 1937, p. 21.
Capstaff, J. G., O. E. Miller, and L. S. Wilder: Projection of Lenticular Color Films, J. Soc.
Harrison, G. B.: Negative-positive Processing of Dufaycolor, Phot. J., April, 1937, p. 2.50.
Hardy, A. C: Theory of Three Color Photography, J. Soc. Motion Pictzire Engrs., 29, 227 (1937); 31,
331 (1938).
Forrest, J. L., and F. M. Wing: New Agfacolor Process, J. Soc. Motion Picture Engrs., 29,248 (1937).
Ceccarini, O. O.: Color Stills, J. Soc. Motion Picture Engrs., 29, 397 (1937).
Harrison, G. B.: Theory of Additive Three-color Photography, Phot. J., December, 1937, p. 706.
Colour Photographs, Ltd.: Color Separation Negatives, Brit. J. Almanac, 1938, p. 385.
Morse, R. S.: Black and White Prints from Kodachrorne, Am. Phot., January, 1938, p. 1.
MacAdam, D. L.: Fundamentals of Color Measurement, J. Soc. Motion Picture Engrs.. 31, 343 (1938).
Tritton, F. J.: Survey of Photographic Masking Methods for Three and Four Color Printing, Phot.
J., December, 1938, p. 732.
Books:
HtJBL, A. Von: "Three Color Photography," A. W. Penrose & Co., London (1915).
Wall, E. J.: "History of Three Color Photography," Am. Photographic Pub. (1925).
"Practical Color Photography," 2nd ed.. Am. Photographic Pub. (1928).
:
Namias, R.: La fotographia a colori, 5th ed., II progress© Fotografia, Milan (1930).
Wheeler, O.: "Color Photography," Pitman (1935).
Nbwens, F. R.: "The Technic of Three Color Photography," Blackie & Sons, Ltd. (1936).
Dunn, C. E.: "Natural Color Processes," Am. Photographic Piib. (1936).
"The Chromotone Process," 5th ed.. Defender Photo Supply Co. (1937).
Spencer, D. A.: "Colour Photography in Practice," Pitman (1938).
Henney, Keith: "Color Photography for the Amateur," McGraw (1938).
"Wratten Light Filters," Eastman Kodak Co. (1938).
Curtis, T. "Curtis Dufaycolor Printing System," T. S. Curtis Laboratories. Huntington Park, Calif.
S.:
"Modern Masking Method of Correct Color Reproduction," Eastman Kodak Co.
Potter, R. S.: "Methods of Making Three Color Separation Negatives." Defender Photo Supply Co.
"Handbook of Physics and Chemistry," 12th ed.. Chemical Rubber Pub. Co.
"Trichrome Printing by the Autotype Carbro Process," The Autotype Co., Ltd., London, and George
Murphy, Inc., New York.
"Color Printing with Eastman Wash-off Relief Film," Eastman Kodak Co.
"Printing and Toning of Eastman Positive Motion Picture Film," Eastman Kodak Co.
"Practical Color Photography with Finlay Natural Color Process," Finlay Photographic Processes, Ltd.
"The Dufa>coIor Manual," Diifaycolor. Inc., New York.
CHAPTER XXIII
MOTION -PICTURE PHOTOGRAPHY
By Carl Dreher
Introduction.—This chapter is limited to a description of black-and-white pro-

fessional motion-picture photography as practiced in the United States. Aside from
some design differences the same principles govern the art abroad, and since American
practice is generally regarded as occupying a leading place, it has not been judged
necessary to include data on such national peculiarities as exist.
Pic+ure -§^S^r?OL^^\ Sound

Camera Recorder
^-Picture Sounc/,-''
negfctHve negaf/ve
Pic+,ure SouincJ
Pr'm\ier Prin +er
Picfure P/cûre Sound Sound

nega-f-ive negaHve ^''
prinf
£ L
Pic+ure Clombineid Sound
J
Projector Pi{c+ure cjirjiol Projec+or
iSounoJ
IPrin+er
Picture /'Sound
* nega+ive
I
•
Composite p/cûre
and sound prinf
Pic+lure Combined
picture and
sound
Soumd projector
Fig. 1. — Correlation of picture and sound.
Another limitation excludes the treatment of sound recording by photographic

methods, but as by far the greater part of professional motion-picture footage is now
associated with sound tracks, the correlation of action and sound records will be briefly
described here. In some cases, as in certain types of newsreel work and the production
of sound pictures in locations where portability of equipment is essential, sound and
scene are simultaneously recorded on one film, but the usual practice, illustrated in
663
the block diagram of Fig. 1, involves separate, synchronously operated equipments

for recording picture and sound, two negatives, from which separate
resulting in
prints, known as "dailies" or "rushes," are made
for studio viewing and editing
purposes. These dual prints are run on synchronized picture and sound projectors.
For exhibition, however, the sound and picture negatives are printed on a single
0,7445"- ->
-0.050'
O.O/Q!! .—-0.868'-
Gb
mo.osr'R.
CD
Emulsion side up AI76\ 0.1345"
Fig. 2. —Standard film dimensions. {Courtesy of Academy of Motion Picture Arts and
Sciences.)
film, known as a "composite" or "movietone" print, and shown by means of a com-

bined picture and sound projector.
The standard dimensions of a composite 35-mm. print of this type appear in Fig.
2. The camera aperture dimensions, it will be noted, are 0.868 by 0.631 in. The
projector aperture is sufficiently smaller (0.825 by 0.600 in.) to prevent showing the
frame lines in projection. The latter dimensions therefore represent the working area
of the camera field or that portion of the photographed scene which will be shown in
Bl
Blue V ole+
Srden
Gr€ en
ieW
Red
400 450 500 550 600 700 m^t

Fig. 3. — Division of the spectrum into five colors.
the theater. The 4:3 ratio of frame width to height has been found to be satisfactory
from an aesthetic standpoint.
In theater projectors the picture head is located above the sound head, hence, for
synchronism, the sound must lead the picture by an appropriate distance along the
film, which has been fixed at 18 frames. This displacement is effected in the printing
operation.
Since sound is recorded at a standard speed of 90 in. per min., corresponding to
24 frames per second, both photography and theater projection must adhere to the
same speed. Higher or lower speeds may be employed in photography, as for slow-
MOTION-PICTURE PHOTOGRAPHY 665
motion movement in chases, etc., but in

effects or to give the effect of accelerated
either case sound cannot be synchronously recorded; hence the track must later be
adjusted to the picture. Silent pictures were usually photographed at 16 frames per
second, but markedly superior rendition of motion is secured at the present standard of
24 frames.
Films and Film Characteristics. —Before proceeding with a discussion of motion-
picture films and it is well to have in mind the division of the
their characteristics
visiblespectrum into five color areas, as shown in Fig. 3. The numbers at the bottom
of the diagram represent wavelengths in millimicrons (one millimicron equals one-
millionth of a millimeter, or 10 Angstrom units). For a practical understanding of
the spectrographic aspects of the subject the reader will frequently find it necessarj^
to correlate the data presented, both here and in later sections of this chapter, with the
color divisions of Fig. 3.
Negative Films. —The types of negative films now used in 3.5-mm. motion-picture
photography are developments from older and simpler forms. Referring to the wedge
"Ordinary"
blue-sensitive material
Orthochromatic material
men have been enabled to reduce lighting or to stop down lenses and improve depth of
focus —an opportunity of which not all have taken advantage.
Reduction in grain size has entailed the use of appropriate developers, especially
those of the borax type. As will appear in later sections of this chapter, improvements
in lighting and chemical treatment have accompanied improvements in sensitive mate-
Daylight
Eastman Motion Pict\ire

Negative No. 1201
Tungsten
Daylight
Eastman Background X
Negative No. 1230
Tungsten
Daylight
Eastman Super XX
Pan-
chromatic Negative No.
1232
Tungsten
Eastman Motion Picture

Positive Nos. 1301, 13.59, Tungsten
1355 and type B, 1362
Eastman Duplicating Tungsten

Negative. Regular No.
1503 and Fast No. 1.505
Fig. 5. — Wedge spectrograms for Eastman motion-picture films.
rials throughout motion-picture history, and if further progress is brought about in

materials, it will no doubt be reflected in the associated fields of exposure and
processing.
A discussion of motion-picture-film characteristics will have only academic interest
unless it deals with actual materials available in the market. For this reason raw
stocks supplied by the Eastman Kodak Co., the Agfa Ansco Corp., and the DuPont
Fihn Manufacturing Corp. will be named and described on the basis of data on
0.65 1.65 2.65

Log Exposure
Fig. QA. — Z)-logio E curves of Eastman duplicating negative, Fast No. 1505 (ortho-
chromatic).
120
1.00
n 0.80
i 060
5 0.40
0.20
The wedge spectrograms for Eastman motion-picture negative films, together with
certain positive films to be described later, are found in Fig. 5. Except in the case of
duplicating negative and all positive films, which are used only with artificial light, the
2.0
-
w 1.0
1.0 2.0
Relative Log Exposure
Fig. 7 a. —D-logio E curves of Eastman Plus X Panchromatic negative No. 1231.
1.0 2.0
Relative Log Exposure
Fig. 7B, —D-logio E curves of Eastman Super XX Panchromatic negative No. 1232.
12
4 8 12
Minutes
Fig. 8. -Time-gamma curves of Eastman Panchromatic negatives. A, Plus X No. 1231;
B, Background X No. 1230; C, Super XX No. 1232.
wedge spectrograms for both daylight and tungsten exposure are given, the latter being
affected by the greater proportion of red and yellow light. For the duplicating and
positive materials, since they are required to reproduce only half tones, the color
sensitivity is confined to a relatively narrow band.
The Z)-log E and time-gamma curves for the Eastman negative stocks are given in
Figs. 6 through 10. Each figure contains two graphs: the D-logio^ characteristics
2.00
1.80
1.60
i.40
_>.l.20
| 1.00
QQ80
0.60
0.40
020
The Agfa Ansco Corp. likewise supplies a full line of motion-picture films, including
panchromatic, fine-grain background, title, and infrared negatives, and a positive
raw stock of standard characteristics. To avoid additional duplication, only the
two most important Agfa films are illustrated (Figs. 16 and 17). These are fast,
fine-grain, double-coated panchromatic negatives, Nos. 153 and 356. A slower
L40
120
1.00
D 080
Q60
I
^Q40
Q20
The data for the above films are in general self-explanatory in the light of wliat has
been said previously about ordinary, orthochromatic, and panchromatic emulsions.
The special-purpose emulsions, however,
SO
require additional comment. These com-
prise the duplicating negatives (Eastman
1503 and 1505; DuPont 107) and the back-
ground negative (Eastman 1230). 2.0
The latter is used in making "keys" or ?^
"plates "for process photography (see Process
Photography) . Usually these represent out-
1.0
door scenes, such as streets with traffic or
bodies of water, which are rear-projected on
a translucent screen and rephotographed in
combination with foreground action. For
such a purpose it is desirable to utilize a
negative having about the same color
characteristics and latitude as standard
negative, but of extremely fine grain, since
graininess is one of the principal obstacles to effective use of process backgrounds.
The fineness of grain is secured at some sacrifice of speed. The contrast of back-
standard negative, a higher gamma results, and the background print, when developed
to the regular positive gamma, provides the higher contrast desired.
Duplicate negatives are made for protection against loss of the original negative or
excessive wear on it, for release printing in foreign countries, for optical printer treat-
:xu
Fig. 14C. — Spectrogram of DuPont duplicating negative, type 107 (tungsten).
1.00
0.75
EQ50
0.25
0.6 1.2 1.8 2.4 3.0 3.6

Log Exposure (relative)
—
Fig. 15.4. Z>-logio E curves of DuPont
infrared negative, type 105.
tively constant.) The negative-duplicating emulsion contains a yellow dye, which

dissolves in development, to increase resolving power by controlling light scattering,
extending latitude, and holding down maximum contrast. Like the background nega-
tive, the duplicating negative must be of extremely low grain. The speed is sufficient
for optical printing, in which the light reaching the unexposed film may be considerably
less than in contact printing.
reason of refinements in materials and processing, the quality of release prints
By
from duped negatives has been raised to a point where it is often indistinguishable from
Fig. 16B. —Spectrogram of Agfa Supreme panchromatic negative No. 153 (tungsten).
2.0
10.2 m in:
7.0 m in.
Log Exposure
Fig. 17A. —D-logio E and time-gamma curves of Agfa Ultra-speed panchromatic nega-
tive No. 356.
Fig. 17B. —Spectrogram for Agfa Ultra-speed panchromatic negative No. 356 (tungsten).
that of prints taken off original negatives, in spite of the fact that the duped negative
accumulates the defects of three different processings.
Another type of negative differing markedly from panchromatic is the infrared
sensitized form, the processing and spectral characteristics of which are given in Fig.
17. The composition of the emulsion, it will be noted from the spectrogram, is such
that the film is blind in the green-yellow region, the response being confined to the
red and infrared and, at the other extreme, the blue. Such emulsions are useful in
penetrating haze, but, more frequently in cinematography, they are employed to secure
night effects in the daytime. It is only necessary to use a light-red or orange filter to
hold back the blue radiation from the sky, which then photographs dark; while green
4.00
3.80
3.60
5.40
3.20
3.00
2.80
2.60
2.40
^2.20
1 2.00
D 1.80
1.60
1.40
1.20
1.00
0.80
0.60
0.40
020
3.0
2.0
—
-^
Modern motion-picture negative film is generally manufactured with a gray back-

ing or base to reduce halation. The principal cause of this defect, which manifests
itself by halos surrounding bright lights in the scene, is reflection of light from the base
back into the coating. While films having a thin base are less liable to this trouble
2.20
2.00
1.80
1.60
1.40
1.20
1.00
0.80
0.60
0.A0
Q20
Positive Films. —Release prints are made with relatively slow-speed high-contrast
fine-grain noncolor-sensitive emulsions. The spectral characteristic of the Eastman
1301 type has already been shown in Fig. 5. The D-\ogio E curves and the time-
2.60
2.40
2.20
2.00
1.80
1.60
1.40
1.20
1.00
0.80
060
0.40
0.20
the composition of both of these positive developers being given in Laboratory

Practice.
DupUcating positives for master prints, like the duplicating negatives previously
described, are characterized by high resolving power, fine grain, and wide latitude.
In lerchangeable
film magazine
Unexposed Exposed
-- Take-up
roll
Fi/m loop ,
Tension-
^
driven
6aie~ core
~ Guide rollers
Lens—>
- -Driving sprockel
Revolving ''
shulier Guide rollers
În iermlHeni
Fig. 225. —Schematic diagram of camera mechanism.
Fig. 23. — Mechanism of Bell & Howell camera.
Eastman provides two types, the which appear in Fig. 20.

characteristics of
The former (No. 1355) begins to gamma
of about 1.7, while
flatten out at a
the latter (No. 1362), which does not reach the same point imtil a gamma
of about 2.4 is reached, is suitable for use at very high gammas. DuPont also pro-
vides a high-gamma duplicating positive (No. 204), shown in Fig. 21. Duplicating
positives are usually distinguished by a lavender base.
—
Cameras and Their Operation. A motion-picture camera is essentiallj^ a mecha-
nism for driving film intermittently and exposing successive frames while the film is at
rest. Its basic elements are shown schematically in Fig. 22. An unexposed roll of
negative is carried on a freeh^ revolving core on one side (left) of a film magazine.
Fig. 24 J.. — Detail of camera parts (shutter, sprocket, gear train).
Fig. 24:B. — Detail of camera parts (film movement mechanism).
The usual amount of film in such a feed roll is 1000 ft., although 400-ft. magazines are
also furnished.The film is pulled down through a light trap by a sprocket wheel and
its associated guide rollers, whence, in the form of a loop, it is carried to and held flat
in a gate behind the lens. Returning to the other side of the sprocket wheel, it is
finally wound on the take-up roll (right), the core of which is tension driven, so that
as the diameter of the roll increases the rotational speed is proportionate!}" diminished.
The motion of the film is continuous from the feed magazine to the sprocket wheel
and remains continuous on the wheel and later between the wheel and the take-up
Fig. 26. — External view of camera, left side.
roll, but in the gate it must be driven intermittently so that it may be at rest during
the periods of exposure. The intermittent mechanism is shown schematically as a

claw actuated by a cam. The alternation of movement and rest requires a revolving
shutter, shown between the lens and the gate, to cut off the light during the period of
motion and admit it again during the "dwell time " when the film is at rest and exposed
to the light. As pictured in the diagram, the shutter is cutting off the light, its opaque
sector being between the lens and the film.
The sprocket, the intermittent mechanism, and the take-up are driven through
suitable gears by a motor, usually of the synchronous a.-c. type to permit interlocking
with the sound recorder and the accurate maintenance of synchronism at the required
90-in. per min. speed.
The operating elements camera being understood, reference to Fig. 23 will
of the
identify the principal parts ofan actual professional camera. This happens to be a
Bell and Howell model, this company and the Mitchell Camera Corporation being the
principal manufacturers of such equipment in the United States. The lens mount and
Fig. 27.— External ^new of Twentieth Century-Fox silent camera.
motor are absent from the photograph, a hand crank being in place of the latter. The
shutter assembly is the gate, the intermittent mechanism, and the
at the extreme left,
driving sprocket with the various guide rollers being shown successively to the right.
The magazine is mounted above. The path of the film may readily be followed.
In Fig. 24 parts of the camera mechanism are shown in more detail these include —
the shutter, some of the gearing, the sprocket, and the intermittent. It may be men-
tioned at this point that, partly owing to the requirements of process photography,
modern cameras are built with pilot-pin registration movements which keep the film
accurately registered even at speeds up to 128 pictures per second.
Figure 25 shows the camera complete, with magazine, motor, and lens mount, in
an external view from the operating side. The take-up belt shows in this figure.
From this view it is clear that there is much more to a professional motion-picture
camera than the basic parts so far described. Instead of a single lens, four lenses
are mounted on a turret (right) in order to be easily interchangeable. A footage
counter will be noted at the left of the crank. Exposure being controlled both by the
aperture of the lens and the adjustment of the shutter opening (0 to 170° in the model
shown), a dial and control handle are provided for the latter. Dissolves and fades
may be made in the camera manually or automatically, the light being cut off or
increased by variation in the angular opening of the shutter. These operations are
more commonly done in the optical printer (see Process Photography). The prismatic
magnifier used for focusing is just in back of the slot provided for focusing vignettes,
and above the latter there is an exposure indicator plate. In focusing it is also possible
to use an attachment, not shown in Fig. 25, whereby the film is used as a focusing
screen, the image being viewed from the back by transmitted light.
On the left side of the camera (Fig. 26) the view finder is mounted. This
is equipped with mattes corresponding to the various lenses commonly used, defining
the fieldfor each lens. This photograph

also shows a combination sunshade, matte
box, gauze carrier for diffusing purposes,
filter carrier, vignette holder, and an iris for
irising in or out on any desired part of the
picture.
An camera of recent design
interesting
is theTwentieth Century silent model
shown in Fig. 27, developed at the Twentieth
Century-Fox Film studio in Hollywood.
To date this appears to be the only camera
of domestic origin which may be used on
sound stages under normal conditions with-
out some form of "blimp" or sound-insulat-
ing covering. The mechanism has been
silenced to a degree where the cylindrical
housing itself provides sufficient insulation.
The motor of this camera drives direct to
the shutter. The speed with which the film
is moved from frame to frame has been
reduced by about 20 per cent, the accelera-
tion is uniform, and the dwell time is so long
that a 200° shutter opening may be employ-

ed. At the moment of engagement and
disengagement the take-down pins have no FiG. 28.— Hand camera {Bell & Howell).
vertical movement and go straight in and
out of the perforations. All parts are sealed against dirt, sand, and water. The
lens-focusing scale is uniform for any focal-length lens, and by means of a special
optical design incorporating automatic correction for focus and parallax, the view-
finder image always conforms to the image on the film.
In newsreel work small portable 35-mm. silent cameras are often used. These
may be mounted on a tripod, as shown in Fig. 28, or held in the hands. Some types
have a single lens, usually of 50-mm. size and speed //2. 5; others carry a three-lens
turret. They are driven by a hand crank, spring motor, or, less often, by an electric
motor.
Motion-picture lenses are usuall,y of large aperture, ranging to a maximum of
//1. 3 in some sizes. The most frequently used focal lengths are between 25 mm.
(1 in.) to 100 mm. (4 in.), although sizes up to 200 mm. are often kept on hand. The
bulk of the work is usually done with 40-, 50-, and 75-mm. lenses of about //2.0 speed.
Advances in motion-picture lens design have followed progress in the manufacture
of film. As long as motion-picture films were sensitive mainly in the blue region,
lenses were generally constructed to accurate focus for the blue F and yellow D Fraun-
hofer lines. As the spectral range of the film was extended, it became common
practice to bring the blue G
and red C lines to the focal plane. Other correction
requirements have likewise become more critical.
The so-called "zoom" lens is peculiar to motion-picture photography. It is used
to give the effect of a moving shot with a stationary camera, by varying the focal
length and the magnification during the shot. This is accomplished by rotating a
crank coupled with a dial indicating the focal length and magnification. In the Cooke
type of zoom lens the range of focal lengths is 40 to 120 mm. at apertures of //8 and
//5.6. At larger apertures the range is reduced.
Motion-picture cameras are usually mounted on rigid tripods, but for moving shots
a variety of types of "dollies" are employed. One form, known by the trade name
Rotambulator, is shown in Fig. 29 with camera and operator in place. The principal
Fig. 29. — Camera dolly (rotambulator).

requisites of a ease, speed, and quietness of movement.
good dolly are The type
illustrated be fixed in position by lifting the platform off the wheels, the platform
may
may be rotated for "panning," and the camera table may be moved horizontally and
tilted; convenient controls are provided for all these operations.
For three-dimensional movement over wide ranges, camera cranes are utilized.
Some of these are large, elaborate structures carrying two or three men in addition
to the camera, with equivalent counterweighting to ensure fast and safe operation.
common pattern of shooting, derived from experience, is to start with a long or
A
full shot, cut to a medium shot, and then to a close-up, in this way establishing the
scene and the characters and proceeding naturally to an intimate vantage point. Or,
depending on the script, the opposite order may be appropriate in some cases.
The angles and inclusion of field in motion-picture photography vary so widely
that all one can say is that anything is possible and almost everything has been tried,
sometimes with results scarcely repaying the effort. A number of years ago there was
a restless striving, more on the part of directors than cameramen, for grotesque angles,
distorted perspective, and a constantly moving camera. In time this urge corrected
itsown excesses. It is now a generally recognized rule that, while cinematography
should not become a traditional or conventional art, anything bizarre that is done
with the camera should first of all be dramatically purposeful. Movement of the
camera, for example, should not call attention to itself, but to a significant action on
the screen. In itself it does not speed up the tempo of a photoplay, and it may detract
,^mmtmiM^>immUltm»m^....
tubes, adapted from industrial lighting service, were also used. As a rule the lamps
were fixed and the sets were built to conform to the lighting installations,
in position,
in contrast to the modern practice of adjusting the lighting to the sets.
At this time arc and mercury-vapor lamps were not only the sole types available
in the sizes required, but with the "ordinary" and orthochromatic emulsions of the
period they were the most suitable from the standpoint of quality of light. The wedge
spectrograms of Fig. 30 show the spectral characteiistics of sunlight and of the five
principal electrical illuminants. The peculiarity of gaseous-conductor lamps is that
their spectrum consists of a few bright lines, which, especially in the blue and violet,
are adapted to exposures on blvie-sensitive emulsions. This is likewise true of sunlight
and of carbon arcs, which closelj^ reseinble siuilight in that they contain fairly equal
proportions of blue, green, and red. Incandescent lamps, being richer in the red-
j'ellow region, did not become a serious factor in motion-picture lighting until after
panchromatic-sensitive materials were introduced. The general adoption of incan-
descent lighting at this point was greatly accelerated b^^ the requirements of sound, for
the arc lamps of 1928 wei-e by no means as quiet as the types available today.
Spotlighting lamps of the condensing-lens type were first adapted for motion-
picture service from the theater stage. The parabolic-mirror spotlight originated in
lighthouse and military searchlight service. A spotlight is distinguished from a
floodlight by sharply concentrated beam and directivity, but at the beginning these
its
qualities were used in motion-picture lighting principally to project light into deep sets
where the overhead units left shadows. Modeling, the purposeful creation of high
lightsand shadows by means of spotlights, did not come until years later.
Light sources vary in intensity as well as in spectral and directional properties.
Mercury arcs of the Cooper-Hewitt type, as used in early motion-picture practice,
gave a feeble light of the order of 15 foot-candles per sq. in. This degree of brightness
was increased in the quartz mercury arc to 500 to 1000 foot-candles per sq. in. The
tungsten-filament lamp is capable of 10,000 foot-candles, while the carbon arc yields as
much as 100,000 foot-candles per sq. in. in the positive crater. At present there is
some speculation relative to the possibilities of water-cooled high-pressure vapor-type
lamps, but the commercial sources remain the incandescent lamp and the carbon arc.
The basic characteristics of a good lamp for motion-picture photographj'^ may be
summarized as follows:
1. Electrical efficiency, i.e., relatively high ratio of emitted light to power input.
2. Spectral characteristics matching those of the film being exposed.
3. Accurately adjustable directivity and beam width, without dark centers, hot
rings, hot spots, or other nonuniformities, whether in the form of shadows of the lamp
mechanism or optical aberrations.
4. Freedom from "spill light" or random radiation outside the useful beam.
Factors 3 and 4 are correlated somewhat with 1, in that electrical and optical
efficiency are of equal importance in making a sufficient level of illumination available
in the places where it is needed.
In respect to factor 1, even the best modern light sources are only relatively
efficient. For example, incandescent lamps are burned at 21 lumens per watt or at
33 lumens per watt. (The latter figure entails operating the bulb at a temperature
of about 3380°K. bj^ overvolt aging, i.e., burning 90- or 105-volt filaments at 115 volts,
the voltage prevailing on motion-picture sets. This necessarily shortens the life of the
filament but gives a whiter light at greater efficiency.) At 21 lumens per watt the
efficiency of the lamp output /electrical input) is about 11 per cent. At 33
(light
lumens per watt the efficiency is about 17 per cent. The arc lamp, operating at 45
lumens per watt, has an efficiency approximating 23 per cent. Of the total energy
radiated by lighting units, only about a fourth in the case of high-temperature incan-
^
descent lamps and a third in the case of carbon arcs are in the 340 to 700 van photo-
graphic band, the rest being radiant heat in the infrared 700 to 5000 m/x region.
In respect to factor 2, the spectral characteristics given in Fig. 30 may be modified
by filtering at the lamp. For example, in the case of high-intensity arcs, if it is desired
to simulate daylight more closely, the excess blue and violet radiation may be held
back with light straw-colored or amber filters. Conversely, the tungsten lamp may
be brought closer to daylight color balance by means of blue filtering.
The discussion of factors 3 and 4 entails a description of actual types of lamps used
in the studios, prefaced by a further consideration of the two basic methods of light-
ing.^ The traditional division, as we have already seen, is between general lighting
Fig. 31. — Rifle lamp. Fig. 32. — Side-arc.

over the entire set, at an average illumination of 200 to 400 foot-candles, and special-
ized lightingby means of concentrated beams, Aâriously known as "modeling,"
"spot," "personal," and "effect lighting." The latter produce high lights in a scene
already illuminated to the foundation intensitj^ of 200 to 400 foot-candles; these high
lights may be about 400 to 9000 foot-candles. All these figures are merely estimates
since cameramen differ widely in their lighting pecularities, and a "heavy lighter"
may habitually work with intensities two times or more as great as a "low-key lighter."
Moreover, while the distinction between modeling and general lighting is valid and
useful, there is no hard-and-fast division nor is the classification of equipment for one
purpose or the other always rigid. While modeling units are normally employed for
specific lighting in narrow beams (10 to 20°), most types are capable of being flooded
out to angles between 20 and 45°. The angle of demarcation between spotlighting
and floodlighting is generally accepted as 20°.
1 These figures are taken from R. E. J'arnham, Lighting Requirements of the Three-color Techni-
color Process, Am.Cinematographer, July, 1936.
In this, as in some other portions of this section, principal reliance has been placed on the reports
-
of the Studio Lighting Committee of the Society of Motion Pict\ire Engineers, especially the report
published in the January, 1937, issue of J. Soc. Motion Picture En(/rs.
688 HANDBOOK OF PHOTOGRAPHY'
Since general lighting does not present problems of great complexity, in practice it
is usually relegated to the "gaffer" or head electrician of the producing unit. Spot-
lighting, on the contrarj^, being a means of imparting depth and character, is the
responsibility of the cameraman.
Typical general lighting units are shown in Figs. 31, 32, and 33.^ The first shows
a so-called "rifle" lamp, usually mounting a 1000- or 1500-watt incandescent lamp
horizontally in a deep metallic reflecting cup with a spirally corrugated surface. This
and the "side-arc" of Fig. 32 are usually arranged in rows along the camera lines or
in other positions about the set. The "scoop " shown in Fig. 33 is an overhead general
lighting unit. It is an arc type; both the scoop and the side-arc generally incor-
FiG. 3.3. — Overhead scoop.

porate twin 40-amp. flame arcs. Other types of general lighting equipment include
multiple-lamp overhead "strips " of five or more 500- or 1000-watt bulbs. In addition
small auxiliarj^ lamps are often positioned behind portions of the set, as in back of
doorframes, and 250- to 500-watt bulbs are used in visible lighting fixtures to give the
impression that the illumination comes from these sources.
The design of modeling units is, as would be expected, more complicated than that
of floodlighting units. The principal types are the condensing-lens spotlight, the
parabolic-reflector spotlight, and combination forms employing both a
reflector and a
condensing lens. The simple condensing-lens spotlight is characterized by even
distribution of light within the beam and a sufficient spread, but the intensity is
limited by the fact that the lens collects only the light from the forward portion of the
globe, and lens-transmission losses are high owing to the required thickness of the
' The lighting units illustrated in this section and the distibution curves accompanying them were
furnished by Mole-Richardson, Inc.
lens, which must resist considerable heat, and to its long focal length. The reflecting
spotlight is efficient with a sharply concentrated beam, but as the beam is widened, it
The mechanism of a high-intensity arc is portrayed in the photograph of Fig. 39.

The angle between the positive (horizontal) and negative electrodes is 127°. The
1,900
1,800
1,700
^ 1,600
E2_ 1,500
1,400
1,300
I E 1.200
S^ 1,100
7^0 1,000
900
oi h 800
Oi o
700
St 600
600
^: 400
c
300
200
100
, —
Table II. Scope of Lighting
Large size,
Small room, Medium size,
Close-up
20 X 20 ft. 50 X 50 ft.
over 50 X 50
ft.
Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max.
General lighting:
Broadsides, side-arcs, rifles 10 20 20 40
Overhead scoops 10 12 30
Overhead strips or domes . 4 12
Modeling lighting:
36-in. or 24-in. reflectors. . 16
18-in. reflectors 20
Lens spots, large 16
Lens spots, mediurn 24
Lens spots, small
motor continuously while burning, and they may also be adjusted manually. The
motors have grease-packed reduction gears; most of the shafts and other rotating
members are mounted upon ball bearings and are designed for quiet operation on sound
stages. If it is necessary to position a lamp less than 6 •
ft. from a microphone, the motor may be stopped.
The Studio Lighting Committee lists the modeling

units in their usual sizes ^ in Table I.
In a typical interior set most of the lighting equip-

ment is likely to be found on platforms suspended above
the back line and side lines of the set. This overhead
arrangement comprises both general lighting and modeling
lamps, the latter including "back-lighting" units which,
directed diagonally downward from the rear of the set,
high-light the heads and shoulders of the principal actors.
Other lighting units may be disposed on the stage floor
in two rows just off the camera line on either side. For
foUoM'-up or dollj'" shots one or several small lamps are
frequently mounted on the dolly to maintain constant
illumination on the players' faces during the entii'e
maneuver. In order to clear the stage for moving shots,
the tendency is to suspend as much of the lighting equip-
ment overhead as possible.
The total amount of light required increases with the
size of the set and the scope of the shot, being least for
close-ups. The table above gives an idea of the
ordinary limits of lighting equipment in current studio
practice.
Fig. 37. — High-intensity
arc.
I
Diffusion or "silking " —the mterposition of a thin scrim
between the light source and the scene — is intended to scatter the rays and bonce*
lessen glare and reflection. It isproperly employed to avoid harsh lighting and
secure softness of outline, but it should not be carried to the point of fuzziness.
1 This table has been slightlj' modified to conform to later practice.

3^800
3,600
3,400
b 3.200
3,000
Ij
° 2 2,800
£ S 2,600
g Q. 2,400
5R C 2.200
2,000
1,800
§^
1,600
1,400
Ou.
^^ 1,200
1,000
OP
800
g 600
S 400
200
The present trend in motion-picture lighting is to subordinate general lighting to

modeling, even to the extent of eliminating the former entirely.^ This is an outgrowth
of increases in lens speed from maximum values of from //4.5 to //2.0 and beyond,
emulsions having an H
and D speed of less than 400 to speeds of 1000, while shutter
openings have increased from 90 to 120° to 180 and even 200°, and finally the improve-
ments in lighting equipment of recent years. In consequence, it is now felt by many
cinematographers that the conception of general flat lighting as the basis of photog-
raphy is outdated and that convenience and quality are both served by dispensing with
it in favor of spotlighting alone. With this technique the spot lamps are confined to
the light platforms above the set and occasionally supplemented with a few floor
lamps or a lamp mounted on the camera dolly. The shadows are lighted first to the
requisite exposure level, after which the middle tones and high lights are built up.
While the scene is being photographed dimmers are used to raise or lower individual
lighting units for special effects, e.g., to delineate the features of an actor during an
important speech, but these changes are made unobtrusively to avoid distracting the
attention of the audience. It is argued that this method not only takes maximum
advantage of the close relationship between lighting and composition, but enables the
discerning cameraman to exploit the photographic potentialities of a script, both in
respect to the decorative utilization of the sets and the personal lighting of the actors,
to the highest degree.
Many cameramen achieve their effects with only a rudimentaiy understanding
of the principles of optics, chemistry, and scientific photography. The present tend-
ency, however, is toward a more precise handling of the factors involved. For
several years after the introduction of convenient direct-reading photometers or
exposure meters, few cameramen could be persuaded to take an interest in their use.
Now, however, it has become fairly general practice to employ meters, especially of
the photronic type, to read light intensities in foot-candles in vârious parts of the set,
so that more uniform results may be achieved, often more quickly and at less expense.
This practice has been fostered by Technicolor, whose cameramen are obliged to keep
a record of photometric readings of the intensity and direction of light, a procedure
which, according to one color cinematographer, has been of great service in matching
outdoor long shots of actors with close-ups later made indoors.
The photometer is used, not only to determine general exposure, but to balance
lightson the set. For the latter purpose the light received at the camera is too hetero-
geneous, hence the instrument should be read in positions close to the people and such
parts of the set as are photographically important, the lights being adjusted
accordingly.
—
Exterior Photography and Filters. ^Lighting is the foundation of composition and
the basic factor in every photographic operation. In studio photography lighting
is under the cameraman's control, whereas in outdoor photography, while he some-
times has a measure of control, through the use of reflectors and booster lights, over
foreground illumination, he must constantly adapt himself to natural conditions. In
this endeavor the cameraman frequently resorts to the use of filters for such purposes
as penetrating haze, modifying contrast, enhancing cloud effects, holding down the
brilliancy of the sky, and, as already recounted under Films and Film Characteristics,
securing special effects such as simulating night scenes in daylight.
The wider application of filters in outdoor photography has been rendered possible
by the greatly increased color range and speed of modern emulsions. Except for very
special conditions filters are not needed nor used in studio photography.
1 Gatjdio, a., a New Viewpoint on the Lighting of Motion Pictures, J. Soc. Motion Picture Enyrs.,
August, 1937.
The filters usually employed are of the Wratten type put out by the Eastman
Kodak Co. Since more than 100 different forms are available, a comprehensive treat-
ment is impracticable here, but a few examples will be cited, together with sufficient
theory to make these instances intelligible.^
In Fig. 40, top, the reader will note a wedge spectrogram of Eastman pan-
chromatic negative film as already described under Films and Film Characteristics,
taking in the full band from about 400 to about 670 m/x. The effect of a typical
filter, the light yellow Wratten No. 3 (Aero 1), used with daylight illumination, is
shown in the bottom spectrograni. The longer Avavelengths are unaffected, but the
Wedge spectiogiam of
film without filter
(daylight)
0.1
Spectrophotometric
absorption curve of No. 3
filter
S 10 1
100
200 300 400 500 600 700
Wave Length
Wedge spectrogram of
film with filter (daylight)
Fig. 40. —Effect of Wratten No. 3 filter on Eastman panchromatic film with daylight.
shorter wavelengths are cut oft' in the neighborhood of 450 mû. The spectrophoto-
metric absorption diagram in the center shows how the filter produces this effect. The
white area of such a diagram is read downward logarithmically in transmission. per-
centage, while, conversely, absorption is read upward logarithmically in the black
area. Black represents the absorption of the filter, while white shows its transmission.
Ignoring the slight transmission in the ultraviolet, we note that this filter cuts out the
and a portion of the blue up to 450 \nix, and passes the rest of the
ultraviolet, violet,
visible spectrum. Hence this filter would be used whenever suppression of the short-
wave side of the total band is desired.
Since the function of the filter is, by absorption, to prevent a portion of the light
from reaching the film, it necessitates an increase in exposure corresponding to the
degree of absorption. The number of times the exposure must be increased with a
1 For full data on specific filters see "Wratten Light Filters," published by the Eastman Kodak Co.
given filter is the fiilter factor. It is the inverse of the percentage of light transmitted
by the filter; thus if 80 per cent of the incident light is absorbed and 20 per cent trans-
mitted, the filter factor equals 5.0. This
multiplier, however, is not to be regarded as
a constant of the filter, for obviously it de-
pends also on the spectral sensitivity of the
film and the spectral composition of the
light. filter factor is meaning-
Specifying a
less unless thesetwo elements are defined.
For example, the No. 3 filter described would
have a much higher filter factor with a blue-
sensitive emulsion than with a panchromatic
emulsion, the sensitivity of which extends
into the region where the filter has no
absorption. Likewise for light in which
blue-violet predominates the filter factor
would be higher than for tungsten illumi-
nation rich in yellow, orange, and red. This
particular filter has a low multiplying factor
(1.25) for light of normal daylight quality
and a panchromatic material, i.e., it may be
used under these conditions practically with-
out increase in exposure.
Figure 41 shows the effect under the
same conditions of four widely used filters,
in the following order from top to bottom:
Nos. 5, 15(G), 23A, and 72. The absorption
increases in the same order. For purposes
of comparison these four filters and the No.
3 are listed in Table III. -pm. 41.— Effect of Wratten filters on
Filter factors for three panchromatic spectral response of Eastman panchro-
negatives furnished by the Agfa Ansco Cor- matic film with daylight source of illumi-
15(G) filter; 3, 23A
poration are given in Table IV, which has ^ft^^^- i- ^ flter; 2,
., f , , ,. PI filter; 4, 72 filter,
been compiled by the manufacturer of these
films.
In general, a color filter which transmits light of a given color will lighten that color
on the print, while a filter which absorbs light of a given color will darken that color.
Consequently the following effects are typical:
Red filters tend to lighten reds markedly, also to lighten orange and yellow, to
darken blues strongly, and to leave green unchanged.
Yellow filters tend to lighten yellows most, to lighten orange and green to a lesser
degree, to darken blues, and to leave reds unchanged.
Green filters tend to lighten greens and yellows, to darken red, and to leave blue
and orange unchanged.
The filter factor and the increased exposure required necessarily increase with depth
of color, since the darker the filter the more light is lost.
Among the applications of itemized at the beginning of this section, the

filters
elimination of haze sometimes assumes importance, particularly in aerial cinematog-

raphy. Haze and mist are caused by suspended water and dust particles scattering
the violet and ultraviolet rays of the sun. The film being sensitive to these short
wavelengths, a veiling of the distant portions of the landscape results, unless measures
are taken to prevent the fogging light from reaching the film. Strong yellow filters
—
T.\BLE III. Filter Data
Filter
number
Standard negative with heavy filtering will also produce night effects in daylight,
but because of the high exposures required, this method is inferior to the infrared
system.
In marine photography, water reflecting blue sky may be darkened by the use of
yellow or even red filters, without much modification of the foreground.
Polarizing Screens.— Polarizing screens take advantage, not of color differentiation,
like filters, but of the fact that light is a form of transverse oscillation, which may be
limited to a definite direction. Most light is heterogeneously polarized, i.e., the
oscillation occurs in every direction at right angles to the ray. But light passing
through a prism, or reflected from certain mirrorlike surfaces, tends to be plane polar-
ized, and by interposing a polarizing screen such light may be reduced in effect or
eliminated. The screen, when placed over a lens and appropriately orientated, dis-
FiG. 42. — Developing machine.

criminates against polarized reflections which may
be masking detail or otherwise
interfering with the effect sought. It may be used to change contrast. An
also
increase in exposure of four times is usually entailed in such applications.
—
Laboratory Practice. For all practical purposes a discussion of present-day
motion-picture laboratory methods may be confined to machine development and
sensitometric standardization as applied to the large-scale operations which machine
processing has rendered possible. A machine of this type, shown in compact form in
the photograph of Fig. 42, is one in which exposed film is unreeled and drawn con-
tinuously through the developing solution at a speed (for 35-mm. film) in the neighbor-
hood of 100 ft. per min. for negative and 120 ft. per min. for positive, either
by motor-driven sprockets or by a friction drive; then it is rinsed, fixed, and washed in
successive containers; and finally it is dried and spooled at the output end of the
mechanism. The time and degree of development may be varied by changes in the
length of the path traveled, by changes in the speed of travel, or both.
The primary control instruments of laboratory processing are the sensitometer and
the densitometer, which are described elsewhere in this volume. The usual form of
sensitometer available in motion-picture laboratories operates on the time-scale prin-
ciple and utilizes a calibrated light source to impress on a strip of film a graduated
series of exposures, in exposure times multiplied successively by ^2
(1.414), so that
21 steps will produce an over-all range of exposures of 1024 to 1. The density of the
sections of such a record may be determined in two ways: (1) on a direct-reading
densitometer of the optical comparison type, in which a single source furnishes light
for the area under measurement and the comparison beam ; or (2) on an electric densi-
tometer, in which a modulated light source excites a constant type of photocell feeding
a constant-gain amplifier which actuates an indicating instrument of the rectifier type
through a calibrated attenuator. In this case the attenuator setting required to give
a reference reading is a measure of the density. Both types of densitometer in their
conventional forms read diffuse density in the range to 3.
The reader is assumed to be familiar with the theory of H and D
and time-gamma
curves. The distinction between gamma and contrast, however, may well be reiter-
ated in this section. Gamma affects contrast but is not its sole determinant. Con-
trast depends on the range of light intensities in the scene, as well as on
gamma regarded as a function of the emulsion, the developing solution, and the time
of development. Contrast therefore is the broader term; it has to do with a photo-
graphic result, a mingling of high lights and shadows affecting the eye. Picture nega-
tives of the same scene on the same material, developed to the same gamma, will still
show varying contrast if the conditions of illumination under which they were exposed
were different. It follows that a sensitometric strip merely gives information on the
degree of development, the gamma, and not on the contrast of variously exposed
negatives going through the same bath in the same time.
There are two methods of motion-picture laboratory operation in common use,
known respectively as the " time-and-temperature " or "constant-time" system, and
the "test" system. The time-and-temperature system is based on the maintenance
of a constant laboratory condition to which the cameraman is expected to adjust his
exposures. The chemical formula of the solution, the temperature, the time of devel-
opment, the turbulency, and consequently the gamma are assumed to be fixed within
permissible limits of tolerance. The cameraman relies on his negative going through
the same bath each day at the same footage speed; consequently the only variations
in theproduct should be those which he purposely aims for in lighting and exposure.
The method is same premises as other applica-
essentially a scientific one, based on the
tions of technology in mass production, and it offers similar advantages of impersonal
operation, standardized procedure, and rationalization. At the same time it should
not interfere with any artistry of which the cameraman is capable, since he is free to
move the camera, to shoot from any angle with any filters and lenses he may choose,
and to dispose his lights as he sees fit.
The system, as the name implies, involves the exposure of test strips 5 to 15 ft.
test
in length at the end of each scene, all conditions remaining the same as during the
takes. These test strips are furnished to the laboratory and developed in 2- or 3-ft.
sections at the time which has been found to give the desired results for the run of
normally exposed negative. A visual inspection is made of each developed strip by a
timer or supervisor. If the strip is correctly developed the takes go through at the
normal footage speed. If it appears that a higher or lower speed would be desirable,
or, inthe case of seriously xmder- or overexposed negative, necessary, appropriate

adjustments are made. What usually happens is that the bulk of the day's footage
goes through at the normal speed, but a few scenes may deviate, sometimes by several
minutes' development more or less.
An obvious advantage of the test system is that it affords a degree of protection

to the studio and the cameraman against mistakes in exposure. It is certainly to be
preferred in those cases where the cameraman has been "fighting light" outdoors late
in the afternoon — —
perhaps shooting under protest to get the requisite number of
scenes for the day. It also permits over- and underdevelopment of negative as a
means of securing uniformity in printing, but at the expense of quality —
a dubious
advantage. The disadvantages are the extra handling to which the negative is sub-
jected in rewinding to detach and segregate the tests; the possibility of misjudgment
by the timer; the possibility of conflict between the cameraman and the laboratory
over questions of timing; and the tendency of some cameramen to rely on the labora-
tory to save them from the consequences of their under- and overtimings, to the
ultimate deterioration of their work.
Whatever method is used, sensitometric control is required to keep the solutions
constant, since variations in the "soup," whether erratic or gradual, are as little
desired in laboratories employing the test system as in those which adhere to the con-
stant-time system. When a new developer is mixed, it is necessary to determine the
footage speed and development time which, for normally exposed negative, will yield the
desired gamma. This involves varying the speed in the neighborhood of the normal
speed, developing a number of sensitometric strips on the same photosensitive material
as the negative which is to be developed, and from the resulting data constructing a
short time-gamma curve from which the time and footage speed corresponding to the
desired gamma may be read off. If the constant-time system is in use, all the negative
then goes through at this speed, but every hour or half-hour the constancy of the
conditions must be rechecked by the same procedure, a single strip being usually
sufficient. Unless the original test is duplicated for both density and gamma, adjust-
ments in the developing solution are required. Aside from variations in the agitation
and temperature, which are unlikely in modern laboratories, an important variable is
the chemical change in the developer as it acts on large quantities of film. It is neces-
sary to replenish or "boost" it periodically, and the proper amount to be added is
indicated by the tests, although usually it is quite accurately known from experience.
New developer may be added manually or, preferably, by the drip method of constant
admixture.
By the control methods described, the average negative gamma varies among
motion-picture laboratories between 0.60 and 0.75, with an average of 0.67. The
gamma is normally controlled to ±0.03.
Another application of sensitometric control which requires mention is in connec-
tion with new emulsion numbers of raw stock, which must be correlated with the
outgoing emulsion number. This is particularly important in connection with positive
stock in order to ensure uniformity in release prints. The procedure is to select a
number of rolls of the old and the new coatings, and to make from two to five sensito-
metric strips from each. Lengths of both emulsions are then printed on a master
printer, maintained with special care mechanically, electrically, and optically as a
reference machine. A selected picture negative is used as a standard for this printing.
The prints on all the samples are made at the printer step which was correct for the old
emulsion, and the sensitometric strips and prints are developed together under the
preexisting conditions. The step densities are then read on the densitometer and
plotted,whereupon any required change in printer point to compensate for the change
from the old to the new emulsion becomes apparent.
Prints for studio use are a relatively small part of the work of the laboratory's
printing department, in comparison with release printing, which usually requires
several hundred copies of each feature in the form of composite prints. Modern
printers operate at speeds of about 180 ft. per minute. A typical picture printer is
shown in Fig. 43. This is a contact printer, a printer in which the negative and
i.e.,
positive pass through the same gate together. Contact printers are of two kinds step
:
printers and continuous printers. The step printer resembles the camera and the
picture projector in that the two films are carried past the printing aperture and the
positive exposed through the negative frame by frame, a shutter being used to cut
is
off the light while movement is taking place. The exposure is controlled by variation
of the light. This type of printer has a straight gate. In the continuous printer, as
the name indicates, the movement of the two films past the aperture is uniform.
Exposure may be varied by changing the width of the aperture or the intensity of
the light, the latter being more common. To reduce slippage between the two films,
the gate of the continuous printer is curved. The picture may be printed on either
type, but sound records can be printed only on a continuous printer. In making
Fig. 4.3. — Picture printer.
composite prints sound and picture may be printed consecutively, the picture being
masked while sound is being printed, and vice versa. However, combined sound and
picture printers are now in extensive use for making composite prints; these have twin
mechanisms and optical systems to permit the positive film to be exposed successivelj''
to sound and picture in one operation, the light being adjusted in each case to the
proper intensity. This adjustment is usually made automatically by electromagnetic
control devices actuated by notches in the edge of the film or bj'^ traveling mattes in
the shape of auxiliary films.
In the development of prints a constant gamma is maintained much as in the case
of negative. Sensitometric strips exposed on positive stock are developed at regular
intervals in each positive developing machine, and the time of development adjusted
accordingly. The positive bath must be replenished in the same manner as the nega-
tive bath.
Printing exposure is in steps, one step, or point, being equivalent to 0.05 log E. In
the better maintained laboratories, the positive gamma is maintained to within ±0.05,
or one-half a printer point. Positive gammas vary between 1.8 and 2.3, occasionally-
going higher. The average value is 2.10. The laboratory may vary the positive
gamma to smooth out screen contrast where the gamma of the negative is too high or
too low.
The product of the negative gamma and the positive gamma is called the "over-
all" or "reproduction" gamma; its importance is that it expresses the ratio of the
brightness differences of the positive in relation to those of the subject. Owing to the
presence of stray light, both in photography and projection, there is a tendency for
the picture on the screen to have less contrast than the subject, unless the loss is
compensated for by making the over-all gamma greater than unity. Accordingly
it is common laboratory practice to work to over-all gammas not lower than 1.2.
While most of the secondary features of development and laboratory operation

must necessarily be passed over here, one point in developing-machine design deserves
mention: the problem of overcoming directional effects in development. As the film
is fed through the machine, the products of development (mainlj- oxides and bromide
salts) tend to diffuse from areas of greater exposure into adjacent areas, in a direction
counter to the direction of travel. The effect is to reduce the density of areas adjacent
to and following regions of high exposure; thus a sensitometric strip passed through the
machine with the light end leading will evidence a different characteristic than with
the dense end leading.
In order to overcome this distortion, methods of turbulation and agitation have
been devised to prevent the deposition of the development products which cause the
trouble. The developer may, for example, be forced through nozzles beneath the sur-
face of the fluid, and the resulting jets agitate the developer sufficiently to minimize
such irregularities.
It has already been remarked that improvements in emulsions and lighting are
closely correlated with improvements in development and other phases of laboratory
operation. These relationships are illustrated by the work which has been done on
developers in recent years. The primary ingredients of a developer are the reducing
agent; an accelerator, which is usually an alkali; and a preservative, generally sodium
sulphite. With orthochromatic film a very active developer, of the type now termed
"dynamite soup," was necessarily used, since the film was slow and the light sources
inefficient. The strong alkaline accelerator tended to cause grain clumping in develop-
ment. As emulsions improved it became desirable to devise a more restrained devel-
oper of the borax type, such as is now in general use. This utilizes a weaker alkali,
borax (sodium tetraborate), in combination with an excess of sodium sulphite, which
has a solvent action on silver halides as well as preservative properties against aerial
oxidation. Slower developers of this type afford a much finer grain characteristic.
The following are the compositions of the widely used negative and positive devel-
opers mentioned in Films and Film Characteristics:
Negative Developers
P'ORMULA D-76
Elon 2 g.
Hydroquinone 5 g.
Sodium sulphite (desiccated) 100 g.
Borax (granular) 2 g.
Water to make 1 1.
Formula ND-2
Rhodol (metol or Elon) 2.5 g.
Hydroquinone 3 g.
Borax 5 g.
Water to make 1 1.
5
702 handbook of photography
Positive Developers
Formula D-16
Water 750. cc.
Elon 0.31 g.
vSodium sulphite (desiccated) 39 6
. g.
Hydroquinone 6.0 g.
Sodium carbonate (desiccated) 18.7 g.
Potassium bromide 0.86 g.
Citric acid . 0.68 g.
Potassium metabisulphite 1.5 g.
Cold water to make 1.0 1.
The chemicals in the D-16 formula are to be dissolved in the above order. The
replenisher differs somewhat from the composition of the original mixture, prin-
cipally in that it contains twice as much sodium carbonate and half again as much
hydroquinone.
Formula PD-2
Water S75.0 cc.
Rhodol (metol or Elou) 1.7 g.
Sodium sulphite (anhydrous) 67. g.
Hydroquinone 8.5 g.
Sodium carbonate (monohydrated) 26.0 g.
Potassium bromide .75 g.
Final volume 1.0 1.
Numerous other phases of motion-picture laboratory practice are outside the

scope of this chapter. These include preferred layouts for laboratory buildings;
fixing, washing, and drying; reduction and intensification; reclamation of silver from
exhausted solutions; printer maintenance; storage of film; preservative treatment of
finished prints; inspection, etc. For material on these subjects the reader is referred
end of the chapter and especially to the Report of the Com-
to the bibliography at the
mittee on Laboratory Practice of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers, and the
Eastman book on "Motion Picture Laboratory Practice."
Process Photography. —The
term "process photography" includes a variety of
special effects, such as the making
of dissolves, fades, and wipes, as well as more com-
plex forms of scene-to-scene transitions of the montage type; the making of titles;
reduction of 35-mm. films to substandard sizes; the improvement of faulty negatives
by optical methods; providing backgrounds for studio production; trick shots of all
kinds, usualljr involving matting, multiple exposure, etc.; combinations of photographs
of real people and animals with photographs of cartoons or puppets; combinations of
photographs of scenic paintings with photographs of real people, animals, and sets; and
combinations involving the use of miniature models. Some of these effects may be
secured in a standard motion-picture camera, either by itself or equipped with simple
accessories like bipack magazines, but the majority require special apparatus, such as
animation stands, optical printers, rear-projection equipment, etc. Moreover, the
technique of process photography is so involved that normallj'' it cannot be applied
readily to day-by-day production activities and is better left for "aftertreatment,"
which affords the additional advantage of allowing preliminary editing of the picture
before final decisions are made on what effects are to be employed and where they
shall be inserted.
Composite photography as a means of supplying backgrounds has greatly extended
the range of dramatic production and at the same time reduced expense, since it is
usually cheaper to bring a scene to the studio photographically instead of transporting
cHst,company, and equipment to a distant location. It makes possible effects which
could not be secured without prohibitive difficulty or danger in the field. Actuallj'' at
Y
MOTION-PICTURE PHOTOGRAPH 703
the present time the only method in extensive commercial use is the rear-projection
system, but of the numerous earlier techniques one, the color-separation or Pomeroy-
Dunning system, deserves a brief treatment for its historical importance and beca\ise
it is a classic illustration of photographic ingenuity.
Figure 44 is a schematic diagram of this method. It is desired to superimpose the

foreground action of the two men on a previously photographed background scene. A
dye-image transparency is printed from the background negative, and, as indicated in
the figure, this "key" or "plate" is threaded through a special camera in front of and
in contact with an unexposed negative. The most common color for the transparency
is orange or yellow. The foreground action is lighted from above in the same color.
Obviously, then, the foreground action will photograph through the transparency and
form a latent image on the negative.
A plain backdrop is suspended behind the action and strongly illuminated with
white light. The color of the backdrop bears a minus relation to the color of the
transparency and the foreground light; thus for a yellow transparency the backdrop
Background lighi-
•round li'ghi of
Foreground ^^>, ^
'
same color as -trans- P^ \ ^^^^s^C
parency
^cy (yellow) ^^^^ l_\ V^^<:<
Colored -Iransparency ^ Colored
(yellow) backdrop
Unexposed
negaiive ^^Y^/ (blue)
jjb — Camera
Spec/al
camera
' - ^^le/
'
I
, j
I
\
Foreground aciion
Fig. 44. — Composite photography by color-separation method.
will be the complementary blue. The blue light reflected from the backdrop, entering
the lens of the camera, acts as a printing light for the transparency; where the trans-
parency is a dense yellow, no blue rays will penetrate to the negative; where the trans-
parency is light and 'the foreground action does not block the reflected blue of the
backdrop, an image of the background will be formed on the negative. Thus a com-
posite negative of the foreground actionand the background scene will result.
The Pomeroy-Dunning system is that the back-
principal disadvantage of the
ground is invisible while the composite photograph is being made, which may be a
serious drawback whenever the foreground action must be synchronized with move-
ment in the background, such as moving traffic. This defect is overcome by the
rear-projection method of composite photography, shown in Fig. 45. Here the key
print is projected from a special projector to the rear side of a translucent sanded-glass
or cellulose screen. Sufficient light is used to permit rephotographing by a camera,
which driven synchronously and phased with the projector. The camera and
is
projector motors are of the interlocked type, operating from a common source of
alternating current, and by reason of the phasing the projected picture is at rest while
the camera shutter is open. (Hence the projector requires no shutter.) The fore-
ground action is lighted in the usual way. The main requirement for satisfactory
results is a steady high-quality contrasty background negative (see Films and Film
1 ,
Characteristics) and accurately registered prints free from excessive grain, dirt,
scratches, etc., which would tend to show up in the final picture.
The principal implement of aftertreatment is the optical printer, shown schemati-
cally in Fig. 46. The printer head on the right is essentially a lensless projector equip-
ped with a 500- or 1000-watt light source, providing uniform, diffused illumination at
high intensity. It is usually a rebuilt motion-picture camera fitted with a registration
or pilot-pin movement and mounted on a lathe bed opposite the photographing camera
on the left, which is likewise equipped with a registration movement. Camera and
Trans lucerr^
screen y
Foreground li'gh /
(whi'-f-e) ^^ Projecior synchron-
ized and phased
wi'ih camera
S-fandard ProJecTor ^cj

camera angle
|
/
Camera afigje /
Foreground ac+i'on
Fig. 45. — Composite photography by rear-projection method.
printer head are driven in exact synchronism from a common shaft. While the image
in the printer head moving, the camera shutter is closed; exposure occurs while both
is
films are stationary. The lens shown between the camera and the projector is designed
for unit magnification; it may be an ordinary camera lens stopped down to//8 or//ll,
although lenses especially corrected for photographing at short distances are preferred.
Exposure may be controlled hy altering the intensity of the printer light, the lens
aperture, the shutter opening, or, in special cases, the speed of printing. The speed
depends mainly on the work being done, 40 ft. per min. being about the maximum and
bate confaining frame , Special proJecTo

ior
of f/lm being phoi-ographed i or prinfernead
A fade is made in an optical printer by placing a master print in the projector and
copying it on a new or duplicate negative, frame by frame. At the desired point the
operator starts to close the camera shutter and continues to close it at a rate deter-
mined by the length of the fade. To fade in, the process is reversed. For a dissolve,
where the outgoing and incoming scenes overlap, a double exposure is required, the
dupe negative being exposed first to the scene fading out and then to the scene fading
in, so that the two superimpose. (A fade, in which the screen goes black, denotes a
considerable length of time; a dissolve indicates a briefer interval.) Instead of cross
fading for dissolves, "wipes" may
be used, a moving edge or outline, in a variety of
shapes, obliterating one scene and bringing in the next. This may be accomplished
in the optical printer by means of a moving shutter geared to the driving mechanism.
More complex composite effects are often managed in the optical printer by means
of masks, stationary or traveling. A stationary matte or mask is one which blocks
out the same portion of one of the components of a composite scene; it is simply an
opaque material appropriately cut and inserted in a slot in front of the unexposed
negative. When the area to be blocked out shifts in size or position, a traveling matte
of film must be made, usually by intensification, and threaded appropriately with the
print which is to be masked. The desired action then prints through the transparent
portion of the mask. In this way montage effects or other composites of several
films may be made, and the method also lends itself to trick effects of various kinds.
Often multiple masking and multiple printing are required to give the desired illusion.
A detailed description of trick photography is not within the scope of this discus-
sion, but one elementary illustration may be given. Let us assume that it is desired
to show an actor working with a lion in a cage, the lion or the actor being of a disposi-
tion which precludes any actual fraternization between them. The scene may be
photographed with the man at one side of the cage going through the appropriate
action in the absence of the lion; the man then withdraws and the lion, persuaded by
suitable means to remain on the opposite side of the cage, performs his role and is
photographed. It is then a simple matter to combine the desired halves of the two
negatives in the optical printer, matting off the undesired halves in turn and producing
a dupe negative which shows the actor and the lion apparently occupying the cage
together. The same effect could, of course, be obtained by matting and double expo-
sure in the original photography, with the camera kept in the same position through-
out, but it is generally preferable from the standpoint of both time and quality to
resort to the optical printer.
As composite photography, in optical printing everything depends on accurate
in
registration, clean prints on stock of appropriate characteristics, and good laboratorj'
procedure. In addition, it is necessary to take into account the fact that optical
printing tends to introduce a change in contrast which is not encountered in contact
printing. This is particularly the case with specular illumination, where the light is
dispersed by the reduced silver in the print to an extent depending on the density, so
that there is slight dispersion in the high lights and heavy dispersion in the shadows.
In contact printing the dispersed light still reaches the new negative, so that the effect
is of no great practical consequence, but in optical printing the dispersed light is lost
before it Thus the contrast
reaches the lens, causing a loss of exposure in the shadows.
is in effect increased —doubled
some cases. The remedy is to use softer prints and
in
to develop the negative to a lower gainma if necessary.
An animation or title stand used in cartoon and title work comprises a camera
arranged to photograph film, title cards, drawings on celluloid, etc., by either trans-
mitted or reflected light. The material to be photographed is mounted on an easel,
which is generally positioned in the horizontal plane below the camera, the latter
shooting down along a vertical optical axis. The camera may be driven at a wide
,
range of speeds. Many of the operations described in connection with the optical
printer, such as the making of wipes and special transitions, may be conveniently per-
formed on such a stand. Effects titles, in which action or scenery appears behind
title lettering, are made by a process of double-negative exposure from a title positive
and a scenic or action positive, the former having previously been prepared by exposing
film to a title card. The more intricate title and transition effects are made on the
optical printer rather than on title cameras.
Various types of effect shots involve paintings or miniatures. For example, a
painting on glass, in correct perspective size, may be interposed between the lens of an
ordinary camera and a set. Solid miniatures are commonly used, not only to save
expense, but to show scenes of destruction—train wrecks, bombing of towns, etc.—
which could not be filmed in actualit5^ The correlations between the size of a minia-
ture, the speed with which action takes place in or around it, the angles of photography,
etc., are mathematically and experimentally determined and, when properly carried
out, convey a convincing illusion of reality.
Sometimes three-dimensional "miniatures" are themselves of considerable size
and cost. One miniature of the city of London occupied a medium-sized dirigible
hangar used as a stage. In a recent marine film miniature frigates 18 ft. long, complete
with cannon, 16-ft. masts, etc., were used for battle scenes, at a cost stated to be about
1 per cent of that of full-sized vessels. Long- or medium-shot pictures of these
miniatures were intercut with close-up action filmed on part of the main deck of a ship
built to full size on a stage, where rear projection supplied sea, sky, and land
backgrounds.
Miniature rear-projection screens are sometimes built into three-dimensional
miniatures, the edges of the screens being camouflaged so that the action which takes
place on them will merge photographicallj^ with the rest of the scene. There is no
limit to the combinations which may be devised or to the cinematic effects which
ingenuity may produce by such methods.
Bibliography
Periodicals:
Dunning, Carroll H.: Dunning Process and Process Backgrounds, J. Soc. Motion Picture Engrs.,
November, 1931.
Walker, Vern: Special Process Technic, J. Soc. Motion Picture Engrs., May, 1932.
Leaht: Time-and-Temperature vs. the Test System for Development of Motion Picture Negative,
J. Soc. Motion Picture Engrs., May, 1932.
Httse: Sensitometric Control in the Processing of Motion Picture Film in Hollywood, J. Soc. Motion
Picture Engrs., July, 1933.
Report on Progre.ss in Setting Up Laboratory Controls to Improve Release Print Quality, Acad. Motion
Picture Arts Sciences, Research Council Tech. Bull., July 27, 193.5.
Meyer: Sensitometric Studies of Processing Conditions for Motion Picture Films, J. Soc. Motion
Picture Engrs., September, 193.5.
Dunn, Lynn: Optical Printing and Technic, J. Soc. Motion Picture Engrs., January, 1936.
Strohm, W.^lter: Progress in Lighting Means Economy, Am. Cinematographer January, 1936. ,
Jackm.^n, F.: Process Shot Economics Made "Captain Blood" Possible, Am. Cinematographer, February,
1936.
Reportof Committee on Laboratory Practice, J. Soc. Motion Picture Engrs.. April, 1936.
Husb: The Characteristics of Eastman Motion Picture Films, Am. Cinematographer, May, 1936.
Meyer: Describing Agfa's Infra Red Film, Am. CineTnatographer, May, 1936.
Farnham, R. E.: Lighting Requirements of the Three-color Technicolor Process, Am. Cineinatographer
July, 1936.
Green, Howard: Matching Technicolor Exteriors with Artificial Sunlight, Am. Cinematographf:r,
October, 1936.
Good, Frank B.: Using the Photometer to Balance Set Lighting, Am. Cinematographer, November,
1936.
Db Mille, Cecil: .\ Director Looks at Process Shots, .4m. Cincmatograplur, November, 1936.
MOTION-FICTURE PHOTOGRAPHY 707
Technical Progress of the Industry during 1936, Am. Cinematographer, December, 1936.
Report of the Studio Lighting Committee, J. Soc. Motion Picture Engrs., January, 1937.
Btjttolph, L. J.: Mercury Arcs of Increased Brightness and Efficiency, J. Soc. Motion Picture Engrs.,
January, 1937.
Richardson, E. C: Recent Developments in High-intensity Arc Spotlamps for Motion Picture Pro-
duction, J. Soc. Motion Picture Engrs., February, 1937.
NoRLiNG, J. A.: Trick and Process Cinematography, J. Soc. Motion Picture Engrs., February, 1937.
Lindsay and Wolfe: A Wide-Range, Linear Scale Photoelectric Cell Densitometer, J. Soc. Motion
Picture Engrs., June, 1937.
Gaudio, a.: a New Viewpoint on the Lighting of Motion Pictures, J. Soc. Motion Picture Engrs.,
August, 1937.
Richardson, E. C: Recent Developments in Motion Picture Set Lighting, /. Soc. Motion Picture
Engrs.
Jaceman, F. W.: The Evolution of Special-effects Cinematography from an Engineering Viewpoint,
J. Soc. Motion Picture Engrs., September, 1937.
Ives-Crabtrbe: Two New Films for Duplicating Work, J. Soc. Motion Picture Engrs., September. 1937.
Hough-Leaht: Infra-red Negative as .\pplied to Special Effects Photography, J. Soc. Motion Picture
Engrs., September, 1937.
Book:
"Motion Picture Laboratory Practice and Characteristics of Eastman Motion Picture Films," Eastman
Kodak Co.
CHAPTER XXIV
AERIAL PHOTOGKAPHY
By Leon T. Eliel
Introduction. —
There are two possible objectives in taking aerial photographs:
(1) to produce a picture; (2) to make a map.
We draw a clear line of distinction between the use of this material for picture and
for map purposes. The picture is a product which is to be looked at, to be used for its
artistic and visual value and for its commercial applications where nothing but the
photographic impression is required.
Maps compiled from aerial photography may also have photographic or visual
value, but they are primarily maps made to scale for technical uses.
Two kinds of aerial photographs are taken to be used for such visual information
as can be derived from them. The most commonlj'' used is the oblique photograph,
which is so termed because the camera axis is held obliquely at the time of exposure
(Fig. 1). Most aerial photographs which are used for illustrative purposes are of this
type.
The second type of aerial photograph used for visual purposes is the vertical photo-
graph (Fig. This photograph approaches being a map, although, because of
2).
various inherent defects and distortions, it cannot be considered as a map until it has
been processed for this purpose.
Oblique photographs have a variety of uses including advertising; progress pic-
tures; reports; collateral information to illustrate maps; recording emergencies such
as floods, earthquakes, etc.; city planning uses for zoning, building counts, rate litiga-
tion, etc.; and a variety of other subjects.
Vertical photographs are extensively used for geological study, timber cruising,
city planning, and right-of-way work. The most extensive recent use has been on the
part of the Agricultural Adjustment Administration of the United States Department
of Agriculture for checking contract compliance on the part of farmers operating under
AAA benefits.
These vertical photographs are suitable for viewing stereoscopically in relief and,
when properly handled in conjunction with certain measurements made on the ground,
can render information of reasonable accuracy.
Maps compiled from aerial photographs may be of a number of kinds:
1. Photographic mosaic maps
2. Line maps:
a. Planimetric maps (Fig. 3, page 710) (showing detail projected on one plane)
6. Contour maps (Fig. 4, page 711) (showing elevations in addition to
planimetric detail)
upon later
Details of most of the applications broadly noted above will be enlarged
With the general scope of aerial photography thus in mind, we can now
in this article.
proceed with some detailed considerations of the technique involved.
—
Requirements of Aerial Photography. Airplane. For oblique photography,
almost any kind of an airplane that is big enough to carry a pilot, a photographer, and
708
AERTAL PHOTOGRAPHY 709
Fig. 1. —Typical oblique aerial photograph.
Fig. 2 -\'ertical photograph, suitable for mapping, taken by single-lens

a. camera suitable.
is The airplane should be chosen, however, with the foUowinp;
thoughts mind. It must have a suitable window which can be opened to permit
ill
securing of the photograph without having any of the airplane structure, such as the
wing tip and the tail, show in the picture. The airplane should be one which can fly
reasonably slowly. The pilot and the photographer should be within speaking range
of each other, as the closest kind of cooperation is essential to success.
The selection of an airplane for vertical photography is more complicated (Fig. 5).
In the first place, the airplane must have a floor structure through which an adequate
Fig. 3. — Planimetric map which may be compiled from aerial photographs.
camera hole and window for the pilot may be cut. The airplane should carry an
adequate gasoline supply and it should have sufficient horsepower to take its full load
of crew% photographic equipment, and gasoline to comparatively high altitudes. Most
vertical photography these days is being done at an elevation of about 15,000 ft. above
it is frequently necessary for the airplane to go as high as 25,000
ft.
sea level, although
This airplane must be reasonably fast in order to combat the high wind velocities that
are often encountered at high altitudes. It must be reasonably free from vibration,
which might be imparted to the camera. Furthermore, it is desirable to select an
airplane affording the pilot maximum visibility, forward, dowm, and to the side. For
this reason, an airplane with a single seat in the pilot's compartment and a
narro\\'
AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY 711
Fig. 4. —Contour maps of this type may be made from aerial photographs.
Fig. 5. — Type of airplane suitable for aerial photography.

fuselage is preferable to one with side by side arrangement, as in the latter case the
pilot has difficulty in seeing downward on the far side of the ship and usually has to
move back and forth from one seat to the other. Stability is another essential charac-
teristic ofthe mapping airplane, as instability results in nonuniformity of overlap,
badly tilted pictures, and furthermore keeps the pilot so busy in attempting to
maintain an even keel that his efforts toward precision navigation are seriously
impaired. The mapping airplane, in addition to the usual instruments, needs to have
an exceptionally good compass, which is free from lag and undue oscillation. A
sensitive-type altimeter is also important because the ordinary type of airplane altim-
eter has so much lag that the elevation
can change appreciably before the alti-
meter is affected. Another instrument
which is important is a strut thermometer
giving the temperature of the outside air.
This is essential in making corrections to
the altimeter reading.
Camera. —A great variety of camera
equipment is employed in the various
phases of aerial photography and aerial
mapping. One particular company
engaged type of work utilizes 15
in this
different kinds of cameras, each for a
different purpose.
For oblique photography, the camera
question is comparatively simple.
Acceptable obliques have been secured by
homemade cameras and modified stand-
ard cameras, although a regular aerial
camera is desirable. Factors to be taken
into consideration in selecting a camera
for oblique photography are
1. Focal length. The focal length
Fig. 6. — Nine-lens camera for making
'should be as long as practical. A com-
aerial photographs, mounted in floor of
plane. Note oxygen arrangement. promise must be effected between the
long focal length which is desirable and
weight and mobility. The camera must be light enough so that a man can easily
handle it, point it, and move quickly with the camera in his hands from one subject
to another. The most satisfactory all-round focal length for oblique photography is
12 in. This lens is generally used on a 7- by 9-in. photograph.
2. Speed. Lenses for oblique photography should have a speed of //4.5 or faster.
3. Filters. The lens should be equipped with a bayonet type of filter, so that
filters may be switched in the air as different conditions of haze, visibility, and light are
encountered.
4. Exposure. Oblique photographs are generally exposed at M50 sec. or faster.
The camera should be equipped with a couple of solid grips for holding and pointing
it,with a trigger which is convenient to be operated while holding the camera by the
grips. It should have a single-winding action, which changes the film .and resets the
shutter in one operation. An ordinary negative glass finder with peep sight is quite
satisfactory-.
The camera requirements for vertical photography are much more complex. In
common use today are focal lengths ranging from 2 to 24 in. Cameras vary in con-
struction from conventional single-lens instruments to nine-lens instruments. Various
:
manufacturers supply aerial cameras either with or without interchangeable maga-

zines and the cameras are classified as precision or nonprecision, depending upon
whether they are suitable for merely taking vertical aerial photographs or whether
they are calibrated instruments supplying pictures which may be made into contour
maps.
A whole chapter could easily be devoted to a discussion of aerial cameras suitable
for vertical photography. The following characteristics are common to all such aerial
cameras
1. The camera must be suitable for suspending in a vertical mount, taking a
picture through the floor of the airplane.

2. The mount must be of the gimbal type or equivalent, permitting the leveling
of thecamera in flight.
3. The camera must have level bubbles.
4. Provision must be made for crabbing of the camera, to take care of conditions
when the airplane is moving over the ground in a different direction from which it is
headed owing to cross winds.
5. The camera must be of fixed infinity focus.
6. The shutter should have a speed range of from 3ô to Hso sec. The shutter
should have a diaphragm which may be stopped down to as much as //20.
7. The camera must have a release trigger which can be operated from the back
of the camera, as the lens is generally not accessible.

8. The winding mechanism must simultaneously change the film and cock the
shutter.
9. The capacity of the film chamber should be at least 100 exposures and pref-
erably 250.
10. The camera must be equipped with a view finder suitable for measuring pro-
gressive overlap of the pictures, or else an auxiliary instrument for this purpose must
be available.
11. It is desirable to have a camera in which focal lengths are interchangeable.
12. The focal plane of thecamera must hold the film exactly flat at the instant of
exposure either by placing it against a glass plate or by air pressure or suction.
13. In the focal plane of the camera collimation marks must be provided which
show in each photograph enabling the recovery of the principal point of the picture.
14. The camera must be made free from static discharge on the film.
15. All camera controls must be large and easily handled so that the operator, even
though wearing heavy gloves, can adjust it quicklJ^
For oblique photography, either a between-the-lens or a focal-plane shutter is
suitable. For vertical photography, when pictures are to be used for compilation of
precise maps, only a between-the-lens type of shutter should be employed.
With the above general specifications for the aerial camera, a choice must
be made between narrow-angle and wide-angle single-lens instruments; or multilens
instruments.
When large-scale detailed pictures are desired, such as would be most suitable for
city-planning work, a long-focus narrow-angle lens should be used. This permits
the securing of pictures of the same scale at a higher altitude and minimizes distortions,
which will be discussed later. At the other extreme of single-lens camera utility, we
find a wide-angle lens of around 6-in. focal length covering a 9- by 9-in. picture. Such
a camera would be used in small-scale mapping in order to cut down the mmiber of
pictures and the amount of flying and is particularly valuable in mapping high ground,
such as the Rocky Mountain section, where it is not possible for the airplane to ascend
high enough to utilize longer focal lengths of cameras. For some uses, such as military
and very low coast reconnaisance surveys, multiple-lens cameras are used. Multiple-
:
lens cameras also have advantages in contour mapping under some conditions. These
cameras may cover a very wide angle, so that the terrain photographed in a single
composite exposure may have dimensions four or five times greater than the airplane
altitude. While such pictures are usually inferior in photographic quality to single-
lens pictures, they have speed and economy on their side and are quite extensively
used throughout the world.
Personnel. —
There are fewer really competent photographic mapping pilots than in
almost any imaginable type of occupation. Out of 25 pilots who would be rated as
excellent, by all the ordinary criteria, only one on an average will develop into an
excellent pilot for aerial photography. While practice will improve the performance
of almost any pilot to a certain degree, the main qualification seems to be something
instinctive over which a man has little control. It has been found that a great many
pilots can successfully map over so-called "sectionized country," i.e., country like the
middle west where the roads and fences all run true north and south or east and west.
These serve as a guide and greatly simplify the problem of the pilot. The moment the
pilot starts over unsectionized country, particularly if he does not have good maps
available, he is in trouble. Very little can be said, in an article of thisk ind, which will
help the pilot; the difficulties are being enumerated merely as a warning to inexperi-
enced people who may underestimate the difficulties encountered in this phase of
aerial surveying.
The aerial photographer should be familiar with general photography and should
be athome in the air. He must be able to estimate accurately his light conditions and
must be experienced in determining the proper time interval between exposures and in
turning the camera for the proper angle of crab.
—
Organizing the Photographic Mission. In approaching an aerial-mapping project,
a proper choice of airplanes and cameras must first be made. In addition to the air-
plane qualifications listed heretofore, the airplane should have a capacity to maintain
an altitude considerably higher than the altitude at which it is going to be called upon
to work. Otherwise it will prove unstable.
camera should be selected, and the question as to whether a
Similarly, a suitable
manually operated or an automatic camera is to be used may depend upon the avail-
ability of equipment and the extent of the project. While manually operated cameras
are thoroughly practical, experience has proved that automatic cameras, which run
continuously at any desired interval, leave the operator more time to level the camera
and correct the crab.
Weather study is of primary importance in planning the photographic mission.
Within the United States weather averages will run all the way from less than one
mapping day per month, at certain seasons of the year, to as high as 25 days per month.
Obviously, this is the most important cost factor. Weather information can generally
be secured from the nearest U. S. Weather Bureau Office, and nation-wide weather
averages, as they pertain to aerial mapping, are available through studies which
have been made by the Soil Conservation Service and the Agricultural Adjustment
Administration in the U. S. Department of Agriculture.
In selecting the base from which the airplane is to operate, the following factors are
important
1. Communications. It is essential to get the exposed film quickly to the labora-
tory so that it may be checked, to avoid recurrence of anj^ trouble.
2. Choice of airport. The airport should be preferablj'^ close enough to the area
to be mapped so that the area may be reached during the period the airplane is climb-
ing. Otherwise flying time is wasted each time the airplane goes out and comes
back. If possible an airport should be selected at which United States weather reports
are available.
3. Hangar and service facilities. It is desirable but not necessary to select a base
where the airplane can be kept in a hangar, and it is, of course, essential to determine
that an adequate supply of suitable grades of gasoline and oil are available. Airplanes
left on an open field should be staked down, and a watchman should be on duty with
the ship.
Considerable study should be made of the type of terrain which is to be mapped.
There is some choice in the film which is to be used, and this will depend upon the
characteristics of the terrain and the camera. The film base maj^ be either standard
or topographic low-shrink base, depending on the purpose of the photography. Ordi-
narily three filters are carried on mapping projects, viz., Al, A2, and Minus Blue.
If the flying is to be done at an elevation of 12,000 ft. or higher, the crew will per-
form much more efficiently if supplied with auxiliary oxygen. One suitable form of
oxygen is a mixture of 95 per cent of oxygen and 5 per cent carbon dioxide, which is
available at any oxygen house. The tank should be equipped with a metering device
so that the flow of oxygen can be regulated, and tubes should be made available for
both the pilot and photographer with ordinary pipe stems at the end of the tubes.
There are many other methods of supplying oxygen, and the above is merely one which
is in very general use. If a considerable amount of flying is to be done above 16,000
ft., the oxygen is absolutely essential. Mapping above 25,000 ft. should not be
attempted because the reduction of pressure at these altitudes is apt to seriously impair
the health of the operators.
—
Flying for Oblique Pictures. Before starting off to take oblique pictures, the
pilot should familiarize himself with the prevailing altitude requirements of the
Department of Commerce and local ordinances such as are in effect in many com-
munities. Before an oblique flight is attempted, a careful analysis of the subject to be
photographed should be made. Buildings, for example, having east exposures should
be shot in the morning, south exposures at midday, west exposures in the afternoon,
and north exposures preferably in the summer season early in the day.
The composition of the picture must be given a proper amount of thought. For
example, most pictures are more pleasing if taken at a fairly flat angle. Thus, if the
city ordinances require that an altitude of 1500 ft. be maintained and if it is decided
that a suitable angle is 45° from the horizontal, the nearest that the airplane can get
to the subject is the hypothenuse of a triangle which is 1500 ft. on each side, which is
about 2200 ft. away. The size of the image can now be determined. The scale of the
image is arrived at by the following formula: S = D/f. This means the scale equals
the distance awaj^ D, divided bj'- the focal length /. Thus, if a 12-in. focal length is to
be used at a distance of 2200 ft., we have:
^ = 2200^^2 = 183 ft. per in. (1)
In other words, an object on the ground which long, at right angles to the
is 183 ft.
lens axis, will appear 1 in. long in the photograph. Consequently, a fairly large
building under these conditions is going to occup.y only a small fraction of the total
picture. Thought should be given as to the composition of the rest of the picture,
i.e., how much skyline to include, etc. It is customary when taking a small object-
like a building to subsequently enlarge that section of the picture which contains the
building. Conversely, the aerial photographer is frequently called upon to photograph
subjects which are so extensive that when the picture is taken from a distance great
enough to include the entire subject, the detail becomes disappointingly small. Thus,
for example, if pictures are required of a section of a city with one mile in the fore-
ground, the picture may be so taken that the mile occupies 6 in. of image. Thus the
scale of the foreground of the picture will be
5 28Qg = 880 ft. per in. (2)

In this picture, a building which is 88 ft. across will have an image size of only 3^ô in.
This question of scale and coverage must be settled in every instance by a study of the
purposes for which the picture is intended. Oftentimes, it is not possible to get a
satisfactory amount of detail of a large tract all in one picture. In such a case, a
series of pictures must be taken, perhaps some from close up and others of a general
nature. It should be kept in mind that an overlapping series of oblique pictures can
not be mosaiced into a unitary picture.
After all the details of the flight have been planned, it is the pilot's duty to get the
airplane to the proper place and at the proper altitude. Oblique pictures should not
be shot with the camera axis pointing at right angles to the airplane because at this
angle the speed of the airplane is almost certain to result in blurring. The airplane
should be maneuvered so that the camera can be pointed as far toward the tail of the
ship as possible without actually photographing the tail. As the pilot approaches the
point at which the photograph is to be taken, he will throttle back the ship so as to mini-
mize engine vibration, pull the nose of his ship up so as to slow down the speed, and when
he gets to the point of exposure which he has probably been approaching at right angles
to the direction from which the photograph is to be taken, he should turn the ship
slowly away from the object, giving the photographer a chance to shoot toward the
tailwhen the desired position is reached.
The photographer will find that it takes a considerable amount of practice to handle
a full-sized aerial-mapping camera. Owing to vibration imparted from the airplane
and angular movements due to not holding the camera steady, a fairly large percentage
of blurs appear in the work of beginners. Many oblique photographers support the
camera with a sling of rubber shock cord while others employ the practice of holding
the camera entirely clear of the airplane structure, pulling it back snugly against their
chest at the instant of exposure.
If the aerial photographer is adept at his work, he will be able to take about three
pictures, each time the airplane passes the subject, one slightly before the desired
position, one right at it, and one slightly after. With a suitable camera the photog-
rapher should be able to take about one picture every 6 sec.
—
Flying for Vertical Photographs. Planning the flight for vertical-map photography
is of the utmost importance. First, the best suitable map of the area should
be secured. In most of the developed parts of the United States, the maps published
by the U. S. Geological Survey are available at stationery stores and afford the best
type of information for a flight map. If the flight is of an area of which no suitable
maps exist, it is necessary to have a person who knows the boundaries to be
mapped fly along in the airplane and point them out or else the corners must be marked
on the ground. This may be accomplished by marking the corners with long strips
of cheap white cloth, in the shape of an L, the apex being at the corners of the property.
In most instances, U. S. Geological Survey maps will be available. On this map
the boundaries of the property should be indicated by lines drawn in colored pencil.
All lines on the flight map should be heavy so as to be seen at a glance bj^ the pilot.
After the boundaries are plotted, the direction of flight lines must be determined. If
the terrain is flat and if there is no good reason for flying in some other direction, it is
customary to fly north and south lines. If, on the other hand, the area is of a long,
narrow valley running in some other direction, the most economical flight arrangement
is to have the flight lines parallel to the length of the job.
the terrain is mountainous, the preparation of the flight map becomes more
If
complicated. In order to secure pictures at the desired scale, the area is frequently
zoned according to ground elevation. In other words, an attempt is made to have the
airplane fly as nearly as possible at a constant altitude above the various zones of
ground elevation. In this case, the flight lines should preferably be parallel to the
general trend of the topography. This means they should be parallel to the main
rivers and drainage.In order to determine the altitude A above ground to fly, the
following formula may be used S = A/f. :This formula is practically the same in its
fundamental conception as the one used under the oblique section of this article. For
example, if a scale S is desired of 1 in. = 1500 ft. and if the camera to be employed is
of 8}4: in- focal length/, the altitude maj^ be determined as follows:
1500 ft. = (3)

g^
1500 ft. XSH = A (4)
A = 12,375 ft. (5)
A factor which may confuse the beginner is that there are two methods of expressing
scale. A scale may be expressed, for example, as 1 in. = 1000 ft. Another way of
expressing the same scale is 1:12,000 or 1/12,000. A scale stated in either of the
latter two ways may be reduced to feet per inch by dividing by 12. For example, to
determine the number of feet per inch when the scale is given as 1/20,000, divide
20,000 by 12, giving an answer of 1 in. = 1667 ft.
In estimating the cost of a photographic flight, it is, of course, necessary to deter-
mine the number of exposures and the amount of fljang that will be involved. This
will depend upon the specifications as to scale, progressive overlap (which means the
amount that each picture must overlap the next consecutive picture), and strip
overlap (which means the amount that each strip of pictures must overlap the adjacent
strip of pictures). The specifications in most common use today call for a scale of
90 finn
^^ ^^" ~ 1667 ft.) ±5 per cent, with the pictures taken so as to have 60 per
cent progressive overlap and 30 per cent strip overlap.

If the strips must overlap 30 per cent and if the pictures are 9 in. wide, 30 per cent
of each picture, or 2.7 in., should overlap. This leaves a net width for a 9-in. picture
of 6.3 in. This 6.3 in. at a scale of 1667 ft. to the inch gives a distance of very close to
10,500 ft. as the separation between flight strips.
the specification further requires that the progressive overlap be 60 per cent
If
and the size of the negatives is 7 in. in the direction of flight, then the overlap of each
if
picture will be 60 per cent of 7 in., or 4.2 in. Therefore, one picture must be taken
for each 7 in. minus 4.2 in., or 2.8 in. At 1667 ft. per in., a picture will thus have to
be taken every 4670 ft., approximately.
We can now determine the number of pictures required to cover the area. By
laying the strips that the airplane will flj^ off on our map with a separation of 10,500 ft.
and measuring the length of each strip and dividing this distance by 4670, we can
determine the number of pictures required for each strip and by adding up the sum of
the strips, the total theoretical number of pictures for the area is determined. It
should be kept in mind that specifications usually require that the pictures cover a
certain amount beyond the actual boundaries of the area. It is the most common
practice to specify that at least 25 per cent of the width of the pictures must cover
outside the side boundaries of the job and that at least two picture centers must
fall beyond the boundary at the ends of each strip. Experienced organizations
mapping a large area generally take 25 per cent more pictures than the theoretical
number. In mountainous country the theoretical number is frequently' increased by
50 per cent in practice. Inexperienced personnel may shoot several times the theo-
retical number.
In determiniiig the number of pictures which will be required to cover a given area,
variations in the elevations of the ground must be taken into consideration. If the
variations in ground elevation are not sufficient to require that the area be broken
down into elevation zones, the elevation at which the airplane will fly is generally
calculated from the mean elevation ::f the ground, in which case the overlap, both
progressive and strip, must be calculated for the maximum elevation of the ground
(Fig. 7). the desired scale is 1 in. = 1500 ft. and the theoretical airplane
Thus, if
altitude is 12,375 ft. above a mean ground elevation of 800 ft. above sea level, the
airplane must fly at an elevation of 13,175 ft. above sea level. Now, if there are hills
going up to an elevation of 1300 ft. above sea level, the scale for the flight should be
figured as follow^s: 13,175 ft. - 1300 ft. = 11,875 ft.
With a focal length of 8V4 in., this gives a scale of approximately 1 in. = 1440 ft.,
rather than the theoretical scale of 1 in. = 1500 ft. The scale of 1 in. = 1440 ft. must
f= Focal length of camera

A= Al+i+ude 1<- fm//e -A
S= Scale M,
Fig. 7. — If the plane does not fly over level ground, the scale of the photograph will not be
uniform, and corrections will be required.
be used in laying out the separation betwêen strips and determining the progressive
overlap of the pictures.
After the flight has been planned and the flight map prepared, flying may be under-
taken. The pilot should so plan his period of climbing that he is over the area to be
mapped as much as possible. During this time he should study the area in relation
to the map, locating the boundaries so that when the mapping actually starts, he will
have these boundaries firmly in mind. He should also pick out prominent topographic
features lying in the prolongation of the boundary, marking the beginning and ending
of the strips. He nothing exactl}^ under him by
will frequently find that there is
means of which to determine the boundary, and he will often be dependent upon
aligning himself in between the two distant objects. As the airplane approaches the
mapping altitude, the outside temperature should be noted. This temperature should
normally decrease approximately 3°F., or 2°C., for each 1000 ft. of increased elevation.
If the air temperature varies considerably from this theoretical gradient, the altimeter
will be considerably in error. For example, suppose the pilot takes off with a ground
temperature of +20°C. and flies to an indicated altitude of 15,000 ft. If upon reach-
ing this altitude the temperature has dropped only to -i-10°C., the altimeter will read
15,000 ft. when the true altitude is about 15,500 ft. Great variations in the temper-
ature gradient do not frequently occur but are present often enough to justify the
exercise of considerable caution. This is particularly true when flying over hot
desert regions or under conditions of extreme winter cold. The following empirical
formula may be employed for approximate corrections. If the quantity in the bracket
comes out minus, the altitude is too high, descend; if plus, ascend. The correction
is given by:
ft.
where A = indicated altitude from altimeter;

T„ =temperature on the ground one hour after sunrise, plus 2°C. for each 1000
ft. of ground elevation above sea level;
Ta = temperature aloft (Centigrade, outside of cabin in free air).

If quantity in bracket comes out +, ascend.
If quantitj'^ in bracket comes out — descend.,
Example:
A = 15,000 ft., field at sea level

r,= -f3o°c.
Most operators consider that the pilot, who has the more comprehensive view, is in a
better position to determine this than the photographer, whose head is down looking
through the view finder.
As the flight proceeds down the strip, the photographer should watch through his
view finder to pick up any variations in drift. Frequently he is able to detect this
before the pilot is and should have a signal by means of which he can notify the pilot
in case the crab changes abruptly. The photographer
""
i^j^ 1/ne'^'^ "* must also watch the level bubbles on his camera, must
frequently check the time interval if he is shooting by
stop watch, or must constantly watch his finder, if he is
shooting in accordance with the image travel between
two predetermined lines on his finder.
Previous to the flight, the pilot should arrange a
sight by means of which he can determine where the
Level bubble -->^^!^ ^ center line of the next adjacent strip may fall. One
I simple way of arranging this is to cut out a wooden
block with a straight side which can be placed against
T^ o
Fig. 8. —o- Ui- ui
Sighting block. 1
^ , ,
• . •
i i i ,-in
the window of the ship (provided the window is vertical)
• •
with one edge of the block angling away from the window along which he can sight
(Fig. 8). This overlap block can be laid out as follows:
If a picture 9 in. wide is to overlap the picture of the adjacent strip by 30 per cent,
we previously determined that the strip spacing is 6.3 in. at the scale of the picture.
Assume now that a camera of 8.25-in. focal length is being used, then 8.25 divided
by 6.2 equals the proportion of the base to the altitude of the triangle along which the
In the illustration (Fig. 8) a simple form of block is shown in which A
pilot will sight.
represents the focal lengthand B represents the strip separation.
The pilot should endeavor to line up sights on the airplane itself, so that he does
not have to use the block continuously. For example, he may possibly be able to
sight across the window sill to a certain point on the tire or the wheel. He will find
it helpful he frequently makes this sight, as he goes down a strip and remembers
if
these points as the center line of the next adjacent strip. Such a procedure will prove
almost indispensable in determining the amount to move over at the end of the strip,
unless he is so fortunate as to have country with an abundance of detail and excellent
maps so that he may select the starting point of each strip by comparing the map with
the ground.
The work should be planned so that, insofar as possible, it is not necessary to
change the middle of a strip.
rolls of film in It is usually economical to change rolls of
film at the end of the strip, even though 10 or 15 exposures may be wasted. The value
of this wasted film is usually less than the cost of operating the airplane while the pilot
circlesaround waiting for the photographer to change the film. Furthermore, there
is always a strong possibility that the pilot will not be able to pick up the same line
with sufficient precision to give an acceptable connection.
Laboratory Operations. Developing the Film. —
Many different formulas are used
in the development of film, depending upon the operator, type of country, and the
purpose for which the film is to be used. In country which is tremendously con-
trasty, such as alternate green fields and very light-colored soil, a soft developer,
such as a borax, is preferable. On the other hand, if the country has a monotonous
character, such as desert or timber, the film should be developed with a maximum of
contrast, such as can be obtained with a pyro developer.
—
Making the Prints. In making the prints from the film negatives, it is advisable
to have available the full range of contrast in contact papers, as frequently films in the
same flight will gi^ê the best results on widely varjdng contrasts of paper.
Pictures which are to be used purely for visual observation, such as obliques, or
pictures which are to be reproduced by half-tone cut should be ferrotyped. Prints
for all other purposes should not be ferrotyped as this process distorts the image.
Prints which are to be used for any sort of precision work should be made on one
of the several types of low-shrink paper, such as Air Map Special or Positype. If
the prints are not to be used for the utmost precision, ordinary grades of contact paper
may be used.
Prints which are put through a dnun drier are appreciably distorted. For
precision work, prints should be dried face down on cloth in the ordinary atmosphere
of the room without the use of an electric fan.
Indexing. —There are a variety of ways of indexing an aerial survey. Sometimes
the area covered by each photographic print is drafted on a map
such as a U. S.
Geological Survey map, but the preferred way with most customers is to assemble
a set of contact prints in their proper relationship and either draft thereon large
numbers or paste stick-up numbers on the prints and copy the assembly on a large
negative.
Prior to the making of any prints, the question of numbering the negatives should
be considered. A number which shows in the photographic image detracts from the
artistic value of an oblique picture, so that for this type of negative it is most desirable
to number the film in the margin and write this number on the back of the print at
the time of printing. It is advantageous to have the number show on the face of
prints which are to be used for various mapping purposes, and most vertical negatives
are numbered with celluloid ink either freehand in a corner on the celluloid side of the
film or are stamped on with a numbering machine.
Many contracts require that the final prints bear consecutive numbers. This
requires that the film immediately upon development be assigned temporary numbers
which are written in the corner of the film with an ink that can be washed off. After
all the fUghts have been completed, rejected film is eliminated and the final index map
compiled and numbered. A list can now be prepared bj' which the temporary
numbers may be removed from the film and replaced with the permanent numbers.
—
Compilation of Maps. Everything pertaining to an aerial survey should be
planned with the ultimate purpose for which the survey is made in mind. If the
pictures are purely for pictorial purposes, the matter of a small amount of lens dis-
tortion is generally negligible. If, on the other hand, the pictures are to be used for
the making of precise mosaics or are for the purpose of determining land area or if
they are to be ultimately used in the compilation of planimetric or contour maps,
the characteristics of the lens become of paramount importance. For precision work
a lens which is substantially distortion free must be used. For this purpose the
symmetrical type of lens is generally suitable. If the operator proposes to use any
lens which has not been especially designed for aerial photography, he will be wise to
send the lens to the National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C, to have its
characteristics determined.
It should be kept in mind that, while the definition of a lens can be improved by
stopping it down, its distortion characteristics remain substantially the same at all
stops.
Lenses for oblique purposes may have an absolute distortion of image of as much
as 0.05 in. without seriously impairing the appearance of the picture. At the other
extreme of precision, a lens which is to be used for contour mapping should ordinarily
have no distortion greater than 0.0005 focal length.
All precision mapping by aerial photography is contingent upon the picture having
been taken with the lens axis vertical. Any departure from a vertical lens axis is
known as tilt. Actually the term vertical picture is generally used, whereas geometri-
cally the important factor is that the focal plane be horizontal.

If the focal plane is
truly horizontal, the resulting picture, taken through a distortion-free lens, is a true
if
conic projection of the ground. When the focal plane departs from the horizontal, a
perspective picture is secured in which lines which are parallel on the ground will con-
verge on the photograph. If the tilt is slight (less than
Line ofcommon 2°), the resulting errors are fairly negligible from the
scale ^ ^ ^/ —
standpoint of most map uses. If the tilt, however, is
greater than this amount, the pictures must be rectified

before they may be considered for the basis of map com-
pilation (Fig. 9).
For the purpose of correcting tilt, a rectifying camera
is employed in which the negative and easel are inclined
into conjugate focal planes to compensate for the tilt.
Rectification is too complicated to more than mention in
this article. Details are fully available at any good library
Fig. 9A. —
Tilt of cam- (Fig. 10).
era results in photo- A factor which is even more difficult to handle than tilt
graphing a trapezoidal from the standpoint of map compilation is the variation in
instead of a rectangular
scale due to irregularity of the surface of the earth. If,
area.
for example, a truly vertical picture is taken of flat but
uniformly sloping ground, a picture will be secured with characteristics very similar
to a tilted picture. Such a picture may be substantially corrected in the rectifying
camera.
When the surface of the earth is irregular such as in mountainous country, the
problem of compilation of a precise map becomes much more difficult. In such a
Isocenfer or scale poi'nf _-Tilfed focal

where normal ana plane
filfed focal planes
in fersec / - - ~. ^ ^^w
ji- NormaI focal
plane
Nadir poinf where
verfical ray in fer-
sec fs focal plane
Principal poinf
where lens axis
in fersec is focal
plane
Verh'cai axis —> Tilfed axis
Fig. 9B. —Diagram illustrating the line of sight and plane of film when camera is level and
when camera is tilted.
case there are no large uniform slope areas, and in order to achieve a precise result,
elaborate methods or machines must be used.
Differences in elevation of the ground result in radial displacements on the photo-
graph. If, for example, a tall telegraph pole falls exactly in the center of the
picture
(Pole 1, jTifii, Fig. 11), the top of the pole will appear exactly superimposed over its
base (<i6i). If the same telegraph pole is photographed any place else in the picture
other than in the exact center (Pole2, T2B2), it will appear as a radial image with the
top displaced radially outward from the base of the pole (^2^2). Thus it will be seen
that a vertical photograph of rough terrain is a completely distorted image, with each
point being out of position along the radial line passing through that point by an
amount which is the result of the height of the object and its distance away from the
center of the picture. The radial-displacement
formula is fundamental in aerial photography
and follows:
El
(6)
R2 Ei
This means that the true radial distance R] is

to the displaced radial distance Ri as the
theoretical altitude of the airplane above
datum E\ is to the actual elevation of the Fig. 10. —
Rectification of photo-
airplane above the particular picture point Ei. graphs made when a tilt can be accom-
Another way of expressing this situation is plished in printing by, using a recti-
fying camera. /, source of illumina-
as follows:
tion; N, negative; L, lens; E, easel;
P, point at which plans of negative and
Ê
A5 = (7) lens must intersect to effect perfect
rectification.
which means the difference in scale A*SI, equals the difference in elevation divided by
the focal length /. Thus, if there is a difference in elevation of 1000 ft. between the
t, b, t.b
\>t- Rac/i'al //he Focal plane
^^ Image ofpo/e 2
\b2
y
t|
\ /
b)
Imaqe of
pole!
Fig. 11 a. — Image of two poles Fig. lis. — Elevation view of

(exaggerated) as seen by the camera camera photographing an object on
lens. The pole 1 at t\h\ is on the optical axis, and another object re-
optical axis, whereas pole 2 is not. moved from the axis.
top of a hill and the datum scale of the flight and if the camera used for photography
has a focal length of 10 in., we have:
^„ = 1000 = ,„„,,
A5 yr— 100 ft. per in. (8)
The scale of the hill will be 100 ft. per in. larger than the
picture at the top of this
datum scale of the picture.Carrying this a step further, if the desired scale of the
flight is 1 in. = 1000 ft., the airplane will be flying at 1000 X 10 = 10,000 ft. above
the datum plane. If, while flying at this elevation, a mountain is photographed
which rises 1000 ft. above the mean datum plane, the scale of the picture at the top of
this mountain will be 1 in. = 900 ft.
By the use of the last formula, a picture may be taken into the field and the scale
determined at a given ground elevation. Then, if the field operator wishes to know
the scale of the picture at some other elevation, he uses the difference in the elevation
and the focal length in this formula, which gives him the desired scale of the picture
at the new ground elevation.
It should be kept in mind that this difference in scale results in a radial displace-
ment of the image. Based upon this fundamental geometric relationship, methods
have been derived for map assembly which are known by the general classification of
"radial control."
—
Compiling the Mosaic Map. Rough mosaic maps to give approximate picture
information only are frequently assembled with complete disregard of the radial
displacements described in the last section. A map so assembled may be a reasonably
good general picture, but, in putting it together, sections of country will be entirely
lost where the ground is higher than datum and double images of terrain will occur
where the ground is lower than datum. In other words, on the high ground where the
scale of the picture is too large, the image on two adjacent pictures is too large to fit
and some must be cut away and entirely sacrificed in joining the pictures up. Where
the ground is too low, the images are small and fail to meet, with the result that at the
juncture double images will appear. Thus, if two prints were being joined in a rough
mosaic and the pictures contained sloping ground, part of which was above datum and
part below datum, the two pictures would join up perfectly at the datum elevation.
Above the datum elevation, part of the image would be lost, the amount lost increasing
as the elevation of the ground becomes higher. Below datum, double images would
appear, getting farther and farther apart as the ground elevation decreases. Under
these circumstances, a skillful mosaicer can make a reasonably acceptable picture bj^
carefully choosing the places to cut the pictures together where the loss of image or
double image is not going to be apparent. However, the user should be warned that
maps compiled by this method are highly inaccurate whether the error can be easily
seen or not.
For many
purposes these rough mosaics, in spite of their errors, are good enough.
One way of assembling such a rough mosaic is to take a good base map,
satisfactory
such as a U. S. Geological Survey sheet, enlarge this to the scale at which the mosaic
is to be assembled and paste this enlarged bromide print of the Geological Survey map
on a piece of composition board. Then the pictures, comprising the mosaic, can be
pasted down approximate positions by making the major detail of the pictures
in their
match Survey map. This method may be quite successful if the
to the Geological
differences in the elevation of the ground are slight and if the flying has been skillfully
done and a uniform altitude maintained.
In laying a precise mosaic, the first essential is adequate control. This control
may be the U. S. Geological Survey map enlarged to scale as outlined in the previous
paragraph. Frequently, however, such maps are not available, or if available were
made many years ago, when the art of topographic mapping had not progressed to a
point where the resulting maps were accurate.
If the operator is so fortunate as to have a modern Geological Survey map avail-
able, he may approach the problem of making a precision map by measuring the
distance between identifiable objects on the U. S. Geological Survey map and com-
paring this measurement with the corresponding objects on the contact print. A
ratio can thereby be established for the enlargement or reduction of the contact print
to fit the particular points measured on the Geological Survey map. The print
which is made to such data is known as a ratio print; it may be pasted down over the
Geological Survey map and will be accurate between the points from which the
measurement was made. This method of map making may be carried to considerable
elaboration if the use to which it is being put justifies. For example, from the con-
tours on the Geological Survey map, the picture may be broken down into small
parts, each to be considered as a uniformly sloping plane. One print may then be
calculated for each such small part of a negative and made in a rectifying camera.
From each of the several prints representing a small part of the one negative, the part
for which the print is designed can be cut out and pasted in its proper position. In
this way, the large errors are reduced to many small errors, all of which may be brought
within the tolerance of a specification by proper care.
Another method by which precise mosaics ai-e made on the basis of available
contour maps is called "pyramiding." By this method, the contours are transferred
from the Geological Survej'- map to the print, and depending upon the precision called
for in the specification, a separate print is made from the same negative for each zone
of elevation. If the map is to be very precise, one print may be made for every 100 ft.
If the specifications give greater tolerances,
a print may be made for every 500 ft. or \
every 1000 ft. These varying prints are

then trimmed in accordance with the con-
tour line representing the elevation for
which the print was designed, and the prints
are built up one on top of the other with
their centers superimposed, with the largest
ratio print on the bottom and the smallest
one on the top. This is a very tedious and
very expensive method of mosaic compi-
lation but has been frequently used where
the resulting precision justified the cost.
By far the most common practice for the
assembly of precise mosaics is by the radial-
control method. We learned earlier that Fig. 12. —
Diagram illustrating that
differences in elevation resulted in a radial the image will lie along a radial line
^'"'^^^ ^"""^^ ^^^ ^P*^^*^! ^'''^
displacement of image. Thus, regardless of
variation in elevation, the image will lie some place along the radial which passes
through the position for the true point. In other words, the angle between the
radials passing through any two images is constant regardless of the elevation (Fig.
12). Utilizing the constancy of this central angle, we can now visualize radial control
as building up a net of graphic triangulation.
Preparatory to making a radial-control layout, the boards upon which the mosaic
is to be assembled must have the known control plotted thereon.
If the mosaic is of a large area, a "projection" must be laid out upon the mosaic
board. This projection generally constitutes drawing latitude and longitude lines in
their proper positions which take into consideration the fact that the curved surface
of the earth is to be compiled into a flat map. Thus on the polyconic projection, which
is the most usual form of aerial-map assembly, lines of latitude which run tnie north
and south on the surface of the earth will converge toward the north on the projection.
Tables and instructions for laying out projections of this nature may be secured
from the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey or the U. S. Geological Survey at Washing-
ton, D. C.
With the projection now plotted upon our mosaic board, we must next plot the
known control points. Perhaps these are points which have been established by the
government, which in many parts of the country has a very complete system of control
already established. This control system will have been put in either by the Coast
and Geodetic Survey or the Geological Survey; by one of the other federal agencies,
such as the Forest Service; or possibly by a state, local, or commercial organization.
In any event, this existing control will probably be available to the map compiler in
the form of a description of the control point with information as to how to reach it and
the coordinates, the latitude and longitude of the point.
i.e.,
It will now be
necessary to take the contact prints to the ground, follow the
published description of how to reach the point, and then identify this point upon the
photograph. The control point on the ground will be marked, perhaps, by a concrete
monument, by a brass cap cemented in the rock, or in the case of less permanent
surveys by a stake driven into the ground, none of which will show on the photograph.
Nearby, however, will always be identifiable objects, such as a tree, fence corner, a
house, a bend in a stream or some other feature from which a measurement can be
made to the control station. Then the position of this station can be pricked on the
picture, circled, and annotated for future reference.
o
cardboard. In addition to this, the center point of the picture, which is indicated by
most aerial cameras, should also be pricked through to the cardboard. The card-
board templet is then given a number to correspond to the picture, and a hole, perhaps
y^ in. in diameter, is punched at the center of the templet. Radial slots are pimched
centering at each radial point which has been pricked to the cardboard.
Amongst the eight points which have been pricked on each picture, it is, of course,
essential to prick all the control points which have been identified in the field, as these
are the key points upon which the entire construction depends. At the time these
control points are pricked through from the picture to the cardboard templet, the name
or designation of the control point should be written on the cardboard control templet
for future use. This designation should be written in such a position on the templet
that it will not be cut away when the control point is punched. Posts with a fiat base
and a neck of just the diameter of the slot in the templets are now nailed down to the
mosaic board over the plotted position of each known control point. To begin with,
a group of templets is selected representing a strip of pictures on which two known
control points separated by a number of pictures appear. The templet on which the
first control point appears is now laid down on the mosaic board with the slot which
represents that point placed over the post. Additional posts are now placed in all the
other slots on this templet. The next templet in series is now picked up and laid over
the first templet which may be accomplished by sliding the posts in the first templet
back and forth in their slots until they fit the slots of the second templet. Now in the
second templet, posts are placed through all the remaining slots and the third templet
is placed over these latter posts in the same manner. This process is continued
through the series of prints until the templet is reached in which a slot has been cut
representing the next control point. It will probably be found that the assembly
of templets is either too long or too short to permit the slot representing this control
point to be placed over the post which is nailed to the mosaic board at this control
point. However, the entire assembly of templets is flexible and may be lengthened
or contracted like an accordian. If the string of templets is lengthened, all the posts
riding in the slots are spread out; if the string of templets is shortened, all the posts
^vill move inward, automatically assuming a disposition proportional to the distance
between the control points. Thus, by lengthening or shortening the string of tem-
plets, it may be adjusted so that the proper slot may now be placed over the post
i-epresenting the second control point. We have now established the scale of assembly,
and every post is in the correct scale position for the point it represents. The balance
of the teinplets in each strip —
strip by strip —may be buttoned to their respective
posts until the entire area is covered.
The posts have a vertical hole in them, and the next step is to drive a pin, fastening
each post to the mosaic board. Now the templets may be lifted off, one by one and
as each templet is removed from its posts, the post which passed through the center
hole of that templet is numbered on the board to correspond to the negative and
templet number (which are, of course, identical). After the templets are removed,
the posts are pulled from the board one by one, and the small hole which is left by the
pin which secured the post in position is circled. This hole represents the correct
position for each image point which was represented by a slot and a post.
We now have a pattern laid out on our mosaic board with the center and at least
eight outlying points established for each print which is to go into the mosaic. Meas-
urements may now be compared between these points and the corresponding image
points on the pricked set of contact prints and a ratio factor calculated for the enlarge-
ment or reduction of the print or any part thereof. In more elaborate mosaics these
measurements are used as the basis for determining the angle of tilt by which the
entire print or parts thereof are to be corrected in the rectifying camera.
The result is, of course, that the ratio print made from the comparative measure-
ments between the mosaic board points and the points on the contact print will fit
the mosaic board and permit the assembly of a precise map.
The first method listed above was the graphic method of radial control. This
method utilizes the radial lines which were first drawn on the print. Instead of
buttoning the print templets together as was done in the slotted templet method, the
graphic method traces the radial lines from each print on a piece of tracing cloth and
causes the successive radial lines to intersect as nearly as possible at a point. This
method is tedious because, after the first run of radial prints between the two known
control points, it is usually found that the scale selected for the control plot is too large
or too small. A must then be established between the first two
correction factor
prints of the run, and the whole run must be duplicated perhaps two or three times
until by trial and error the proper scale is found.
-A B
Fig. 14. —
Fairchild four-couple transformer jig set over plateholders. A, five micro-
scopes so set as to correspond to the five index marks of the four-couple camera; B, adjust-
ment screws used to bring plates into proper position under the microscope; C, clamping
down nuts to hold the plates securely in position after adjustment.
The second method of radial control which was enumerated is the transparent-
templet method. In this method, a celluloid templet is traced from the contact print,
i.e., the center and the radial lines are traced from the contact print. The method
differs from method 1 in that the celluloid templets are laid down one over another
and the radial lines so adjusted that they intersect at a point. Then when the second
control point is reached, if the scale is too large or too small, each templet is moved a
little closer or a little farther from its adjacent templets so that the scale is adjusted.
A simpler method of mosaic assembly, which has proved satisfactory, particularly

in regions of very moderate relief, is known as the print-to-print ratio method. This
method is based on the geometrical principle that regardless of displacement due to
difference in elevation, the distance ofan image when measured perpendicularly to the
line joining the centers oftwo adjacent prints is the same on both prints (disregarding
lens distortion and tilt). The purpose of this method is to compensate for variations
in the airplane altitude. If the airplane altitude changes between one picture and the
next, a direct ratio may be derived by making measurements perpendicular to the
center line and to common images on the adjacent prints. When the ratio from print
to print thus established and recorded, an over-all measurement is made between

is
two known control points. A factor is then worked out for the enlargement or reduc-
tion of the entire strip of pictures to get the correct over-all distance with corrections,
print to print, according to the perpendicular measurements. This method breaks
down badly with tilted pictures or in case of much change in the elevation of the
ground. Its principal advantage is its simplicity of use. The results derived from
the use of this method do not compare in precision with the radial-control method,
but the method is cheaper and faster and requires less experience to operate.
—
Contour Mapping. Compilation of contour maps for aerial photography is the
most advanced and precise stage of the art. The aerial camera which is employed
must be a precision instrument, equipped with a lens which is sensibly free from dis-
tortion. The lens must be very carefully mounted in the camera in accordance with
Fig. 15. —
Standard single-lens camera installation. Photographer is looking into
view finder above his hand. ^ On the side of the cabin is the intervalometer for automatic
camera operation.
the manufacturer's data. It is desirable to have the lens mounted by the manu-
facturer in a barrel, which is installed in the camera intact. This will insure that the
internal principal ray is a continuation of the external principal ray or at least as close
to this condition as the manufacturer with his factory facilities can produce. The
focal plane of this camera must be exactly perpendicular to the lens axis and the
collimation marks in the focal plane must precisely indicate the intersection of the
principal ray with the focal plane. Everything about the camera must fit rigidly,
so that, in case of disassembly or reassembly, parts will fall back precisely in the same
position. Interchangeable magazines are not tolerable in a precision camera unless
the magazine is doweled to the camera body and provided with elaborate provisions
for maintaining the focal plane constantly in its required position. This camera must,
of course, be equipped with a between-the-lens type of shutter and pictures should be
exposed at J-f 50 sec. or faster to get the maximum of sharpness.
Fig. 16. —The stereoplanigraph for drawing planimetric or contour maps from aerial
photographs.
Fig. 17. — Four-lens aerial camera.

Flying for the ultimate purpose of compiling contour maps must be done with the
utmost precision. The flying pattern is fundamental in the ultimate economy of the
job, as costs are a direct function of the number of pictures involved.
P'ilm which is to be used for contour plotting must be handled with special care in
development. The emulsion should not be swabbed with cotton, as this introduces
the danger of slightly moving small sections of the emulsion which may not be firml}'
adhered to the base. This film should be dried slowly in a room where comparatively
high humidity prevails, and the film should be supported hanging free from a wire
with at least one support for each foot of film.
Most contour maps are plotted from glass diapositives which should be made
from the film either during the period of the first 48 hr. after development or after
3 weeks have elapsed. Between these periods most types of film are at maximum
Fig. 18. —The aerocartoKriiph is one ot the older types ol machines for plotting contours Irom
aerial photographs.
instability. The film itself, which is used for the original pictures, must be of the
low-shrink base type, which has been subjected to special conditioning to minimize
nonuniform shrinkage and expansion.
A number of different for producing contour maps from
methods are available
aerial photographs. The methods based upon the principle of stereoscopic
are all
Adsion or the somewhat equivalent
flicker method. Precision contour maps can be
plotted from these aerial photographs only by highly trained experts using elaborate
equipment, such as the stereoplanigraph, aerocartograph, or midtiplex.
Bibliography
Perodicals:
Map Compilation from Aerial Photographs, Topographic Instructions of the U. S. Geol. Survey, Bull.
Appendix F, 1928.
788,
AcKLAND, F. W.: Use of Aerial Photographs for Mapping, Canadian Topnoraphira/ Surrey, Bull. 62,
1932.
Air Corps Aerial Photography, War Dept., Traininq Manual 2170-6.
Books:
>IcKiNX,ET, A. C: "Applied Aerial Photography," Wiley (1929).

HoTiNE, M.: "Surveying from Air Photographs," Richard R. Smith (1931).
Gruber, O. Von: " Photogrammetry " (collected papers), Chapman (1932).
"Multiple Lens Aerial Cameras in Mapping," Fairchild Aerial Camera Corp. (1933).
Judge, A. W.: Stereoscopic Aerial Photography, from "Stereoscopic Photography," Chap. 20. Am.
Photographic Pub. (1935).
Sharp, H. O.: "Photogrammetry," Rensselear Union Book Committee, Troj', N. Y. (1936).
Church, Earl: "Analytical Computations in Aerial Photogrammetry," Edwards Bros. Inc. (1936).
Winchester and Willis: "Aerial Photography," Chapman.
Reeves, D. M.: "Aerial Photographs," Ronald.
Aerial Photographic Mapping Training Regulations, p. 190—227, U. S. Army, Superintendent of
Documents, Washington, D. C.
T.\LLEY, B. B.: "Engineering Applications of Aerial and Terrestrial Photogrammetry," Pitman (1938).
:
CHAPTER XXV
ASTRONOMICAL PHOTOGRAPHY
By Harlan True Stetson
—
Fundamental Problems. It is probably a fair estimate that 90 per cent of the
observational material gathered in the modern astronomical observatory is obtained
by means of photography. In a few specialized fields of astronomy, such as the
determination of fundamental positions of certain standard stars by means of the
meridian circle or transit, and more especially the physical observations of the surface
details of the planets or the measurement of the close double stars, the human eye
still seems to have the advantage over photography. Considerable experimenting,
however, has been done in recent years in applying the photographic plate and also
the photoelectric cell to instruments where times of transits of stars are desired. In
the determination of latitude, results obtained with a photographic zenith tube have
already shown an increase in precision over visual observations made with a zenith
telescope.
The advantages of photography as applied to astronomy are twofold
1. A permanent and unbiased record obtained reproducing the exact conditions
is
of any astronomical event for investigation or study, and for reference at any sub-
sequent date. Mistakes or errors in the measurement of the photograph may be
easily rechecked, but a mistake or error in the record of a visual observation can seldom
if ever be examined by an exact duplicate of the original observation.
2. The effect of starlight on the photographic film is cumulative. The longer the
exposure, the greater is the amount of silver in the emulsion redixced. Experiments
with the human eye indicate that in about J-^ sec. or less the retina will record all
that the eye sees. Further exposure results in fatigue rather than enhancement of
vision. In the case of the photographic plate, however, prolonged exposure may
be used with given optical equipment to obtain images of celestial objects too faint
to be recorded with the telescope when the eye alone is used as the detector.
Another advantage of the application of photography to the field of astronomy
is that the relative positions of a large number of stars representing the whole field
of the photographic plate can be recorded at one and the same time. For deter-
mination of position as well as the recording of the relative brightness of stars, the
photographic plate is a mass-production affair as compared with the highly individ-
ualized work of the visual observer where the entire attention must be given to one
celestial object at a time.
Photography of celestial bodies entails certain unique problems, foremost of which
is some form of automatic mechanism that will keep the camera or photographic
telescope constantly directed to the object being photographed while the latter
apparently drifts across the sky as a result of the diurnal rotation of the earth on its
axis. No wholly automatic device has yet been invented that will succeed completelj'
in accomplishing the purpose, though experiments are now being conducted with this
end in mind. The human eye and hand are still necessary adjuncts in the control of
the direction finder if a star is to imprint an unblurred image on the photographic
plate during a prolonged exposure.
733
Unlike terrestrial photography, the source of light from celestial objects is outside
the atmosphere of the earth and is bent or refracted upon entering it at an oblique
angle. Since the observer is constantly changing his position with respect to the
direction of a star on account of the motion of the earth, refraction is a variable
quantity and is particularly mischievous in dislocating the line of direction of objects
in the sky near the horizon. Were it possible, therefore, to effect a mechanical drive
which with unfailing uniformity would offset the motion of the earth, refraction alone
would necessitate continual "guiding" for a photographic plate with respect to the
star. Moreover, since the usual optical equipment for astronomical photography
employs an optical system of great focal length compared with the usual camera,
small irregular movements of star images are brought about through the turbulence
of the atmosphere through which we view them.
It may be pertinent to remark that the so-called "image" of the star obtained on
the photographic plate is not in a strict sense an image of the star. All stars except
the sun are but luminous points of light at such great distances from us that no
telescope yet made or that we may hope to make could ever resolve their size or shape.
The so-called image obtained on the photographic plate is therefore but a cluster of
silver grains reduced by the feeble light falling in a restricted location on the emulsion.
In general, the center of this cluster of silver grains will correspond to the mean position
of the light beam producing the reduction. Furthermore, since the star is sensibly
a point source, a diffraction pattern results, and the photographic "image" of the
star becomes therefore the impression gained through the integration of the effect of
light diffracted through the circular aperture of the telescope.
There are many problems peculiar to astronomical photography when we consider
the interpretation of the photographic record. If it is the position of the stellar images
with which we are concerned, a question of distortion of the film immediately enters
as a source of error. Furthermore, the degree of flatness of the field and its rectilinear
character are important factors in correcting for distortion of the scale on the plate, a
distortion which would depend upon the distance of the image from the optical center
or axis. Either of these problems enters when we come to the interpretation of the
amount of silver reduction as an indication of the relative light-giving power or magni-
tude of the star represented. While the technique of handling plates, making
exposures, or developing is much the same in astronomical photography as in any
other field to which photographic processes may be applied, certain factors such as
the effect of temperature and moisture and a variation in the sensitivity of the emulsion
become of serious consequence, when the plates are used for quantitative results, if
the exposure has been prolonged. These problems will receive detailed attention in
subsequent paragraphs.
—
Instrumental Equipment. With celestial photography the "camera" is generally
a telescope of recognized form in which the eyepiece, which would be used for visual
observations, is replaced by a convenient receptacle for carrying the plateholder that
contains the photographic emulsion. Telescopes may be divided into two major
classifications: (1) the refracting type in which an achromatic lens at the upper end
of the tube gathers the light and forms the image on the photographic plate; (2) the
reflecting type where a concave mirror at the lower end of the tube does the work of a
lens as the objective and brings the light to a focus on the plate at the upper end of the
tube.
—
Refracting and Reflecting Telescopes. The simplest practical form of telescope
lens is a doublet, consisting of a double convex element of cro^^Tl glass paired with a
concave lens of flint glass. In the more common form the crown lens is placed at
the upper end of the tube and is backed by the flint lens, whose negative curvature
may be made to conform to the curvature of the rear side of the crown disk. In
,
ASTRONOMICAL PHOTOGRAPHY 735
astronomical technology the word "doublet," however, is not generally used for such a
single combination of a pair of lenses. The word "doublet" is reserved for a combi-
nation of two achromatic lenses spaced some distance apart, as in the older type of
portrait lens, thus giving a relatively large field for the focal length. In the con-
ventional type of telescope constructed for visual observations of celestial objects,
the lens is made achromatic for wavelengths in the neighborhood of the D lines of
sodium, which is the part of the spectrum to which the eye is most sensitive. If the
telescope lens is specially made for photographic work, it is achromatized for a region
in the neighborhood of 4500 A. The telescope with such an objective, however, is
practically useless for visual observations since the color dispersion in the region of
5900 A is The so-called "visual lens" maj' be
too great to produce a sharp focus.
utilized for photography, however, a color "screen" or suitable filter is employed.
if
As a filter should be selected which will best transmit the flat part of the color curve
of the telescope lens, an orthochromatic plate or one that is yellow sensitive must be
employed since the yellow region of the spectrum alone will be available for photo-
graphic action.
The Thaw telescope at the Allegheny Observatory is equipped with an achromatic
objective specifically designed for photographic light and has proved very effective for
astronomical photography where a great focal length is desired, as in determination of
star positions for "parallax" and "proper motion."
In the reflecting type of telescope a mirror is employed which forms the image of
the celestial object by reflected light, the curvature of the mirror being figured in the
form of a parabaloid so that brought to a single focus. The
parallel light will be
reflecting telescope or the reflector has the distinct advantage in astronomical photog-
raphy of providing a perfect achromatic optical system. Since the image is formed
by a reflection from a silvered or aluminized surface and not by light transmitted
through glass, no dispersion of light results. Another great advantage of the reflector
is that it is possible to construct a reflecting surface of far greater diameter than is the
case when clear glass disks must be provided for a system dependent upon transmitted
light.
The present practice of depositing a reflecting surface of aluminum by evaporation
in avacuum chamber in place of the chemical deposition of silver has brought about
marked improvement in the use of the reflector in astronomy. The aluminum coating
not only has the advantage of greater resistance to tarnish on exposure to air but at
the same time has a higher coefficient of reflectivity at the violet end of the spectrum
to which the ordinary photographic plate is most sensitive.
It is of astronomical interest to note that the reflecting telescope invented by Sir
Isaac Newton came into being as the antidote for the dispersional lens system. With
the development of the achromatic lens, refractors rivaled reflectors since the question
of the deterioration of the reflecting surface did not enter. In the latter part of the
nineteenth century when photography seriously began to replace visual observations,
the merits of the reflector were rediscovered, and our largest astronomical instruments
today are of the reflecting type. The 100-in. Hooker telescope of the Mount Wilson
Observatory of the Carnegie Institution of Washington is, and will probablj^ remain,
the largest telescope in the world until the completion of the 200-in. reflector provided
for Mount Palomar.
One serious disadvantage of the reflector is the comparatively limited region of the
field that is sufficiently flat to be utilized The adjunct of a
in astronomical study.
1 : 1 power lens system to flatten the field of the reflector
a recent development to
is
offset this difficulty. Since in astronomical photography one is usually concerned
with the obtaining of records of the faintest objects that may be recorded, the large
light-gathering power of a great reflector, together with its perfect achromatism.
renders this form of telescope for the photography of nebulae the instrument par
excellence.
Whether the refractor or the reflector is employed for photography, the funda-
mental requisite a stable mounting so designed and mechanized as to make possible
is
the continued registration of a given star field on the emulsion of the plate, in spite of
the diurnal motion of the sky.
—
Mechanical Aids for "Following." Since in all latitudes except at the equator
and the poles, the diurnal motion of a celestial object has both a vertical and horizontal
component, the only practical mounting for celestial photography is the so-called
"equatorial" form. In the equatorial mounting of a telescope, the principal axis,
known as the polar axis, is fixed so that it is with high accuracy parallel to the direction
of the axis of the earth at any given observing station. The polar axis of the tele-
scope mounting, therefore, will be directed to the true pole of the sky about which all
the stars appear to revolve. If a motor or clockwork with suitable gearing engages
with this axis, it will be so rated that the telescope will make one complete revolution
about this axis in the course of one sidereal day. The sidereal day is the period of the
rotation of the earth with respect to a fixed star and is shorter than the ordinary solar
day by 3 min. 56 sec.
In order that the celestial camera or telescope may be directed to any part of the
sky, it must be possible to turn the instrument about an axis at right angles to the
polar axis. This second axis gives a movement of the telescope tube north and south
along the great circle, passing through the celestial poles. Since the stellar coordinate
representing the angle of departure of a star from the celestial equator is known as
declination, the axis which provides for the motion of the telescope in declination is
known as the "declination" axis. When the telescope has once been directed to the
object in the sky to be photographed, it will be firmly clamped in declination. If the
image then centered on the plate and the driving clock of the telescope is allowed to
is
turn the polar axis, the object will continue to maintain its approximate position with
respect to the center of the plate.
For exposures of but a few minutes on bright star fields when the focal length of
the telescope is comparatively short, the instrument may be left to itself to record the
photography of the star field. The instrument in this sense is practically automatic.
Such self-operating instruments have been in nightly use as "patrol" cameras at
Harvard and elsewhere.
For prolonged exposure with instruments of large focal length, some auxiliary-
guiding device is necessary to compensate for irregularities in the clockwork and for
the variations in refraction and atmospheric disturbances encountered by the star-
light in reaching the plate. Such auxiliary "guiding" may be performed by utilizing
a visual telescope of the same or greater focal length made integral with the mounting
of the photographic telescope. This auxiliary telescope provided with a pair of
"cross wires" or intersecting spider threads at the focus of the eyepiece may be utilized
for detecting the slightest trace of movement of the star from the central position in
the field.Mechanical slow motions attached to the axes of the telescope and under
manual or may be used for keeping the star image in exact agreement
electrical control
with the intersection of the cross wires. A satisfactory continued registration of the
star image in the field of such a "finder" will result in perfect registration of the image
on the photographic plate.
In the employment of large instruments with very limited fields, one often needs
a guiding telescope of as large an aperture as the photographic one if faint stars are to
be employed for guiding purposes. The cost of such double construction, to say noth-
ing of the added mechanical difficulties involved, necessitates the employment of some
alternative mechanism. Hence came the development of the double-slide plateholder.
The Double-slide Plateholder. —In the double-slide plateholder, no attempt is
made to introduce small compensating movements about the polar and declination
axes of the instrument, but the plateholder is moved slightly east and west or north
and south by means of micrometer screws provided in the mechanism to which the
plateholder itself is immediately attached. A small eyepiece or sometimes two eye-
pieces sliding in ways on the border of the
telescopic field and outside the dimensions of
the photographic plate itself may serve for
"finding" a suitable guiding star. The eye-
piece will contain the conventional cross wires
upon which a star image, obviously not the
one being photographed, may be located. In
the double-slide-plateholder method the main
lens or mirror which is used in photography
becomes also the objective for forming the
image of the guiding star. The cross wires
of the eyepiece in any guiding mechanism are
provided with some form of faint illumination,
so that the observer may see both the cross
wires and the image of the guiding star
simultaneously. The double-slide plateholder
has the advantage over the guiding telescope
or auxiliary finder in that in the case of the
large instruments the entire mass of the tele-
scope tube does not have to be moved to
follow the capricious waves of starlight intro- Fig. —
1. The double-slide plate-
holder designed by the author for the
duced through atmospheric disturbances.
Perkins Observatory. Here small,
While the photographic plate is being exposed, specially constructed electric motors
the observer will keep his eye constantly on provide for moving the micrometer
the star in the guiding eyepiece and a hand screws by remote control.
on each of two micrometer screws. A skilled
observer may succeed in making several small movements with the micrometer
screws of this mechanism each second as he observes the guiding star, constantly
readjusting the plateholder to maintain the star at the intersection of the "wires."
—
Lenses Used in Astronomical Photography. The variety of problems encountered
in astronomy entail the employment of a wide variety of optical equipment. Con-
trary to popular opinion, much serious astronomical work not only can be done with
modest optical equipment but often can be performed more efficiently and with a
higher degree of satisfaction than with the use of large telescopes whose operations
are restricted to special problems.
—
Bruce Doublet. The introduction of the portrait lens into astronomy for the
photography of star fields covering several square degrees of the sky was largely due
to the genius of the late Edward Emerson Barnard, for many years astronomer at the
Yerkes Observatory. Barnard's early training involved an apprenticeship in a
commercial photography studio. Early in his career of astronomy he experimented
with portrait lenses attached to conventional telescope mountings. The excellent
results obtained in photographing sections of the Milky Way led to a specially
designed doublet with a unique mounting for photographing a complete map of the
Milky Way. The resulting instrument, named for the donor who contributed funds
to the Yerkes Observatory for its construction, became known as the Bruce telescope.
It has become a standard pattern for an astronomical photographic doublet for
many years. The design of the Bruce telescope comprised actually three telescopes
—
on a single mounting two photographic objectives, one of 10 in. in diameter and the
other of 6 in. in diameter, and a visual telescope, of appropriate focal length. Each of
the photographic telescopes had as its lens system two pairs of achromatic lenses
separated by an appropriate distance. The relatively large ratio of aperture to focal
length, //5, made the equipment particularly fast. The photographs of star clouds
and comets and the exquisite atlas of the Milky
Way which were obtained as the result of many
years' work won for Barnard the medal of the
Royal Astronomical Society of Great Britain.
Success with the Bruce doublet resulted in the
introduction of similar equipment in many other
observatories.
The short-focus doublet in a variety of sizes
has proved an invaluable tool for mapping the
entire sky. The "Harvard Sky" maps cover
the entire heavens on 55 plates showing stars to
about the twelfth magnitude. Another extensive
star map is comprised in the Franklin Adams
charts which cover the entire heavens to stars of
about the sixteenth magnitude. The Franklin
Adams charts were made with cameras of 6- and
10-in. apertures and yield a scale of approxi-
mately 1° = 15 mm.
An astrographic chart of the entire heavens
together with a catalogue giving the positions of
stars measured from photographic plates was
undertaken about 1900 with the cooperation of
observatories in all parts of the world. The
Fig. 2. —
Ten-in. Bruce tele- project is under the auspices of the International
scope, designed and constructed
Astronomical Union and has been about half
by the Warner Swasey Company,
Cleveland. completed. The instrumental equipment of the
observatories cooperating has been standardized.
The objectives of the telescopes have an aperture of 344 mm. and a focal length of
3.44 m. Each plate covers an area of the sky approximately 2° square. As the lenses
of the astrographic telescopes, however, comprise only two-element objectives, the
2° square field shows rather poor images at the peripherjr.
Choice of Aperture. —The choice of aperture of a photographic telescope will depend
upon the length of time of the exposure that one may profitably allot to obtain the
registration of star images of a given degree of brightness. The scale of brightness of
stars in common use in astronomy is designated as a "scale of magnitude." Stars
just visible to the naked eye fall generally in the classification of sixth magnitude stars.
Stars of the fifth magnitude are approximately 2.5 times brighter, whereas a star of the
seventh magnitude is 2.5 times fainter than one of the sixth magnitude. The law-
representing the ratio in brightness of a star of a given magnitude Mi to that of
magnitude M^ is given by the following:
log ^ = 0.4(M2 Ml) (1)

02
The limiting magnitude found on star charts of the Franklin Adams series is about
16. With prolonged exposure of the largest telescope equipment, has been possible
it
to photograph stars to about the twenty-first magnitude. Generally a photographic

:
telescope is aperture since an astronomer desires all the light obtain-

operated at full
able from a relatively faint source. Occasionally a diaphragm is used to stop down the
aperture for the sake of sharpening the focus near the periphery of the field, thus
increasing the effective area which may be satisfactorily utilized on a plate of a given
size.
—
Focal Ratio and Scale. The focal length of lenses employed in astronomical pho-
tography will be governed by the desired scale in the photographs to be obtained, and
by considerations depending upon the faintness of the objects to be photographed.
The speed of astronomical cameras or telescopes used for astronomical photography
varies inversely as the squares of their focal ratios when faint extended areas like
nebulae or comets are concerned. For stars yielding substantially point images, the
speed has been found to vary more nearly as the inverse first power of the focal ratio.
In determining the relation of focal length to plate scale, it is convenient to
remember that there are 3438' in 1 rad. A telescope whose focal length is 3.438 m.
will yield a photograph of a given region of the sky in which the angular unit dimension
of 1' of arc will be represented by 1 mm. on the photographic plate. Hence the
relation
F = 3438s (2)
where F the focal length in mm. and s is the scale in mm. per
is of arc. 1'
Some problems involving the measurement of small angular dimensions are

of the
(1) measuring the distances between the components of double stars; (2) the small
annular drift of positions in stars, known as "proper motion"; and (3) the seasonal
variation in the position of a star known as "parallax." Here telescopes of a focal
length of 15 ft. and up are desirable to produce the requisite scale on the plates used.
Among the large telescopes in use for parallax programs in which the distance of the
nearer stars is determined from angular displacements of 0.01" or more is that of the
Yerkes Observatory of the University of Chicago, situated at Williams Bay, Wis.
The aperture of the Yerkes lens is 40 in., and its focal length is approximately 65 ft.
For the scale of the plate to yield 1 mm. per 1" of arc a total length of 20.75 m.
is required. Here
s = -oTro = 60 mm. per 1'

(3)
If the position of the star on such a plate can be measured with a microscopic
comparator to the precision of Hoo mm., the position of the star may be determined
to within 0.01" which is about the order of accuracy obtainable in parallax
determinations.
The value of the reflector for positional work in astronomy is seriously handicapped
by the very limited field of the instrument. Distortion due to coma and spherical
aberration of a parabolic reflector become serious as we proceed away from the
optical axis of the mirror. For the purpose of producing a flat field over a considerable
area two devices have been perfected for use in connection with the reflector.
—
Ross Corrector. One of these is the Ross corrector of practically zero power which
usually consists of a doublet, one element of which is convex and the other concave.
The lens placed somewhat inside the focal plane of the reflector and is so figured as
is
to reduce the coma formed in the images, which increases as the distance along the
radius from the center of the field increases. The specification of the lens must be
suited to each particular instrument employed. F. E. Ross of the Yerkes Observatory
has designed several such lenses. The one for the 100-in. telescope at Mount Wilson
has three separate elements. The reduction of coma is made possible at the sacrifice
of a certain amount of astigmatism but the increase in the usable field of the reflector
resulting has added materially to the service which reflectors of large aperture may
render.
—
Schmidt Camera. A very novel type of astronomical camera was announced in
1932 by Bernhard Schmidt of the Hamburg-Bergedorf Observatory. The Schmidt
camera is an ingenious combination of a spherical mirror with a thin lens of peculiar
curvature which is placed at the center of curvature of the mirror. The lens elimi-
nates the spherical aberration introduced by the mirror and makes possible a con-
struction of a camera of extremely short focal length and wide aperture ratio.
Perhaps the most notable of Schmidt cameras was that recently installed at Mount
Palomar in California which is the site for the projected 200-in. reflector. In this
particular telescope the spherical mirror is of 24-in. aperture and the correcting
lens 18 in. in diameter. Since the lens is at the center of curvature of the mirror, it
Fig. 3. —Eighteen-in. Schmidt telescope on Palomar Mountain, Calif.
occupies a place at the upper end of the tube of the camera. The plate is placed at
the focus of the mirror, halfway between the surface of the mirror and the thin lens.
The mirror is necessarily made larger than the lens so that the 18-in. beam of light
from the stars off the axis may be fully reflected from the surface of the mirror. The
Schmidt arrangement, therefore, makes possible a much wider effective field than
can be obtained from either a mirror or a lens alone and has the advantage of permit-
ting a focal ratio in this instance of //2. It was with this instrument that the two
notable supernovae of 1937 were discovered by Zwicky.
The ingenuity of design of the Schmidt arrangement makes possible a focal ratio
of even //I. Such a camera of only 4-in. focal length has been constructed for the
Ladd Observatory of Brown University under the direction of C. H. Smiley. Mention
should here be made of a 48-in. Schmidt camera which is now being planned for the
Mount Palomar Observatory.
While the Schmidt arrangement has the great advantage of large aperture and
exceptional speed, it is not without some disadvantages. The extremely short focal
length necessitates a removal of a large amount of glass near the center of the spherical
mirror, thus adding to the difficulties of grinding. Furthermore, a lens to introduce
the minimum amount of chromatic aberration entails a complicated figure which is
somewhat convergent in the center, becoming divergent toward the edge. The field of
the camera is of high curvature and requires the molding of plates or fUms to conform
with the curved field. In spite of these difficulties, no other camera has been con-
structed combining high speed with the wide field obtainable in the Schmidt
arrangement.
Auxiliary Equipment. —
A photographic plate is the logical medium for spectro-
scopic work in astronomy, hence various forms of spectrographs are employed in con-
nection with the telescope for the analysis of starlight. As the user of this handbook
is hardly likely to enter the highly specialized field of astronomical spectroscopy
unless he be professionally employed at an observatory, a general description of

spectroscopic instruments as an illustration of the adaptation of photography to
astrophysics will suffice.
Stellar Spectrographs. —
The simplest form of stellar spectrograph and one widely
used where small-scale spectra of large numbers of stars are required, such as for
general classification purposes, is the so-called "objective prism." The objective
prism as the term implies is a prism of glass, preferably of an ultraviolet-transmitting
quality, that is placed immediately in front of the objective of the telescope or astro-
nomical camera, thus dispersing starlight from each star in the field of the telescope.
Since each star is essentially a point source of light, the image of the star photo-
graphed will be drawn out into lines with interruptions corresponding to the wave
lengths represented by the absorption frequencies of the stellar atmosphere. In order
to give an appreciable breadth to the spectra, the base of the prism may be oriented
parallel to one axis of the telescope and a slow motion imparted about the other axis,
thus drawing the slender spectrum into suitable breadth for examination purposes.
The interruptions in the slender spectra, therefore, broaden out into lines or bands
characteristic of the appearance of a spectrogram made with the ordinary laboratory
slit spectroscope.
For telescopes of comparatively great focal length a relatively small angle, e.g.,
5 to 10°, for the dispersion prism may be adopted and yet render a sufficient length of
spectrum for classification purposes. To take advantage of the full amount of the
beam of starlight falling on a telescope of given aperture, it is obviously necessary that
the aperture of the prism should be as large as that of the telescope. The great
advantage of the objective prism is that it uses the full amount of starlight available
and at the same time records large numbers of spectra on a single plate.
When photographing stars with the objective prism, the telescope, of course, can-
not be pointed in the direction in which stars are seen, but allowance has to be made
for the angle of refraction through the particular prism employed. This entails some
slight inconvenience in directing the telescope to the sky as compared with the employ-
ment of the more conventional slit spectrograph where the telescope is directed
immediately to the star, the light of which falls on the slit as would be the case of any
light source utilized in laboratory apparatus.
For a study of stellar spectra of larger dispersion and greater resolution than can
be photographed by the objective prism, the slit spectrograph must be employed.
This form of apparatus obviously is necessary for determining shifts in wavelengths
of stars introduced by velocity along the line of sight. Utilizing Doppler's principle,
radial velocities of approach and recession for many thousands of objects in the sky
have now been determined at the major observatories. A slit spectrograph for astro-
nomical work differs little in form from that of a standardized laboratory instrument,
except for the criterion of design necessitated by the optical system of the telescope
and the introduction of meclianical devices which will render convenient its attach-
ment to the telescope.
On account of the wide ranges of temperature encountered 'n\ the dome of an
observatory which, of course, is open to out-of-door conditions, the optical parts of
the spectrograph must be housed in a constant temperature case thermostaticallj'
controlled. In guiding the telescope for spectroscopic work, a guiding eyepiece is
provided to enable the observer to be certain that the stellar image falls on the slit
continuously. The guiding arrangement usually embodies a series of right-angle
prisms through which, by total internal reflection, light from the star image on the
slit is brought to a convenient observing point.
For purposes of determining line shifts, means must be provided for comparing the
wavelengths of lines in the spectrum of a star with laboratory standards of line posi-
tions. To accomplish this, some auxiliary apparatus is needed for imposing a com-
parison spectrum on the same plate with the spectrum of the star. This is usually
performed by the use of a spark gap or vacuum tube near the slit end of the spectro-
scope, light from which may be brought into the spectrograph by means of an auxiliary
reflecting prism. By means of a suitable slit diaphragm the comparison spectrum is
photographed on portions of the plate not occupied by the spectrum of the star. By
making exposures for the comparison spectrum, both before and after the exposure
has been made on a star, a check is assured on the requisite registration. If, through
accident or change in flexure, the spectrum is disturbed during the process of exposure,
the second comparison exposure obviously will not register coincident with the com-
parison spectrum made on the first exposure. For the interpretation of the line shift
on spectrograms, recourse is made to the comparator or micrometer microscope.
Details of the design of stellar spectrographs for the Mount Wilson, Yerkes, and
Dominion Astrophysical observatories have been printed in their publications and
serve as technical descriptions of this form of instrument. A recent modification
has been introduced at the Yerkes and Perkins observatories where the spectrographs
are of the autocoUimating type. In this form a single lens is used both for the colli-
mator and the camera of the instrument. In the case of the brighter stars the grating
may be utilized, producing a normal spectrum of relatively high dispersion.
—
The Spectroheliograph. The spectroheliograph is an interesting adaptation of
the spectrograph for the purpose of photographing the entire image of the sun in the
light of specific emissions from the lines of known elements in the sun. This was
originally designed by Hale in this country and by Deslandres abroad. The spectro-
heliograph utilizes the principle of a grating spectroscope by means of which the
absorption line of a single element in the sun may be isolated, such as the Ha line of
hydrogen. The camera consists of an arrangement by means of which a moving plate
follows an imposed motion of the image of the sun across the primary slit of the spec-
trograph. The resulting photograph consists essentially of a series of adjacent lamina-
tions, each of which gives a representation of the proportion of the image of the sun
covered by the slit in the moment of exposure of each lamination and in the light of
the chosen wavelength only. Since the plate moves with the same speed as does the
solar image across the primary slit, each elemental line section of the disk of the sun
occupies a fresh position on the photographic emulsion. If the apparatus is perform-
ing smoothly, the integrated image of the sun appears continuous, rendering beautiful
details of hydrogen clouds or flocculi that may be in evidence at the moment of expo-
sure. It is with the spectroheliograph that a continuous watch is now kept of erup-
tions ofhydrogen and calcium on the face of the sun, which in many instances coincide
with disturbances in the ionosphere of the earth, causing fade-outs in radio reception.
The adaptation of the spectroheliograph to motion-picture photography has been
accomplished by McMath and Hulbert of the McMath-Hulbert Observatory of the
University of Michigan. Such a device is called a "spectroheliokinematograph."

At the present date (1939) a new tower telescope with spectroheliographic and spectro-
heliokinematographic equipment has been constructed at the site of the McMath-
Hulbert Observatory at Lake Angelus, Mich. By means of motor-driven mirrors,
sunlight is brought through the top of the tower vertically downward to the slit of
the spectrograph in the observing room. The spectrograph itself is contained in a well
extending below ground to a depth of 31 ft., thus insuring convenient temperature
control. A 6-in. grating of 15,240 lines to the inch is used for the formation of the
spectrum. The motion-picture camera is a modification of the Bell and Howell Super-
speed check-pawl mechanism such as has been made only on order for the large picture
producers. Synchronous motors insure uniform motion, both for the film and for the
motion of the slit with respect to the image of the sun. An excellent brochure on
the design and detailed construction of the equipment is contained in Publications of the
Observatory of the University of Michigan, Vol. 7. The most remarkable motion pic-
tures of solar eruptions ever yet recorded have already resulted from the ingenuity and
skill of the McMath-Hulbert observers. From the point of view of science, this is
perhaps one of the most remarkable adaptations of photography of modern times.

In addition to the photography of the solar prominences and flocculi with the
spectroheliokinematograph, mention should be made of the very successful work of the
McMath-Hulbert Observatory in producing motion pictures of the moon showing its
rotation, the rising and setting of the sun, and conspicuous lunar craters and moun-
tains. Motion-picture photography of this observatory has also included probably
the finest record of a total eclipse of the sun yet recorded on motion-picture film.
Heliostat, Siderostat, and Coelostat.— In many problems of astronomical photog-
raphy involving heavy apparatus of a complex nature such as a spectrograph or a
spectroheliograph, it is often desirable to have the telescope fixed in either a horizontal
or vertical direction. Under such circumstances, an auxiliary mirror driven by clock-
work, or a synchronous motor, reflects light from the celestial objects into the lens
system. One type of instrument used for reflecting light from the sun or star in a
constant direction is called a "heliostat" or sometimes a "siderostat." This consists
of an optical-plane mirror mounted on a polar axis turned by the driving mechanisms.
The mirror is also pivoted along a diameter at right angles to the polar axis, so that it
may have a supplementary motion in declination to reach the sun or star on either
side of the celestial equator. A great disadvantage of this single mirror heliostat is
that the field of view rotates in the telescope as the mirror is driven bj' clockwork
about the polar axis. To
obviate this difficulty, the coelostat has been devised. In
the coelostat a second mirror is placed south of and above the level of the primary
mirror from which the beam of light is first reflected. By the use of this second mirror
the light beam received from the moving mirror can be sent in any convenient direc-
tion, irrespective of the position of the sun or the celestial object. However, on
account of the changing declination of the sun and the wide difference in declination
of the star, it is necessary to mount the secondary mirror on a carriage capable of longi-
tudinal motion in two directions. Or, as is sometimes the case, the primary mirror of
the heliostat may be mounted on the carriage providing longitudinal motion east and
west, while the secondary mirror may be moved along a track north and south. The
adjustment of the carriages on the track provide for reaching light from the sun or
stars in almost any position of the sky and directing it along the axis of the telescope
to be placed in either a vertical or horizontal position.
This combination of two mirrors, which comprises the coelostat, has the advantage
that the field does not rotate with the turning of the main mirror about the polar axis
if the latter has been adequately adjusted parallel to the axis of the earth for the station
of observation. It may be remembered that in the case of the coelostat, a clock or a

744 HANDBOOK OF PHOTOGRAPHY >
motor moves the main mirror at a rate of one complete rotation about the polar axis in
48 not once in 24 hr. as is the case of the directly mounted telescope. The explana-
hr.,
tion is, of course, that the motion of the beam of light reflected from a moving surface
is displaced by twice the angle at which the reflecting surface is displaced in the unit of
time.
Photographic Plates and Stellar Spectra. —In commercial photography at the
present time, photographic emulsions are largely used on celluloid films. The celluloid
film has the advantage of lightness in weight, small storage space, and freedom from
breakage. In astronomical work, glass, however, is still extensively used for support-
ing the photographic emulsion. The chief reason for this is the need for making
accurate measurements between positions of stars recorded on the plate and for deter-
mining with high precision the wavelengths of lines in stellar spectra. For qualitative
work to some extent, celluloid film may be employed for astronomical purposes where
the question of expansion or shrinkage of the emulsion with moisture or temperature
isnot sufficientlj' serious to promote observable distortion. One good example of the
use of celluloid film in astronomy is in connection with motion-picture photography
of solar prominences and flocculi with the spectroheliokinematograph described in an
earlier section.
As much however, is astrometrical in nature, the celestial photog-
of the observing,
rapher must make
provision for adequate storage of glass plates. As each glass plate
is essentially an astronomical record of some portion of the sky at a given instant,
a collection of such plates forms a veritable photographic library to which references

may be later made in case of the appearance of new stars or the discovery of comets,
meteors, or minor planets whose earlier history may have escaped attention at the
time of the original exposure. The most extensive photographic library of the sky
exists at the Harvard College Observatory which now comprises some 400,000 plates.
Speed vs. Grain. —There are two important requisites in the selection of plates for
astronomical purposes: (1) speed and (2) grain. Since exposures upon faint celestial
objects are necessarily long, often entailing the entire period of darkness in a single
night, it is desirable that the emulsion selected should be as fast as is possibly consistent
with quality and with size of grain. Some rapid plates that have been developed have
poor keeping qualities and contain man}^ blemishes, which, while not a serious handi-
cap in commercial photography, render the plates prohibitive for scientific use, since
blemishes and unequal sensitivity may cause false deductions when astronomical
objects are examined. In general a fast plate is of coarse grain impeding the detailed
recording of celestial objects requiring the highest possible resolution. Furthermore,
since stellar images are at best but a small aggregation of reduced silver grains and
since the distances between many pairs of images on a photographic plate are often
to be measured with the micrometer microscope, a plate of coarse grain introduces
difficulties for the measurer in endeavoring to bisect the image of the star with the
spider thread of a micrometer microscope. For many purposes, therefore, a relatively
slow plate of fine grain is preferable, even though it may add materially to the patience
required of the observer by increasing the exposure time at the telescope.
The question of the building up of the photographic image imder the action of light
and the law of increasing density with illumination and exposure time, commonly
known as the "reciprocity law," have been adequately described elsewhere in this
handbook. The response of different emulsions to light for a given exposure depends
not only on intensity and exposure time but quite as much upon the spectral distribu-
tion by wavelengths. The emulsions, therefore, must be selected with a view to color
response to which they are most sensitive. The accompanying chart represents the
wavelength response of some typical emulsions produced by the Eastman Kodak Co.
for astronomical and spectroscopic work. At the lower end of the diagram it will be
observed that the O emulsion is responsive to wavelengths between 2500 and 5000 A.
At the extreme upper right of the diagram the emulsion is particularly responsive to
wavelengths of 10,000 to 12,000 A.
EASTMAN SPECTROSCOPIC PLATES
^/////////////A^^^^
I ,
EMULSION TYPES AVAILABLE

SENSITIVITY CONTRAST SENSITIZINOS RECOMMENDED
HIGH
HIGH
MEDIUM ALL
FAIRLY HIGH VISIBLE SPECTRUM t ULTRA VIOLET
_
MEDIUM HIGH VISIBLE SPECTRUM & ULTRA VKJLET
LOW VERY HIGH VISIBLE SPECTRUM & ULTRA VIOLET
VERY LOW VERY HIGH PANCHROMATIC ONLY
144 HIGH IN INFRA-RED VERY HIGH PAN. & ESPECIALLY INFRA-RED
-MATERIALS ARE DESIGNATED AS TYPE I-C, I-P. m-R. 144-M, etc.-

WHEN THE MAXIMUM SENSITIVITY IS REQUIRED
THE SENSITIZING COVERING THE SHORTEST —
SPECTRAL REGION SHOULD BE SELECTED.
,AT X7600 m-K IS MORE SENSITIVE THAN m-N.
X 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000 1 1000 12000
Fig. 4. —Sensitivity of Eastman materials for spectroscopic use. Black portions

show wavelengths for which plate is most sensitive. Shaded areas indicate wavelengths
of good sensitivity.
EASTMAN 50
—
been uniformly blackened. The illustration herewith reprinted by the courtesy of the
Eastman Kodak Co. shows these tracings for their plates as follows:
Table I. Resolving Power to White Light
Material R. P. Material R. P.
Eastman 50 38 Type I... 45

Eastman 40 40 Type II.. 50
Eastman 33 60 Type III. 70
Eastman Process 80 Type IV. 85
Type 144 80
Type V. . 160
The column marked R. P. opposite the types of emulsions gives the corresponding
resolving power which may be defined as the number of lines (black and white of equal
width) per millimeter on the plate that may be fully resolved into separate entities.
The list is arranged in order of decreasing sensitivity in each of the two listings.
Color Curves. —
The selection of plates for photography with refracting telescopes
requires that a plate be employed with spectral sensitivity specially suited to the
region for which the lens of the refractor has its best field if star images of good defini-
tion are to result. This presupposes a knowledge of the color curve of the lens. The
color curve of the lens may be determined by finding the exact focus of a star for speci-
fied wavelengths as will be explained in a later section.
Fig. 6. — Color-sensitivity curve for emulsion B. {Eastman Kodak Co.)
For most visual refractors the flattest part of the color curve is in the neighborhood
of 5600 A. For photography with such a telescope, plates particularly sensitive to
this region should therefore be selected, such as the panchromatic plate of Class B or
Class C sensitizing. To prevent blurring of the stellar image by out-of-focus rays of
shorter or longer wave lengths, a yellow filter should be used in front of the emulsion,
such as the Wratten filter No. 12 which has been adopted by most of the major observ-
atories. The color curve of the panchromatic emulsion B represented above shows
fairly uniform sensitivity from wavelengths 5200 to 6400 A.
The reflecting telescope has, of course, a great advantage in that there is very
little spectral selectivity in the reflection of light from a silvered or aluminized surface,
at least throughovit the spectral region transmitted by the atmosphere of the earth.
In astronomical work involving investigations of colors of stars, a variety of plate
emulsions maj^ be utilized by the same instrument in conjunction with appropriate
filters. This, of course, cannot be so effectively done with the refracting type of
instrument on account of the strong color characteristics of the lens.
The existence of dark stars whose radiations are too far in the infrared to make an
impression on the ordinary plate have been recently found by Hetzler of the Yerkes
Observatory through the use of supersensitive panchromatic emulsions. Often the
sensitivity of these emulsions may be materially increased by hypersensitizing with
ammonia just prior to exposure. The procedure recommended is to bathe the plate
for 1 min. in a 4 per cent solution of 28 per cent ammonia. To avoid fogging, the
temperature should be maintained below 55 °F. and the plate dried as rapidly as possi-
ble immediately afterward. In the use of a fan, care should be exercised to see that
the air dust free, such as will be the case if the procedure is carried out in a suitably
is
constructed drying box. If plates so hypersensitized are not used with reasonable
promptness after the hypersensitizing process, they should be kept in a refrigerator
until used. On account of their low humidity, mechanically cooled refrigerators are
to be preferred to those employing natural ice. The refrigerated plate should be
brought to normal temperature 24 hr. before use to prevent the condensation of mois-
ture upon the emulsion during exposure.
Exposixres.—Except in the case of photography of the sun, moon, and planets,
exposures in celestial photography may vary over a range extending from a few min-
utes to many hours, depending upon the faintness of the object photographed. There
is an old adage current in the early days of photography, "Expose for the shadows;
the high lights will take care of themselves." This may be paraphrased for the celes-
tial photographer, "Expose for the faintest stars desired, and let the brightest take
care of themselves." The exposure time, therefore, for a celestial photographer
depends entirely upon the equipment available, speed of the plate, and the magnitude
of the faintest stars which it is desirable to record.
For the faintest extra-galactic nebulae on which theories of the expanding universe
•
depend, the largest telescopes available necessitate exposures equivalent to several

nights of observations.
When an exposure of greater length than the duration of darkness in a single night
is needed, the slide of the plateholder is closed, the plateholder, however, being left in
place, and the instrument undisturbed At the beginning

until the following night.
of the next period of darkness, the telescope again directed to the region in question.
is
The same guiding star is brought exactly to the same intersection of the cross wires in
the guiding eyepiece. Then the slide of the plateholder is withdrawn and exposure
continued. This procedure is not at all uncommon in the case of photographing
spectra of faint objects.
In the case of direct photography, there is a certain amount of illumination of the
night sky which introduces a slight fogging of the background of the plate. To pro-
long the exposure so that this fog obliterates the faintest star images recordable is
obviously futile. Hence for a given type of emulsion and a given form of telescope, the
light of the night sky usually sets a limit to the maximum practical exposure period.
groups of brighter stars only are desirable, exposure may be restricted to as short
If
an interval as will produce a measurable image of the given stars. The smaller and
better defined the star image becomes, the more satisfactory the result. When the
plate is exposed for stars of faint magnitude, the stars of the second and first magnitude
will be grossly overexposed, producing a large blotch on the plate which will often
obscure faint stars in the immediate vicinity of the brighter ones. Often a rotating
sector is employed during the exposure to cut down the light of an interfering bright
star.
appropriate to mention here the marked characteristics on the image
It is
of brighter stars found on the images of the photographic plate taken with a reflector
as compared with a refractor. In the case of a reflector, the brighter images are
characterized by a diffraction pattern which tends to produce a square image, often
taking the form of a Greek cross, as the exposure is prolonged. The square image
and the cross in the case of the reflector are due to the diffraction pattern of light
produced as the result of the finlike supports at the upper end of the tube of the reflec-
tor that hold the auxiliary mirror in the axis of the telescope. For stars not over-
exposed, this characteristic seldom appears and the round images can scarcely be
distinguished from those taken with the refractor or lens camera.
—
Determination of Focus. Unlike the sun, moon, planets and an occasional comet,
the images of stars on photographic plates give no delineation of the object photo-
graphed since even the largest stars at the distances encountered in astronomical
photography have an angular diameter far below the resolving powers of either the
telescope or the photographic plate. The star images obtained vary in size depending
upon the brightness of the star photographed. Each image, of course, represents the
reduction of a substantial number of silver grains acted upon by the light forming the
diffractionimage of the source. As the exposure is prolonged, the area of reduction
of the silver grains spreadsmore or less uniformly in all directions, thus enlarging the
latent image. In order to produce images of the faintest stars, it is necessary that
the plate be in the exact focus of the lens or mirror employed. The focus for stellar
work may be determined either by (1) trial and error or (2) calculation from extra-focal
images.
In the trial-and-error method a series of exposures of a few seconds are made on a
bright star, starting with the plate well within the known focus of the objective or
mirror, and making successive exposures after changing the focal setting by 1 or 2 mm.
imtil the final exposure is made with the plate well outside the known focus. By
turning one of the micrometer screws of the plate carrier between each exposure, a
suitable separation of the multiple images can be secured.
After the plate has been developed, a series of star images will be observed of
varying size, depending upon the distance of the plate from the focus at the time of
each exposure. If the focal settings for the
exposures have been appropriate, there will
appear two or three of the smallest images of
about the same size. By interpolation, there-
fore, the focal setting for the smallest image or
position of sharpest focus thus determined.
is
It is important to record the temperature

of the air surrounding the camera, for, owing to
the expansion and contraction of the telescope
with temperature, the focus thus determined
will not be correct for any other operating
temperature. If care is taken to provide a
series of focal settings for widelj"- different
Fig. 7. Diagram showing thermometer readings, a curve may be drawn
method of determining focal length
^^^ ^ -^^^ instrument which thereafter will
CI telescope by extra focus method. , .
show the proper setting of the plate for any

temperature encountered under working conditions. It is obvious that a calibrated
scale of some sort should be provided, along with an appropriate index attached to
the plateholder to indicate relative settings of the plate with respect to the optical
system of the instrument.
It is often desirable to determine the photographic focus of a given telescope or
astronomical camera by calculation from the results of two exposures, one of which
is made well inside the focal plane and the other of which is made well outside the focal
plane.
In determining the focus by the extra-focal method, a cardboard diaphragm is
placed in front of the lens or mirror with two openings at the extremities of a diameter.
In the case of a lens of 10-in. aperture the openings in the cardboard screen may be
cleanly cut round holes of about 1 cm. in diameter. Pimches such as are used for
cutting wads for gun cartridges or those used by sailmakers for punching holes in
canvas to receive grommets serve as excellent tools for the purpose.
a represents the distance between the two openings in the cardboard screen and
If
hi andhi represent the corresponding distances between the images formed on the
plate taken inside and outside the focal plane at distance di and d^ from the focal
plane, then the following proportion holds:
61 di a
h^^d^F (4)
where F the distance of the desired focus from the lens or cardboard screen.
is
In general it is inconvenient to determine by measurement di and d^ since the
position of the focus is itself unknown. If, however, the attached scale reads continu-
ously with increasing numbers from a point inside the focus to points outside the
focus, if Si and S2, respectively, represent the scale readings of the index for the posi-
tions of the plateholder to which the two exposures are made, and if /o equals the scale
setting for the focal point, we observe that
S2 — Si = di + dg (5)
From the geometry of the situation
bi _ /o - si
~a F~ (6^
and similarly
hi ^ Si -/o
a F ^
'
Eliminating both a and F from these equations and solving for /o, we find
. S261 + S162 -OS

^' ~ ^^^
61+62
This gives very simply by calculation the scale setting of the plate for the focal point /o.
This method has the advantage, in that less labor is entailed in making the series of
determinations of the focus for changes in temperatures. It will be observed that
neither a, the distance between the apertures in the cardboard screen, nor F, the exact
distance to the focal point from the lens, enters into the final result. If the precise
focal length of the lens or mirror is desired, e.g., to determine the scale of the plate, this
may be found from the expression
F =^{j, -si) =£(S2 -/o) (9)
where a is known from measurements.

using cardboard diaphragms with a single pair of
It is often desirable, instead of
apertures connected by a diameter, to employ a screen containing two pairs of aper-
tures arranged along diameters at right angles to each other. If the focal setting is
different as determined from these separate pairs of apertures, some astigmatism is
present in the optical system. A cardboard screen containing multiple holes arranged
at different radii from the geometrical center of the lens and in different position angles
is frequently employed in observatories for determining the optical quality of the lens
or mirror by actually calculating the focus

for the objective for different zones and in
different planes distributedaround the optical axis in position angle.
If a prism is placed to intercept two converging pencils of light from the two-
aperture screen, curved spectra of a star will be photographed. By measuring the
distances 61 and 62 between the components of each pair of spectra at the positions
of known wavelengths of the spectrum, e.g., the principal absorption lines of hydrogen,
an accurate determination of the color curve of a lens may be made. A graph of the
results gives at once the relationship between the focal setting and the wavelengths of
the light passing through the lens.
—
Measurements of the Photographic Plate in Astronomy. The principal uses of
—
astronomical photographs may be divided roughly into two categories qualitative
and quantitative. In the first category, astronomical photographs may be used for
The discovery of new stars, the so-called "novae," comets, and asteroids. Here the
important element is the existence of plates taken at different dates or times. The
use of a "blink" comparator, whereby it is possible for the eye to scan rapidly the
objects first on one plate and then on the other, facilitates very quickly the discovery
of an object which exists at a certain date that was not visible at a different epoch.
Similarly variations in the brightness of stars known as "variable" stars may be
readily detected since the size of the photographic image diminishes with a diminution
in the brightness of the variable in question. Large numbers of stars of vary-
ing brightness have been found in this way, and a considerable number of planetoids
have been added to the asteroid group as a result of their presence being caught on
photographic plates taken at various epochs. Many new stars and comets have like-
wise been found by the sudden impression they have made on the photographic record
of a given night. These qualitative uses of the photographic plate continue to form a
major feature in the program of many leading observatories.
The more precise use of the photographic plate involves the determination of the
exact positions of the star images on the plate and determination of the relative bright-
ness of the objects involved from the apparent size and brightness of the stellar images
represented. The branch of astronomy which has to do with the calculations of the
exact positions of the stars from their photographic records is known as photographic
"astrometry," whereas the field of investigation involved in determining the brightness
of the stars from the appearance of their photographic images comprises the branch of
astronomy knowm as photographic "photometry."
Astrometry.— In utilizing the photographic plate for determining accurately the
positions of the stars represented upon it, use is made of a precision comparator, or
measuring machine. This machine constructed in various forms usually consists of a
carriage to which the negative is attached and which is capable of movement by microm-
eter screw^s in two directions at right angles to each other. It is of paramount
importance that the lead screws of the measuring machine should be of the highest
possible precision if great accuracy is to be expected in the results of plate measure-
ments. A microscope provides for a suitable magnification for the photographic
images, each of which is bisected by the cross wdre in the eyepiece of the microscope
while the scale readings of the micrometer screws are set down in turn. It is consid-
ered good practice to make from three to five settings upon each star image in turn,
alw'ays approaching the star image wdth the cross wire moving in the same direction
to avoid backlash. After readings have been made on all the desired objects, the
plate is then usually reversed 180° on the carriage for a complementary series
of measurements.
The results of the twô series are then averaged together for the x and y coordinates
of each object referred to a hj^pothetical origin. The reduction of these x and y linear
measurements to the astronomical coordinates, "right ascension" and "declination,"
involve fmidamental equations in spherical astronomy, corrections to the curvature
of the field of the telescope, ard corrections to the adopted scale value of the instru-
ment involved. These considerations are beyond the scope of this chapter.
Distortion.— T\\G interpretation of the positions of stars determined from photo-
graphic plates raises the question of possible distortion that may be introduced through
:
ASTRONOMICAL PHOTOGRAPHY '
751
the contraction or shrinkage of the photographic gelatin emulsion during the process
of development and drying. Extensive investigations have been made to determine
the degree of uncertainty which may be introduced on this account through the use of
the photographic film in astronomical astrometry. Schlesinger in 1906 concluded
from extensive investigation that the amount of error of measurement in photographic
plates which could be attributed to distortion were in general of the order of about
+ 0.009 mm. (average mean error). The corresponding mean error in the observer's
bisection of a star image was calculated to be ±0.0020 mm.
The subject of film distortion has also been investigated bj* S. Albrecht, Perrine,
Ross, and others. All conclude that the amount of by
error likely to be introduced
distortion on the photographic film mounted on glass
is small compared with errors of
bisection of the image by the measurer. It is, perhaps, worth mention that a series
of tests by F. E. Ross in 1912 gave for the probable error of the measured distance of
air-dried plates +0.0020 mm., while the probable error of a measured distance on al-
cohol-dried plates was + 0.0012 mm. It would appear that uniformity of drying, a feat
which is accomplished very effectively by immersion of the plate in alcohol, is an
important factor in keeping film distortion to a minimum. This has been established
at least for plates of small dimensions, such as the 27 by 37 mm., used in the investiga-
tion by Ross.
Photographic Photometry.—Fxom the introduction of the dry plate into astronomy
it was early sensed that the size of the stellar image upon the plate might be taken as
an index of the brightness or magnitude of the star. In the year 1857 Bond of the
Harvard Observatory demonstrated an empirical relation between the exposure time t
and the diameter y of the photographic image which he represented by the equation
P +Q =y^ (10)
In the formula P
and Q are constants of the plate used. Later investigations by
Charlier showed that a close agreement between stellar magnitudes and measured
diameters followed if the relationship were expressed logarithmically by the equation
m = a — h log 10 d (11)
where m is the magnitude and d the diameter of the stellar image, a and h being plate
constants.
At the Royal Observatory in Greenwich a similar expression involving a square
3-ootrelationship was found to be applicable to a wider range of conditions as regards
plates and instruments than could be satisfied by the logarithmic expression.
Accordinglj^ the following form, well known in many observatories, has found wide
acceptance
VI = a - hx^d (12)
In utilizing this formula for the calculation of magnitudes of stars from their
photographic images, some instrument of precision such as the micrometer microscope
is utilized in measuring the value of d, the diameter of the stellar image. The quan-
tities a and h are constants of the plate which may easily be determined from simul-
taneous equations when two or more stars of known magnitude m are photographed.
Since the photographic image of the star at best shows no well-defined periphery,
the principal source of error in measuring is the uncertainty of locating the extremities
of the diameter to be measured. It is customary in measiirement to measure two
diameters at right angles to each other and to take the mean. This is particiilarly
necessary if through poor guiding or optical difficulties the images are at all elongated.
Experience shows that even the same eye may pass different judgments on large
and small images in the same field. The fact that different observers using the same
method will show reasonably good agreement indicates at least the degree of reliability
of the results obtained in this way. The process is at best tedious and time consuming
so that other methods for calculation of magnitudes from stellar images on photo-
graphic plates are employed where a large amount of material needs to be studied.
One of these is the scale method, long in use at the Harvard College Observatory.
In this method a scale of varying stellar images is obtained by making multiple
exposures at intervals on a single star. By increasing the time of successive exposures
in a definite ratio, a series of images varying in size by more or less constant steps maj^
be made. Such a series of images forms a scale plate. By comparing the images on
this transparent scale plate with the images of stars of known magnitude on the photo-
graphic plate under investigation, it is possible to calibrate this arbitrary scale in terms
of magnitudes. With the constants thus determined for the scale plate, visual com-
parisons are made between the scale plate and stars whose magnitude it is desired to
determine. If for example a star image of unknown magnitude is found to fall midway
between two images of the scale plate which have been calibrated as 4.2 and 4.8 magni-
tudes, respectively, the magnitude of the star represented by the image under observa-
tion will be designated as 4.5. Such a method has the advantage of rapidity
of operation and is effective where estimates of a tenth of a magnitude gives the requi-
site precision.
Another method extensively used in observatories is that of extra-focal images.
In this extra-focal method the plate is purposely placed either inside or outside the
focus of the telescope. In this position the converging pencils of light rays from the
star are intercepted so that a circular disk of more or less uniform blackening
is obtained for each star. If the position of the plate is sufficiently far removed from
the focus, all these circular disks will be of the same diameter but will vary in their
degree of blackening, depending on the brightness of the star for a given exposure.
The degree of blackening of the several images is measured by some form of densitom-
eter in which a calibrated photographic wedge such as is used in the Hartmann
microphotometer is frequently employed.
In 1916 the author published an account of an apparatus and method for determin-
ing stellar magnitudes from photographic plates, utilizing a thermocouple in conjunc-
tion with a light source and galvanometer. The apparatus thus devised was called a
"thermoelectric photometer" and was found to be useful not only for measuring the
density of the extra-focal images but, through the provision of suitable diaphragms, for
the determination of magnitudes from focal images. The thermoelectric photometer
has the advantage over visual densitometers in that no auxiliary photographic wedge
is necessary. Furthermore a physical method of measurement eliminates eye fatigue
and the personal equation involved where visual estimates must be made.
Various adaptations of the thermopile and photoelectric cell have since been made
in several forms of densitometers for measuring the blackening of appreciable areas.
The advantage of the thermoelectric photometer, herein described in its original form,
lies in the fact that it is equally adaptable to the measurement of focal images of stars
that vary very widely in size, the apparatus effectively integrating or practically
counting the total number of silver grains reduced by a given amount of starlight with
a givenamount of exposure.
The apparatus consists essentially of a light source consisting of an incandescent
lamp fed by constant voltage whose highly condensed filament is projected to the
stage of the instrument completely covering a small pinhole diaphragm that may be
varied from 0.1 to 1 mm. in size. The diaphragm occupies a position in the center of
the observing stage of the instrument. By a suitable optical system an image of the
illuminated diaphragm is projected on the surface of the thermocouple in electrical
connection with a sensitive galvanometer. A long-focus microscope is used for view-

ing the small diaphragm at stage center. The photographic plate is placed film down
in physical contact with the diaphragm, and the plate is so moved that a star image is
adjacent to the diaphragm. Radiation passing from the light' source through the
diaphragm to the thermocouple produces a given deflection D on the galvanometer.
The plate is then moved until the star image to be measured is seen to be central within
the diaphragm. The deposit of silver grains in the photographed image will then
obstruct a given amount of energy from the cone of light passing into the diaphragm
to the thermopile, producing a new galvanometer deflection D' The relationship
.
holding between the magnitude of the stars and the galvanometer deflections has been
found to be
— «;iH (13)
where a. and /3 = plate constants;

5 = the proportional fall in the galvanometer deflection represented by
the ratio;
a = «^'
Where 5 has been determined for two or more stars of known magnitude appearing
on a given plate, the quantities a. and /3 may be at once evaluated. The value of the
galvanometer deflection D for a given reading will depend, of course, upon the trans-
parencies of the plate film, the thickness of the glass, the voltage of the source, and the
resistance of the thermopile-galvanometer circuit.
Since in the reduction, however, only the ratio (D — D')/D is involved, it will be
noted that any change in D due to a change in intensity of the light source or trans-
parency of the film will not affect the result, provided the conditions remain constant
through the measurement of D and D' for a given star. Since it is found that varia-
tions exist in the transparency of the glass and film over different parts of a plate, it is
necessary that measurement through the unexposed portion of the film be taken in
the immediate neighborhood of the star for the background readings D. In practice
two readings are customarily made on the star image and three readings made on
the background immediately adjacent, the respective means being taken for reduction
to magnitude. Instruments of the above design have been in use at Harvard, at the
Case School of Applied Science, at the Steward Observatory of the University of
Arizona, at Perkins Observatory, and the Argentine National Observatories.
A modification of the thermoelectric photometer by Schilt has been in use at
Yale, Columbia, and elsewhere. In the Schilt instrument mechanical movements
of the plate in rectangular coordinates have been provided with appropriate scales for
recording the approximate positions of the stars measured. In the Schilt instrument
the plate is held in a vertical plane, whereas in the author's design the plate is allowed
to occupy a horizontal position.
—
Visual Magnitudes and Color Index. Since the ordinary photographic plate is in
general much more sensitive to the blue and violet end of the spectrum, high-tempera-
ture stars whose emission is strong in the region of short wavelengths will produce
larger and blacker images on the photographic negative than yellow or red stars that
to the eye give the impression of equal brightness. Magnitudes of stars therefore
determined from the photographic plate will differ considerably from magnitudes of
the same stars made with a visual photometer, on account of the large differences in
color. Such magnitudes are therefore referred to as photographic magnitudes as
distinguished from visvial or photometric magnitudes. The photographic plate, how-
ever, with an auxiliary yellow such as the Eastman Minus Blue may be used to
filter
record magnitudes on a visual scale by the photographic process. When the yellow
color screen is used, plates sensitive to yellow light, often referred to asorthochromatic
plates, are employed. Stellar magnitudes on such a visual scale determined from
orthochromatic plates with yellow filters are termed "photovisual" magnitudes.
If one compares photovisual magnitudes with the ordinary photographic magni-
tudes determined from the usual blue-sensitive plate, the difference is connotated
"color index." This quantity is obviously an index of the color of a yellow or red star
as compared to a white or blue star. Sometimes a red filter is employed in conjunction
with a panchromatic plate in determining the degree of redness a star possesses. A
careful comparison of color indices w'ith respect to spectral types of stars yields a
rather close correlation, so that stars of such faint magnitudes that a spectroscopic
analysis is impossible may roughly betraj^ the type of spectrum from a determination
of the color index alone. From the color index the black-body temperature of the
stellar surface may likewise be inferred. Bj^ the use of plates especially sensitized for
the infrared, such as the Eastman Mor P, Hetzler of the Yerkes Observatory has been
able to photograph dull-red stars not previously rendered visible.
Precautions. —Since photographic photometry is in a sense a quantitative process,
certain precautions should be mentioned in the use of star images for photometric
purposes.
When focal images of stars are used, stars off the optical axis will produce images
that increase in diameter as the distance from the optical center increases. This is
due to the fact that the field of any telescope has a certain amount of curvature, and
unless, as is done in some instances, provision is made for curving the plate to the
known curvature of the field of the lens or mirror, images of stars off the optical axis
will be slightly extra focal; hence they are somewhat enlarged.
It is possible to make a magnitude correction for this off-the-axis effect. To do
this, the driving clock of the telescope may be stopped just as a bright star is coming
into the field of the plate and exposure made. For a bright star a few seconds suffice
to gain an impressionable image. After a few moments wâit, a second exposure is
made, and this process repeated until the star has passed over the entire plate due
to the diurnal motion of the sky. If the telescope has been properly focused, the
images of the stars at the axis will be true focal images and therefore appear to be of
smaller dimensions than the outlying images. By any one of the various means of
measurements previouslj'' mentioned, the magnitude differences of each of the off-axis
images may be determined and plotted against the linear distance of each image from
the plate center. From these data a correction curve can be drawn from which a
magnitude correction may be deduced to reduce any determined magnitude of a star
off the axis to the photographic magnitude which it would have if it had been exposed
in the position of the optical axis itself.
In developing plates that are to be used for photometric measurements, relatively
weak solutions are employed for a developer, and a development time of 5 min. is
desirable. Care should be taken to see that the plate is completelj'- covered with the
developer and the tray rocked manually or mechanically throughout development.
This insures uniformity in the chemical treatment of the emulsion and also tends to
reduce to a minimum the difficulties attributable to the so-called Eberhard effect.
—
Eberhard Effect. The Eberhard effect is particularly conspicuous on plates which
have been overdeveloped, especially where there is considerable sky fogging in the
background. It is noticeable as an aureole or light ring immediately surrounding the
stellar image. Its appearance is explained by assuming a slight dilution of the devel-
oper in the immediate neighborhood of the star image where reduction of the silver
grains draws most heavily upon the constitvients of the developing agent. Rocking of
the tray during development reduces the trouble to a minimuni, as in so doing a fresh
supply of developer is constantly brought into the region of each star image reduced.
The Eberhard effect when present is particularly troublesome in making "back-
ground" readings in the thermoelectric method of measuring a photographic plate, and
presents similar difficulty whenever measured diameters are involved.
If photographic magnitudes determined from one plate are to be compared with
similar measurements on control plates, it is essential that both plates be developed
together in the same traji- and likewise receive the same treatment in fixing, washing,
and drying.
There are certain characteristics of the photographic plate which the celestial
photographer should constantly keep in mind. Some of these greatly affect the
sensitivity of the emulsion.
Experience shows that the sensitivity of photographic plates gradually deteriorates
with storage. After development this can be noted qualitatively by a certain degree
of fogginess, especially near the edges of the plate. If there is a long delay between
exposure and development, this change in sensitivity is well marked. Dark areas
tend to become darker and light areas fainter with delay between exposure and devel-
opment. One might say that the contrast is materiallj'- increased by delaying the
development. In celestial photography, however, this means that faint stars or other
celestial objects which might have been near the threshold value of the plate and
therefore just detectable upon immediate development may be lost if the time between
exposure and development is unduly prolonged. King states that on such plates as he
has tested a 15 per cent change has been noted after a month's delay. In one case,
where an interval of 9 months elapsed between exposure and development, a change of
80 per cent was noted. In terms of stellar magnitudes, differences as great as a half a
magnitude have been found in results, depending upon whether the magnitude scale
was based on the brighter or the fainter images on the plate concerned.
Another element affecting the sensitivity of the plate is the amount of humidity
present during exposure. Even a small amount of moisture decreases the sensitive-
ness of a photographic plate seriously. When making exposures for photometric
purposes, if comparisons are to be made with a standard light or a comparison star, it
is desirable that a control exposure be made both at the beginning and at the end of
any series of exposures for photometric purposes. Almost as important as the degree
of humidity is the air tjCmperature to which the plate is exposed. With the lowering
of the temperature, a plate will in general show fainter stars for a given exposure time.
If a series of exposures is made to determine the variation of brightness of a variable
star and the temperature is falling, an allowance must be made for this change in
temperature during the series of exposures. Usually this is done by comparing the
images of other stars in the field whose light is regarded as constant. It is always
desirable that plates taken from the darkroom should be in the plateholder and exposed
to the temperature of the telescope several hours before the exposure is actually to be
naade.
—
Spectrographic Measurements. The problem of nieasuring spectrograms in
astronomical work is not very different from that of measuring spectrographic plates
from laboratory sources. The determination of line positions on a linear scale is made
with a suitable comparator. The reduction of scale ratings to wavelengths in the case
of prism spectra is usually effected by the use of the well-known Cornu-Hartmann
formula
X = Xo
s ^
+ a
(15)
in which s is the measured distance from the line of reference, while X, a, and b arc
constants whose value must be determined from simultaneous equations covering at

least three known wavelength measurements.
The problem of determining the abundance of elements from the intensities of the
lines in stellar spectra now forms an important study in astrophysics. The theory of
ionization phenomena and the method of measuring line contours by means of tracings
made with a suitable microphotometer is similar to the problem of the physicist work-
ing in a laboratory in spectroscopy. The wide variations in stellar spectra with the
varying densities of stellar atmospheres, together with their temperatures, afford
intriguing problems for the astronomical spectroscopist.
A problem of astronomical spectroscopy not frequently encountered in ordinary
laboratory technique is that of the determination of the radial velocities of stars and
nebulae from the displacement of lines in the spectra of celestial objects from their
normal standard positions. If Dopper's principle is utilized, the velocity may be
determined from the formula
V =
^ (16)
where 6X = the changed wavelength due to the approach or recession of the object
under observation;
X = the standard wavelength of the known line;
c = the velocitj^ of light;
V =
the radial velocity or velocity in the line of sight.
The quantity v obviouslj^ is plus if S\ is plus, i.e., if there is an increase in wave-
length in the star line from that of the normal position. Similarlj'' v will be minus if
the wavelength decreases. In the first instance the celestial object is receding from the
earth and in the second instance approaching the earth at the time the spectrogram
was made.
Since in general the radial velocity of the star will be desired with respect to the
sun, corrections must be made motion of the earth and, for greater
for the orbital
accuracy, corrections for the movement on account of the rotation of
of the observer
the earth. A third correction, depending upon the small amount of motion of the
earth about the center of gravity of the earth-moon system, must be made for still
greater refinement. The reduction of observations involving such corrections and
the detailed procedures employed at various observatories are beyond the scope of
this handbook. The reader is referred to Campbell's "Stellar Motions," Andre's
"Astronomie Stellaire," and similar works.
Caution sometimes has to be used in interpreting apparent plate velocities for
actual velocities of the celestial objects themselves in the line of sight. Pressure and
relativity effects also serve to displace lines from their normal positions. It is perhaps
patent here to remark the question of the theory of the expanding universe rests upon
interpreting plate velocities of the extra-galactic nebulae in terms of the Doppler effect
alone. Should there occur reasons for believing in a change of frequency of light
through astronomical distances and large units of time, doubt would at once be cast
upon the validity of interpreting plate velocities as actual velocities in the line of
sight.
Experiments made by McCuskey at the Harvard Observatory hold considerable
promise for utilization of objective prism plates for the measurement of radial veloc-
ities. Such a method has the advantage of collecting a large amount of data from
many stars on a single photograph without recourse to the refinements of the more
complicated temperature-controlled stellar spectrograph.
—
Astronomical Photography Applied to Special Objects. Much of what has pre-
viously been written in this section concerns chiefly stellar photography. For photog-
raphy of the sun, moon, and planets some special methods of exposure and procedure
are necessa^3^ Likewise, the photography of comets and of meteors requires special
technique. The application of photography on occasions of total solar eclipses pre-
sents again unique problems deserving special consideration.
—
Photography of the Sun. Photographs of the sun may be taken satisfactorily with
almost any telescope, provided the light is sufficiently diminished and the exposure
sufficiently short. In solar photography it is desirable to use a diaphragm over the
objective with an aperture which will provide a focal ratio in the neighborhood of from
//50 to //1 00, the smaller ratio being used in the case of telescopes of large aperture.
For making the exposure, a focal-plane shutter capable of rendering an exposure of
Kooo sec. is desirable. Care must be taken in case of larger focal ratios that a black
curtain shutter is not unduly exposed to the image of the sun, as it may be burned
through the excessive heat. For this reason use is sometimes made of a metal shutter
carrying a narrow slit that may be passed rapidly in front of the plate. The author
has found a very serviceable solar camera can be made by utilizing the back of an
old Graflex. The back must be provided with a suitable adapter for attaching to the
eye end of the telescope. The curtain shutter is set for time exposure with the full
aperture open to the ground-glass screen for focusing the image of the sun; the plate-
holder is then inserted, the curtain screen reset for exposure, the slide drawn, and the
exposure quickly made. As soon as the exposure is made, the telescope is directed
away from the sun. In this mode of operation there is little danger from the heat on
the curtain shutter. In the case of a visual refractor a color filter must, of course, be
employed.
In professional equipment for solar photography at observatories specializing in
this work, the telescope may be permanently fixed in a horizontal or vertical position
and light from the sun fed to the objective from a heliostat or coelostat. In the case
of the heliotelescope the entire building housing the lens and plate forms in itself a
darkroom and replaces the more conventional telescope tube. A coelostat is placed in
the open under separate shelter, light from which passes through a circular window in
the observing house to the telescope objective.
At the Mount Wilson Observatory^ near Pasadena, Calif., and the McMath-Hulbert
Observatory at Lake Angelus, Mich., a vertical form of telescope is employed for solar
work. The telescope tube is held in a vertical position by suitable supports to a
surrounding tower. At the top of the tower is the coelostat, easily protected from the
weather by a dome. The movements of the dome and of the coelostat itself
are effected by the use of motors with remote control at the ground end. An observing
shelter completely enclosed is constructed at the ground end of the telescope tube.
The solar image is formed directly on the plate which reposes in a horizontal position.
Because of the form of structure employed in the vertical telescope, such an instrument
is frequently called a "tower telescope" or "solar tower."
A tower telescope has an advantage over the horizontal telescope in that the atmos-
pheric disturbances in the case of the vertical tube are less disastrous than is the case
in the horizontal telescope where heated strata of air near the ground are constantly
rising across the optical path. Since at best, in photographing the sun, a large amount
of heat from the ground and surrounding objects creates a turbulence of air through
which the light waves pass, it has been found in some localities that the best hours of
the daj' for solar photography are in the earlj^ morning before the air and ground have
become highly heated.
Because of the value of a knowledge of the number and distribution of spots on the
surface of the sun, a group of observatories throughout the world are now cooperating
in securing daily photographs of the sun, the results of which are forwarded in this
country to the U. S. Naval Observatory in Washington which publishes monthly a
summary of solar data.
Photography oj the Moon. — While the moon

is a very much smaller body than the
earth, its proximitj- to our planet renders a disk of approximately the same diameter
it
as the sun in the sky. The solar camera forms, therefore, a useful piece of apparatus
for lunar photography, the only difference in operation being in the length of the
exposure. Under similar conditions of aperture, an exposure on the moon should be
in the neighborhood of 3^ sec. as compared with Hooo sec. on the sun itself. The large
amount of detail on the lunar surface, including mountain ranges and craters, together
with the ever constant change in the illumination as the sun rises and sets over the
principal lunar features, presents a fascination to the amateur photographer who has a
telescope that may be adapted to the purpose.
If two exposures on the moon are made with the moon at the same phase, but
separated approximately one month apart in time, it will be found in general that the
features in the second photograph occupy slightly different positions in regard to the
lunar disk than in the first photograph taken. This is due to the fact that the lunar
axis is tipped slightlj'' toward the earth and also on account of the fact that, while the
moon rotates uniformly on its axis in a period of one month, thereby always presenting
its same face to the earth, its slightly eccentric orbit causes it to travel at a nonuniform
motion . The apparent displacements of certain lunar features, therefore, with respect
to the disk for the reasons mentioned, are called "librations." If the two photographs
taken at intervals of one month at corresponding phases of the moon are mounted
together and viewed with a stereoscope, a beautiful stereoscopic effect results from
these librations, the moon presenting in the stereoscope a very real spherical form.
For one who is interested in lunar photography detailed maps of the lunar surface have
been published and may be obtained from book sellers and scientific supply houses.
—
Photography of Comets. The appearance of a comet in the sky affords unusual
opportunity for the celestial photographer. Great detail may be obtained from
cometary photographs that cannot be observed by the naked eye. The principal trick
in photographing a comet is to have an auxiliary guiding telescope attached to the
photographic telescope so that the head or nucleus of the cometary object may be set
on the cross wires of the guiding eyepiece and kept in position by means of the slow
motions provided through the entire exposure. This is necessarj^ since a comet is
a relativelj^ swift-moving object among the stars.
The driving clock of the telescope can be expected to follow only the general diurnal
motion of the sky as the stars move from east to west. As the observer must make the
photographic plate register constantly with the comet itself, star images on the plate
after development will be found to take the form of streaks or trails rather than round
images. The length of the streak or trail will obA'ioush* increase with the length of the
exposure, and the general direction of these star trails will represent the motion of the
comet among the stars while the object is being photographed. The exposure time
will depend entirely upon the brightness of the object and the amount of detail desired.
It may extend from a few minutes to several hours. The development of the first
trial plate will give an index as to the requisite exposure time to bring out features that
may be desired.
—
Photography of Meteors. The photograph}^ of meteors or shooting stars requires
cameras of relativelj^ short focus. Since the appearance of a meteor is in a large
sense accidental and there is no way of determining with anj^ accuracy the precise
point in the skj^ at which meteors appear, an astronomer frequently employs a battery
of cameras of wide-angle lenses pointed in different directions, so that a large area of
the sky can be covered. On the occasion of anticipated meteoric showers, such as the
Perseids which occur during the month of August or the Leoneids which appear in
the middle of November, the cameras may be pointed in the general direction of the
so-called "meteor radiant," the constellation of Perseus for the August meteoric shower
and the Sickle in the constellation of Leo for the November meteors. The battery of
cameras is easily attached to an axis which will be driven by clockwork so that the
stars in the region being photographed will appear as point images and afford a back-
ground for determining positions of the meteor trails as they may occur. The flasli
of a meteor across the field of view will leave its impression as a streak on the photo-
graphic plate. Frequently such a streak will be of nonuniform brightness, depending
upon sporadic changes in the brightness of the meteor itself.
Photography is the one exact means for determining with accuracy the positions
of meteor trails from different points of observation. A comparison of plates simul-
taneously exposed at two stations a few miles apart makes possible the determination
of the altitude above the earth at which the meteor first became visible and also fre-
quently the altitude at which the meteor vanished. The mathematical calculation
of the altitude of meteor trails from such photographic observations is beyond the
scope of this book, and the reader is referred to the more extended treatises on this
branch of the subject.
—
Photography of the Planets. Photography of the planets, with the possible exception
of Jupiter and Saturn is rather beyond the scope of the amateur. In planetary
photography an auxiliary enlarging lens is employed in the optical axis of the telescope
objective and somewhat inside the focal plane. Because of the variation in "seeing"
conditions and the necessity for satisfactory moments when the atmosphere is particu-
larly tranquil, an auxiliary visual telescope is a prerequisite to planetary photography.
A shutter which may be quickly operated by a bulb or finger release is also essential.
The double-slide plateholder is a convenience in planetary photography for moving the
plate between exposures. Since at best a planetary image is exceedingly small, multi-
ple exposures may be made on a single plate, the images being duly separated by
appropriate movements of the double-slide plate carriage between exposures. The
observer, who is scrutinizing the planet through the visual telescope, awaits the
supreme moment which is well known to all seasoned obsei-vers. At such times
planetary detail may be caught at its best during the few brief seconds when atmos-
pheric disturbances are at a minimum. At this moment the shutter is released for
appropriate exposure but is instantly closed if the planetary image becomes blurred
through atmospheric turbulence. Extraordinarily good photographs of Jupiter,
Saturn, and Mars under favorable conditions have been taken at the Lick and Lowell
Observatories. The Lick Observatory located on Mount Hamilton, Calif., and the
Lowell Observatory at Flagstaff, Ariz., are particularly well favored climatically for
planetary photography.
Various filters are frequently einployed to bring out planetary details. Photo-
graphs of Mars made in blue and red light on plates sensitive to these colors invariably
show wide differences in the characteristics. It appears that with blue-sensitive plates
light is reflected or scattered chiefly from the atmosphere surrounding the planet,
giving a somewhat diffuse image. In the case of photography with red light, the
filtered rays are those that have penetrated more extensively the atmosphere of the
planet and are reflected more completely from the surface of the planet, rendering
visible a large amount of surface detail that it is not possible to photograph in the use
of ordinary plates which are blue sensitive. For further details on planetary photog-
raphy, the reader is referred to publications on these subjects issued by the Lick
Observatory of Mount Hamilton, Calif., and the Lowell Observatory of Flagstaff,
Ariz. A good photographic image of any of the planets will stand enlargment from
the original negative several times. By repeated copying, contrast may also be
enhanced.
Eclipse Photography. —
One of the primary objects in expeditions to observe total
eclipses of the sun is the photography of the solar corona, that gaseous appendage to
the sun which is visible only when the sun itself is hidden by the
brilliant disk of the
dark disk of the moon that completely covers during the moments of total eclipse.
it
A total eclipse of the sun may last from only a few seconds to a period of slightly less
than 8 min. Exposures on the corona are usually made with lenses of great focal
length to obtain images of requisite size to show the desired details. Suitable exposure
times will vary from 1 sec. to 3^2 min. or more. Usually a series of plates will be taken
with varying exposures. The short exposures are necessarj^ to gain detail of the struc-
ture of the corona near the edge of the sun. The longer exposures will reveal the out-
lying stretches or extremities of the corona, but the inner parts on the resulting
negative will be greatly overexposed. By suitable local reduction of the negative,
however, it is often possible to get a fair representation of the entire structure of the
corona from the edge of the sun to the outlying rims. A plate locally reduced, how-
ever, loses much of its scientific value since the relative blackening of the various
parts of the corona in the untouched negative provide an index of the relative bright-
ness of the emission of the light from the various regions. In preparing the plates for
eclipse photography, it is quite necessary that the plate be backed with any one of a
number of suitable backings to prevent halation, or double-coated nonhalation plates
should be employed.
Lenses up to 40-ft. focal length are frequently transported to all parts of the world
on eclipse expeditions. Since it is possible to calculate in advance the exact place
which the sun will occupy in the sky during the moments of eclipse, temporary struc-
tures can be built for supporting such lenses and the elaborate equatorial mounting of
the telescope dispensed wdth. In the case of the cameras of great focal length, usually
no attempt is made to move the lens during the period of exposures, but the plate-
holder itself is mounted on a carriage, and clockwork is provided for moving the same
laterally at right angles to the optical axis in order to follow the small shift in the
image of the sun during the exposure, thus facilitating very greatly the mechanical
arrangements involved. In the case of a total solar eclipse lasting 4 min., the move-
ment of the solar image during this interval for a lens of 40-ft. focus will be approxi-
mately 8.4 in. This gives an idea of the amount of moAêment of the plate required
for an eclipse of average duration. The necessity for providing motions of the plate
during even a single exposure becomes apparent when we see that in this instance the
solar image would be displaced by 3^^ in. during even the relatively brief exposure of
15 sec. Photographs of eclipses with ordinary' cameras having no guiding mechanism
have been satisfactorily made by giving very brief exposures in cases where the lenses
used are of but a few inches focal length. Such photographs, however, can scarcely
be said to have much professional or scientific value.
The application of motion-picture photographj!" to the registration of eclipse
phenomena, however, has come to occupy an important part in connection with
eclipse expeditions. With the best of lenses of 20-in. focal length, an image of the sun
of satisfactory size can be secured on the ordinarj^ 35-mm. film. The complete regis-
tration of both the total and partial phases of the eclipse forms an important record of
sky conditions, transparency, passing of clouds, etc. It is often of considerable value
afterward in checking visual impressions. During the partial phase it is necessary
that the smallest stop possible be employed, together with a dense red filter, in order
to diminish sufficiently the direct rays of the sun to prevent overexposure. At the
moment of complete obscuration of the solar disk by the encroaching moon, the filter
must be removed, and the stop opened widely in order to obtain the requisite amount
of exposure for the corona itself. At the first indication of the reappearance of the
disk of the sun, the aperture is again reduced and the filter restored while the motion-
picture camera continues to record the second partial phase.
Since the total duration of eclipse phenomena including both partial phases will
last forsomething like 4 hr., it is obviously a waste of time and film to photograph the
partial phase continuously in the kinematograph. A single exposure with the motion-
picture camera made at hi- or î-min. intervals is entirely sufficient in the partial
phase. An exposure once in 8 sec. has also been frequently used. In any of these
procedures an abundant amount of film will result for educational or entertainment
purposes in depicting the progress of the phenomenon. It is necessary, of course, if
satisfactory registration is to be obtained, that the motion-picture camera be fixed to
an equatorial mounting driven by clockwork to follow the movement of the sun during
the interval. Aguiding telescope for checking the registration continuouslj' is also
desirable. hardly necessary to remark that the guiding telescope should be
It is
provided with a dense dark glass in front of the eyepiece for the proper protection of
the eyes of the observer.
Bibliography
Stetson, H. T.: On an Apparatus and Method for Thermoelectric Measurements for Photographic
Photometry, Astrophys. J., 43 (Nos. 4 and 5) (1916).
: Investigations of Plate Errors with the Thermo-electric Photometer, Astrophys. J., 68 (No. 1)
(1923).
King, E. S.: "A Manual of Celestial Photography," Eastern Science Supply Company (1931).
: Standard Tests of Photographic Photometry, Harvard Observatory Ann., 59.
Ross, F. E.: "Physics of the Developed Photographic Image," Eastman Monograph 5.
CHAPTER XXVI
HIGH-SPEED PHOTOGRAPHY
By Harold E. Edgeeton
High-speed photography is defined for this section as applying to single-exposure

cameras that take photographs in less than 1/10,000 sec. and to motion-picture cam-
eras that operate at speeds in excess of 300 frames per second. These limitations are
purposely set to exclude cameras of the moving-shutter type, such as the Compur and
focal-plane types, and high-speed motion-picture cameras of the intermittent-motion
—
types all of which are discussed elsewhere in this book.
By the use of high-speed photography an observer is able to obtain a picture or a
series of pictures which accurately record an action as a function of time, permitting a
detailed study which cannot be made otherwise. The pictures in a series may be
analyzed frame by frame, or they may be projected on the screen in ultra-slow motion,
enabling the eye to see vagrant actions that would not otherwise be seen. Further-
more, since the film records the position of objects as a function of time, velocity and
acceleration can be calculated. Speed photography has proved its worth in scientific
and industrial research and is destined to an important future in photographj^ in all
fields of endeavor.
Single -exposure High-speed Cameras. —In this classification are grouped cameras
capable of taking single photographs in less than 10"'* sec. Both mechanical and
photographic factors make difficult, if not impossible, a camera of any of the usual
types for verj^ short exposures, and therefore they are not considered here. The
cameras described are of the type that rely upon an electricallj^ controlled flash of light
for both the required very high intensity of illumination and for the short duration of
exposure time. The most satisfactory electrical arrangement consists of a spark in
air or in a gas-filled discharge tube through which the energy stored in a condenser is
discharged at the desired instant. With this method the exposure time is determined
entirely by the duration of the flash of light and not bj' any mechanical shutter. It
should be mentioned that this camera may require a darkened room to prevent expo-
sure due to the ordinary light, though in many cases the shutter setting, the lens
aperture, and the type of film are such as to give no appreciable exposure with the
average level of illumination.
In general there are two methods of lighting: (1) silhouette and (2) the usual
reflected-light type. The silhouette method takes several forms, each requiring a
point source of light for best results. In some cases an open spark is satisfactory.
The dimensions of the spark can be restricted mechanically by causing the spark to
occur in a small hole in an insulator. Figure 1 illustrates several methods of silhouette
—
photography, and it is to be noted that all use a point source of light a spark in air.
The upper sketch shows the simplest method of silhouette photography and one that
}>roduces excellent results. It is to be noted that no lens is used, as the image is a true
shadow of the subject. Therefore the size of the film must be comparable to the size
of the subject. A second limitation to this method is the requirement of a darkened
room so that the ordinary light will not fog the film. In some cases this is incon-
venient, since considerable time is usually required to uncover a large sheet of film or
762
HIGH-SPEED PHOTOGRAPHY 763
sensitive paper. A modification of the method is to substitute a ground glass for the
film and then photograph the image from the back with an ordinary camera.
The second method illustrated in Fig. 1 uses a large condensing lens (not neces-
sarily of high optical quality) between the subject and the light source. Adjustments
are made so that the image of the light source appears on the film as a circle large
enough to cover the film. The camera lens is then focused on the subject (using
reflected light), and a shadow of the subject appears on the film, reduced in size opti-
cally as in ordinary photographic procedure. The aperture is very small, since it is
determined by the dimensions of the light source, and therefore the depth of focus is
Fi/m or
paper
Focus
fens on
fob/'ecf
conc/enser unfi/ field is^^

'Ac/jusf
light in camera -'
filled with lig/it
H Shcidovy
Lens
Spark Stop êcf stop
1.
HI Schlieren Method of Toepler
- Sphenccr/ mirror
^'
Camera
Cornbinafion
mirror and siop Spark
12" Schlieren
Fig. 1. — Diagram illustrating various methods of making high-speed silhouette photo-
graphs.
great. Two advantages result from the use of this arrangement, viz., (1) the effective
use of the light, since a large cone of light is collected; and (2) the ability to change
the image size on the film. However, the field is restricted to the diameter of the
condensing lens. This method is useful for taking high-speed motion pictures on
continuously moving film with stroboscopic light.
The last two arrangements of Fig. 1 illustrate methods of the "Schlieren" type of
silhouette photography. The upper diagram shows the use of a lens, and the lower, of
a mirror. In both most of the light is cut off by stops, and variation of the refractive
index of the material in the field of view deflects the light rays passing through the
affected region slightly, so that they clear or strike the stop and thereby either increase
—
or decrease the amount image points.

of light reaching the film at the corresponding
In this way variations in density in a volume produced bj^ sound
of gas, such as those
waves, and thermal disturbances, may be observed and photographed.
An optically perfect lens or mirror is required for Schlieren photography in order to
obtain a uniformly illuminated field. In fact, the arrangement is exactly the same as
the test used for the final polishing of optical surfaces.
The size of field is naturally limited to the size of the lens or mirror. Since cor-
rected lenses of large diameter are very expensive or not obtainable, mirrors are more
commonly used. The references show numerous different optical arrangements.
Shadow photography is often of great advantage in many practical problems
because the amount of light required is small compared with that needed for reflected-
light photography. Furthermore, a sharp image is obtained which is useful for meas-
urement. The waves in air, such as are caused bjj- bullets, may be recorded by the
silhouette methods, especialh^ the Schlieren method, which can be made very sensitive.
In fact the Schlieren arrangement can be made sufficiently sensitive to observe heat
waves rising from one's hand, because of the fact that the index of refraction of air
About
_
—.^/^
T\o/7ms
I—aX
/Mercury
confrot
8,000V.^^j;^, tube
Om'^^ Amplifier
'^^.Ît-^ irip
^Trip switch
Strobotron or th^/ratrorr'
Fig. —
2. Electrical circuit for making silhouette photographs.
changes with temperature. The principal disadvantages of the silhouette method are
that only an outline is obtained and that with some kinds of shadow photography the
experiment must be performed in a darkened room.
The electrical circuit of a typical arrangement for taking silhouette photographs
is shown as Fig. 2. The various circuit elements are labeled in the figures. Many
other circuits are described in the references, which should be consulted for further
details.
Since the light from the sparks in air and from most of the other gaseous-discharge
sources is largely in the blue end of the spectrum, the less sensitive films or papers
—
such as the process or positive types are often satisfactory.
The duration of the flash which determines the exposure time for silhouette photo-
graphs depends upon the electrical arrangement and also upon the afterglow in the
gas. The duration is dependent on the natural frequency of the discharge circuit,
which in turn increases with the size of the condenser and the inductance resulting
from the connecting wares and the internal inductance of the condenser. Further-
more, discharges in circuits of this type usually oscillate a great many cycles some- —
times as many as 10 or more. For this reason sufficient resistance is often added to
damp critically the oscillations. This resistance decreases the duration of the flash
but at the same time reduces the quantity of light by from five- to tenfold, which is a
serious disadvantage. The mercury-control tube shown in Fig. 2 has the advantage
of tending to prevent the reversal of current, as well as serving as a switch for starting
the spark gap at the required instant. The ignition coil starts conduction in the mer-
cury-control tube and simultaneously causes the spark gap to break down. The
effective exposure time for silhouette spark photographs may easily be made as short
as 10~8 sec. and, under favorable conditions, may be as short as 10~^ sec.
Reflected-Iight Spark Photography. —
Reflected-light photography, with illumina-
tion from sparks or from gas-filled tubes, produces photographs similar to those
obtained with ordinary lighting and camera technique, except that since the exposure
time is not limited by a mechanical shutter, it may be made extremely short. The
electrical circuit for producing the short condenser discharges through the lamps is
similar in operation to that used for silhouette photography. However, with reflected-
light illumination it is not necessary to have a point source of light; in fact, it is usually
better to have a light source of large area to give a better distribution of illumination.
Reflected-light photography usually requires considerably more energy because the
light is not so effectively used. Therefore the energy-storage capacity of the con-
densers must be larger than is required for silhouette photography. A typical circuit
is shown in Fig. 3 with the details explained in the caption. This equipment will
give sufficient illumination for photographing an area approximately 6 ft. square, using
an //8 stop, orthochromatic film, and an effective exposure of about 1/50,000 sec.
The effective exposure time for reflected-light photographs' is longer than for
silhouette photographs, principally because the energj^ required is much larger. How-
866
5,000
Same frip circuit ''

as in lîg.2
Fig. 3. — Diagram of electrical circuit for making high-speed photographs by reflected
light.
is seldom necessary, and except for certain ballistic problems a

ever, a very short flash
flash duration of less than 1/50,000 sec. is entirely adequate and easily obtained.
10""''
Reflected-light photographs of small areas can be taken with an exposure time of
sec. if circuit conditions are adjusted properly and if the afterglow in the gas
is extinguished.
Correct timing of the flash of light is often the most important part of any particu-
lar problem. For example, to obtain a photograph of a golf ball compressed with a
driver requires that the flash of light be timed to about 1/10,000 sec; otherwise the
photograph will be taken either before the ball is hit, or after it has left the club. The
simplest method of timing is to arrange the switch marked "trip" (Figs. 2 and 3) so
that contact is made at the desired instant. In the case of the golf ball two small
wires can be arranged behind the ball so that the club will knock them together at the
desired part of the swing. A series of photographs with different positions of the trip
wires shows successive stages of the action, if the action can be repeated. Other
methods of tripping can be used, such as the interruption of a beam of light to a photo-
cell or the use of a microphone to pick up a sound impulse. A time delay can be
introduced electrically to delay the flash of light by a known interval of time after the
signal is received.
photography is much more convenient to use than high-
Single-flash high-speed
speed motion-picture photography, since the apparatus required is much simpler and
since standard cameras and lens equipment can be used. Any camera is capable of
taking photographs with effective exposures of 10"^ to lO"** sec, simply by using a
source of light actuated by a condenser discharge. While only one photograph at a

time can be taken bj^ this method, in contrast to a large number by the high-speed
motion-picture camera, many practical problems can be solved by this method, par-
ticularly the action of the subject can be repeated.
if
High-speed Motion-picture Cameras. —

Motion pictures taken at high speed and
subsequently shown at ordinary projection speeds have the effect of slowing fast
motions so that the eye can see what is going on. Naturally the faster the action
that is being photographed, the faster the camera must be driven. It seems imprac-
tical, because of mechanical limitations, to drive the usual intermittent types of

motion-picture cameras at speeds in excess of about ten times normal. Practically
all cameras operating above this speed depart from the intermittent-motion mecha-
.Film
Objecf
-j-l^ Shaft gearecl to sprocket

Active ' yo"
lens -:/- Lenses
Moving Lens Method
'Film on inner rim of drum
Mu/tisioleol mirror geared

to motion of film drum
-'-Cross section ofolrum
Moving Mirror Method
lens
\ Film
Prism ro tated by
p . gear connection to
frism film driving sprocket
Ro+Ofting Plane Prism Me+hod
Flu. 4. — Diagram showing various possible optical systems for use in high-speed motion-
picture cameras.
nism and use instead a continuously moving-film mechanism. Although the film
moves continuoush' during the exposure, the image cast by the lens on the film must
either move with the film or the film must not move an appreciable distance during the
exposure time. The first requirement is met by the use of a moving optical system to
keep the image stationarj^ with respect to the moving film during the exposure time;
and the second, by the use of intermittent illumination (stroboscopic light) for exposing
the photographs, each flash of light lasting such a short time that sharp images are
obtained although the film is moving. The moving-optical-system method is espe-
cially well adapted to the study of subjects which emit their own light, common exam-
ples of which are the burning of vapors, the action of explosives, the motions of an
electric arc, the reactions in a photoflash lamp, and the behavior of the cathode spot
in amercury-arc tube.
There are three general types of the moving-optical-system camera: (1) those
using rotating lenses or slits, (2) those using rotating mirrors, and (3) those using
—
rotating prisms. Some of these are illustrated in Fig. 4. A comprehensive treatment

of theseand other moving-optical systems as applied to projectors has been made by
Tuttle and Reed.
The rotating-prism type is available from the Eastman Kodak Co., Rochester,
N. Y. The Carl Zeiss -Company, Jena, Germany, manufactures a camera in the
second classification. Cameras of the moving-lens type are made by the AUgemeine
Elektrische Gesellschaft, Berlin, Germany, and by the Merlin and Gevin Company,
Grenoble, France.
In high-speed cameras employing stroboscopic light, the film is moved past the
lens at a constant speed; and each time the film has moved the distance occupied by
one frame, the subject is illuminated by a short intense flash of light. The time at
which the flash occurs is in some cases controlled by a contact disk rigidly attached
to the film-driving mechanism and properly spaced so that the motion-picture film is
properly framed for projection in standard equipment. Normal illumination such
as that encountered indoors is insufficient to fog the film in a stroboscopic-light camera
because the film passes the lens so rapidly. A stroboscopic-light camera is manu-
factured by the General Radio Company, Cambridge, Mass.
When motion pictures are taken at high speed with either type of camera,^ the film
must move rapidly, and one of the important problems in the design is to make the
film travel at the requisite speed without vibrating, fluttering, or breaking. The
rapidly moving film must be guided properly, but the friction in sliding contacts may
generate enough heat to ignite it. Static charges of electricity resulting from the
friction must also be avoided, as they cause dendriform exposures on the film. Fur-
ther than simply traveling smoothly at a high speed, it is important that the film
accelerate rapidly so that it will attain the proper speed before much of it has passed
through the camera. The acceleration must be uniform as well as rapid, as sudden
jerks are likely to break the film.
Table I. Speed of Film in Terms op Frame Height and Rate of Exposure

the camera —a serious limitation to its usefulness. Table I shows the speed of the
film in feet per second as a function of the height of the frame and the number of expo-
sures per second.
When film speeds higher than about 150 or 200 ft. per sec. are desired, a short strip
of film is usually placed on the periphery of a drum. The length of film that can be
used is limited to the circumference of the drum, but very high film velocities can be
attained in this way more easily than with a long strip. There are no acceleration
problems, since the fUm may be brought up to speed as slowly as desired. Cameras
of this type require a shutter that remains open during one revolution only, to prevent
multiple exposure of the film.
Still another method employs a stationary film over which the beam of light is
rapidly thrown by means of a rapidly rotating mirror.

The spark in air produced by the discharge of an electrical condenser
electric
through an gap has been extensively used as a source of stroboscopic light. The
air
diu-ation of the flash can be made as short as 1/100,000 sec, or less. A spark gap,
however, presents serious problems when it is desired to produce enough light to
illuminate an area several feet square 1000 or more times a second, because of the
great power required and the difficulty of controlling it. Although a spark is not an
efficient source of light, it is sufficient for some purposes, such as silhouette photog-
raphy. The light is highly concentrated, having a high intrinsic brilliancy which
permits the use of reflectors and condensing lenses.
The discharge of electrical condensers through gas-filled tubes, such as the argon-
filled 3, provides an efficient source of intermittent light for taking high-
tube of Fig.
speed motion pictures. In service the lamp is connected to a condenser and is made to
flash at the desired instant by suddenlj^ charging an external grid to a high potential.
Naturally the circuit must be capable of recharging the condenser in time for the next
flash, and this becomes increasingly difficult as the frequency of exposure or the power
used per flash is increased. Difficulty is sometimes encountered because of the tend-
ency of the tube to hold into a steady glow or to fail to deionize, i.e., to trip by itself
as the voltage builds up across the condenser. A mercury-control tube of the type
shown in Fig. 2 can be used to advantage to overcome these limitations.
Bibliography
Periodicals:
Abraham, H., E. Block, and L. Bloch: Ultra-rapid Kinematograph, Compt. rend., 169, 217 (1919).
Legg, W.: The Polar, Multi-exposure, High Speed Camera, Elec. J., 16, 509-512 (1919).
J.
CoNNELL, W. H.: The Heape and Crylls Machine for High-speed Photography, /. Sci. I nstruments, 4,
82-87 (1926).
.Jenkins, C. F.: The Chronoteine Camera, /. Soc. Automotive E)igrs., 22, 200-202 (1928); Trans. Soc.
Motion Picture Engrs., No. 25, p. 25 (1926).
SuHARA, T.: New High Speed Kinematographic Camera, Proc. Imp. Acad. (Tokyo), 5, 334-337, 1929.
Crakz, C, and H. Schardin: Eanematographie auf ruhendem Film und mit extrem hoher Bildfrequenz,
Z. Physik, 66, 147 (1929). Contains a short bibliography.
Suhara, T.: New
Ultra-Speed Kinematographic Camera, Aeronaut. Research Inst., Tokyo Imp. Univ.
Kept. 60, 187-194 (1930).
Ende, W.: Theorie des Thunschen Zeitdehners und ihre Anwendung in der Aufnahmepraxis, Z. tech.
Physik, 11, 394 (1930); AEG
Zeitdehner, AEG Mitt.. November (1933).
Harvey, E. N., and A. L. Loomis: High Speed Photomicrography of Living Cells Subjected to Super-
sonic Vibrations, J. Gen. Physiol., 15, 147-153 (1931).
RoTHROCK, A. M.: The N.A.C.A. Apparatus for Studying the Formation and Combustion of Fuel
Sprays and the Results from Preliminary Tests, Nat. Advisory Comm. Aeronaut. Tech. Rept. 429
(1932).
TtJTTLE, F. E., and C. D. Reed: The Problem of Motion Picture Projection from Continuously-
Moving Film, J. Optical Soc. Am., 22, (No. 2), 39 (1932). Also in J. Soc. Motion Picture Engrs.,
20, 3 (1933).
TuTTLE, F. E.: A Nonintermittent High-Speed 16-mm Camera, J. Soc. Motion Picture Engrs., 21, 474
(1933).
ScHARDiN, H.: Das Toeplersche Schliereiiverfahren, Z. Ver. deut. Ing. 367, August (1934). Contains a
very comprehensive bibliography.
Sequin, A.: Les appareils stroborama et leurs applications, Bull. soc. franf. elec, 4, 405 (1934).
Suits, C. G.: Notes on High Intensity Sound Waves, Gen. Elec. Rev., No. 39, 430 (1936).
Edgerton, H. E., K. J. Germeshausen, and H. E. Grier: High-Speed Photographic Methods of
Measurement, /. Applied Phys., 8 (No. 1) (1937).
Beams, J. W.: High Rotational Speeds, /. Applied Phys., 8 (No. 12), 795 (1937).
Schardin, H., and W. Sthuth: Neuere Ergebnisse der Funkenkinematographie, Z. tech. Physik, 11,
474 (1937).
Herriott, W.: High-speed Motion Picture Photography Applied to the Design of Telephone Apparatus,
: High Speed Motion Picture Photography, Bell System. Tech. J., 17 (No. 3), 393-405 (1938).
Taylor, H. G., and J. M. Waldram: Improvements in the Schlieren Method, J. Sci. Instruments, 10
(No. 12), p. 378, 1932.
QuAYiiE, Philip P.: Spark Photography and its Application to Some Problems in Ballistics, Nat.
Bur. Standards (U.S.), Sci. Papers 508.
WoRTHiNQTON, A. M.: "A Study of Splashes," Longmans (1908).

Cranz, C.: "Lehrbuch der ballistik," Vol. 3, Chap. 8, Springer, (192G).
CHAPTER XXVII
PHOTOMICROGRAPHY AND TECHNICAL MICROSCOPY
By Francis F. Lucas
Principles of Photomicrography. Introduction.—Technical microscopy and photo-

micrography are widely employed in science and industry. The microscope produces
an image which the eye can see; photomicrography is the art of recording the image
photographicalljr so that a permanent record is available for reference and study. At
its best the microscope will reveal on the photographic plate details of structure which
the eye fails to observe.

Metallography, or that particular branch of it which relates to the microstructure
of metals, has grown in the life span of those now living to be one of the most important
single control methods of the metal industry. In the paint, pigment, and color indus-
tries, improved methods of producing fine pigments have taxed the powers of visible-
light microscopes, and to photograph clearly very small pigments, the ultraviolet
microscope is the last resort. In the medical and biological sciences the microscope
fills an important place. With recent developments in ultraviolet microscopy the
resolving powers available for biological investigations have been more than doubled.
Since selective absorption to ultraviolet light is manifested by many cells, it is now
possible to photograph living cells at extremely high magnifications. By means of
the ultraviolet microscope photographs may be taken on optical planes spaced 34^
apart, making it possible to photograph a single living cell, though microscopic in
size, on many different planes from the top to the bottom of the cell. The same
technique may also be applied to many problems of industrial microscopy.
Improvements in resolving powers have made it possible to photograph details of
structure which measure but 200 atom diameters across. Vision has been pushed
downward into the range of colloidal matter so that by ultraviolet microscopy and
refined methods of ultramicroscopy the behavior of colloidal dispersions may be
studied to better advantage.
The aim in photomicrography should be a faithful reproduction of the image. The
image should be in exact focus. Out-of-focus effects maj^ result in misleading con-
clusions. No one should ever attempt to interpret details in terms of structure or
composition when the particular details are not in exact focus. Halos, shadows,
flares, and other abnormal effects of lighting, photography, or microscopy have no
place in scientific or industrial photomicrography. "When photographing a prepara-
tion which consists of particles of matter differing in size or when the detail is not all
confined to a single focal plane, it is obvious that some of the detail will be above or
below the focal plane and therefore out of focus. Such conditions are encountered
frequently. The photographic results are of value only as they relate to the details
which are in focus in the photomicrograph.
Principles, Technique, and Optics of Photoniicrogrnphy. — This section' treats of
and materials. It omits, intentionally, descrip-
principles, technique, optics, light,
tive matter of apparatus, information about \\-hi('h is liberally distributed by
manufacturers.
The design trend of scientific apparatus is being changed from time to time. This
has resulted in the gradual evolution of better apparatus which is more stable, is made
770
PHOTOMICROGRAPHY AND TECHNICAL MICROSCOPY 771
of better materials, possesses better meclianical and optical features, can be operated
more easily, and is readily and conveniently altered to suit a wide diversity in work.
Research laboratories are having little difficulty with the present inverted-type micro-
scope whereas older apparatus was a constant source of trouble, largely because the
assembly was flexible on an optical bench and was not easily aligned and coordinated.
The older equipment also had mechanical weaknesses which tended to introduce
optical misalignment often difficult to recognize and rectify.
By photomicrography is meant the adaptation of photography to microscopy or
the art of photographing a magnified image. The scope of the art embraces the
reproduction of images ranging from actual size to magnifications of several thousand
times. Low-power photomicrography may be considered as treating with magnitudes
from about 1 to 30 diameters, medium-power work with magnifications from about
30 to 500 diameters, and high-power photomicrography generally includes all magni-
fications in excess of about 500 diameters. The apparatus used in each case is differ-
ent, and the preparation of the material and its treatment also differ. For low-power
work the microscope is often dispensed with entirely, the lens being secured directly
to the camera; in other cases the microscope serves only as a support for a specialized
camera lens. In the treatment of most transparent mounts an illuminating device
termed a "substage condenser" is necessary, the microscope then forms a very neces-
sary adjunct to low-power photomicrography.
Medium-power photomicrography always requires a microscope, and because
rigidity in mounting and accuracy in adjustment are necessary, an optical bench is
desirable on which the microscope and a suitable illuminating train are mounted.
For high-power photomicrography great attention is given to the mechanical and
the optical design of the apparatus. It is extremely important to prevent shocks,
vibrations, and extraneous disturbances from reaching the optical bench or camera.
It is also important that the apparatus and the camera vibrate or move as a unit and
that vibrations are not introduced, through use of the apparatus, which will result in a
slight change in focus of the microscope objective. The operations of removing a
focusing screen and substituting a plateholder can introduce sufficient shock to throw
the image completely out of focus unless the mechanical design has been carefully
worked out. For high-power photomicrography only the best optical systems should
be employed. A skilled technician may produce remarkable medium-power results
with quite ordinary apparatus but in high-power photomicrography nothing can
make up for the actual shortcomings of an objective.
Optical System of Microscopes. —
The optical system of the compound microscope
is shown diagrammatically in Fig. 1. In the diagram three parallel pencils of light are
shown reflected upward into the condenser which illuminates a transparent object
placed in position on the microscope stage. As shown, the objective would form an
inverted real image of the object Oi at O2 but the rays are intercepted by the lower
lens of the eyepiece before the real image is formed. The lower eyepiece lens in com-
bination with the upper eyepiece lens forms a magnified virtual image O4 of the real
image O2. There are two magnifications of the object, and the resulting final magni-
fication is the product of the magnifying powers of the objective and the eyepiece.
It should be noted that the objective produces an enlarged image of the object and
that the eyepiece further magnifies this image; from this it is evident that if detail
is lacking or if the image is not a good likeness of the object, the eyepiece will not make
up for the shortcomings of the objective. The objective then becomes the most
important part of the microscope. No one objective will serve all purposes because of
the limited range throughout which each particular objective is most useful; hence it
is desirable to have a representative group of objectives available so that an objective
may be selected to suit the specimen and the requirements of the work,
Classes of Objectives. —
Objectives are divided into four general classes: achromatic,
semiapochromatic, apochromatic, and monochromatic. These objectives do not
consist of single lenses but are composed of two or more lenses very accurately centered
and permanently mounted in a metal holder. The component parts of the lens system
are selected so as to correct or compensate certain errors which are always characteris-
tic of a simple lens. The value of the objective depends on the degree to which these
Recr/ image > Eye piece

inverfea
Magnified
viriual
image
Mirror
Fig. 1. — Optical system of compound microscope.
imperfections have been overcome. The difference in quality between the first three
classes of objectives primarily a matter of the degree to which corrections for chro-
is
matic and spherical aberrations have been applied. The achromatic objectives are
intended primarilj' for visual observations and the principal optical defects are cor-
rected or approximately so for the yellow-green of the visible spectrum since the eye
can see best with light of this color. In these objectives the correction becomes less
and less complete toward the extremes of the visible spectrum, and there are also
residual imperfections in the fusion of the rays. The apochroniatic objectives repre-
sent the highest order of correction, and the semiapochromats are about intermediate
in the quality of correction.
Objectives are listed according to their optical characteristics such as primary
magnification, numerical aperture, focal lengths, and whether "dry" or "immer-
sion." The term dry signifies that the objective, when properly used, is separated
from the specimen by a stratum of air. In the case of immersion objectives some one
fluid for which medium the objective has been computed, such as water, glycerin,
cedarwood used to connect the front lens of the objective with the specimen.
oil, etc., is
Resolving Power. —The ability of an objective to resolve detail

is dependent, theo-
retically, upon the numerical aperture of the objective and the wavelength of light
used.
The relation is expressed numerically by the equation
n = -^^ (1)
and shows that, if the numerical aperture N.A. of the objective is increased or if the
wavelength X of the light is decreased, the number of lines 71 capable of being resolved
will be increased.
This theoretical resolving ability might well be termed "potential resolving abil-
ity"; the ability to resolve is inherent in the lens but whether it is achieved in practice
is quite another matter. In theory two things are of interest: numerical aperture and
wavelength of light.
The fundamental difference between a dry objective and an immersion objective
is one of resolving power. An immersion objective has greater light-gathering power
than a dry lens of corresponding focal length. This light-gathering power is expressed
by the numerical aperture.
The present commercial limit for numerical aperture is 1.40 for the best apochro-
matic objectives. Objectives of 1.60 N.A. are available for metallurgical work.
The apochromats of 1.40 N.A. have a primary magnification of about ninety times
so that they not only possess the ability to resolve but also the ability to magnify
greatly. The full magnifying power of the optical combination is secured almost
irrespective of all other conditions. The specimen may be well prepared or very
poorly prepared; the illumination may be critical, or it may be very poorly arranged;
the operator may be skillful or unskillful; and many other combinations may occur
short of total disruption which will not alter the magnification but which ,vill impair
very seriously, if not wholly ruin, definition and consequently the resolving ability of
the combination.
—
Numerical Aperture. Figure 2 shows the conditions preAâiling in a metallurgical
microscope where light is directed by suitable nieans to the prepared surface of the
specimen from which it is reflected. Two rays, such as rays 1 and 2 leaving the object
at the same angle, will behave quite differentl3^ Ray 2 is refracted by the immersion
oil or bent inward. Ray 1, which is pictured to show the conditions without immer-
sion oil, just enters the front lens of the objective. Other rays leaving at a greater
angle than ray 2 will also be bent inward, and some extreme ray, such as ray 3, will just
enter the front lens of the objective.
Figure 3 illustrates numerical aperture when the specimen is viewed by transmitted
light. In this case the specimen is mounted on a glass slide, which is placed on the
stage of the microscope and is illuminated through the substage condenser. For
purpose of illustration the right half of the front lens of the objective is assumed to be
that of a dry lens and the left half that of an immersion objective. Thus an immersion
objective has greater light-gathering power than a dry objective. This light-gathering
power or numerical aperture supplies a measure for several essential qualities of an
objective. Alibe, who first defined the conditions, expressed the relationship by the
formula
N.A. = n sin U (2)
where n is the refractive index of the medium contained between the specimen and the
front lens of the objective and U the semiapertural angle of the system.
Front /ens of objective p^ ^
Fig. 2. —Optical conditions prevailing in metallographic microscope.
FRONT LENS OF AN OIL FRONT LENS OF A

IMMERSION OBJECTIVE DRY OBJECTIVE
—"^
COVER GLASS
GLASS
MICROSCOPE
SLIDE
AIR
AIR
>^ ^
WATER
OR OIL
TRONT LENS OF THE CONDENSER'

Fig. 3. — Comparison of paths of light rays for oil immersion and dry objectives.
The resolving power of the objective is directly proportional to the numerical

aperture,and the brightness of the image to the square of the numerical aperture. As
the numerical aperture increases, the depth of penetration, i.e., the power of the
objective to resolve detail simultaneously at different depths or distances from the
objective, and the flatness of the field both decrease.
Figure 4 shows the relationship of theoretical resolving power, numerical aperture,

and dominant wavelength of light for immersion objectives having numerical apertures
ranging from 1.25 to 1.60. The equation expressing theoretical resolving power is
based on the assumption that the detail being resolved consists of equally spaced lines,
in other words, a very fine ruling or grating.
The designation "lines-per-inch," as a measure for resolution,
is not a very for-
tunate one because few specimens exhibit a uniform arrangement and spacing of detail.
Perhaps the nearest approach is in the age-hardening (or softening) phenomenon of
metals in which a hard constituent is precipitated from the matrix in a very fine par-
ticle size —
so fine that we must see millions of particles only as a cloud. These par-
ticles under suitable treatment may be induced to coalesce and to grow in size so that
they may easily be recognized at low powers as single particles. The utmost in resolv-
ing power is required to reveal the smaller particles.
^220
u
^200 N= Number of lines pen'nch

w
(D
NA= Numerical aperture
of lens
•-§
180 Waveleng+h fn inches
<+-
o
w
^c 160
140
I
~ 120
.o
-1-
| 100
w
80
4000 5000 6Q00 7000
Dominant Wavelength inAngstrom Units
Fig. 4. — Relationship of theoretical resolving power, numerical aperture, and dominant
wavelength of light.
Color Correction of Objectives. — The numerical aperture an objective does not

of
disclose information concerning the chromatic or spherical corrections which have been
applied to the objective. The value of an objective also depends on the degree to
which aberrations inherent in a simple lens have been corrected.
In the achromatic objectives the correction is least perfect of all, and in the apo-
chromatic objectives the correction is of the highest order. The semiapochromatic
objectives, as their name implies, occupy a position about intermediate. All lens
systems have some imperfections, in the fusion of the rays.
The achromat is an objective which is designed for visual work. It is corrected to
work at its best with the particular color of light which is most effective to the eye,
viz., the yellow-green. This color is referred to as the preferred color.
The achromats are corrected chromatically for two colors and spherically for one
color. As the extremes of the visible spectrum are approached, the fusion of the rays
becomes less and less complete. When an achromat objective is properly corrected,
residual colors of the secondary spectrum remain.
Apochromatic objectives are corrected chromatically for three colors and spluM-i-
cally for two, and the fusion of the rays is more nearly perfect. The colors of tlic
secondary spectrum are eliminated altogether in a good objective, and only a faint
tertiary spectrum remains as residual color. Objects are rendered in their natural
colors with apochromatic objectives.
The correction of semiapochromatic objectives is better throughout than that
of the achromatic objectives. The residual color of the secondary spectrum, which
isalways characteristic of the achromatic and semiapochromatic objectives, makes it
necessary to use a filter which will exclude all secondary images when photographing
with these objectives.

Tests tvith the Apertometer. —
The numerical aperture of an objective may be deter-
mined in several ways; one of the most convenient is bj^ means of the Abbe apertom-
eter, Figs. 5 and 6. This instrument consists of
a semicylindrical plate of optical glass with two
scales engraved on its upper surface. A revolv-
ing arm, bearing a target with cross lines, revolves
in close contact with the cylindrical wall of the
plate. Near the middle of the straightedge of
the plate is a circular disk of silver which has a
small slit. An auxiliary objective is screwed into
the thread at the lower end of the microscope
drawtube.
In operation, the plate placed upon the
is
stage of the microscope, and the

objective, the
aperture of which is to be measured, is focused on
the small slit in the circular disk of silver, using
anj^ convenient eyepiece. Illumination of the
slit is secured by directing diffused light toward
the cylindrical wall of the plate. After the
objective has been focused, the drawtube of the
microscope is carefully removed and the auxil-
iary objective screwed into position. The draw-
tube then replaced and a Huyghenian eyepiece
is
is The drawtube now becomes an

inserted.
auxiliary microscope for viewing the back lens
of the objective. The cross lines of the target
are sharply focused by sliding thedrawtube in
or out within its collar. Measurements are
made by
displacing the target along the periph-
Fig. 5. — Abbe apertometer ^~
ery of the plate until the cross lines just touch
bled for use.
the boundary of the circle of light.
Figure 7 A is a diagram illustrating what one sees through the microscope when
focused on the silver slit of the apertometer. Figure 7B illustrates how the back lens
of the objective appears when looking through the auxiliary microscope. The target
should be displaced both to the right and to the left, and the mean of the readings
of the outer peripheral scale gives the value of the numerical aperture of the objective
under test. The mean of the readings of the inner scale gives the values of the aper-
tures in terms of the air angles.
Testing Objectives with the Abbe Test Plate. —
For the purpose of testing the correc-
tion of microscope objectives for spherical and chromatic aberrations, we may use a
prepared test object of maximum contrast. It takes the form of a crude ruling or
grating and is known as the Abbe test plate. The test plate is a means for testing and
studying some characteristics of objectives.
It consists of several sets of parallel lines ruled across a thin film of silver deposited
upon a cover glass. The cover glass is a long narrow strip of glass worked optically
plane on either side and in such a way that

the strip tapers gradually in thickness from
about 0.1 mm. at one end to about 0.2 mm.
at the other end. The cover glass with
the film side down is permanently mounted on a microscope slide on which is engraved
a scale indicating, by increments of 0.01 mm., the thickness of the cover glass from one
end to the other.
The ruled lines are usually designated as the "white spaces" and the undisturl)od
silver film between adjacent ruled lines as the "black spaces." The silver film is not
Fig. 6. —Photograph showing the various parts of Abbe apertometer.
totally opaque but is sufficiently transparent to reveal the silver grains. The ruled
lineshave jagged edges which form a delicate test object for high-power objectives.
To test objectives, a microscope should be used which is fitted with the usual sub-
stage illuminating apparatus, in order to provide for a rapid transition from axial to
oblique illumination.
The quality of the image at the center of the field and the changes which occur
when the illumination is changed from axial to oblique are carefully observed. The
A B
Fig. 7. —Testing numerical aperture Abbe apertometer. A shows
of objectives with
apertometer as viewed through microscope. B shows the back lens of an
silver slit of
objective as viewed through the auxiliary microscope. Cross hairs are displaced to right
and left. The mean of the readings is the numerical aperture of the objective.
performance of an objective is judged by the way in which the sharp edges of the
rulings and the silver grains themselves are defined and also by the color and width of
the color fringes which border the edges of the black spaces.
Figure 8 illustrates diagrammatically the appearance of color fringes as seen with a
test plate and a semiapochromatic objective when using axial light. If the objective
is pushed within the focus, the edges appear violet, and if the objective is drawn with-
out the focus, the color fringes change to apple green. This is known as "symmet-
rical" coloring because both edges of the black spaces are colored the same.
The cause of these color fringes is made clear in Fig. 9, which illustrates in an
exaggerated way the formation of the images with a semiapochromatic objective when
using white light and axial illumination of the test plate. In this diagram, the colors
are indicated separately instead of blended.
When the objective is lowered, the yellow-green fringe first appears, and, if the
objective is lowered still further, the orange-blue and the red-violet combinations
successively appear. It is evident that, if the objective is pushed within the focus,
blue-violet fringes should appear bordering the black spaces of the test plate, or, if the
objective is pulled without the focus, the fringes should appear yellow-green.
Ye/low green
^-B/ue v/'o/e/-
Objective wi+hin +he Focus Objec+ive wi+hou+ the -focus

Fig.8. —
Diagram of color fringes as seen with test plate and a semiapochromatic objective
when using axial light.
Fig. 9. -Diagram illustrating the formation of color fringes with semiapochromatic

objective and white-light axial illumination of test plate.
When oblique light is used with the test plate and a semiapochromatic objective,
the upper borders of the black spaces are fringed with apple-green color and the lower
borders with violet, as illustrated diagrammatically in Fig. 10. If the light is directed
from a diametrically opposite direction, the order of colors will be reversed, the apple
green appearing where formerh^ the violet appeared and vice versa. The same color
arrangement persists regardless of whether the objective is pushed within or pulled
without the focus. The coloring is now termed nonsymmetrical because the edges arc
not colored the same.
The reasons for this nonsymmetrical coloring with oblique light are illustrated in
Fig. 11. Light enters from the lower third of the substage condenser and illuminates
the white space of the test plate A^-A^. At A^ the image is really in the apple green,
but, unless very closely observed, this color is lost because of the brilliancy of the white
space. The orange-blue (omitted to simplify the diagram) and the blue-violet appear
as passing through the black space and have been so represented in the diagram. At
A^ just the opposite conditions obtain. The orange-blue and the blue-violet are lost
and the yellow-green appears to come through the black space. No matter whether
the objective is raised or lowered, the same color relationship persists.
Ye/Zo pv green
~Blue vfolef
Whether the objec+ive is wi+hin or

wi+hou+ the focus +he colorinoj
remains +he same
Fig. 10. -Coloring of borders of subject when oblique light is used with test plate and
semiapochromatic objective.
Fig. 11. — Diagram illustrating nonsymmetrical coloring of the type shown in Fig. 10.
Cleaning Objectives and Oculars. —

Objectives must be clean if they are to perform at
their best. After an immersion objective is used, the immersion fluid should be
wiped from the front lens with a fresh piece of lens paper moistened with pure ben-
zene. It may be necessary to use several pieces of lens paper and repeat the opera-
tion until the lens and its mount are clean, bright, and dry. The objective should
then be stored in its case. When handling objectives, the fingers should be confined to
the knurled collar, and they should not come in contact with the front and back lenses.
To care properly for objectives and oculars simple appliances are useful. A supplj'
of very clean fine-grade absorbent cotton should be stored dust free in a covered glass
vessel. Tufts of this cotton are twisted securely about the ends of wooden applica-
tors. Care should be exercised to see that the end of the stick is deeply buried in the
cotton. This cotton swab is then moistened in benzene and the lens surfaces gently
and carefully wiped. Several different swabs should be used in succession, especially
if any immersion fluid has dried on the lens mounts or surfaces. All of this must be
removed. The lens surfaces are inspected with magnifiers. Finally a small hand
syringe is used to blow loose dust particles and cotton linters from the lens surfaces.
—
Microscopy of Metals. Development of Metallography. Metallography is that
branch of science which deals with the anatomy of metals and teaches how the struc-
ture changes under the influence of mechanical and thermal treatments. It is the
means by which good, poor, or indifferent physical properties are explained on the
basis of structure. With control of structure comes control of physical properties.
Two decades ago optical systems were available which theory indicated were
capable of resolving some 140,000 lines per inch, and others could be developed with
considerably greater resolving powers. Yet photomicrographs of metal structures
Fig. 12. —Precision high-power metallographic apparatus.

were at low magnifications, and the lens systems employed had low resolving powers.
Immersion objectives of high numerical aperture probably were seldom utilized, and,
if so, the resulting photomicrographs were of doubtful scientific or industrial value.
Such interest as they attracted was due more to, the large magnification employed
rather than to any real information disclosed by the photographs. High-magnifica-
tion images were not crisp or brilliant but were the exact opposite. Resolution
probably was of the order of a few thousand lines per inch. The best optical systems
were not used to their full potential resolving abilitj^, and except in rare cases it
appears likely that objectives of 1.40 N.A. were not employed in the microscopy of
metals.
The preparation of metal specimens was crude and in the course tjf evolutionary
development. Better and more uniformly graded abrasives were needed to replace
the ones which had been adopted from the metal-polishing and buffing trades. Speci-
mens were left in a scratched and pitted condition, and, when subsequently etched, any
fine details which existed in the structure were not developed and were oftentimes
obliterated.
The development of high-power metallography led to the utilization of the full
potential resolving ability of existing optical systems. In order to make use of this
resolving power, it was necessary to learn how to prepare metal specimens to better
advantage for microscopic examination.
The trend in the design of metallographic apparatus has been entirely toward the
inverted type of microscope. Many faults of the early inverted microscope have been
overcome. These instruments are more convenient to use than any other type, and
they are more compact so that the illuminating train, microscope, and camera can be
rigidly mounted as a unit and insulated by spring suspensions, or otherwise, from
outside disturbances. A great deal of care and attention has been devoted by the
manufacturers to the optical and mechanical design of the apparatus. It has been
made largely foolproof, so that the average worker of limited experience can achieve
remarkable results. Twenty years ago magnifications of 100 X to 500 X were the rule
with an occasional photograph at 1000 X, but common practice today has increased
magnifications to 3000 X with good definition and a high order of resolution.
The optical systems of higher numerical aperture are coming into common use,
and with increase in numerical aperture of objectives more skill and experience are
required on the part of the user. The monobromnaphthalene objective of 1.60
N.A. is now available for metallographic work but because of certain inherent char-
it is used only with considerable difficulty.
acteristics of this lens
—
Preparation of Specimens. The preparation of specimens for metallographic
examination is a laborious and somewhat tedious job but can be systematized so as to
take from the task much of the drudgery. The vast majority of specimens are alloys,
which usually have more than one phase present. Most specimens contain solid
nonmetallic inclusions. Some specimens are cold-worked in whole or in part, and
some contain fractures, cracks, or discontinuities which it is desired to study. Some
specimens are hard and some are so soft that any attempt to polish a surface results
in a myriad of scratches which are difficult to remove. When etched deeply enough
to get below the scratches, these soft specimens generally have their fine details of
structure and often the coarser ones obliterated by the very operation which was
intended to disclose them. When more than one constituent is present in a specimen,
differences in solubility of the constituents are disclosed by etching "and, if care and
understanding are not exercised, misleading conclusions are apt to occur. The use of
oblique illumination, dark field, or polarized light cannot compensate for faulty
workmanship in the preparation of a metallographic specimen. The detail must be
developed in the specimen, and then the order of resolving power and magnification
in the optical system must be sufficient to reveal the detail clearly. Since photog-
raphy in the final analysis is rendering in black and white the contrasts and gradations
in tone and color value which exist in the object, it follows that, if one is to achieve crisp,
brilliant images photographically, the subject must have extremely well-developed
detail, otherwise we could not photograph it at all at very high magnifications.
Soft metals such as lead cable-sheath alloys, precious metals, aluminum, etc.,
can best be prepared by cutting a specimen with a very rugged microtome. A very
satisfactory one is the Jung wood-sectioning microtome. The feed of this instrument
can be set for any thickness of section from 2 to 50 n. The specimen is first roughly
cut to a flat surface by setting the feed to cut off slices about 10m thick. This thickness
is graduallj^ reduced to the minimum cut of 2 m. The sections or slices are not used
in the subsequent metallographic examination. After the block or specimen has
been removed from the microtome, the cut surface is etched without any further
treatment.
It is obvious that the serrations in the knife edge produce scratches in the face of
the specimen and that any section cut from the specimen will have scratches on the
upper face due to the previous cut of the knife and on the lower face due to the cut just
completed. By decreasing the thickness of the sections, a point will be reached when
a complete section is no longer secured but onl}'^ fragments of a section, i.e., the
scratches on top and bottom have so little material in between that the section
crumbles. It has been found that, when the microtome cuts complete sections 2ix
in thickness, the surface of the specimen will be satisfactory to etch for metallographic
examination. If it is necessar}^ to set the microtome at 4 n to cut sections, it indicates
that the knife is not well honed or stropped. These specimens will not etch free of
scratches when viewed under the microscope. Even a well cut and etched specimen
often presents to the unaided eye the appearance of slight furrows or undulations in
the prepared surface, but these imperfections disappear and are not troublesome under
the microscope. From the standpoint of what can be seen with the microscope there
is no comparison between the old polishing technique as used for lead specimens, for
example, and the newer method of microtome preparation. Moreover a specimen

may be prepared in 2 or 3 min. by the sectioning method while the old method not
uncommonly required several hours work to prepare a single specimen. The improved
means of preparation makes it possible to study the structural effects of small quan-
tities of alloying elements, incipient fusion, cold-working, aging phenomena, etc.
Hard specimens such as iron and steel are gradually brought to a plane smooth
surface free from scratches, pits, and other polishing imperfections by a sequence of
grinding and polishing operations.
Large specimens are more difficult to prepare and require a much longer time in
preparation than small specimens. The ideal specimen is one about 94 or 1 in. in
diameter and not more than j-z in. in height. If the specimen is much higher than
this, difficulty will be encountered in maintaining a flat surface. For smaller speci-
mens the height should be proportionately less. Specimens much smaller than }-^ in.
in diameter are difficult to hold in the fingers, and
be found advantageous to
it will
mount small specimens and medium such
irregularly shaped ones in a plastic molding
as bakelite. If the edge of the specimen is to be examined, it is always advisable to
mount the specimen either by molding it in a compound or clamping it between metal
blocks.
Surface Preparation. —The first step in the preparation of the surface is to grind
one face of the specimen flat. A bench grinder may be used for the purpose, and it is
desirable in many by directing a stream of cold water

cases to keep the specimen cool
against the wheel. For general work an Aloxite Brand 60 grit Grade J Bond — —
3-ft. wheel measuring 8 by 1 in. and revolving at about 3400 r.p.m. in a vertical plane
is recommended. Grinding wheels should not be used if their surfaces are clogged
or scored. of the specimen should be beveled slightly on the grinding
The edges
wheel. If this is not done, the paper work to follow will produce on the specimen a
sharp knifelike edge which is liable to catch and tear the lap cloths used in subsequent
polishing operations.
is ground by hand on various abrasive
After grinding on the wheel the specimen
papers. recommended for the purpose, starting with No. 240 and
Aloxite papers are
grinding in turn on Nos. 280, 320, and 400. The papers are placed on a bench plate
or other smooth hard surface such as a piece of plate glass. The specimen is then
lield firmly in the fingers and pushed back and forth slowly under pressure the entire
length of the paper. The direction of grinding on the No. 240 paper should be across
the previous wheel scratches, and this grinding operation should be continued until
the wheel scratches are completely removed. On each succeeding paper a new set of
uniform scratches is established across the preceding scratches imtil the latter are
completely replaced by finer ones. From the 400 paper, the specimen goes to a hori-
zontal lap wheel covered with broadcloth and charged with 600 alundum powder where
the polishing continues until the scratches are removed. Final polishing is carried out
on another lap wheel covered with a very fine broadcloth and charged with a mag-
nesium oxide paste. The paste is made by mixing magnesium oxide with water or
with a mixture of water and glycerin. Magnesium oxide forms carbonates readily
when in contact with air and water, and because of the difficulty encountered in secur-
ing uniformly good powder it is advisable to prepare the powder by air floatation.
It is not within the scope of these brief notes to give complete details for preparing
specimens, but the successful photography of the specimen depends to a large extent
on the care with which the surface has been prepared. For that reason it has been
deemed advisable to give some indication of recommended procedure. More detailed
Fig. 13. — Bench and horizontal laps for polishing metal specimens.
accounts and modifications of the procedure will be found in the literature, to which
reference should be made.
The Ultraviolet Microscope. Development of the Ultraviolet Microscope. About —
1900 Kohler of the Zeiss Works developed a microscope which had about twice the
resolving power of other systems. Its superior resolving power was due to the use of
ultraviolet light. Prior to that time onlj^ visible light had been employed to illuminate
microscopic preparations. To take advantage of the greater resolving power through
the use of shorter wavelengths, Kohler devised an apparatus which operated at a
wavelength of 2750 A. Since glass is opaque to wavelengths in this region of the
spectrum, all optical parts were made of quartz. The system is monochromatic
because optical materials of suitable refractive and dispersive powers are not available
with which to achromatize objectives for a range of wavelengths in the ultraviolet
region. Chromatic aberrations are eliminated by confining the system to a single
wavelength of light. Spherical aberrations are corrected by virtue of the curves to
which the lens elements are ground. Monochromatic light is secured bj'^ means of a
suitable monochromator.
:^;^^.^^'
Fig. 14A. —Structure of lead-antimony cable sheath which has seen long service.
(Magnification, 200 X.)
Note
the widened grain boundaries and mottled grain.
^^fe
Fig. 14B.— Same as Fig. 14A but at a magnification of 2450 X to reveal details of inter-
granular structure.
Fig. 15A. —Internal stress raisers in cast iron due to fatigue. Minute serrations in the
walls of graphite flakes and the very small tips of the flakes are internal stress raisers of
major importance. The path of a fatigue crack is generally from one such structural detail
to another. (Magnification 1000 X.)
Fig. \bB. — Internal stress raiser in cast iron. This is the same as Fig. 15 A but at a magnifi-
cation of 3700 X.
To visualize the image, a fluorescent screen employed. This takes the form of a
is
uranium glass wedge on which the image isThe image is viewed by a small
received.
magnifier and is focused in the ordinary way by racking the tube of the microscope
upward and downward. In principle this seems rather simple, but in practice it did
not work out very well because operators had difficulty in coordinating a system with
light which could not be seen. In the first place, the intensity of the light is low,
and the image is very small on the uranium glass wedge. Fluorescence in uranium
glass is not a surface effect entirely, and this made it difficult to focus the instrument.
Beck and Barnard of London attempted to get around the focusing trouble by
means of an interferometer focusing arrangement which thej^ incorporated in an
ultraviolet microscope of their design. Kohler in recent years has developed a more
powerful light source and has improved the searcher eyepiece or focusing device, but in
principle and in application it is essentially the same as the original. The fact
remains that the original apparatus, as available in 1900, was a workable precision
system although its successful use was delayed a quarter of a century.
More powerful illumination for inert material such as finely divided mineral
matter, for opaque metallurgical specimens, or for preparations which are quite
absorbent at 2750 A. unquestionably wovild be of great benefit. However, organic
and living material especially may be affected by exposure to a stronger source of
energy. This is something which will have to be determined but the indications are
that, while man}'^ living cells may be photographed successfully with the present
intensity of light, there is no assurance that disintegration may not occur if the
intensity of the light source is much increased.
In this countr}' Bausch & Lomb
have developed a simple ultraviolet system on an
entirely different system. They have corrected objectives for two wavelengths, one
in the visible region of the spectrum and one in the near ultraviolet. The preparation
is focused in the visible light and photographed in the ultraviolet. The source of
illumination is a mercury-vapor lamp, and separation of wavelengths is accomplished
by filters. Since the wavelength used in the ultraviolet is the 3650 A line, optical
glass may be employed instead of quartz.
The Kohler system, of which the Beck system is essentially but a modification,
is without doubt the most powerful microscope ever devised. Its highest power
objective has a numerical aperture of 1.25, but owing to the short wavelength of light
used its effectiveness is equivalent to an objective with a numerical aperture of at least
2.50 when used with visible blue light. However, for many purposes this system has
advantages over those using visible light which scarcely can be reckoned in terms of
numerical aperture.
The ultraviolet microscope was intended originally for biological research, but
inability to use it abandonment. About 1925
successfully all but caused its complete
itwas redesigned as a metallurgical microscope and was provided with a quartz plate
vertical illuminator. At best these illuminators are not efficient, and with the rather
weak source of ultraviolet light a,vailable it was practically impossible to do much
with the instrument in the field of metallography. The metal specimens absorbed
practically all the light and thus very seriously complicated the problems of focusing
and photography.
A great deal of experimental work was done with the equipment in an attempt to
improve conditions but without much avail. It was discovered, however, that the
system had inappreciable depth of focus, and it was reasoned that, if a transparent
biological specimen or one approximately so was substituted for the opaque metallur-
gical specimen, the ultraviolet light could be transmitted through the specimen from
below in the usual way and that it should then be possible to photograph the specimen
on successive planes. By spacing the planes from top to bottom of the specimen
slightly more than the depth of penetration of the system, optical sectioning was
obtained.
In developing the art of optical sectioning, experimental malignant tumor material
was used. At first this material was fixed and stained, but soon it was discovered that
staining of tissues was unnecessary and that better results were secured with unstained
material. Differentiation of structure resulted by selective absorption of the ultra-
violet light. The fact that organic material manifested selective absorption paved
the way to the study of living material and the elimination of changes in the specimen
Fig. 16. —A three-dimensional picture of manganese steel, water toughened and drawn at
750°C. (Magnification, 3500 X.)
(artifacts) incident to fixation, staining, and mounting. Thus it became possible to

photograph living cells in isotonic salt solutions most of which readily transmit ultra-
violet light. Further experimental work demonstrated that most living cells were
not affected by light of wavelength of 2750 or 2573 A. of intensity and duration of
exposure ordinarily required in ultraviolet microscopj\ The rule, however, is not
imiversal in its application, as some few living organisms are almost immediately
disintegrated and others soon shrivel and die. Most cells are immune to long
exposures at 2750 and 2573 A., but at shorter wavelengths such as those of the 2300 A
group and for still shorter wavelengths, the lethal action is verj^ rapid.
Thus it became possible to photograph most living material at very high powers
(1200 to 3600 diameters), to take optical sections on planes spread i^ m apart, and to
avoid many of the artifacts which have perplexed cytologists. Cytological studies
soon demonstrated that some of the details of structure attributed to cells on the basis
of fixed and stained material did not appear to be present in the living cell. As a tool
for biological research the ultraviolet microscope offers far-reaching possibilities,
notwithstanding the fact that a more precise technique is required than for the visible-
light microscope.
In science and industry it has much to offer. High resolving power and the
characteristic crisp, brilliant images obtained make it possible to photograph very
— MICROSCOPE —
A- SEARCHER EYE PIECE OR ARTIFICIAL EYE
B- QUARTZ OCULAR •
C- QUARTZ OBJECTIVE
D- SPECIMEN ON QUARTZ SLIDE
E- GLYCERINE IMMERSION FLUID WHEN
HOMOGENEOUS SYSTEMS ARE USED
F- QUARTZ SUB-STAGE CONDENSER
G - FRONT LENS OMITTED WHEN DRY SYSTEM (6-MM.
OBJECTIVE) IS USED. INTERCHANGEABLE FRONT
LENSES EMPLOYED FOR HOMOGENEOUS IMMERS-
ION SYSTEMS (2.5-MM. AND l.7-MM,0BJECTIVES)
H- URANIUM GLASS SCREEN MOUNTED IN RING OF
SUB-STAGE IRIS FOR CENTERING ILLUMINATION;
SWUNG OUT OF POSITION WHEN MICROSCOPE IS IN USE
^ J-
K-
QUARTZ PRISM
WINDOW IN SIDE OF MICROSCOPE BASE
'^^
—
X275/UJJL
ULTRA-VIOLET LIGHT
GENERATING EQUIPMENT —
mx
L- IRIS DIAPHRAGM I
M- QUARTZ PRISMS N <±>

N— COLLIMATOR
P- QUARTZ SLIT
Q- CADMIUM SPARK ELECTRODES
•\|/
Q
Fig. 17.- -Diagram illustrating optical systena of ultraviolet microscope.
small particles such as pigments, fillers, etc. Organic compounds such as soaps, oils,
fats, waxes, etc., can be studied in the same manner Problems

as tissue preparation.
in catalysis, adsorption, filtration, etc., are open to study as never before, and the
deposition of metallic salts and compounds can be traced and detected oftentimes to
far better advantage than bj^ anj^ other means. In a system in which two or more
phases are present, selective absorption differentiates the phases and enables one to
trace their origin or history through manufacturing or production cycles. Under
favorable conditions particles of matter which measure only a few hundred atom
diameters across can be clearly photographed. When absorption is strong, resolution
can be extended downward to about 200 atom diameters. In the colloidal state of
matter the ultraviolet microscope has provided the means to secure real images, not
diffraction effects of the submicrons. Photographs of these bodies may be analyzed
mathematicallj'' as one might the photograph of coarse pigments and fillers. From the
—
photographs, distribution curves may be plotted on the basis of particle diameters in

fractions of a micron or in small units of mass. In some cases it is surprising how
little the older visual-light microscopes have revealed in comparison to the wealth of
detail developed with the high power of the ultraviolet microscope.
Optical System. —
The optical diagram of the ultraviolet microscope as arranged for
transmitted-light is shown in Fig. 17. The microscope parts are at the left and the
light-generating parts at the right. The system is designed to operate on wavelength
of 2750 A. (cadmium, 2748) from a high-tension spark generated across cadmium
electrodes. The light is spectroscopically decomposed into the slit images of the light
source. The slit images are not monochromatic in the strict sense of the word, but
each slit image is composed of a small group of lines which the monochromator fails to
separate as individuals. For practical purposes, however, the slit images of the 2750
and 2573 A. groups are monochromatic. Each group contains a strong line and one
or more weak lines.
The slit images have been analyzed and their true spectroscopic nature determined.
Spectroscopic data are given in Table I. The image is photographed with the strong
line, before the weaker lines register. Some workers have used a strong magnesium
group at 2800 A. because of its greater brilliancy, but the resulting photographic image
suffers since a separate image is obtained from each of the strong lines in the group.
Photographic negatives taken with this group lack the crispness and brilliancy which
are characteristic of the cadmium groups at 2750 and 2573 A. While the optical
system is corrected for 2750 A., experience shows that it may be used with equal
facility with light at 2573 A. At the lower powers quite good photographs can be
secured with the magnesium group at 2800 A., or the cadmium group at 2300 A., but
at high powers and when the utmost in resolving power is required, it is necessary to
employ monochromatic light or its practical equivalent. For some purposes differen-
tiation in structure through selective absorption of the ultraviolet light is more impor-
tant than high resolving power, and in such cases the illumination can be adjusted to
Table I. Wavelengths Used with Ultraviolet Microscope
Electrode metal
meet the circumstances, due allowances being made in the interpretation of results
for the falling off in the qualitj' of the image. study the effects of various
Similarlj^, to
wavelengths in the ultraviolet region on living cells and organisms, the slit image may
be altered and the effects observed visually in the searcher eyepiece or recorded
photographically. For such work the lower powers of the system should be used to
simplify the procedure. Perhaps the best practice is to photograph the field with a
wavelength of 2750 A., then irradiate it with some other wavelength, and again photo-
SEARCHER
EYE PIECE
o VERTICAL
ILLUMINATOR
MICRO-
SCOPE'
QUARTZ
PLATE
_^Â-
^ \)-
-
^-~
DIAPHRAGM f
—m'
ADJUSTABLE ÛRANIUM
/'
PRISM IRIS
QUARTZ
PRISMS
LENS GLASS SCREEN DIAPHRAGM

OBJECTIVE
COLLI MATOR<Ctl>
QUARTZ I
SLIT '
^\i/
SPARK
LECTRODES
Fig. 18. — Schematic diagram for optical system for working in the ultra\'iolet range when
using reflected light.
Carbon plate
variable rests fance'n Safety spark gap
\ Conc/ensers,
Double pole snap Step-up transformer I
switch
ire/ Ph. 220 V. 60^ 1
Sec. 10.000 V.
Cadmium
77 or magnesium
magnesiL
spark terminoils -''
"k terminals
Fig. 19. — Diagram showing electrical system for ultraviolet illumination.
graph it Mith 2750 A. This has the advantage of yielding good photographic images
but the disadvantage of having to refocus the substage condenser and illuminating sys-
tem for each change in wavelength. It must be remembered that, if the illumination is
not properly focused, the intensity of the ultraviolet light on the specimen per unit of
area is greatly reduced. When observing the lethal or stimulating effects of a given
wavelength, the results Mall mean little unless the illumination is properly focused and
centered.
The optical system of the microscope as arranged for opaque objects is shown in
Fig. 18. The only difference in this assembly from that for transmitted light is the
elimination of the substage apparatus and the addition of vertical illumination.
. —
Electrical System. —
The details of the electrical system are shown in Fig. 19. The
assembly of the apparatus as illustrated in Fig. 20 has been arranged to protect the
user against accidental electric shock and from exposure to short-wavelength ultra-
violet light. These short waves have an injurious effect on the skin, producing pre-
mature aging and small tumorous growths. If the spark-generating apparatus is not
Fig. 20. —The ultraviolet microscope.

shielded, long-continued exposure may result in serious injury to the operator. The
hands especially are exposed to the radiations when adjusting the spark, and some
frequent adjustment is required; the spark source is covered with a housing. A flexible
shaft provides a means for controlling the electrode. The housing must be ventilated
by an exhaust fan to prevent the fumes generated by the spark from contaminating the
atmosphere within and absorbing the ultraviolet liglit.
Table II. Monochromatic Objectives Corrected for X 275 Mm and 160-mm

Tube Length
Relative
Focal length /,
System N.A. resolving
mm.
power
Dry 16 0.20 0.40

Dry 6 0.35 0.70
Glycerin . 2.5 0.85 1.70
Immersion 1.7 1.25 2.50
Tables II and III contain data on the monochromatic objectives and the quartz
oculars. Table IV gives the magnifications which result from various optical com-
binations and optical camera lengths. The optical camera length is the distance in
centimeters from the top of the ocular to the plane of the photographic plate.
Table III.-
For preliminary adjustment a 20 X achromat objective and a 5 X Huyghens glass

ocular are fitted to the microscope. The substage condenser, with front lens removed
and with the condenser adjusted centrally in its centering mount, is inserted in the
substage holding ring. Light from the mercury-vapor lamp is then reflected into the
base of the microscope. A suitable specimen is placed on the microscope stage and
the microscope focused in the usual way. The condenser is focused to bring the field-
of-view diaphragm into focus. When the diaphragm is partly closed, the bright
circular area should be centered by turning the microscope prism and by adjusting the
leveling screws of the optical bench of the spark-generating apparatus. The uranium
glass disk is now substituted in place of the substage condenser; the reflecting mirror in
front of the prism is swimg out of position; and the mercury-vapor lamp is extinguished.
Fig. 21. —
Ultraviolet microscope fitted with graduated half circle, graduated slider,
and the aluminum pointer attached to the slow-motion thumb-screw. In this particular
assembly, 1° on the protractor corresponds to a change in focal planes of }^ ^l. A sensitivity
of }/2° in adjustment may easily be attained. By means of a different slow-motion
mechanism a spacing in focal planes of about 3^1 6 /" may be secured, although a spacing of
J^ fx seems adequate for most work.
The spark is generated with cadmium electrodes and the 2750 A slit image sharply
focused on the uranium glass disk, as indicated by a small circle marked on the disk.
The spark is now turned off and a low-power quartz objective and quartz ocular of
5 X
or 10 X power substituted for the glass optical parts. The mercury-vapor lamp
isagain used as the illuminant. The specimen, mounted on a quartz slide and covered
with a quartz slip, is placed on the stage and focused with the visible light. The
apparatus is now ready for final adjustment with the ultraviolet light. The searcher
eyepiece is swung around into position over the ocular. This searcher eyepiece con-
sists of a uranium glass wedge on the surface of which are ruled two cross lines. This
is the surface on which the image fluoresces, and the image is observed by a small
a(j[justable magnifier which forms part of the searcher eyepiece. The image, as it
appears on the uranium glass wedge, is very small and so must be enlarged by the
magnifier to make even the gross details of structure visible. The magnifier is
focused on the cross rulings, and the microscope is focused in the usual waj^, which
brings into focus the fluorescent image.
The focal plane is different for each wavelength. The microscope was focused with
visible light since, to enter the focal plane in the
must be
ultraviolet, the tube of the microscope
racked downward and, to focus the illumination
as indicated by the field-of-view diaphragm, the
condenser must be racked upward. The bright
central area as seen in the searcher eyepiece will
not be exactly centered but should be made so by
Fig. 22. —Diagram showing
adjustment of the centering condenser mount.
method of optical sectioning with
the ultra\'iolet microscope. When the image is in focus in the searcher
eyepiece, it will also be in focus approximately 30
cm. above. The camera is s^vung around into this position and a photograph taken.
Optical sections are taken bj' changing the focal adjustment mechanically by very
small increments. This technique requires precision slow-motion adjustment of the
12 3
semicircular scale mounted on the microscope stand. This scale has a slider with
four 4° divisions. Each 1° is made to equal }/i n change in focus. The first division
of the slider is set to the pointer at the starting position. The slider is a convenient
means to show the starting position and the number of exposures in the photographic^
sequence. This arrangement is shown in Fig. 21. A modification of the same idea,
provides an extension of the slow-motion drum which terminates in a larger drum
divided into microns and these subdivided into quarters.
Fig. 25. —Living sperm cells of the grasshopper. (Magnification 500 X.)
Photographic Materials for Ultraviolet Microscopy. — The most suitable plates for use
at 2750 and 2573 A. are the process-type plates. recommended
Plates which can be
are the Eastman Eastman Contrast Process, and Hammer Process. Used
Process,
with a contrast developer such as the Eastman D-IQ,^ they give excellent results.
When absorption in the specimen is not very strong, the Eastman Contrast plates are
recommended. For the wavelengths between 2500 and 1900 A. special ultraviolet-
sensitive plates are required as the ordinary plates are insensitive at these wavelengths.
1 Eastman D-19 Contrast Developer for Metallographic Photography

Stock Solution
Water (about 125°F.) 64 oz. 2.0 1.
Metal (Elon) 128 gr. 8.8 g.
Sodium sulphite (desiccated) 12 oz. 360 gr. 384.0 g
Hydroquinone 1 oz. 75 gr. 35 2 g.
.
Sodium carbonate (desiccated) 6 oz. 180 gr. 192.0 g.

Potassium bromide 300 gr. 20. g.
Cold water to make 1 gal. 4.01.
Use without dilution. Develops 3 to 6 min. in a tray at eS^F. according to the contrast desired.
.
These special ultraviolet-sensitive plates are now available through the Pkstman
Kodak Co.
Gelatin absorbs light in the ultraviolet region of the spectrum, and the absorption
becomes strong for wavelengths below 2800 A.
^^--'"*?**^^--
Pi-actically all the light is absorbed below 2000
'
•
'
'
-o A. even by very thin layers of gelatin. Shumann
^ •
Q o' o o '
plates which contain only a small trace of gelatin
^
•
e or none at all have been extensively used for
Q ultraviolet photography, but these plates were

handmade and quite expensive.
Ô
6 Ô a .
'
O Another method
O •
^
O ^^^^ used to increase the sensitivity in the ultra-
o V '
0*rs violet an
consists in dissolving the gelatin of
. • O e *' ordinary plate. A method
which has been
* -
"
^ .
•
• - successfully applied by Lyman and others consists
.
ci,
_
';
in bathing the plate with some fluorescent mate-
iO' O•^ '
*• rial, such as mineral oil, which transforms the
short wavelengths into longer ones capable of

penetrating the gelatin and thus exposing the
« ' •
plate. Burroughs, of the Eastman Laboratories,
found in his researches on the fluorescent prop-
erties of a large number of organic substances
J .***" **•
that the ethyl carboxylic ester of dihydro-
credladine was particularly satisfactory as an
ultraviolet-sensitizing medium for ordinary plates.
This substance is insoluble in water but can be
dissolved in certain organic substances. When a
_^ Qv- *> plate is bathed in a solution of it and allowed to
*
, > * '
dry, the surface of the plate is covered with a
* '
, ,,
microcrystalline deposit which fluoresces strongly
> ^_ ' * under ultraviolet light. The fluorescent materials
r\- •
• ^r^ after exposure of the plate can be removed by

washing the plate with acetone before develop-
,.
'
* °
O ment or, if desired, by brushing the plate with a
'"'
.9, o "•- tJP ^ camel's-hair brush as soon as it is in the developer.
* ' "^^^ crystals loosen and are thus brushed off.
rs
' ' • -ô -
> "" '

* • •?*.'*•*'" " .-. The sensitized plates are supplied ready for use,
o . ,* ..••.«, or the material may be secured with which to
O sensitize plates.
.6 O o ,
• <? '
O Plates, plateholders, and camera of the ultra-
•
°AN '
,. •
.
^ O violet microscope must be clean and free of dust,
',.°
.. Q^Q ,
otherwise speckled plates arising from dust or
•'
.
'
o
' paper fibers on the plate surface will be sure to
'
I Some plates are not carefully wrapped,

• ' result.
"^
and during manufacture, shipment, and handling .
O
the sensitized surfaces seem to collect a great
Fig. 26. —
Rubber latex particles deal of dust particles which are difficult to remove
clearly resolved by means of ultra- completely. For ordinary photographic work the
violet fight. Optical sections spaced ^^^^^ j-^^^
particles of glass, etc., which lodge on
I4 micron apart. (Magnification ,1
plate surfaces may be brushed or wiped on
,,,',. 1 ,
• 1 jv.
1800 X )
reasonablj^ well. \Mien the plate is used for ultra-
violet microscopy, every little particle completely blocks out the ultraviolet light and, of
course, shows up as an unexposed spot on the developed negative. Dust particles
are not easy to remove, presumably because they become electrified by brushing and
merely move about. However, by carefully brushing the plates in one direction with
a camel's-hair brush, they can be made dustfree. It is best to avoid the use of all
plates which are poorly packed.
—
Preparation of Specimens. For ultraviolet microscopy specimens are prepared
somewhat differently than for visible-light systems. Since ordinary glass is wholly
opaque to ultraviolet light of short wavelengths, special quartz slides and cover slips
must be used. Some of the special ultraviolet-transmitting glasses may serve but
these lack the full transmitting qualities of quartz and consequently reduce the effi-
ciency, lengthen the exposure, and make the problem of focusing more difficult.
Slides and cover slips of these materials are relatively cheap compared with quartz
slides and covers, but, since the latter may be cleaned and used repeatedly, there is
little point in working with the glass slides. The quartz slides measure 26 by 30 mm.,
and the cover slips are 12 mm. in diameter. The slides are placed in a small metal
holder of the same size as an ordinary glass slide, and thus are convenient to handle.
Usually, for examination with visible-light microscopes, tissue is fixed, sectioned,
stained, and mounted on glass slides. Many of the biological fixatives contain sub-
stances which are totally opaque to ultraviolet light or by combination with the tissue
render the latter opaque. Other fixatives, such as formaldehyde, are satisfactory, but
they often have serious limitations for cytological studies. Practically all common
stains absorb ultraviolet light. Differentiation of structure will result through
selective absorption of the ultraviolet light.
For ultraviolet microscopy of tissue the best practice, as previouslj^ pointed out,
is to use living material mounted in a suitable isotonic salt solution. The cover slip
is sealed with a mixture of vaseline and olive oil applied by a small camel's-hair brush
while revolving the slide on a turn table. This sealing medium has no effect on the
preparation, whereas lacquer and other similar mediums may infiltrate the mounting
medium and have harmful effects.
Other mounting mediums, such as glycerin, mineral oil, olive oil, castor oil, water,
and some of the synthetic resins and gums, may be used for special purposes with
technological preparations. Most of the natural gums, balsams, etc., are opaque to
ultraviolet light and therefore not suitable for use.
Bibliography
Periodicals:
KoHLEE, A.: Microphotographic Examinations with Ultraviolet Light, Z. Wis. Mikroskopie, 21, 129-165
and 273-304 (1904).
KoHLEB, A., and M. Von Rohh: A Microphotographic Arrangement for Ultraviolet Light, Zeit.
Instrumentenk. 24, 341 (1904).
Lucas, F. F.: Photomicrography and Technical Microscopy, Bell System Tech. J., 3 (No. 1) (1924).
:High Power Metallography, J. Franklin Inst., 201, February (1926).
An Introduction to Ultra Violet Metallography, Mining and Met., June (1926).
— :
:Microtome Methods for the Preparation of Soft Metals for Microscopic Examination, Mining
and Met, February (1927).
:Observations on the Microstructure of the Path of Fatigue Failure in Specimen of Armco Iron,
Trans. Am. Soc. Steel Treating, 11, April (1927).
: A R6sum6 of the Development and Application of High Power Metallography and the Ultra
Violet Microscope, Proc. Intern. Congr. Testing Materials (Amsterdam, Holland), September (1927).
: Photomicrography and Its Application to Mechanical Engineering, Mech. Eng., 50, March
(1928).
Further Observations on the Microstructure of Martensite, Trans. Am. Soc. Steel Treating, 15,
:
February (1929).
:Structure and Nature of Troostite, Bell System Tech. J., 9, January (1930); also in Proc. World
Eng. Congr. Tokyo.
:The Architecture of Living Cells, Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. U. S., 16, September (1930).
:On the Art of Metallography, Mining and Met., May (1931).
— and Mary B. Stahk: A Study of Living Sperm Cells
• of Certain Grasshoppers by Means of the
Ultra Violet Microscope, J. Morphol., 52 (No. 1), September (1931).
Advances in Microscopy, Proc. Intern. Congr. Testing Materials (Zurich, Switzerland), Sep-
:
tember (1931).
On the Design and Construction
: of a Precision High Power Metallographic Apparatus, Trans
Am. Soc. Steel Treating, 21, December (1933).
KoHLER, A.: Some Innovations
in the Field of Photomicrography with Ultraviolet Light, Natur-
165-173 (1933).
u'issenschaften, 21,
Lucas, F. F.: Nodular Troostite, Metal Progress, February (1935).
Late Developments in Microscopy, J. Franklin Inst., 217, June (1935).
:
On the Preparation of Iron and Steel Specimens for Microscopic Investigations, Trans. Am.
:
Soc. Metals, 24 (1936).

On the Resolving Powers of the Infinity Objective of N.A. 1.40 and N.A. 1.60 used with a
:
Precision High Power Metallographic Apparatus, Anniversary Vol. Sci. Repts. Tdkyd Imp. Univ.,
Series 1; dedicated to Dr. Honda (1936).
How Flaws Occur in Metals, Nat. Safety Neivs, February (1937).
:
Progress in Microscopy, Proc. Intern. Congr. Testing Materials (London) (1937).

:
Ultra Violet Microscopy of Hevea Rubber Latex, Ind. Eng. Chem., 30, February (1938).
:
Stern, H. S.: Inexpensive Photomicrography, Am. Phot., 618. October (1934).

Pratt, J. G.: Photomicrography of Opaque Objects, Am. Phot., 348, June (1936).
Weiland, W. F.: Photomicrography as Applied to Metals, Camera, 1, January (1937).
WiLMAN, C. W.: Notes on Low-power Stereoscopic Photomicrography, Phot. J., 491, August (1937).
Warner, E. E.: Extension Tubes for Macro-photographs, Camera, 242, October (1937).
McKat, H. C: Photomicrography for Everyone, Am. Phot., 786, November (1937).
PiTTOCK, F. J.: Techniques in a Biological Laboratory, Phot. J., 218, April (1938).
Dent, R. V.: Photographic Illustration of Medical Subjects, Phot. J., 197 (April 1938).
Books:
Hall, W. T., and R. S. Williams: " Chemical and Metallographic Examination of Iron, Steel and
McGraw (1931).
Brass,"
Bentlet, W. a., and W. J. Humphries: "Snow Crystals," McGraw (1931).
Sattveur, a.: "The Metallography and Heat Treatment of Iron and Steel," McGraw (1935).
Williams, R. S., and V. O. Homerburg: "Principles of Metallography," McGraw (1939).
CHAPTER XXVIII
GEOLOGIC PHOTOGRAPHY
By Robert F. Collins
Ability to photograph geologic phenomena clinically in the field is a rare and

valuable attribute. Equipment and procedure are simple and attainable by the
average amateur and when employed they assure superior results. For outdoor
work in geologic photography there are three axioms:
1. Work
in the field, not the darkroom.
2. Stop down and use a tripod.
3. Use a sunshade.
The importance of following these three rules cannot be overemphasized; they hold
true regardless of the film, lens, and shutter used.
Photographic Field Equipment.— Equipment for field photography must be
adequate and practical. Five items are fundamental and should be assembled in a
kit which can and will be carried by the owner in the field at all times: camera, tripod,
sunshade, exposure meter, and filter kit. Pictures are not obtained by equipment
left in the car.
The camera may be of any sturdy type, not prefocused, equipped with an anastig-
mat lens. A focusing back is not essential and action shots are never taken; hence box
reflexes are unnecessary, and fast shutters a luxury. On the contrary, shutter speeds
from lio to 2 sec. are most useful. Size of negative today is not of prime importance,
anything from 35 mm. to 33^ by 43^ in. is satisfactory and practical. Larger cameras,
of course, yield very fine results, but their bulk and weight are entirely unnecessary;
the 5- by 7-in. ones are absurd for field photography. Fast lenses are not required,
except for some color work; an//7.7 or//6.3 is entirely adequate. The lens, however,
should be of the very best correction for flare, coma, and spherical and chromatic
aberration; the ultimate limit of needle-sharpness will naturally be determined by
lens refinement. Fortunately nearly all modern high-quality speed anastigmats are
satisfactory for field photography if stopped down.
A tripod which will support the camera firmly is essential. Slightly oversize good-
quality telescoping metal tripods will usually hold the camera satisfactorily in various
wind conditions. Bulky and heavy tripods, in spite of their greater stability, are
impractical for the field geologist; they are too much to carry. A valuable procedure,
in addition to shortening the tripod legs when a photograph must be taken in a
field
stiff breeze, is to suspend a 4- or 5-lb. rock close under the tripod head. Finally, use
the tripod on every shot, even if there is an //1. 5 lens on the camera.
A sunshade should be used at all times. Direct sun rays are only one danger;
bright sky light, water surface reflections, and snow glare are others. Use a sunshade
for every exposure, and for piece of mind use a good one and a big one.
A photoelectric exposure meter should be carried and used. In spite of the latitude
of modern film, an exposure that is correct pays dividends later. For color work, a
photoelectric meter is a necessity.
Filters, selected according to the owner's experience, should be part of the field kit.
K2, K3, infrared, and panchromatic green should be ample for black-and-white work.
799
Close-up Technique. —
Geologic field photography is of two types: (1) close-ups to
show details of fossils, joints, and rock texture; and (2) land-surface views to record
a sweep of countr3^ Details of field procedure are given below:
Close-ups are taken with tripod, sunshade, small stop, and panchromatic film,
usually at a distance of 6 ft. or less. Focusing should be done with a ground-glass
back, steel tape, or accurate range finder. Filters are rarely needed, and many times
orthochromatic film will be satisfactorj?-.
Needle-sharpness and depth of focus are desiderata. Best results are obtained
by using a small stop and avoiding sunlit surfaces if possible. Apertures of //32 or
smaller are advisable except in a strong wind. Shadow contrast is usually desirable
only when illustrating surface texture of rock.
Relative scale must be indicated b}^ including some readUy recognizable article in
the picture, such as hammer, knife, compass, watch, or coin. Do not depend upon
vegetation to give scale when photographing rock exposures close up; a clear record
of scale on the negative is superior to any statement in type. For scientific work,
people in geologic photographs are generally unsatisfactory and should not be used.
Human interest is not desired and is distracting, if only because clothing styles change
within the useful lifetime of a scientific negative.
—
View Technique. ^Land-surface views are scientific landscape photographs made to
record geologic features over large areas. They are among the most difficult negatives
that the geologist is required to make. The following points should be observed:
Sharpness and clarity are of first importance. In spite of the temptation of a fast
lens and a distant view, always stop down and use tripod, sunshade, and exposure
meter. This procedure cannot be overemphasized.
Filters should be used judiciously. If there is absolutelj^ no haze, a filter will not
improve the scientific value of the negative. Usually there is some haze in the dis-
tance, however, and filters should be selected according to the owner's experience.
The best technique for really distant views is infrared photograph}'-. Prints from
infrared negatives of distant topography are unequaled in sharpness and detail; the
false color values rendered are seldom of any hmdrance to the geologist.
Correct perspective and advantageous viewpoint are essential. An assortment of
lenses, including a wide angle and telephoto, are valuable and usable additions to the
field geologist's photographic kit; unfortunately the investment is frequently pro-
hibitive. Telephoto lenses require exact focusing and absolutely rigid support, and
with most cameras such a lens calls for a heavier tripod than would be employed
otherwise. Excellent land-surface views are obtainable, however, with standard
lenses judiciously employed.
Position of the camera and of the sun are important considerations in photo-
graphing distant geologic subjects. An elevated camera position is usually chosen,
if available, to minimize the immediate foreground and increase the field of view.
Shots against the sun are avoided, although much of the resulting flare effect can be
eliminated by the use of a polarizing screen. Shadow development should be con-
sidered where erosional forms are being photographed; registering the shadow relief
produced by a low-angled late-afternoon sun will mean the difference between success
and failure in many cases. Under noonday sun even areas of high relief usually
photograph with unwanted flatness. It should be noted that the desired type of
shadow contrast cannot be produced by darkroom manipulation; like portrait lighting,
it must be registered on the original negative.
Although the scientist professes abhorrence of art in his publications, it behooves
the physiographic photographer to employ such artistic instincts as he may possess.
A strictly technical photograph of a land surface will be looked at and remembered
longer if its sky has clouds. Again, a pine bough framing an imused corner of the
GEOLOGIC PHOTOGRAPHY 801
film will add depth of perspective to distant valley and mountain. Finally, in framing
the finished print under the enlarger, regard for the rules of pictorial composition
and rhythm will yield subtle but sure results. This is not to advocate soft-focus
effects, bromoils, or pebble-surfaced paper; the scientist's medium is the needle-sharp
ferrotype print from which he should and must not swerve. Nevertheless artistic
principles are as much needed
in scientific photography as a good voice in a scientific
lecturer; there no merit in nasality nor in poor pictorial composition.
is
Color photography is not yet practical for the field geologist. The exposure
technique and equipment are simple enough, but the limited advantage of colored
field photographs as scientific data does not compensate for their high cost and rela-
tively narrow range of usefulness. Furthermore there is comparatively little need
for color representation in geologic field photography.
Darkroom procedure is standard. Tank development with suitable developers
and projection printing on glossy paper are recommended. The procedure should be
worked out carefully and standardized, both for efficiency and to justifj^ the care
exercised in making the field exposure. Pro-
jection printing is strongly urged not only Serial No.
because it eliminates the need for large Positive Panchromatic
negatives but especiallj^ because it permits Or+hochromatic Super-panchro.
a careful selection of the most desirable Intense Bright Hazy Dull Very Dull
area of the original film. Full sun, near glare Camera points
Recording field data and filing negatives Full sun
are necessary practices. The geologist's Shacie.open sky

NW JlL NE
notebook will receive the geologic data for
each picture; for photographic data a printed
Shade no open sky
Heavy shade
W4 o W
form, similar to Fig. 1, which can be filled Interior
in largely by check marks, is recommended Distance Hour
for its completeness and convenience. Nega- Tripod yes no Filter I lnlffl
I
|
I
tive filing systems are legion and subject Stop Time

to strong personal preferences; the essential Auxiliar.ylensl |2|3 Sun shade |yes| no
1
35 mm. 50mm. 90mm 135mm

thing is that some adequate system of filing Main lens f/3.5 50mm. f/2.5 f/3.5 f/4.0 f/4.5
])e employed.
Date llFieid No.
Geologic Laboratory Photography. Pho- —Remarks
tographic technique employed in geologic
laboratories is exacting and varied and Fig. 1. —
Printed form which is useful
differs markedly from geologic field photo- in quickly checking data taken in the
field.
graphic technique in that conditions are
controllable. Aside from routine work, such as copying and lantern-slide making,
geologic laboratory photography falls into two main groups: (1) thin-section photog-
raphy through the petrographic microscope, and (2) photography of objects possess-
ing surface relief.
Equipment. —The camera should be a well-constructed "view type" plate camera,

from a 31^- by 4i^-in. to a 5- by 7-in. in size, according to the user's preference. A
removable lens board, a rising front, a revolving back, and ground-glass focusing are
essential. For indoor work, when weight and portability are not of prime importance
but accuracj^ is, glass photographic plates will furnish a higher percentage of perfect
negatives than any type of film; the cost per unit area is no higher, and breakage of
plates troubles only clumsy workers. Plate size will vary with personal preference
and with the demands of the work. A convenient device is to employ a 5- by 7-in.
camera and plataholders equipped with insert frames to hold 4- by 5-in. plates when
desired. Interchangeable lenses are a necessity; the removable lens board is more
convenient than a threaded flange and, for megascopic work, possesses sufficient
accuracy. For fine microscopic work an accurately threaded metal flange should be
employed as the lens mount. (The writer does not advocate the laboratory use of
ultra-small cameras because the purchase price and operational efiôrt, if expended on
standard-size equipment will yield better results. Obviouslj^ portability and even
low operational expense are not of prime importance in the laboratory.)
Lenses should be of the highest possible quality; a rapid rectilinear, stopped down,
will not equal a good anastigmat, even in copying. In scientific laboratorj'' photog-
raphy the qualitj^ standards are properly set so high that only the best lenses available
should be considered. One other generalizationis possible: one lens will not be
sufficient. A geologic photographic laboratory should possess objectives of the

Micro-Tessar or Micro-Summar class for photographing opaque relief objects of
almost microscopic size, and well-corrected anastigmats of 4- and 8-in. focal length for
routine megascopic work. Obviously the size and relief of the specimen, together
with the desired image size, will determine the proper lens and in many cases will
allow little leeway. Shutters cease to be important in most geologic laboratorj^
photography. Usually shutters are unnecessary, although for shorter exposures than
1 sec. a between-the-lens shutter will be required. Focal-plane shutters are unneces-
sary and unwise because of vibration. A lens shade is a valuable accessory.
Camera supports should be of generous proportions and good design. A solid-leg
wooden tripod with revolving and tilting head is the best general support commercially
available for megascopic work; its size should be adequate for the camera employed.
Provision against slippage of the tripod feet should be made, such as soft rubber tips
or a light chain loop placed around the feet. When makeshift supports are employed
occasionally for megascopic work, it is imperative that the assembly of camera and
support be solid and vibration be eliminated. Positive connection of parts by screws,
thumb nuts, or C clamps is necessary, and the insertion of a vibration trap, beneath
the camera, consisting of sponge rubber mat or four tennis balls, will improve long-
exposure negatives.
Object supports are a great convenience in megascopic work and frequently are
necessities. Small- and medium-sized specimens are supported adequately by a piece
of plasticene modeling clay covered with wax paper to protect the back of the speci-
men; large rocks may be held for photographing by blocking up with wood or lead
blocks. Control of background is best gained bj^ employing a deep box of sufficient
size, lined with black flannel or velvet. The specimen should be supported in the
plane of the open top on glass or a stiff pillar from the box bottom.; for white back-
grounds a glass-topped box, covered with smooth tracing cloth (or ground glass) and
lighted evenly from inside, is used to support the specimen.
— —
Illumination is best provided by strong 500 watt or more prefocused-type
incandescent lamps, mounted in parabolic reflectors and held by metal floor stands
whose arms permit three-way adjustment. At least three units, consisting of lamps,
reflector, and floor stand, should be provided. Heavy ring stands may be substituted
for floor stands in table-top work. Photoflood bulbs are less satisfactory, although
cheaper, for permanent equipment, because of their short life and rapid change in
the quantity and spectrum of their emissions.
The microscope and accessories employed in thin-section technique should be the
best quality petrographic microscope obtainable. Especial attention should be given
the objectives used for photographic work; they should be apochromatic if possible.
Accessories in keeping with the microscope need no further comment, except for the
camera itself. For any small amount of work a temporary setup of view camera may
prove satisfactory. A lighttight sleeve around the ocular tube, convenience in
focusing and changing plates, and absolute rigidity are essential. For any consider-
able amount of thin-section photograph}^ it is advisable to purchase a standard
photomicrographic camera.
GEOLOGIC PHOTOGRAPHY 803
Thin-section Technique. —
Photography of rock and mineral material in thin section
may be done with either unpolarized incident or reflected light, or with polarized
light between crossed Nicol prisms or polaroid plates. When using thin sections with
unpolarized light, the photographic problem is to secure correct definition and ade-
quate contrast of grain boundaries and microscopic structure. Definition is obtained
by routine focusing of an adequately equipped microscope and in extreme cases by
employing monochromatic light and suitable filters; contrast is obtained largely by
altering the illumination intensity and angle of incidence until the desired results show
on the focusing panel. Many
workers prefer a clear-glass focusing panel to ground
glass, because the critical focus point is sharper. The practice of cementing a thin
cover glass on a ground-glass plate to secure a clear spot is not recommended because
the focal plane is shifted thereby.
Photomicrographs made through crossed Nicol prisms should be exposed on
panchromatic plates to gain correct color rendering. Here apochromatic objectives
and oculars are desirable for the best work since they bring nearly all wavelengths into
focus on a single plane. More light is required when working with crossed Nicols,
although the usual laboratory microscope lamp will generally prove strong enough.
Very dense, deeply colored sections may require a stronger source such as a laboratory
arc illuminator.
Relief-object Technique. —When
photographing geologic specimens, other than
thin sections, more is present and must be photographed sharply.
or less surface relief
This involves mastery of two details: securing depth of focus, and control of lighting.
For megascopic negatives sufficient depth of focus is usually attained with a small
diaphragm opening. With small relief objects, whether photographed through a
compound microscope or through the Micro-Tessar or Micro-Summar lens in a view-
type camera, the securing of sufficient depth of focus is often the most serious problem.
The two approaches are through stopping down the objective and guarding against
vibration during the lengthened exposure and, secondly, employing lenses with as
short a focal length as possible. When the resulting negative is of the very highest
quality, it is possible to obtain some additional magnification by ordinary darkroom
enlargement without loss of definition, this method, however, is not a substitute for
lens quality and skill in making the original negative.
Illumination of objects evolves into a trial-and-error technique employing
relief
the few comparativeljr simple devices mentioned above, i.e., shadow contrast is
secured by low-angle illumination and detail in shadows by a somewhat weaker high-
angle light. Methodical experiments leading to a standardized technique for a given
laboratory the best solution of the lighting problem. Among special devices which
is
will be useful at times are the time-tested ammonium chloride coating blown on fossils
when a matte white surface will show detail better; the ingenious use of water for
"painting" outlines of obscure details such as footprints and plant impressions; and
the cloth or tissue paper "tent" separating the light sources from the camera lens and
object when it is necessary to prevent point reflections from crystal faces or highly
polished surfaces into the camera. Polaroid screens are valuable for the latter pur-
pose also.
Color Technique. —
Natural-color photographs in the geologic laboratory are
valuable chiefly for recording details of minerals and petrographic thin sections
between crossed Nicol prisms. The indoor technique resembles that of field color
photography, except for the use of artificial light and accompanying filters, and follows
standard indoor color procedure. Except for lantern-slide illustrations for mineralogy
and petrography, color photography does not appear to be practical or necessary for
indoor geologic photography.
CHAPTER XXIX
SPECTROSCOPIC PHOTOGRAPHY
By G. R. Harrison
The Spectrograph. —Any device for separating a beam of light into its component
wavelengths or colors is called a "spectroscope," and any spectroscope which is pro-
vided with a camera for photographing the spectrum which it produces is called a
"spectrograph." The light to be analyzed is sent into the spectrograph through a
slit, and a suitable optical sj^stem produces an image of this slit for each wavelength
present in the light beam. These slit images are called "spectrum lines," and taken
together they form a "line spectrum," while a plate or film on which they have been
photographed is called a "spectrogram." Light from certain sources like the incan-
P
Fig. 1. — Component parts of spectrograph, consisting of slit S, condensing lens C, dispersing
prism D, camera lens E, and photographic plate P.
descent lamp contain waves whose lengths vary continuously^ over a wide range,
and the resulting slit images merge together, forming a continuous spectrum.
The usual component parts of a spectrograph (Fig. 1) are the slit S, a collimating
lens C or mirror to make parallel the rays of light from the slit, a dispersing element D
which may be a prism or a diffraction grating, and a special type of camera. This
camera usually contains one or more lenses E which, though uncorrected for chromatic
aberration, have been specially figured for sharpness of focus and flatness of field and
which are set to focus on the plate P the parallel bundles of light which come from the
dispersing element. The position of a spectrum line on the spectrogram gives a
measure of the wavelength of the light producing it, while the density of the image of
the line, when measured under controlled conditions, can be used to determine the
intensitj'' of the light which produced it.
—
Choice of Spectrograph. In selecting a spectrograph, the important properties to
be considered are the range of wavelengths over which it can be used, its dispersion,
its resolving power, and its speed, as determined b,v the brightness of the spectrum
which it produces. Secondary characteristics, such as the variation of dispersion

804
SPECTROSCOPIC PHOTOGRAPHY 805
with wavelength, the amount of scattered light, and the sizes and shapes of the spec-
trum lines produced, are sometimes of importance.
In choosing a spectrograph for any problem one should first determine whether a
prism or a grating instrument will be most suitable. The advantages of prism
instruments are their high light-gathering power (which results in greater intensity of
the spectnim and hence in shorter exposures when it is to be photographed), their
ruggedness and permanence, and the fact that they can readily be made to give
stigmatic spectra. They suffer from the disadvantage that their dispersion changes
markedly with wavelength (although much less with frequency), and they can, of
course, be used only in regions of the spectrum to which their optical parts are trans-
parent. Their fundamental dispersion and resolving power are usually smaller than
those which can readily be obtained with diffraction gratings. Prisms are very widely
used in portable instruments, for studying comparatively simple spectra, and for any
purpose for which relatively great light-gathering power is required.
The diffraction grating is coming more widely into use even where only low resolv-
ing power and dispersion are needed, and since it is unrivaled for obtaining high values
of these quantities, it seems destined to play a much larger part in the development of
spectroscopy in the future than it has in the past. It can be used in such a waj'- as to
produce an almost normal spectrum, in which the dispersion is nearly uniform over the
length of a spectrum plate, and it requires a minimum of adjustment.
A further advantage of the grating is that it can be used in the reflectmg concave
form (page 813) without any transparent optical parts; consequently a single instru-
ment can be used over the entire photographic range. Grating spectroscopes can be
obtained having a resolving power as high as 400,000 and with dispersions of as much
as 0.1 A. per mm. Their chief disadvantage is that most gratings throw the light not
into one spectrum but into several, and since usually only one of these is wanted at a
time, much of the light may be wasted.
Spectral Range. — Spectrum photography in the infrared is commonly limited to
the range 12,000 to 7500 A., in the visible it covers the entire range 7500 to 4000 A.,
and in the ultraviolet it goes from 4000 to 1000 A., although these limits are somewhat
arbitrary.
Prisms have limited transparency, and several must be provided to cover the
different ranges. Flint glass, quartz, and rock-salt prisms are most frequently used
for the infrared, glass prisms of various sorts for the visible, and quartz or rock-salt
prisms for the ultraviolet down to 2000 A. Below this wavelength only fluorite or
lithium fluoride optical parts can be used. Fluorite is transparent to about 1250 A.,
while lithium fluoride which will transmit to 1050 A. can occasionally be produced.
No suitable material has yet been found which is transparent to shorter wavelengths
and only the concave grating spectrograph can be used in this region. For wave-
lengths shorter than about 2000 A. all light paths must be in vacuum (except that dry
nitrogen, hydrogen, and helium can be used in parts of these regions) since the air
begins to absorb at this wavelength.
The most common practice is to use glass optical parts in prism instruments
designed for the visible and photographic infrared and crystal quartz optical parts for
those photographing that part of the ultraviolet to which air is transparent.
Dispersion. — The dispersion of a spectrograph can be measured as angular or as
linear dispersion. The angular dispersion dd/d\, the change in angle with wavelength
of the light emerging from the prism, is fundamental and depends on the dispersing
element. The linear dispersion is of more practical interest, as it gives the actual
separation of two close lines on a spectrogram. In common practice the spectral
range covered by 1 mm. of plate is used to measure the dispersion; thus 30 A. per mm.
is a low dispersion, while 1 A. per mm. is a relatively high value. The linear dis-
persion obtained with a given angular dispersion can be varied by changing the focal
length of the camera lens. It depends also on the inclination of the focal curve to
the optic axis of the camera.
The dispersion of prism spectrographs is nonuniform, depending as it does on the
variation of the refractive index of the prism material with wavelength, and may
vary tenfold along one short spectrogram. Prisms deviate the short waves more than
the longer, and the dispersion increases as the wavelength decreases.
Resolving Power. —
The ability of a spectrograph to separate close-lying lines is
measured by its resolving power. Resolving power P is defined as \/d\, d\ being
the wavelength difference between two lines which the instrument can just resolve
at wavelength X. If unresolved, the two lines will appear as one.
Most spectrographs have theoretical resolving-power values lying between 2000
and 200,000, the lower value being typical for a small prism instrument and the higher
for a large diffraction grating. The theoretical limiting resolving power of a given
spectrograph increases as the linear aperture of its camera lens is increased (if this is
kept filled with light) and as the angular dispersion of its prism or grating is increased.
By using good optical parts it is possible to approach the theoretical resolving power
very closely.
Dispersion and resolving power are closely related but are two distinct properties
of a spectrograph and should not be confused. Increased linear dispersion may
separate the centers of two close spectrum lines more widely, but since, if unaccom-
panied by an increase in resolution or of angular dispersion, it results merely in
increased magnification, the lines are no more clearly resolved than before.
The ability of a spectrograph to resolve two close lines may be reduced by its
auxiliary parts. When properly designed, a spectrograph will be provided with a
camera of such focal length that the resolving power \/d\ of the instrument will
match, through the linear dispersion dX/dl, the resolving power \/dl of the photo-
graphic materials used to record the spectrum, unless some other consideration such
as speed intervenes.
Speed. —
The efficiency of a spectrograph is commonlj^ defined as its speed times
the purity of the spectrum it produces. Speed depends on the intensity of the trans-
mitted light, which will in turn depend on the fraction of incident intensity of each
wavelength which penetrates the instrument, and on the numerical aperture of the
camera lens. The total light flux which can be obtained from any spectrograph,
assuming that a light source of the extent required to fill the slit used is available, is
limited by the size of slit which can be used with a given purity of spectrum. This
means that the larger a spectrograph is made, if its proportions are kept the same, the
more can be sent through it. With a given spectrograph, shortening the
light flux
focal length of thecamera lens will increase the light intensity, the spectrum lines
being correspondingly reduced in size.
Most prism spectrographs operate at numerical apertures of from //12 to //24,
while grating instruments may have apertures as low as //70. Exposure times
required may range from a few seconds to several hours, depending on the speed of the
instrument and of the photographic materials used and the intensity and energy dis-
tribution of the source being photographed.
—
The Slit. Since spectrum lines are merely images of the slit, this slit is one of the
most important parts should be carefully made and adjusted,
of a spectrograph. It
with its edges kept clean and smooth. The opening of the slit should be variable in
width, preferably between 1 and 0.002 mm. The slit jaws are usually drawn apart
by a calibrated screw acting in opposition to a spring which tends to move the jaws
together. A tj^pical slit is shown in Fig. 2.
In order that the space between the jaws shall form a suitable line, it is necessary
that their edges be accurately straight and that they be mounted with their edges
truly parallel and with their front faces lying in the same plane. The jaws are usually
beveled, and placed with the beveled side turned away from the entering beam, so that
from them will not enter the spectrograph.
light reflected
Slits in which only one jaw is movable are cheaper than the symmetrically opening
type but have the disadvantage that the center of the spectrum line produced with
them moves when the slit width is changed. The best adjustable slits are made to
close at the ends only, so that their sharp jaws will not be marred by careless operaton
of the screw. The jaws should be made of some hard and durable material, such as
stainless steel, which can be ground to a
sharp edge and polished.
Simple slits can be made by coating a
plate of quartz or other transparent material
with a thin opaque coating of metal or lac-
quer and by engraving lines of the desired
widths in this. Slits of several widths can
thus be provided, the proper one being set
into the slit holder as needed. For certain
purposes such slits are more useful than the
adjustable type, since a definite slit width
can be reproduced more accurately than by
setting a screw in which backlash and zero
position may change.
The slit is usually mounted in a drawtube
in such a way that it can be moved into or
out of the spectroscope for focusing pur- Fig. 2. —Typical slit of spectrograph.
poses, or rotated about a horizontal axis so The width of the slit may be varied by the
knurled knob and scale in the lower left-
that it can be brought accurately parallel
hand corner of this illustration.
to thefaces of the dispersing element.
The should be provided with diaphragms by means of which its length or the parts
slit
of it being used can be varied.

With stigmatic spectrographs (see page 810) an almost closed slit may
cause horizontal streaks to appear in the spectrum, due to dust particles which
close the slit entirely in spots. Such a slit should be cleaned by opening it
and carefully stroking its edges in one direction with a freshly sharpened stick of
soft wood.
The Camera.- —In is made for holding a photographic
spectrographs, provision
plate or film so that the spectrum throughout all parts which are simul-
is in focus
taneously recorded. A criterion which distinguishes a good spectrograph from a poor
one is that, while both may give sharp lines in certain spectral regions, it will be
found impossible to get all parts of the spectrum into good focus at once in the poor
instrument.
The plate must be bent to fit the focal curve, and
it is desirable to keep this curva-
ture as small as possible. The held in a plateholder which is provided

plate or film is
with templates to bend it to the proper curvature, this plateholder, in portable instru-
ments, being provided with a dark slide. The plateholder is in turn carried in a
mounting which usually has provision for moving the plateholder vertically so that
a number of different spectra can be photographed on the same plate.
On account of the nonuniform dispersion of prism instruments, they are frequently
provided with wavelength scales, which can be impressed on the spectrogram by
swinging the engraved transparent scale up into position before the plate and mak-
ing a brief exposure to a small incandescent lamp provided for the purpose in the
spectrograph.
Prisms. — Dispersing prisms are almost always cut with 60° refracting angles.
This angle is a compromise between smaller angles which give less dispersion and
larger angles which requiremore material, produce a greater loss of light by reflection,
and give a decreased aperture.
A dispersing prism should be used in such a way that the ray of mean wavelength
passes through it at the angle of minimum deviation, this ray then passing through
the prism parallel to its base. Under these conditions the effective free aperture
of the prism is a maximum, and the light loss by reflection is a minimum. The
resolving power of a prism is proportional to the difference in thickness between the
prism base and its refracting edge. The exact calculation for the resolving power of a
prism as used in a given spectroscope is exceedingly complex since it depends on many
factors, including the method of illumination of the slit.
Aprism is usually shaped so that it will transmit a beam of circular cross section
falling on its front face at the proper angle for minimum deviation. This condition
leads to a standard set of dimension ratios for anj'- material, the length of a face being
for most substances roughly 1.6 times the height. For good definition the prism
height should be at least three times as great as the maximum length of slit which
is to be used with it, and preferably the ratio should be even greater. Spectrum lines
produced with prisms are curved, and definition may be lost when the prism slit-height
ratio is too small.
Prisms made of crystalline quartz show double refraction, and produce doubled
spectra even when cut with their optic axis parallel to the crystalline axis. Cornu
showed how to overcome this defect by making a 60° prism of two 30° prisms in
optical contact, one of left-handed and the other of right-handed quartz, the second
thus serving to offset the optical rotation produced bj'- the first. When a reflection
prism is used, only one type of quartz is required, since the beam passes through it
both ways.
Gratings. —
Diffraction gratings consist essentially of a large number (sometimes
as many as 180,000) of close equidistant slits, which are usually made by ruling lines
with a diamond on a smooth surface. The greater the number of these slits, the
greater the resolving power of the grating. Light which falls on a grating is thrown
into several orders of spectra, and the resolving power P of the grating is given by
the formula P = nm, where n is the total number of lines on the grating and m is the
order being considered. Theoretically, resolving powers of 500,000 can be realized
in the higher orders of some gratings which have been produced, but actuallj^ values of
P greater than 300,000 are seldom found.
The angular dispersion of a grating depends on the distance between successive
rulings (the grating space d) and can be derived by differentiating the grating formula
toX = d (sin 6 ± sin i) where d is the angle of emergence, i is the angle of incidence,
and 771 is the order. The dispersion can also be written dO/dX = A/nni, where A is the
linear aperture of the grating.
Small gratings are sometimes ruled on glass, successive lines being ruled as closely
as 500 per inch for a very coarse grating or 15,000 per inch for a fine grating of high
dispersion. Glass gratings can be used onlj' in the visible and infrared regions to
which the glass is transparent, and require collimator and camera lenses to make the
light parallel and refocus to it. For larger instruments and for those suited to all
spectnun regions, gratings are commonlj^ ruled on highly polished reflecting surfaces.
either plane or concave. Gratings up to 7 in. in diameter have been successfully
ruled with 20.000 and even 30,000 lines per inch.
The fact that a grating throws the light which falls on it into a number of orders
naturally results in a loss of light in any one spectrum, but this loss can be reduced
somewhat by shaping the point of the ruling diamond so that more light will be thrown
to one side than the other. When very high resolving power is desired, a grating can
sometimes be found in which most of the energy is thrown into the higher orders, and
it is desirable, if possible, to have most of the light in the orders on one side. In
general, if a grating shows high intensity in one order in a given direction, all other
orders lying in that same direction will tend to be strong. Thus a grating which is
found to give high intensity on one side in the second-order green (5500 A.) may be
expected to be bright also for the infrared near 11,000 A. in the first order, though
other factors may prevent this.
In selecting a grating, it should be tested for brightness in the various orders and
for resolving power, line shape, amount of scattered light, and intensity of ghost lines.
Ghosts are false lines produced by regularities in some irregularity of ruling of the
grating. In a good grating the intensity of a ghost line should be less than 0. 1 per cent
that of the real line corresponding to it. Lyman ghosts are very objectionable, but
fortunately these have been successfully eliminated in the better ruling engines.
Rowland ghosts occur near the lines which produce them and hence can readily be
Fig. 3. — Diagram illustrating the principle of the Littrow mounting
identified. While these can usually be kept to less than Kooo the intensity of the
parent a grating which has Rowland ghosts of Koo the parent line may still be
line,
usable for many purposes. Lyman ghosts can be tested for by illuminating the grating
strongly with collimated light from a slit, behind which is placed a powerful mercury
arc, and by looking into the grating near the central image or elsewhere where no
spectrum lines should be visible. If colored lines are seen, they may be Lyman
ghosts, and the grating should be carefully tested photographically.
Gratings should be kept free from dust, which can be removed by gently stroking
with a soft camel's-hair brush. When dirty, gratings should be cleaned by light and
careful rubbing in the direction of the rulings with a piece of clean cotton moistened
with absolute alcohol and dipped in very fine precipitated chalk or tin oxide. Great
care must be taken not to scratch the grating. A portion of the unruled surface
should be rubbed gently before the rulings are touched to make sure that no grittj-
particles are on the cotton. Fingerprints should not be produced on the grating face,
and acid or other fumes which tarnish the surface should be carefully avoided.
—
Mountings. The device of autocoUimation developed by Littrow is widely used
with either prisms or plane gratings, when it is desired to obtain high linear dispersion
by the use of a camera lens of long focus. The principle of the method is illustrated in
Fig. 3. The diverging beam from the slit S is made parallel by the collimator C and
enters the dispersing system D, which in the case illustrated is a half prism with a
mirror coating on its back face. The light is reflected froin this mirror, passes back
through tlie prism, and retraverses the collimator, which behaves now as a camera
lens and l)rings thespectrum to a focus on P.
Two defects keep the Littrow mounting from displacing all other types of prism
mounting to the extent that its simplicity and compactness would lead one to expect.
The proximity of slit and plateholder requires the introduction of a reflecting prism
or other device to separate the incoming and outgoing beams, and the reflection and
scattering of light from the front face of the collimator directly back to the photo-
graphic plate may cause objectionable fogging which is hard to eliminate. This can
often be decreased either by tipping the lens slightly, which will introduce a certain
amount of astigmatism but throws the reflected light above the plate, or by intro-
ducing stops and diaphragms at strategic points. In any event the inside of the
case surrounding a Littrow mount should be thoroughly blackened and numerous
baffles should be used to cut down stray light.
To locate the cause of plate fogging, when this is found to occur with a Littrow
mounting, the slit may be widened to its fullest extent with a high-intensity incan-
descent lamp placed in front of it. On looking at the collimator lens through the
horizontal slot which admits light to the cassette, the location of any bright points of
light should be noted, and these should be eliminated by some means which will cut
off as little as possible of the main beams of light. In order to carry out this operation
successfully, it is sometimes necessary to eliminate as much as one-fourth of the lens
aperture with diaphragms. In attacking straj^ light a polished reflecting surface
which directs an unwanted beam of light into a dark pocket is often more satisfactory
than a rough blackened surface which may scatter some of the radiation falling on it.
In one widely used and excellent type of Littrow instrument having quartz or glass
optical parts, the length of the case is over 7 ft., but as the optical sj^stem may be
considered as having been folded together in the middle by use of the autocollimation
principle, the dispersion obtained is equivalent to that furnished by an instrument
twice as long.
The prism and mounted on a carriage which moves along a slide, their
lens are
positions on this being determined by means of a scale and index. The prism can be
rotated to throw various regions of the spectrum on a 4- by 10-in. plate, which is held
in a cassette-plateholder combination which in turn can be rotated to bring it into
coincidence with the focal curve for any spectral region between 2000 and 8000 A.
Plane-reflection gratings are almost always mounted in the Littrow manner. A
grating so arranged has the advantage over a concave grating in the Eagle mounting
(page 813) of giving stigmatic images, with a resulting increase in brightness and
resolution in the higher orders. A lens carefully corrected for chromatic aberration
must be used in all orders except the first, however, for otherwise the various over-
lapping orders will not be brought to a focus on the same cvirve.
Stigmatic and Astigmatic Spectrographs. —
A camera lens or mirror, unless especially
designed, produces a true image of an object only when image and object are close to
the optic axis. As the beam angle departs more and more from the optic axis, greater
amounts of astigmatism are introduced, the rays being brought to one line focus at a
certain distance and to a second line focus perpendicular to the first at a greater dis-
tance. In common
types of prism spectrographs the astigmatism can usually be
is needed only in the horizontal direction to resolve
neglected, as extremely fine focus
close spectrum lines and a focus only one-tenth as sharp will serve in the vertical
direction.
The spectrum lines produced by a concave grating as ordinarily used are astigmatic
images of the slit, each illuminated point of this slit being imaged as a. vertical line in
the Rowland circle. No decrease in the purity of the spectrum results so long as the
slit is accurately parallel to the rulings of the grating and if neither the slit nor the
astigmatic images are curved. With most gratings a slight line curvature does exist,
and it is advisable to keep the illuminated portion of the slit as short as

possible when high resolving power is However, since each
required.
astigmatic line image has a central portion of uniform intensity whose
brightness depends on the length of the illuminated slit, astigmatism may
cause a serious decrease of intensity. Stigmatic spectrographs have the
advantage that with them small right-angled prisms and Hartmann
diaphragms can be used at the slit for introducing comparison spectra,
rotating sector disks or step diaphragms can be used at the slit for
photographic photometiy, and Fabry-Perot or other interferometers can
be crossed with them. Also, if the source is imaged on the slit, variations
in intensity along the lines produced may give useful information as to the
points of origin of the lines in the source. These considerations make
especially useful the stigmatic mounting of the concave grating, devised
by Wadsworth and realized by Meggers and Burns.
Astigmatism is occasionally useful, as with certain types of inten-
sity measurements where uniform spectrum lines are desirable and for
producing spectrograms which are neat in appearance. Also it is possible
in certain cases to utilize the separation of the horizontal and vertical
focal curves to image slit and photometric device on a single plate
simultaneously.
Commercial Spectrographs. — Most spectrographs manufactured com-
mercially are enclosed, portable units, varying in length from 18 in. to
8 ft. In the smaller instruments no adjustments of the prism or camera
are necessary, since the entire transmitted spectiiim can be obtained
at a single setting. In larger instruments, where the whole spectrum
cannot be recorded at once on a plate of reasonable size, some provision
must be made for turning the prism and changing the focal distance of
the lenses and the tilt of the plate when various regions of the spectrum
0) o3
are to be photographed.
The greatest number of spectrographs of any one
manufac- tj^pe H to
tured are those which contain quartz optical parts. These can be
obtained in three or more standard sizes, the small and medium models
being of fixed focus.
The small quartz spectrograph usually covers the range 8000 to
1850 A., with a spectrum length of about 85 mm. This type finds its
greatest usefulness at wave-lengths shorter than 2500 A., where its rela-
tively great light transmission and high aperture aid in rapid photog-
raphy of a difficult region where absorption and lack of plate sensitivity
conspire to reduce the intensity of the recorded spectrum. It can be
obtained fitted with a transparent wavelength scale, and a fluorescent
screen can be used to make the ultraviolet spectrum visible and thus
to aid in the preliminary focusing adjustments.
Until recently the most commonly used spectrograph was the medium-
sized quartz instrument, manufactured by a number of firms. Lenses
of about 600-mm. focus and 50-mm. diameter are used, giving a spectrum
from 2100 to 8000 A. about 200-mm. long. The prism, of the Cornu type,
may be about 40-mm. high by 65-mm. length of face. A standard 4-
by 10-in. photographic plate is ordinarily used. This is the largest
standard size of quartz instrument which will give the entir-e ultraviolet
region in air at a single setting of the prism and camera.
The medium-sized instrument can be obtained with or without a
transparent scale of wavelengths. The variation of dispersion with wave-
length is Avell illustrated by the scale shown in Fig. 4.
—
Typical spectrograms taken with the instrument depicted in Fig. o are shown in
Fig. 6. The numerical aperture, //12, is sufficient to give short exposures with most
ordinary arc and spark sources, and the resolution and dispersion in the ultraviolet are
ample for simple spectra, and for absorption spectrophotometry of solutions.
In purchasing any fixed-focus instrument care should be taken to see that the
manufacturer has provided sufficient rigidity to the adjustment of prism and lenses
so that they will not readily get out of focus when once adjusted, and that the cassette
and plateholder are constructed so thej^ will not warp. Manufacturers should be
asked to submit sample spectrograms taken on the instrimient to be purchased and are
usually xery willing to do so.
WTiere higher dispersion is needed than the medium-sized quartz instrument will
supply, recourse is usually had to the Littrow type of mounting (see page 810) in order
to save space and improve rigidity. The large quartz Littrow is now the most widely
used of all spectrographs, being especially suited to spectroscopic analysis of materials.
Almost any quartz spectrograph can be obtained with glass optical parts which will
render it suitable for use in the visible region. While quartz is also transparent in
this region, its dispersion is so low as to make quartz spectrographs almost valueless
Fig. 5. — Baiisch and Lomb medium quartz spectrograph.

at wavelengths longer than about 5200 A., beyond which, also, the ordinary photo-
graphic plate becomes insensitive and special plates must be used.
The dispersive properties of even heavj^ flint glass are not so great as is desirable,
and several prisms are sometimes used in train to increase dispersion and resolving
power in the visible region. In general the concave diffraction grating, with its uni-
form dispersion, usefidness for all wavelengths, and simplicitj^ of adjustment, is to be
preferred to prism spectrographs when high resolution and dispersion are important.
While grating spectrographs can be obtained from certain manufacturers, satis-
factory gratings are so difficult to obtain that the grating spectrograph is not standard.
The great usefulness of the grating in the past has come largely from its high dispersion
and resolving power, and since gratings of 6-in. aperture or over are not unusual,
while prisms of over 2-in. aperture are rare, grating spectrographs ordinarily have
three or more times the focal length of prism instruments. On account of their size,
large grating instruments ordinarily are assembled bj- their user and operated uncov-
ered in a darkened room, though standard commercial models in the smaller sizes are
appearing on the market.
Table I. Mountings and Their Characteristics

Rowland Spectrum of uniform dispersion; simple to change region
Abney Same as Rowland, but source and slit move while grating and camera are fixed
Eagle Long and narrow, relatively low astigmatism, reaches higher orders
Paschen Broad spectral coverage with single exposure
Wadsworth Stigmatic, and of high light-gathering power; best for most purposes of applied
spectroscopy
Concave Grating Mountings. — If a diffraction

grating be ruled on a concave spherical mirror, no
collimator or camera lenses are required, for light
sent through a slit placed anywhere on a circle
whose diameter equals the radius of curvature of

the mirror and passes through the mirror will be
brought to focus on this circle as a spectrum.
The focal curve is known as the "Rowland circle."
Since so many possible relative dispositions of slit,
grating,and camera are possible, numerous special

mountings have been designed for special purposes.
Table I gives the advantages of the standard
mountings for concave gratings.
Small commercial concave-grating spectro-
graphs, which are of necessity portable, ordinarily
use the Eagle or in some cases the Rowland mount-
ing. When one is faced with the necessity of
choosing the most suitable mounting for a large
grating, the first consideration must be that of the
space available. Where only a long narrow corridor
or a small vertical shaft can be used, the Eagle
mounting is useful. The cross section of its con-
taining box is conditioned only by the length of
spectrum which it is desired to photograph at one
setting, and by the baffles needed to cut down
stray light.
If a room of medium by 15 ft.) is
size (say 12
Wadsworth mount-
available, a 21-ft. grating in the
ing will probably be found more useful than a
shorter focus grating in any other mounting. This
is because the grating of longer radius will cost no
more than a shorter one for the same area of rul-
ing, and the advantages of a stigmatic mounting
are obtained, while the grating can always be used
at its full dispersion in another mounting.
The Paschen mounting is so much more flexible
than others that its use is advantageous in many
cases where sufficient space is available. For a
21-ft. grating the loom should be at least 25 bj'-
15 ft. for a half circle or 30 by 25 ft. for a full

circle,with a separate room to serve as a source
room, the slit being mounted on a pier and let
through the partition between the two rooms.
Detailed directions for adjusting gratings in the
Rowland and Abney mountings will be found in
Kayser's "Handbuch der Spektroskopie," while
the original article by Eagle should be consulted in
connection with his mounting.
When the camera of a grating spectrograph
has been placed in approximately the proper posi-
tion, it is clamped in the position of best focus b,v
viewing the spectrum lines produced on a piece of
white paper or a fluorescent screen when a broad
slit is used.In this way the focal curve can be located within 1 in. or less either
way. An
eyepiece can be used in the visible region to approximate stUl more closely
to the focal curve, the slit being greatly narrowed for this purpose. The remainder
of the focusing process must be carried out photographically.
A number of small brackets are hung on the camera, each holding a small piece
of photographic plate inclined at an angle of 45° to the vertical, the center of each
plate lying in the focal plane of the camera, as in Fig. 7. Photographs are taken
with these inclined plates distributed at intervals, and the spot of best focus is marked
on each plate. The camera is then moved to
the position corresponding to best focus and
inclined test plates are taken again but at
intermediate points. This process is re-
peated until the whole of the camera is in
satisfactory focus.
Illumination of the Spectrograph. Vari- —
ous methods are available for directing into
the spectrograph the light to be studied,
that most commonly used being one in which
an image of the source is focused on the slit
by means of a double-convex lens. Either
one of the two conjugate foci of this lens can
be used, the first giving a diminished and
the second an enlarged image. The latter
Fig. 7 —
Use of inclined photographic jg generallv to be preferred when the source
plate for determining position of best is-^ ^^^^ extent, provided the angular
^f small
of
focus.
aperture of the lens is sufficient to fill the
collimator of the spectrograph with light under these conditions. This is illustrated
in Fig. 8, from which it will be seen that use of an extra-large collecting lens Li is
of no value if it more than fills the angular aperture of the spectrograph collimator.
In certain cases one can place the source directly in front of the slit in such a way
that the spectrograph is filled with light. Under such circumstances, as in a third
method which a lens is placed directly in front of the slit in such a way as to
(Fig. 9) in
throw an image of the source on the collimator lens, unless the slit is narrow the lens
may not be filled with coherent radiation, and a loss in resolving power may result.
Fig. 8. — Diagram illustrating illumination of spectrograph. The light source A, and lens
L, illuminate the slit iS, the collimating lens C, and the dispersing element D.
At a certain optimum slit width, given approximately by the formula W

/\ = N.A.,
where W
is the slit width, X is the wavelength of the light considered, and N.A. is the
numerical aperture of the collimator, the line intensity reaches a maximum, though
the intensity of the continuous spectrum continues to increase as the slit is widened.
For this reason a narrow slit may help to reduce continuous background relative to the
linespectrum.
In considering the efficiency of any method of spectrograph illumination, it
should be kept in mind that so long as the entrance slit and the collimator lens or other
internal limiting aperture remain constant in area and filled with light of each
wavelength considered, nothing done outside the spectrograph will increase the
illumination which passes through it from a given source. With certain types of
source it may be difficult to fulfill these conditions, in which case auxiliary focus-
ing apparatus is desirable. But the method, frequently suggested by the beginner,
of using a collecting lens of very short focus and high aperture, produces no increase
in intensity.
Certain manufacturers provide optical benches attached to their spectrographs to
aid in alignment of light sources. In lining up an optical bench or a source-lens com-
bination, the lens should first be removed and the light from the unaided source be
allowed to fall on the widened spectroscope slit. The cover of the spectroscope, if this
be enclosed, should then be removed and a white card held directly behind the colli-
mator lens. The source may be shifted until the small spot of light coming through
the slit is centered in the collimator both horizontally and vertically. The collector
lens should then be placed in position to focus the source on the slit, if this type of
illumination is desired, and the collimator should now be found filled with light when
the slit is narrowed to any desired extent. If the light beam falling on the collimator
more than fills this, the collecting lens should be stopped down or a lens of different
Fig. 9. — Illumination of spectrograph.
focal length should be used, since overfilling the collimator may give rise to undesirable
scattered light inside the spectrograph.
The collecting lens should, needless to say, be transparent to the entire spectrum
region transmitted by the spectrograph with which it is to be used, but need not be of
high quality. Ordinary spherical lenses of spectacle quality will usually serve, though
when the maximum
intensity at all wavelengths is needed it is desirable to use a lens
free from chromatic aberration. In using uncorrected quartz lenses, it should be
kept in mind that the focal length for the ultraviolet rays is much shorter than that for
the visible, so focusing should be done with a fluorescent screen or by deliberately
bringing the source closer to the lens so as to throw the visible beam somewhat out of
focus.
A concave miri'or can be used instead of a
lens for focusing light on the slit, though
usualljrwith some loss in intensity and with difficulties due to astigmatism substituted
for those arising from chromatic aberration. Glass mirrors covered with a thin coating
*
of aluminum have high reflecting power throughout the visible and ultraviolet regions.
—
Adjustment and Focusing of Spectrographs. Commercial spectrographs of fixed
focus are usually shipped with their optical parts in adjustment, and instruments with
variable setting are provided either with calibrated controls or a table of scale settings.
Occasionally mechanical or optical parts are moved in shipment and readjustment may
be necessary.
After unpacking, the cover of the instrument should be i-emoved and the optical
surfaces of prisms and lenses wiped clean with a soft piece of cloth, or with Japanese
rice paper or the leiis paper sold by optical manufacturers. The faces of diffraction
gratings should not be cleaned with a cloth unless glass enclosed, but they should be
carefully stroked, parallel to the rulings, with a very soft camel's-hair brush. The slit
should be cleaned with a freshly sharpened stick of soft wood and should be set at a
nioderatel}^ narrow adjustment; its parallelism to the vertical edge of the prism or
grating should be checked.
A test photograph should be taken using a mercury or iron arc, or some other source
having a profusion of fine lines. If satisfactory spectrograms are obtained, the lines
being sharp and straight, in good focus, and the spectrogram clean and free from
fogging and scattered light, no further adjustment is necessary.
When a spectrograph does not function satisfactorily the following procedure will
l)e found useful. After the slit has been checked for parallelism to the dispersing edge,
it is widened to perhaps 0.5 mm. Light from a high-power mercurj^ arc is sent through
it, and with dispersing element and camera lens removed, the slit-coUimator distance
is adjusted until light of the wavelengths in a median spectral region is made into a
parallel beam as shown by focusing on a distant screen or wall. The prism is then
replaced and turned until the beam containing the same central wavelength is found
to be bent least, as shown by the fact that its diffuse image caught on a white card
(or fluorescent screen for the ultraviolet) moves first in one direction and then back as
the prism isrotated continuouslj^ forward. After this position of minimum deviation
for the central wavelength has been found, the prism is moved sideways, if necessarjs
so that the coUimated beam is centered on it, and is clamped in position. The camera
lens is then adjusted in the beam so that it is filled with light of all desired wavelengths,
and the camera-plate distance and plate tilt are adjusted to bring the spectrum into
good focus on a viewing screen held' in the plateholder.
The final focusing adjustment can best be carried out photographically. Once
prism and camera lens are set, it may be found most convenient to make fine adjust-
ments by slightly altering the slit-coUimator distance and the plate tilt. Using a
narrow slit, a series of photographs is taken moving the collimator (or slit) by I'^-mm.
steps, and the position of best focus is marked by dots for a number of uniformly
spaced lines. When these dots are in a horizontal line, the collimator lens need
merely be set in the position indicated as best; when the line they form is straight but
inclined, the plateholder angle must be changed. When the}' lie on a curved line
the plate curvature must also be changed to compensate, though manufacturers
usually provide holders of the proper cur\âture for their instruments, of course, and a
setting of the lenses and prisms can often be found after a number of combinations have
been tried, which will suit the curvature furnished. The inclined-plate technique
described on page 814 for focusing large gratings can often be used to advantage
with smaller spectrographs also.
—
Comparison Spectra. For manj;- purposes it is desirable to impress several spectra
on a plate without moving that plate, for even if the plateholder moves in carefully-
made vertical ways, some measurable lateral displacement is sure to result. With
stigmatic instruments a 45° reflecting comparison prism can be moved into position
over a portion of the slit and used to throw in a beam of light from a second source.
Or a Hartmann diaphragm can be used to cover parts of the slit during one exposure
and to uncover these parts for others. This type of diaphragm, illustrated in Fig. 10
together with a standard fishtail diaphragm used for varying the slit length, is designed
to be slipped into place over the spectrograph slit in the waj'S usually found provided
for this purpose.
With astigmatic instruments it is necessary either to use some type of diaphragm
at the position of the external vertical focus or to place occulting diaphragms in front
of the plate. These should be as close to the plate as convenient, to provide sharp
boundaries between contiguous spectra.
When diaphragms are used at or before the slit, one should remember that the
lower part of a spectrum line corresponds to the upper part of the slit and vice versa,
since a spectrograph produces inverted real images of its slit.
Identification of Spectrum Lines. —A spectrum line is best identified by its wave-
length, which can be deduced from its position in the spectrum and under proper
conditions can be determined to one part in several million. Most wavelength deter-
minations are made photogi-aphically and involve first the determination of the relation
between the wavelengths X of known lines and the distances I of these lines from some
fixed point on the plate. This relation, when plotted graphically, gives the dispersion
curve of the plate, which is seldom a straight line. The dispersion curve can be plotted
graphically or determined mathematically without plotting, and from it the wave-
lengths of unknown lines can be deduced by interpolation of their observed positions.
Wavelengths can be determined from theoretical dispersion formulas, but so many
easily identifiable lines have now been precisely measured that these formulas are
seldom used except in special cases.
—
Standards of Wavelength. The international angstrom unit is defined as a length
equal to the wavelength of a certain red line in the cadmium spectrum divided by
6438.4696. In other words, this red line, the so-called "primary standard" of wave-
Section throughyA
Fig. 10. — Diaphragms for shortening the lengths of spectrum lines in making wavelength
determinations.
by definition the length 6438.4696 A. A number of "secondary standards "

length, has
have been measured in terms of this line by means of interferometers. Wavelengths
of the secondary standards are given in the Transactions of the International Astro-
nomical Union, 3, 86 (1928); and International Critical Tables, Vol. 5, p. 275.
The secondary standards are somewhat far apart in the spectrum for convenient
use, and to fill the gaps between them, "tertiary standards" have been carefully
measured by means of gratings and interferometers. These "working standards"
of wavelength, as adopted by the International Astronomical Union, are given in the
International Critical Tables, Vol. 5, p. 275.
Wavelength Tables. —For routine spectrographic work sufficiently precise wave-
length values can be obtained from the "Handbuch der Spectroskopie," by H. Kayser,
an encyclopedic work of eight volumes in German which lists more than 120,000
lines. More convenient is the shorter list of "Tabelle der Hauptlinien der Elemente,"
by Kayser, which gives wavelengths for approximately 19,000 of the more important
spectral lines of the elements, and the M.I.T. wavelength tables which list wave-
lengths and intensities for the 110,000 most important lines between 10,000 and
2,000 A. Wavelengths determined before 1911 are usually on the old Rowland
scale which has been superseded by the International Scale, and require corrections
varying between 0.12 A. at 2950 A. and 0.28 A. at 7700 A.
—
Wavelength Determinations. When an unknown spectrum is photographed,
provision should be made to photograph a known spectrum and a spectrum containing
standard lines on the same plate, care being taken to allow no sideways displacement
of the plate between exposures. Even the racking of a plate from one position to
another will involve some sidewise displacement, and the two spectra should be taken
with no intervening motion of the plate when precision is required. Diaphragms may
be inserted to shorten the lengths of some of the lines, as in Fig. 10, so that lines of the
two spectra can be separated readily.
The positions of the lines are usually determined with a wavelength comparator,
which consists of a carriage to which the plate can be clamped, an observing microscope
provided with a cross hair, and a precision screw which moves the plate (or less con-
veniently, the microscope itself). Comparators can seldom be read more precisely
than to + 0.001 mm., which is sufficient for most spectrograms. Care should be taken
to avoid undue magnification in the comparator eyepiece, as unless the spectrum
Fig. 11. — Identification of unknown spectrum wavelength by means of known spectrum.
lines are extremely sharp, they can be set most accurately on the cross hair when
magnifications of from 5 to 15 diameters are used. In some comparators the spectrum
is projected on a screen for measurement.
For routine identification of lines precision to 0.01 mm. often suffices, in which
case a simple plate magnifier with engraved scale will serve. These can be obtained
with scales 20 mm. long, engraved with 0.1-mm. divisions which can be estimated to
0.01 mm.
Knowing the wavelength an unknown line can be
of anj^ one line, the distance to
measured with the eyepiece or comparator. Multiplying this distance by the approxi-
mate dispersion of the plate at that point gives the wavelength of the unknown line.
For example, in Fig. 11 line A was identified as 3542.079 of iron. The distance to
line B was measured as 9.972 mm. The dispersion between lines 'A and C was
3542.079 - 3521.264(20.815A.), divided by 14.820 mm. or 1.403 A. per mm. Multi-
plying the distance AB by 1.403, we obtain 14.006 A. from A to B, which subtracted
from 3542.079 A. for A gives 3528.073 A. for the wavelength of B.
This method is called "linear interpolation," and, while it always involves some
can be made negligible by choosing known lines lying so close together
error, this error
that the dispersion of the spectrograph varies but slightly between them.
Simplified Line Identification. —
Most spectrum lines have been observed and
measured many times, and many can be identified from their appearance or the pat-
terns they form with other lines. Unknown lines can often be identified by merely
comparing them directly with spectra of known elements photographed on the same
or a similar plate. It is often convenient with a newly acquired spectrograph to
photograph the arc and spark spectra of a number of the more common elements
which can be obtained comparatively pure, the resulting plates being marked and
kept to aid in identifying unknown lines. These plates can be laid directly over later
plates taken with the same instrument, so that corresponding lines appear in juxta-
position. Atlases of spectral lines can be used similarly, though less directly because
usually their dispersion scale is different.
To aid in identifying wavelength positions approximately, a simple well-known
spectrum such as that of mercury or of copper may conveniently be impressed on
each plate taken. The iron spectrum should then be impressed on the plate also, to
give more precise locations of desired lines.
Light Sources for Emission Spectroscopy. —The source most commonly used for
producing line spectra is the electric arc in air, preferably run on 220 volts d.c. with a
20ji
I AÂrAAAAAÂAAA/
i
R I20JI
i
Arc
220-V.dC.
-ÔOOOOOOOUOOIJWJ^
Reactor
Fig. 12. — Circuit for arc light source suitable for use in spectroscopy.
current of from 2 to 10 amp. The circuit used is shown in Fig. 12. A rheostat R
capable of carrying 10 amp., whose resistance can be varied from 20 to 120 ohms, is
kept in series with the arc, together with an ammeter A and a stabilizing reactance
made by winding a few hundred turns of wire on an iron core. A voltmeter V m&y be
provided to read the voltage across the arc terminals, but this should not be con-
nected except when being read, as when the arc goes out a high A'oltage maj' be bviilt
up across its terminals. The series reactance helps keep the arc burning steadily, and
use of 220 volts d.c. instead of 110 volts also gives greater steadiness.
The arc may be burned between pure graphite electrodes, the lower electrode being
cupped to receive small samples of the material whose spectrum lines are to be studied.
Or the electrodes themselves maj^ be formed from the material to be studied. Metals,
ashes, or liquids may be burned in the cup, and even slags and glasses can be thus
handled. When the material is a poor conductor, it is desirable to mix with it some
conducting material such as ammonium sulphate, which emits few spectrum lines in
the visible or viltra violet regions, and to moisten the mass with pure dilute hydrochloric
acid.
The condensed electric spark, connected as is used almost as much
shown in Fig. 13,
as the arc as a spectrum source. Most of the which appear in the arc
spectrum lines
also appear in the spark, and in addition new lines, usuallj' produced by atoms from
Avhich one or more electrons have been removed, also appear. Strong fuzzj- lines due
to air are frequently seen in spark spectrograms; these can usually be diminished in
strength or eliminated entirely by inserting a coil of a few dozen turns of wire, with
iron core, as shown in Fig. 13. The number of turns should be adjusted so that the air
lines are reduced as much as possible without too greatly reducing the intensities of the
lines which are being studied.
Advantages of the arc compared to the spark are that it is safer electrically, is more
intense, is usually quieter, produces no air lines, and shows greater variation between
lines so that they can be identified more readily by their appearance. Advantages
Variable
reactor
Fig. 13. —Electrical circuit of spark light source for use in spectroscopy.
of the spark are that it Isurns less material, needs less attention, brings out some lines
not found in the arc, and produces fewer band lines. The cyanogen bands are par-
ticularljr annoying in the violet and near ultraviolet regions when a graphite arc is
burned in air. Burning metallic material in the arc Aveakens these bands. They
produce a strong violet light in the arc, and by carefully watching it and refilling with
material when this color appears, the intensity of the bands can be reduced.
There is no royal rule as to when an arc is to be preferred to a spark, or vice versa.
Most spectroscopists keep both available and use whichever is best for the problem
Fig. 14. —Spark A and arc B spectrograms made under identical conditions.
in hand. Figure 14 shows spectrograms taken under identical circumstances of the
same material, A being a spark exposure, and B an arc exposure.
High-frequency arcs, high-voltage arcs, vacuum arcs and sparks, electrodeless
discharges, and nimierous other light sources are often found useful for spectroscopic
purposes and will be found described in the literature.
—
Light Sources for Absorption Spectroscopy. When transparent liquids or solids
are studied by absorption spectrophotometry, new absorption bands can be located
most readUj'" if light producing a continuous spectrum is sent through the absorbing
material. The most convenient source for this purpose between 10,000 and 4000 A. is
a straight-filament incandescent lamp, while between 6000 and 2000 A. a high-voltage
discharge through hydrogen gas in a quartz tube is useful. A high-tension spark
discharge under distilled water between tungsten or aluminum electrodes, or electrodes
of almost any other metal, gives a useful continuous background throughout the entire
spectrum, though this is usually crossed with occasional emission or absorption lines.
A condensed spark in air between cadmium electrodes can be made to give a heavy
continuous background in the ultraviolet region, though crossed with a number of
emission lines. Exploded wires probably give the most intense continuous back-
ground, but, compared to the other methods listed, these are difficult to control and
inconvenient to use.
When extinction coefficients are to be measured, especially in the ultraviolet
region, a rich line spectrum can be used conveniently for background, since measure-
ments must be made at known wavelengths and these need not be continuouslj' spread.
A spark between tungsten-steel electrodes is commonly used for this purpose.
—
Uranium electrodes are also useful in fact, any hard metal with numerous lines in
the ultraviolet will serve for this purpose. A spark source is commonly used with
the Hilger Spekker Photometer and with rotating-sector disk photometers, which are
commonly used for ultraviolet absorption spectrophotometry.
Bibliography
Periodicals:
LiTTROw, O.: Am. J. Sci., 36, 413 (1862).

Rowland, H. A.: On Concave Gratings for Optical Purposes, Am. J. Sci., 26 (No. 3), 87-98 (1883);
Phil. Mag., 16 (No. 5), 197-210 (1883).
Abney, W.: Phil. Trans., 177, 457 (1886).
Ames,: Phil. Mag., 5, 369 (1889).
Wadsworth, F. L. O.: Phil. Mag., 38, 137 (1894).
Astrophys. J., 2, 370 (1895); 3, 46 (1896).
:
Lyman, T.: False Spectra with the Rowland Grating, Phys. Rev., 12, 1-13 (1901).
Eagle, A.: On a New Mounting for Concave Gratings, Astrophys. J., 31, 12 (1910).
CoRNU, A.: J. phys., 4, 261 (1914).
Anderson, J. A.: Astrophys. J., 51, 37 (1920).
Meggers, W. F., and K. Burns: Natl. Bur. Standards, Sci. Papers, 18, 185 (1922).
Sawyer, R. A. and A. L. Becker: Astrophys. J., 67, 98 (1923).
Wood, R. W.: Phil. Mag., 48, 497 (1924).
Frerichs, R.: Intensity Measurements of Multiplets, Ann. Physik,81, 807-845 (1926).
Harrison, G. R.: Phys. Rev., 24, 466-477 (1926).
Harrison, G. R.: Instruments and Methods Used for Measuring Spectral Light Intensities by Photog-
raphy, /. Optical Soc. Am., 19, 5 (1929).
KiSTiAKOWSKY, O. B.: High Power Source of Continuous Ultraviolet Spectrum, Rer. Sci. Instruments,
2, 549 (1931).
Dieke, G. H.: Astigmatism of the Concave Grating, /. Optical Soc. Am., 23, 274 (1933).
Books:
"The Physical Papers of H. A. Rowland," Johns Hopkins (1902).

Kayser, H.: "Tabelle der Hauptlinien der Linienspektra AUer Elemente," Springer (1926).
Baly, E. C. C: "Spectroscopy," Longmans (1929).
Hardy, A. C, and F. H. Perrin: "The Principles of Optics," McGraw (1932).
Harnwell, G. p., and J. J. Livingood: "Experimental Atomic Physics," McGraw (1933).
Wood, R. W.: "Physical Optics," 3d ed., Macmillan (1934).
Kayser, H., et al.: " Handbuch der Spectroskopie," S. Hirzel, Leipzig (1910-1934).
Jenkins, F. A., and H. E. White: "Fundamentals of Physical Optics," McGraw (1937).
FoRSYTHE, W. E., et al.: "Measurement of Radiant Energy," McGraw (1937).
Lyman, T.: "Spectroscopy of the Extreme Ultraviolet," Longmans.
CHAPTER XXX
RADIOGRAPHY
By Robert C. Woods
Introduction. —The shadow picture resulting when X raj's pass through an object
and fall upon a sensitive photographic film is known The process
as a "radiograph."
of taking such a picture is and the apparatus used is a "radio-
called "radiography,"
graphic machine." While these terms are most commonly used, others may be
correctly substituted, such as skiagraph for radiograph or roentgen raj^ for X ray.
Radiography may be roughly divided into three classifications: (1) clinical, (2)
industrial, and (3) diffraction. The purpose of clinical radiography is to study the
outline of the human frame with all its surrounding tissues so as to locate accurately
the site of possible disease, injurj^, or foreign body. Industrial radiography provides a
nondestructive test for studying the internal structure of industrial niaterials with
the purpose of discovering subsurface defects. While diffraction methods are not
generally classed under radiography, a literal interpretation of the word "radiograph"
requires the inclusion of diffraction patterns, since they are also shadowgraphs pro-
duced by X
rays. Diffraction pictures are used as a method to disclose the crystalline,
molecular, or atomic structure of almost any material and are invaluable in manj^ ways
to industry, medicine, and pure research.
—
Characteristics of X Rays. The principal characteristics of X
rays may be sum-
marized as follows: X
rays are produced in special types of vacuum tubes by the impact
of electrons on a target of hard metal, the rays being emitted in straight lines from
the target where they originate. The number of rays produced is proportional
to the current passing through the tube, whereas their penetrating power depends upon
the voltage at which the tube is operated. X
rays are a form of electromagnetic
energy and travel with a velocity approaching 186,000 miles per second. X rays
behave sometimes as waves and sometimes as discrete particles, in common with other
forms of electromagnetic radiations. The X-ray spectrum has a mean wavelength
which depends upon the voltage at which this tube is operated. The rays are incap-
able of producing visual sensation unaided, but their presence may be indicated visu-
ally through the use of fluorescent screens which emit visible light when acted upon
by X rays. The rays are capable of penetrating substances which are opaque to
visible light but are attenuated more or less in passing through solid materials, the
amount of attenuation depending upon the thickness of the object and its atomic
structure.
—
X-ray Photography. It has been found that X rays have the very important
property of producing a latent image on photographically sensitive materials,
and this property is made use of in radiography. It enables the X-raj^ worker to
record on film facts about the internal condition of closed structures which would
normally be invisible. This effect depends on the fact that wherever X rays strike a
gelatin emulsion of silver bromide, the silver salt is reduced to a black metallic condi-
tion. For all practical purposes this reduction is proportional to the intensity of the
incident radiation. The photographic effect is also approximately inversely propor-
tional to the square of the distance between the target of the X-ray tube and the
sensitive film.
822
RADIOGRAPH y 823
X-ray it follows the same principle as that of photographic

film emulsion, while
film, is slightly differentboth as to chemical and physical characteristics, being more
sensitive to X rays. Even so, less than 1 per cent of X-ray energy is absorbed by
•such an emulsion, and the remaining 99 per cent passes through without performing
any useful work. To utilize some of the wasted 99 per cent energy, screens coated
with some salt like calcium tungstate are placed in direct contact with the double-
sensitized film surfaces. These screens, under X-ray bombardment, fluoresce, i.e.,
absorb Xrays and emit visible light. Thus the X-ray effect on film emulsion is
increased many times by the addition of visible light from the screens. This not only
reduces exposure time but makes practical the radiography of several thicknesses.
The grain size of fluorescent coatings on screens is larger than that of film emulsions,
and the result is some loss of fine detail in the finished radiograph. The best picture
will be made without screens, but many times the use of screens is imperative, and so
they may be classed as a necessary evil.
X-ray Protection. —X rays have a deleterious effect on the human system and every
possible precaution should be taken by the operator of an X-ray machine to avoid
repeated personal exposure. Before engaging in X-ray work of any kind, it is essen-
tial to make a thorough study of X-ray protection under all conditions which might
arise. Those technicians who are unequipped with electroscopes or other instru-
ments for detecting stray radiation should carry out the dental film test while at their
work. This consists in attaching a silver coin to the front of a dental packet loaded
with photographic film and carrying it, coin outward, in the vest or watch pocket. If,
after several days of X-ray work, the film is developed and shows an image of the coin,
it indicates the operator is being exposed to X-rays and should immediately take steps
to obtain better shielding. Too much emphasis cannot be laid on this phase of the
work, for serious illness, and even death, can ensue from small X-ray doses constantly
taken.
X-ray Equipment. —No attempt be made to describe in detail the various
will
possible electrical circuits which are capable of producing rays. X
For this informa-
tion, reference may be made to any of several excellent books on the subject. At the
same time, a brief mention of the fundamentals may not be amiss.
X rays are produced by the impact of electrons on a target of solid hard metal,
which is usually tungsten. In modern practice, X
rays are produced in a vacuum
tube containing a heated filament and the anode or target. The filament is heated to
incandescence by means of a transformer operating from the 110- volt line and supply-
ing suitable filament voltage and current to the tube. When the filament becomes
incandescent, the thermal energy is sufficient to liberate a source of free electrons which
are capable of traveling through the vacuous space within the tube. In order that
these electrons may travel through the tube rather than cluster around the filament
from which they are emitted, it is necessary to accelerate them in a direction toward
the target. Since the electrons are negatively charged particles of electricity, they
may be made to move in the direction of the target by applying a voltage between the
filament and target such that the target is at a positive potential with respect to that
of the filament.
In impinging upon the target, the electrons give up the kinetic energy which was
imparted to them by virture of the positive charge on the target, and in so doing they
produce those radiations known as X rays. The penetrating power of the X rays
depends upon the potential difference between the filament and target. The number
of rays depends upon the number of available electrons i.e., the current through the
tube, and this in turn depends upon the temperature of the filament which is regulated
by the filament voltage and current. Thus, by controlling the filament temperature
and the filament-target voltage, the operating characteristics of the tube may be
determined at will. The voltage between the filament and target (sometimes called
the "cathode" and "anode," respectively) may be as high as 1,000,000 volts, although
ordinarily voltages of from 30,000 to 200,000 volts (30 to 200 kilovolts) are used. The
current through the tube is commonly between about 10 and 100 ma. (0.010 to 0.100
amp.).
The point at which the beam from the filament strikes the
of electrons emitted
target is known as the focal spot. This spot should be as small as possible in order
that the tube may simulate as much as possible a point source, and thereby produce
radiographs which are as sharp as possible. If this focal point is unduly large, the
resulting radiographs will be less sharply defined.
—
Factors in Making Radiographs. In addition to as small a focal spot as is possible,
there are other conditions which contribute to correct radiographic images. The
distance between the anode and the object being radiographed should be as great
as is practical. While a distance of 25 in. from anode to film maj^ be satisfactory for
radiography of the extremities, with thicker parts it is usually necessary to increase this
distance.
The film should be as close to the object as possible. Distance between object
and film allows the rays to spread to such an extent before reaching the film that hazi-
ness occurs.
The film should not deviate too far from perpendicularity to the line of the prin-
cipal rays; otherwise serious distortion will result.
In the radiography of thick objects, scattered rays form the greater part of the
radiation passing to the film. Any effective method of preventing this scattered
radiation from reaching the film produces a marked improvement in the quality of
the image.
In the medical field the most effective way to reduce scattered rays from the object
isthrough the use of a Potter-Bucky diaphragm. This apparatus is a moving grid
interposed between the part to be taken and the film. The grid is composed of a series
of lead strips held in place by intervêning wood strips. The lead strips are so tilted
that the plane of each is have the function
in line with the tube focal spot; these strips
of absorbing the scattered rays which come from the part radiographed, so the larger
image portion is formed hj primary raj^s from the tube focal spot.
The grid can be flat or curved, but, to eliminate direct shadows of the lead strips, it
must be attached to some mechanism for moving it between object and film while an
exposure is being made; such a device is generallj^ incorporated as part of the
diaphragm.
For correct use of the Bucky diaphragm, the anode-film distance must be at least
25 in. or more, dependent upon its design, and it must be placed so the primary X-ray
beam will pass directly through the spaces between the lead strips. Longitudinal
shifts are permissible, but lateral shifts should not be extended more than 1 or 2 in.
from the grid center.
—
Medical Radiography. It is almost impossible to condense into table form all the
variable factors which affect the taking of a clinical radiograph. Added to the large
number of X-ray tubes with different ratings, there is the variation in calibration of
machines and difference in size of patients, as well as the preference of the attending
physician in matters of film density, contrast, etc. Nor is it practical for a technician
to learn the correct position for the patient in various pictures except through actual
observation. As an example of the variation in X-ray tube ratings and their effect
on technique, an instance may be cited. The General Electric X-ray Co. recommends
the following factors for radiography of the kidney with two of their tubes: With one
tube the exposure is given as 100 ma. at 50 kilovolts for 2 sec. at a distance of 36 in.,
while with another the technique is 60 ma. at 56 kilovolts for 2 sec. at 30 in. Also
RADIOGRAPHY 825
the technician or doctor in charge of the X-ray department may find that some other
combination of factors produces a radiograph more to their liking. The operative-
technique chart with accompanying remarks shows the procedure for one particular
model X-ray unit and tube.
A rough beginning for techniques with other apparatus may be obtained from this
chart (Table I) as follows: Take the product of current (milliamperes, ma.) multiplied
by the time, which will give milliampere-seconds, and then adhere to the other factors
shown. For instance, in this chart, radiography of the gall bladder calls for 60 ma. at
56 kilovolts for 2 sec. at 30 in. distance. If it is desired to make this radiograph with
an outfit that will not run so high as 60 ma. for 2 sec, the first step is to determine
the current-time factor, which in this case is 60 times 2, or 120 ma.-sec. If another
machine will operate at 30 ma. for 4 sec. at 56 kilovolts, the resulting film should be
about the same using a 30-in. distance. In any event, use of similar total milliampere-
seconds, with other factors as shown, will serve as a starting point for development of a
satisfactory technique.
Exposure times for areas subject to movement should be as short as possible. A
heart which completes its diastole and systole 80 times a minute performs one of these
functions in about 0.3 sec. Therefore, to avoid blurring, a heart picture must be taken
in as small a fraction of a second as possible. Also to be considered is the fact that
each heart beat displaces various surrounding tissues, e.g., the lung.
Clinical Interpretation.— Correct interpretation of clinical radiographs depends
almost entirely on experience under some efficient diagnostician. No amount of
study can take the place of actual viewing of films. Film diagnosis is not part of an
X-ray technician's work and under no condition should the technician attempt to give
such information to a patient without the consent of the radiologist in charge. Infrac-
tion of this rule may lead to serious consequences.
Industrial Radiography, — While the application of X rays in industry for deter-
mination of flaws and internal defects in industrial materials is a more recent develop-
ment than that of medical radiographic diagnosis, it has progressed so rapidly in the
past few years that the value of this inspection method is no longer questioned.
Industrial radiography is the only nondestructive test now known for the actual
visualization of subsurface conditions. X-ray examination of welds, castings, molds,
radio tubes, and countless other manufactured articles is now a routine occurrence in
numerous plants throughout the world. As in medicine, the basis of industrial
radiography is the differential absorption ofX rays by matter of varying densities. In
radiography of an object containing areas which, intentionally or not, differ in density
from surrounding material, those areas will register on a film providing they are not too
small. In general, defects IH to 2 per cent of the total thickness of the object under
inspection can be detected, and in special instances flaws as small as 1 per cent can be
demonstrated. If, for example, in a sample of carbon steel the carbon has precipitated
in one section, that area will be of lower density than the surrounding steel and allow
X rays to pass more freely. The result will be a dark spot on the film signifying
increased exposure. X
Any section of increased density will absorb rays more readily
and record a lighter area on the film. When handled correctly, areas of increased
and decreased density may be registered on a film in faithful reproduction of the
original as to size and shape. Ordinary radiographic technique does not magnify or
enlarge any objects or their defects on the final film.
Industrial X-ray Apparatus. — Industrial X-ray apparatus operates on the same
principle as medical radiographic machines, but whereas clinical equipment only
occasionally exceeds a rating of 100,000 volts, industrial work often requires a 200,000-
volt technique and in some instances industrial apparatus can be run as high as 400000,
volts.
—
Table I. Operative Technique Chart^

Extremities
Region
. — —
RADIOGRAPHY 827
Table I. Operative Technique Chart. ^

{Continued)
Trunk
Region Kv. Ma. Time, sec. Dist., in. Bucky Screens
Cervical spine* 63 10 36 Yes Yes

Cervical spine* 62 75 72 No Yes
Dorsal spine. . . 64 10 20 30 Yes Yes
Dorsal spine**. 70 10 5 30 Yes Yes
Lumbar spine. . 59 10 20 30 Yes Yes
Lumbar spine. 77 10 30 30 Yes Yes
Pelvis 56 10 20 30 Yes Yes
Sternum* 70 10 5 30 Yes Yes
Sternum* 63 10 5 30 Yes Yes
Ribs* 70 10 1 30 Yes Yes
Organ.*
Region Kv. Ma. Time, sec. Dist. Bucky Screens
Chest** 68 75 Ho 72 No Yes
Chest** 68 75 Ho No Yes
Chest** 68 75 ?io No Yes
Heart** 68 75 No Yes
Kidney* 56 60 30 Yes Yes
Urinary bladder* 56 60 30 Yes Yes
Gallbladder*.... 56 60 30 Yes Yes
Stomach* 73 60 25 Yes Yes
Stpmach* 78 60 25 Yes Yes
Stomach* 78 60 25 Yes Yes
Colon* 68 60 30 Yes Yes
Fetus* 76 60 30 Yes Yes
—
Industrial X-ray Technique. —

In making an industrial radiograph the factors to be
considered are (1) thickness and composition of object under examination, and (2)
size and shape of the object. There are, naturally, many other influencing factors, but
they are mostly small mechanical problems which vary from one piece of work to
another and can be solved with a little ingenuity.
1. Thickness and composition of the object determine the voltage, current, and
time to be used in making an exposure. In the majority of cases voltage and time
are the only factors changed, and the current remains at some predetermined setting;
say 5 ma. Many curves have been published to give the proper settings for penetra-
tion of "steel," but they are notably unreliable and inaccurate. "Steel " has become a
loose, generic term which no longer denotes any specific metal with fixed chemical and
metallui'gical properties, and it covers a wide range of alloys. Variations in metal
densities, atomic properties. X-ray machine calibration, development technique, etc.,
involve such large exposure differences that it is far better for each individual operator
to establish his own exposure charts by the trial-and-error method. After a number of
exposures on different alloys, the technician will develop a sense of exposure technique
which can then be enhanced by reference to a table of element and alloy densities.
Table II. Specific Gravity op Metals Encountered in Radiography

Metal Specific Gravity
Iron (99.94 Fe) 7 86 .
Iron, cast (94 Fe, 3.5 C, 2.5 SiJ 7 00 .
Stainless steels (90 Fe, 8 Cr, 0.4 Mn, 0.1 C) 7 75 .
Alleghany metal (Fe, 18 Cr, 8 Ni, Mn, Si,^ C) 7.86-7.95

'.
Copper (99.9 Cu) 8.50

Brass, ordinary (67 Cu, 33 Zn) 8.40
Aluminum (99.2 Al) 2.71
Nickel (99.5 Ni) 8. 86
Nichrome (80 Ni, 20 Cr) 8.50
Monel metal (60 Ni, 33 Cu, 6.5 Fe) 8 90.
Lead (93 Pb, 7 Sb) 11.00

Gold, standard Gt. Br. (92 Au, 8 Cu) 17. 17
Platinum (90 Pt, 10 Ir) 21 61 .
Tungsten ; 14 00 .
A few of the metals frequently encountered in industrial X-ray work are given in
Table II with their composition and specific gravities. The higher the relative
gravities are, the higher the X-ray voltage must be to penetrate the metal. Gravities
depends on the type of cone available. In any instance, the best results will be obtained when the small-
est possible cone is used, according to the area to be covered.
"The procedure changes with the size of cone used. The smaller the cone, the greater the energy
required, and the larger the cone the less energy required. However, the improved contrast made
possible by the smaller cone, despite the increase in energy necessary, makes its use advisable whenever
possible, either with or without the Bucky diaphragm.
" To change the radiographic density for any area, the best results will be obtained if only one factor
at a time is changed. The two factors which may be considered variable are voltage and exposure time.
Of these two, voltage is the variable factor of preference.
" To change a Potter-Bucky procedure to one without the diaphragm, either deduct approximately
15 kv. or use J-i the exposure time as given on the chart for Potter-Bucky work. To reverse the
procedure, either add 15 kv.p. or use 4 times the exposure time.
"Immobilization of the part should always be provided when practical; sand bags for such parts as
extremities, and immobilizing bands for the skull, pelvis, spine, etc.; cones or cylinders for sinuses.
"y-z mm. to 1 mm. of aluminum should be used as a filter, with the following exceptions: soft tissue
technic in extremity work; radiography without screens; chest.
"For children from 5 to 12 years of age, either a reduction in penetration of approximately 10 kv.p.,
or 3-2 the exposure time given on the chart, should be made.
"One star * indicates that the patient should stop breathing.
"Two stars ** indicate that the patient should take a full breath and hold it."
RADIOGRAPHY 829
which differ only slightly may be radiographed satisfactorily by changing the time
and keeping the voltage constant. By establishing exposure values for a few different
metals, by studying the effect of composition on density, and by becoming familiar
with various settings on his own X-ray machine, the operator will soon be able to make
a good radiograph of almost any object with one
trial exposure.
This table shows why lead is used as a shield
against X Only gold, platinum, and tungsten
rays.
are greater X-ray absorbers and the last three are
expensive whereas lead is cheap.
2. Size and shape of the object examined are
important and are frequently such that they provide

the major problem of the work. It is desirable to
place the film inits holder as near as possible to the
area where defects are likely to occur, and to avoid,

in the case of complicated castings and machine Objec-f-
parts, interposition of irrelevant sections between ^— Film
film and X-ray tube. Ideal radiographic conditions
Fig. 1. —
Diagram illustrating
are those which allow the X-ray beam to pass from operation of X-ray photography.
the target through the area to be inspected and
A source of electrons striking the
target produces waves which
thence, without interruption, to a film placed per- spread out as indicated by the
pendicular to the line of the main beam (Fig. 1). diverging lines. These waves
Although this condition is often unattainable, pass through the object to be
radiographed, where they are
the nearest possible approach should be made. In
partially absorbed, and thence to
some cases it is better to place the film other than the film where a permanent
perpendicularly, to avoid overlapping of undesired record is produced,
shadows on the film (Fig. 2).
In the case of curved surfaces care should be taken to center the target and film,
and the distance should be such as to permit the whole film to be exposed. Some
allowance must also be made for the fact that the ends of the film are farther from the
target than the center because of their curvature (Fig. 3).
Overlapping-'''
-''"
Film A rea io be excrmined-'
Fig. — Diagram illustrating one possible method of examining a portion of an object hav-
2.-
ing sections which ordinarily would provide some shielding of X rays.

This distance defect may be overcome either by increasing the target-film distance
or by shortening the X-ray film. In the first the exposure time is increased to com-
pensate for the distance, and in the second instance more pictures must be made to
cover the total area, so that conditions prevailing at the time must decide which is the
better course.
In cases where the entire film is not covered by the object some provision must be
made to keep scattered radiation from "creeping" in around the edges and utterly
j
ruining tlie radiograph. In most instances shielding with lead blocks or formed lead
sheets will be sufficient, but on oddly shaped objects it is often necessarj^ to resort to a
more plastic type of shielding material. There are a number of these on the market,
none which is entirely satisfactory. Were it not for its tendency to amalgamate
of
with some metals and penetrate the crystalline interstices of others, mercury would
be an ideal shield where a liquid is needed of high atomic weight. Even so, it has been
used on occasion and gives a fine radiograph free from all scattering fog. Various
lead salts in solution have been used as has the finelj^ powdered red oxide of lead made
into a paste with different oils.
These various shielding materials may also be used as filler where on the same film
it is necessary to penetrate two different thicknesses. In some cases, correct exposure
for one part will result in a high overexposure of a thinner part. The thinner part is
then built up to the same density as the thicker portion.
Underexposed Uniform
exposure
F/7m
Fig. 3. -For best results in examining curved objects, the film should be symmetrically
placed with respect to the source of radiation as shown at the right.
-F,'/m Lead
Scoff ereo/ rays

Less scortfering Overexposure and fog
Fig. 4. — Shielding by means of lead blocks will assist in reducing scattered radiation.
With small, easily penetrated objects fluorescent screens are not needed. How-
ever, beginning with 3^ in. of steel or its equivalent, exposure times are so prolonged
or such a high voltage is necessary that too much time is used for each picture or the
final film loses detail due to excessive penetration. At this point it is advisable to
resort to use of fluorescent screens, one on each side of the film in a lighttight holder.
Care must be taken not to bend the screens for their fluorescent coating is easih'
cracked, thus introducing errors into the radiograph. A slight curvature is permissi-
ble, but where more than this is required to place the screen against the area to be
inspected, it is wisest to keep the film flat even if the resulting picture loses something
in quality. Where the film holder can be placed against the weld or casting, many
simple methods will come to mind for holding it in place and for keeping good contact
between screens and film. For example, while examining welding in a large tank, the
film may be held against the inner surface by use of a flexible wooden pole slightly
longer than the internal diameter of the tank.
RADIOGRAPHY 831
Industrial Radiographic Interpretation. —In the interpretation of industrial radio-

graphs, as in medical work, there can be no substitute for experience and observation.
It is necessary for the operator to be more or less familiar with industrial processes
such as welding, casting, molding, etc., and he should have at least a working knowl-
edge of the fundamentals of metallography. For the beginner a fairly safe rule is as
follows if on the radiographic film of a weld, casting, mold, plate, or other supposedly
:
Fig. 5. — Radiograph of welded steel plates showing gas pockets and cracks of faulty weld.
homogeneous material, one or more dark spots or lines appear in an otherwise even
field, these areas represent defects.
Example: Fig. 5 is an actual radiograph of two steel plates which have been placed
edge to edge and welded together. The dark areas are the plain steel and the light
center strip is the weld material which is denser than the surrounding metal. Within
this center strip numerous spots and one or more dark lines appear. The spots are
small gas pockets while the lines are cracks. This is a faulty weld and, if subjected to
Fig. 6. — Diagram illustrating diffraction of X rays.
high pressures or excessive strain, is likely to fail. This film is fairly representative of
the general run of industrial radiographs, the interpretation of which depends on a
knowledge of the relative densities involved in the object being inspected.
—
X-ray Diffraction. Although X-ray diffraction is not usually classed under radi-
ography, a strict interpretation of the word radiograph would require the inclusion of
this application of X
rays. A simple explanation of this phenomenon is as follows:
Reference to Fig. 6 shows that a single light beam L divided at pinholes A and B
will produce alternate light and dark areas on surface X—
points like P, equidistant
from A and B will be brightly illuminated by reinforcing similar-phased waves, but
points like Q, unequally distant fi'om A and B, will be unlighted due to the arrival
there of canceling, out-of-phase waves.
Such reinforcements and cancellations due to single-wavelength light traveling
different distances can also be caused by reflecting a beam from surfaces at varying
distances. Thus in a system of parallel mirrors a, b, and c, as in Fig. 7, which reflect
light of wavelength X, all waves starting from line A A' A" and ending at X
will not have
Fig. 7. — Diffraction reinforcements (right) and cancellations (left) of X rays caused by

crystal structure.
covered the same distance. If the angle at which the light strikes a mirror is 6 and d
isthe distance between planes, then route A'B'X is longer than route ABX
by twice
the distance times the sine of angle 6. Therefore, although all waves starting from
X
A A' A" are in phase, they will be in phase on arrival at only when the distance-differ-
ence between them {2d sine d) = X, or 2X, or 3X, or nX. A graphic means of
. . .
illustrating X-ray diffraction bj^ a single crystal is the combination of Figs. 6 and 7 into
the crystal atom of Fig. 8, a three-dimen-
sional affair with many planes at different
angles. A
monochromatic X-ray beam, S
is from the atom sheets a, b, and c
reflected
(which compose the crystal) on surface X.
As in Fig. 7, those sheets so spaced that X
rays are reflected at some whole wave-
length distance ahead or behind other rays
make a diffraction pattern characteristic of
the crystalline. The result is as though
the energy beam had come from L (see also
Fig. 6) and had been diffracted from pin-
holes at A, B, and C.
L" Various diffraction methods are used
widely in industrial processes to reveal facts
Fig. 8. —
Reflections of diffracted X-ray about the internal structure of material
beam coming from S behave as though which could be disclosed in no other way.
they came from L and passed through Analysis of crystal structure in all different
apertures A, B, and C.
types of metals and alloys is a particularly
fertile field. This application is Hght fundamental facts in biology,
also bringing to
in medicine, and atom and its energy relations.
in research into the structure of the
Although widespread apphcation of diffraction methods is relatively new, it is
proving a remarkable instrument wherever investigation takes place into the essential
processes of nature.
—
Radiographic Darkroom. The principles involved in processing X-ray films are
the same as in any other photographic procedure, and the ordinary photographic
darkroom may be used for X-ray film work. There are, however, certain differences
RADIOGRAPHY 833
between the two. Developing and fixing solutions made specifically for X-ray films
should always be used. The usual process of developing, fixing, and washing is fol-
lowed, but the times used are different. When the processing factors are correct
and the radiographs are found to lack density, it can be assumed that underexposure
has taken place, and when the radiographs are too dense, overexposure is indicated.
Any change in exposure time should be an increase or decrease of the original factor
by about 35 per cent.
After a certain number
of films have passed through the solutions, it will be found
necessary to add 1min. to the development time to obtain the desired density. This
time, in turn, will have to be augmented by another minute at a later date. While
no formula can be given for change of development time* in general, after 100 films
14 by 17 in. have been processed, the development should be raised to 6 min. Smaller
Hours
0.4 0.6 031 2 3 4 56810 152030406080100 200 400600 1,000
10
Radium Radiography. — In recent years the use of gamma rays from radium as a
means of visuaUzing subsurface faults has received increasing attention in cases where
the examined material is too thiek to be conveniently penetrated with X rays.
Gamma rays are similar in nature to X rays but are of much shorter wavelength than
theX rays used in general practice and are therefore able to pass through substances
opaque to the X ray. Figure 9 shows a gamma-ray exposure chart for steel.
The apparatus necessary for gamma extremely simple and does not
radiography is
require the space, trouble, or attention encountered in radiography. X

A small
capsule container of radioactive material is held rigidly in front of the specimen to be
inspected and X-ray films in holders are fastened to the back of the specimen. After
the required time has passed, radium and films are removed. It will be found on
development of the film that the gamma rays passing through the specimen have
recorded, as with the X
ray, conditions existing within the sample.
The exposure chart given is applicable for practically any type of steel because
gamma radiography errors in exposure time generally amount to a small fraction of
the total.
Bibliography
Books:
"X-ray Laboratory Manual," Eastman Kodak Co.

"Handbook of Physics and Chemistry," Chemical Rubber Pub.
Gezelius, R. a., and C. W. Bbiggs: "Radium for Industrial Radiography," Radium Chemical Co.
CoMPTON and Allison: "X-ray in Theory and Experiment," Van Nostrand.
Clark, G. L. "Applied X-rays," McGraw.
:
Terrill, H. M., and C. T. Urey: "X-ray Technology," Van Nostrand.

PouLLiN, V. E.: "Engineering Radiography," G. Bell.
Periodicals:
Woods, R. C: Industrial X-ray Practice, Electronics, February, 1936.

— : Radium
Inspection of Metal Structures, Iron Age, July 16, 1936.
Details of Industrial X-ray Apparatus, Iron Age, Oct. 16, 1936.
:
X-ray Protection, Nat. Bur. Standards, Handbook 15.

—
APPENDIX A
TABLES OF CONVERSION FACTORS
Compiled by Beverly Dudley
Table I. Avoirdupois Weight —For General Commodities

—
Table III. General Liquid Measuke

—
APPENDIX A 837
Table VI. Tempekature
Fahrenheit
—
Table VI. Temperature. — {Continued)

Fahrenheit
APPENDIX B
APPROXIMATE RELATIVE VALUES FOR SPECIFYING SPEED OF PHOTO-
GRAPHIC MATERIALS
A
APPENDIX C
DENSITY-OPACITY-TRANSMISSION CONVERSION FACTORS
Compiled by Beverly Dudley
Density
APPENDIX C 841
Density-Opacity-Transmission Conversion Factors. — {Continued)

Density

Density
APPENDIX C 843
Density-Opacity-Transmission Conversion Factors.

— {Continued)
Density Opacity % Transmission
1.60

Density
APPENDIX C 845

Density
—
APPENDIX D
FILTER FACTORS
Table I. Filter Factors for Wratten Filters and Eastman Films
Filter
APPENDIX D 847
13
CO
N
M
O
O
H
—
APPENDIX D 849
Table III. Filter Factors for Zeiss Ikon and Carl Zeiss Filters. — {Continued)
5
APPENDIX E
WESTON FILM -SPEED RATINGS
The film-speed ratings given in this appendix are those compiled by the Weston Electrical Instru-
ment Co. In conjunction with suitably calibrated exposure meters these ratings may be used to deter-
mine correct exposure. However, it should be recognized that processing conditions and errors in
shutter speed or aperture may make it necessary to deviate from these speed ratings in order to obtain
the best negatives. T indicates tentative value subject to further test.
Film Listing
The number given for each film in the listing on this sheet represents a group of three consecutive
emulsion speeds. For the sake the group number listed is the mean value for the group,
of simplicity,
and is the rating to use for those who have had no previous experience with the film or who do not know
what developer will be used.
The following table shows the group number and the three emulsion speeds that it represents.
Daylight
Speed Range Group Number
—
160—200 250 200
80 — 100— 125 100
40— 50— 64 50
20— 24— 32 24
10— 12— 16 12
5— — 86 6
2.5— 3— 4 3
1.2—1.5— 2 1.5
Tungsten
Speed Range Group Number
100 — 125—160 125
50— 64— 80 64
24— 32— 40 32
12— 16— 20 16
6— 8— 10 8
3— 4— 5 4
1 . 5— 2—2 .
Rolls and Packs

Daylight Tungsten
Group Group
No. No.
Agfa
100 Superpan Press 64
50T Super Plenachrome 32T
24 Finopan 16
24 Plenachrome 16
12 Standard 4
24 Superpan 16
Eastman
100 Super XX 64
24 Verichrome 16
24 Panatomic X 16
12 N. C 4
Gevaert
24 Panchromosa 16
12 Express Superchrome 4
850
APPENDIX E S51
Miniature Camera Films

Daylight Tungsten
Group Group
No. No.
Agfa
100 Ultra Speed Pan 64
50 Superpan Supreme 32 '
24 F. G. Plenachrome 8
24 Finopan 16
24 F. G. Rev. Superpan 16
DuPont
24 Superior. 16
12 F. G.ParPan 8
6 Micropan 4
Eastman
100 Super XX 64
50 Plus X : 32
24 Super X 16
24 Panatomic X 16
24 Panatomic 16
Microfile 0.25
Gevaert
Express Superchrome 4
Panchromosa 8
Panchromosa Micrograin 4
Perutz
Peromnia 8
Neo Persenso 4
Perpantic 8
Pergrano 4
Portrait and Commercial

Agfa
100 Triple S Pan 64
50 Isopan 32
24 S. S. Pan 16
24 Superpan Portrait , 16
24 S. S. Plena 16
24 Commercial Pan 16
12 Portrait 8
12 Commercial Ortho 8
12 Commercial 4
Defender
24 X. F. Pan 16
24 X. F. Ortho 16
24 Portrait H. G. S 16
24 Pentagon 16
24 F. G. Pan 16
24 Seed 27 Plate 8
-1
12 Portrait
12 Commercial 8
12 Seed L Ortho Plate 8
12 Seed 26 XPlate • 8
12 Seed L NHPlate 8
12 Stanley Reg. Plate 8
12 Stanley Ex. Imp. Plate 8
12 Standard Orthonon Plate 8
6 Seed 23 Plate 2
Eastman
lOOT Tri-X Panchromatic 64T
lOOT Ortho-X 64T
SOT Super XX 32T
24 S. S. Ortho port 16
24 S. S.Pan 16
24 Portrait Pan 16
Daylight Tungsten
Group Group
No. No.
24 Commercial Pan 16
24 Par Speed Portrait 8
24 Panatomic X 16
12 Commercial 4
Plates
24 Polycrome Plate 8
50 W W Tri Color Plate
(fe 32
24 50 Plate 16
24 40 Plate 8
24 D. C. Ortho Plate 8
24 S. C. Ortho Plate 8
24 33 Plate 4
24 Universal Plate •
8
12 W W& Pan Plate 8
12 Postcard Plate 4
24 Commercial Plate 4
12 W WM
& Plate 8
6 W & W Metallographic Plate 4
Gevaert
24 Studio High Speed 16
24 Superchrome 8
24 Ultra Panchro Plate 16
12 Studio Ultra Panchro 8
12 Commercial 4
12 Sensima Ortho Plate 4
6 Super Chromosa Plate 4
Hammer
24 Tru Tone Pan 8
24 Portrait Ortho 4
24 Special Plates 8
24 Super Sensitive Ortho Plate 8
1 2 Commercial Pan ^ 8
12 Medium Commercial Ortho 2
12 Medium Commercial 2
12 Commercial Pan Plate 4
12 Extra Fast Plate 4
12 Medium Commercial Ortho Plate 4
12 Medium Commercial Plate 2
6 Soft Gradation Pan Plate 2
3 Slow 1
3 Slow Ortho I
3 Slow Plate 1
3 Slow Ortho Plate 1
Press Films
Agfa
100 Superpan Press 64
100 Super Plenachrome Press 32
Defender
.50 X. F. Ortho Press 16
50 X. F. Pan Press. 32
Eastman
100 Super Panchro Press 64
100 Super Ortho Press 32
.50 Panchro Press 32
50 Ortho Press •
16
.50 Ortho Press Plate 16
Gevaert
24 Super Press Plate 16
24 Ultra Panchro Press 16
APPENDIX E 853
Daylight Tungsten
Group Group
No. No.
Hammer
24 Super Ortho Press 4
Process Film
3 Agfa Process 2
3 Defender Process 1
3 Defender Process Pan 2
3 Eastman Process 1
3 Eastman Process Pan 1

1 . 5 Eastman Process Plates 0.5
3 Hammer Process 1
3 Hammer Process Pan Plate 2
16 mm. M. P. Film
Film for motion-picture cameras is processed by the manufacturer. Consequently, this film is rated
in single numbers only.
Daylight Tungsten
Group Group
No. No.
Agfa
lOOT Triple S. Superpan Rev 6-lT
24 Superpan Rev 16
24 Hypan Rev 16
16 Panchromatic Rev 12
12 F. G. Plenachrome Rev
64 Superpan Supreme Neg 40
24 Finopan Neg 16
Du Pont
32 Superior Pan Neg 20
12 Regular Pan Neg 8
Eastman
100 Super XX Pan Rev 64
24 Super X Pan 16
12 Cine' Kodak Safety 8
100 *Measurement 64
* For production study.
Gevaert
16 Ortho 6
24 Panchro Super Rev 16
12 F. G. Panchro Rev 8
8 mm. M. P. Film
8 Filmopan 5
8 Keystone K-8 5
Eastman
8 Cine' Kodak Reg. Pan 5
Ratings for Color Films

Since color film must be processed under carefully controlled conditions and, also, since exposure
must be exact in order to obtain proper color rendition, color film is rated in single numbers only and
not in blocks.
KODACHROME
Daylight Artificial
Roll Film
8, 16, 35 mm. Regular 8 3*
8, 16, 35 mm. Type A 8* 12
Professional Film
Daylight Type 5
Type B 4t Ott
* With filter.
t Exposed through Wratten Filter No. 8oB.

tt Used in Mazda only.
DUFAYCOLOR
Daylight Artificial
Roll Film
Daylight (no filter) 8
Daylight (with daylight green filter) 6
Photoflood or Photoflash (lA filter) ... 3
Mazda (IB filter) 2
Above values include the filters recommended by the manufacturer.
Tentative Ratings for Dufaycolor Cut Films

Daylight (ID Filter) 6
Daylight (3D Filter) in Photoflood 3
Daylight (4D Filter) in Mazda 3
Photoflood (IPF Filter) 4
Photoflood (3PF Filter) in Photoflood 4
Photoflood (4PF Filter) in Mazda 2
Defender
Dupac 6 12
Tripac 1.5 3
AUTHOR INDEX
Blumann, Sigismund, 465
Boals, R. B., 452
Abbe, 40
Bogisch, 334, 335
Abney, W., 328, 821
Bond, W. C, 751
Abraham, H., 768
Booth, L. B., 46
Aokland, F. W., 731
Bostrom, A., 317, 465
Adams, Franklin, 738
Boyle, S., 291
Albersheim, W. J., 152, 349
Bracey, 19, 51
Albrecht, S., 751
Brady, E. J., 317
Aldis, H. L., 44
Brewster, David, 594
Allison, S. K., 834
Briggs, C. W., 834
Anderson, F. A., 350
Brockman, Frank G., 437, 452
Anderson, J. A., 821
Brown, G. H., 546
Anderson, Paul L., 466, 505, 506
Bunel, L.J., 560
Andresen, M., 334, 335
Burchan, Donald, 453
Andrews, H., 67
Burns, K., 821
Archer, S., 328
Busch, Emil, 56
Arey, Leslie B., 377
Bush, Vannevar, 572
Armor, A. E., 152
Buttolph, L. J., 614, 707
Arnold, P. H., 152
Aster, A. K., 468
Auerbaoh, F., 67
B Capstaff, J. G., 546, 662

Carlton, H. C, 377, 546
Backstrom, H., 317, 465 Carlton, H. O., 546
Baines, H., 151 Carnegie, D. J., 551, 560
BaU, I. A., 660, 662 Carroll, B. H., 126, 151, 152
Ball, J. A., 149, 151 Carson, Kenneth, 452
Ballard, A., 395 Case, F. A., 36
Barmeier, F. E., 350 Cassidy, E. H., 133, 151, 452
Barnard, E. E., 737 Cazes, L., 594
Barnes, B. T., 291 Ceecarini, O. O., 616, 662
Barrow, L. E., 279, 291 Chevalier, C, 37
Barth, W., 148, 151 Chibisoff, K. W., 119, 152
Bassett, Ivor, 465 Christensen, 652
Bates, F., 291 Church, Earl, 732
Baumbach, H. L., 662 Clark, G. L., 834
Bauxbaum, E. C, 506 Clark, R. G., 115
Beams, J. W., 769 Clark, Walter, 166, 196, 595, 615, 839
Beck, C, 67 Clay, R. S., 67
Beck, H., 614, 615 Clerc, L. P., 70
Beck, J., 55 Coblentz, W. W., 302, 317
Beck, R., 55 Cole, P. 452
J.,
Becker, A. L., 821 Cole, R. S., 36

Belitzski, 558 Collins, R. F., 799
Bendikson, L., 597, 614 Colt, Ralph S., 437, 452
Benedict, H. C, 142, 151, 452 Compton, A. H., 834
Bennett, A. H., 36 Connell, W. H., 768
Bennett, H. W., 465 Conrady, A. E., 36
Bentley, W. A., 798 Cook, Alan A., 97
Bertele, 45 Cornog, I. C, 86, 89
Beiikers, M. C. F., 350, 377 Cornu, A., 821
Bielicke, 43 Crabtree, J. I., 129. 151, 350, 377, 378, 381, 385,
Bloch, E., 768 390, 392, 465, 545, 546, 551, 556, 558, 5<i0,
Bloch, L., 768 564, 707
855
Cranz, C, 768, 769 Frerichs, R., 821

Current, Ira, 453 Fresnel, Augustin-Jean, 10
Curtis, T. S., 662 Friedrich,C, 57
Fuchs, E., 123, 151
D
G
Dallmeyer, J. H., 37, 56, 57
Davidson, L. F., 350 Gage, H. P., 317
Davies, L. J., 291 Gardner, I. C, 36
Davis, R., 160 Gaudio, A., 693, 707
Deckel, Frederich, 102 Gauss, C. F., 14
Deeks, H. J. C, 648 Geoghan, C, 291
De Langhe, J. E., 350 Gerineshausen, K. J., 769
De Mille, Cecil, 706 Gezelius, R. A., 834
Dent, R. V., 798 Gibbs, C. W., 452
De Saulles, R. H., 465 Gibson, K., 160
Desme, R. G. J., 452 Gibson, K. S., 317
De Vriend, J. R., 291 Gleichen, A., 36, 67
Dieffenbach, A. M., 571 Glover, B. T. J., 463, 465
Dieke, G. H., 821 Goddard, J. T., 38
Donaldson, E. W., 452 Godowsky, L., Jr., 151, 662
Dreher, Carl, 663 Goerz, C. P., 57
Drouin, F., 594 Goetz, A., 129
Druce, J. G. F., 350 Good, Frank B., 706
Dubray, J. A., 662 Goodwin, W. N., Jr., 260
Dudley, Beverly, 1, 153, 208, 261, 292, 378, 507, Gordon, Alfred, 92
547, 835, 840 Gould, W. O., 129
Dundon, M. L., 126, 151, 350, .545, 546 Grant, J., 602, 614
Dunn, C. E., 662 Green, Howard, 706
Dunn, Lynn, 706 Greenlaw, D. S., 115
Dunning, Carroll H., 706 Greenleaf, A. R., 452
Dushman, S., 291 Greenslade, T. B., 452
Dutton, Laurence, 425, 426, 437, 452 Grier, H. E., 769
Gruber, O. von, 732
E
H
Eagle, A., 821
Easley, M. A., 288, 291 Haddon, A., 557
Eder, J. M., 67 Hall, W. T., 798
Edgerton, Harold E., 762, 769 Hamlin, L., 662
Eliel, Leon T., 708 Hammer, W. O., 100
Elliott, 411 Hammond, Arthur, 506
Elliott, F. A., 350 Hanson, R. E., 505
Elsden, 411 Hanson, W. T., Jr., 350, 377
Ende, W., 768 Hardy, A. C, 36, 207, 291, 304, 317, 574, 662, 821
English, F. L., 377, 505 Harman, J. N., Jr., 152
Ermen, W. 350
F. A., Harnwell, G. P., 821
Evans, R. M., 350, 377 Harris, N. L., 291
Harrison, G. B., 260, 662
Harrison, G. R., 129, 207, 291, 804, 821
Harrison, J. R., 151
Farmer, Howard, 556 Harrison, W., 291
Farnham, R. E., 291, 687, 706 Hartig, T., 594
Farthing, J. W., 377 Harting, Hans, 46
Fassbender, Adolph, 465 Hartt, H. A., 385, 390, 392
Fink, D. G., 571 Harvey, E. N., 768
Fleming, William D., 506 Hauff, 327, 328, 334
Flynn, Kirtland, 468 Helmholtz, H., 313, 577, 616
Formstecher, F., 465 Helwich, O., 615
Forrest, J. L., 662 Henn, R. W., 377
Forsythe, W. E., 129, 152, 207, 288, 291, 821 Henney, Keith, 1, 68, 412, 561, 662.
Foulke, T. E., 291 Herbert, W. A., Jr., 452
Fowler, H. A., 36 Herriott, W., 769
Fraprie, F. R., 67, 465 Herschel, Sir William, 595
French, J. W., 575, 593 Hertzberg, Robert, 571
AUTHOR INDEX 857
Keyset, C. A., 452 Leermaker, .J. A., 126, 151, 152

Hibbs, Wyatt, 434 Legg, J. W., 768
Hickman, K. C. D., 405, 406, 411, 546 Lehmann, E., 350
Hobbie, E. H., 317 Leitz, E., 847
Holmes, L. S., 115 Lester, H. M., 615
Homerburg, V. O., 798 Lewis, C. E., 505
Homolka, B., 350 Libessart, P., 291
Hopkinson, R. G., 452 Lindsay, 707
Hotine, M., 732 Littrow, O., 821
Houben, L., 465 Livingood, J. J., 821
Hough-Leahy, 707 Loomis, A. L., 768
Houskeeper, W. G., 495 Lootens, C. L., 571
Hubl, A. von, 662 Lucas, Francis F., 770, 797, 798
Huff, M. O., 291, 452 Luckiesh, M., 291
Hulburt, E. O., 742 Lumiere, A., and L., 327. 348, 411, 465
Humphries, W. J., 798 Lummer, Otto, 36, 67
Huse, K., 551, 553, 558, 706 Luther, R., 163
Huygens, Christian, 10, 25 Lyman, T., 821
M
Isert, G., 615 MacAdam, D. L., 662
Ives, C. E., 465, 546 McCuskey, 756
Ives, H. E., 590, 707 McKay, H. C., 260, 798
McKinley, A. C., 732
McMath, R. R., 742
Macrae, F. G. H., 291
Jackman, F. W., 706, 707 Mannes, L. D., 151, 662
James, D. A., 291 Martin, F. T., 92
Jardine, Donald C., 434 Martin, K., 44
.larman, A. J., 465 Martin, L. C., 36
Jelley, Edwin E.,465 Matthews, G. E., 545, 546, 564, 662
Jenkins, C. F., 768 Matthews, J. H., 350
Jenkins, F. A., 821 Maxwell, James Clerk, 2, 10, 313, 616
Jewell, L. E., 36 Mayer, Emil, 504, 506
Jones, H. A., 291 Mees, C. E. K., 127, 129, 151, 207, 350, 377, 411,
Jones, L. A., 127, 144, 151, 162, 166, 170, 171, 417
176, 184, 185, 187 194, 205, 207, 317, 546, Meggers, W. F., 821
839 Merrill, G. S., 291
Jourdan, Albert, 571 Merte, W., 36, 46, 67
Judge, A. W., 578, 593, 594, 732 Meyer, Hugo, 60
Jugla, 327 Meyer, J. F., 158, 279, 291, 706
Milbauer, J., 228, 465
K Mih, Gjon, 291
Millar, P. S., 291
Kayser, H., 821 Miller, A. J., 546
Kiem, John, 499 Monkhoven, D. Van, 551
Kimball, H. H., 276, 277 Moon, Parry, 280
King, E. S., 755, 761 Morgan, W. D., 615
Kingslake, R., 10, 36, 37 Morris, O. J., 465
Kistiakowsky, O. B., 821 Morse, R. S., 452, 662
Koerner, A. M., 207 Mortensen, William, 506
Kohler, A., 783, 797, 798 Mouat, L. W., 452
Kollmorgen, H., 44 '
Mowbray, G. M., 452
Korth, Fred G., 452 Muehler, L. E., 551, 556, 558, 560
Krauss, H., 558 Murray, H. D., 350, 377
Kurtz, Henry, 574, 593
N
Namias, R., 652, 662
Laksy, M., 260 Neblette, C. B., 67, 207, 227, 411, 546
Lambert, R. H., 116, 152 Newcomer, H. S., 50
Langmuir, I., 291 Newens, F. R., 662
Leahy, W. A., 706 Newton, Sir Isaac, 10
Lee, H. W., 43, 67 Nickolaus, J. M., 465
Nietz, A. H., 350, 377, 465, 551, 553, 558 Rudolph, Paul, 40, 41, 45, 46
Noel, E. B., 291 Rule, John T., 572
Norgren, C. A., 452 Russell, Grant, 452
Norling, J. A., 707 Russell, H. D., 378, 381, 392, 546
Norrish, R. G. W., 377
Nutting, P. G., 112, 113, 291
O Sandvik, O., 185, 207

Sanial, A. J., 452
Odell, A. F., 375 Sauveur, A., 798
Osterndorff, E. R., 452 Sawj'er, 505
Sawyer, R. A., 821
Schardin, H., 768, 769
Schilt, J., 753
Pandalai, 350 Schmidt, Bernhard, 740
Parker, Haywood, 116, 377, 546 Schneider, Joseph, 62, 63
Partrington, Charles H., 506 Schott, 40
Perrin, F. H., 36, 207, 291, 304, 317, 574, 821 Schroder, 40
Perrine, C. D., 751 Schwingel, C. H., 129, 151
Petzval, J., 37 Sease, V. B., 377
Pfund, A. H., 291 Sequin, A., 769
Pike, H. W., 452 Seyewetz, A., 327, .348, 411, 465
Piper, C. Welborne, 411, 551, 560 Sharp, H. O., 732
G. H., 207
Pitt, F. Shaw, W. B., 465
J., 798
Pittock, F. Sheppard, S. E., 116-120, 151, 152, 166, 207, 307,
Plaumann, H., 336 350, 395, 411, 546
Planck, Max, 10 Silberstein, L., 119, 151
Potter, R. 662
S., Simon, G., 63
Poullin, V. E., 834 Smethurst, P. C., 291, 377
Power, H. D'Arcy, 465 Smiley, C. H., 740
Pratt, J. G., 798 Smith, H. A., 571
Pulfrich, C, 594 Smyth, Piazzi, 51
Snodgrass, L. L., 571
Spanner, H. J., 291
Spencer, D. A., 377, 405, 406, 411, 617, 662
Quayle, Philip P., 769 Spicer, Don R., 452
Springer, Julius, 99, 102, 103
R Stable (Staeble), Dr., 42, 48, 63
Stark, Mary B., 797
Rabinowitsch, A. J., 350 Starnes, 327, 328
Radley, J. A., 602, 614 Stand, C. J., 126, 151, 152
Ramley, Edward J., 434 Steigmann, A., 465
Rawlings, S. O., 317, 615 Stern, H. S., 798
Rayton, W. B., 51 Stetson, H. T., 733, 761
Reed, C. D., 768 Stevens, G. W. W., 377
Reeves, D. M., 732 Strohm, Walter, 706
Regnault, V., 328 Strong, J., 662
Reichert, C, 52, 61 Struth, W., 769
Reinders, W., 350, 377 Stull, W., 291
Renwick, F. E., 662 Suhara, T., 768
Richardson, E. C, 707 Suits, C. G., 769
Richter, R., 67 Sweet, 411
Rietzschel, 52
Ritter, 595
Roberts, Creighton, 207
Rodenstock, G., 61 Tallej-, B. B.,732
Rohr, Montz von, 594, 797 Tausch, E., 350
Rorimer, J. J., 614 Taylor, A. H., 317
Ross, F. E., 121, 152, 411, 739, 751, 761 Taylor. H. Dennis, 43, 51
Ross, J. F., 546 Taylor, H. G., 769
Rothrock, A. M., 768 Taylor, W., 67
Rothwell, C. F., 594 Teele, R. T., 291
Roussel, H. R., 62 Terrill, H. M., 834
Rowland, H. A., 821 Traill-Taylor, J., 36, 67
Rubin, B., 260 Travelli, A. P. H., 118, 119, 151, 152, 166, 307
AUTHOR INDEX 859
Tritton, F. J., 662 Westerman, A. W., 452

Trump, R. J., 575, 593 Wheatstone, Charles, 593
Turner, P. K., 839 Wheeler, Owen, 465, 662
Tuttle, Clifton, 207, 432, 452 Whitaker, A., 377
Tuttle, F. E., 768 White, D. R., 318, 351, 546
White, H. E., 821
U Whittaker, J. D., 291
Wiegleb, P., 465
Underberg, G., 465 Wilder, L. S., 662
Urey, C. T., 834 Willcock, R. B., 350
Williams, A. T., 208, 839
Williams, R. L., 36
Williams, R. S., 798
Van Kreveld, A., 129 Willis, 732
Van Liempt, J. A. M., 291 Wilman, C. W., 798
Varden, L. E., 36, 152, 437 Winchester, 732
Vittum, P. W., 129, 151 Wing, F. M., 662
Von Albada, L. E. W., 593 Wolcott, F. W., 115
Von Hoegh, 41, 44 Wolfe, 707
Von Hiibl, 350 Wollaston, W. H., 37, 595
Von Rohr, M., 36, 67, 115, 594, 797 Wood, R. W., 821
Woodley, A. J., 452
W Wôods, Robert C, 822, 834
Worthing, A. C, 291
Waddell, J. H., 465, 546 Worthington, A. M., 769
Wadsworth, F. L. O., 821 Wratten, S. H., 377
Waldram, J. M., 769 Wunsch, 313, 616
Walker, Vern, 706
Wall, E. J., 350, 465, 650, 662
Wallace, R. J., 207
Warner, E. E., 798 Yost, Lloyd, 115
Warwick, A. W., 382, 391, 402, 406, 411 Young, L. H., 452
Waters, L. A., 115 Young, Thomas, 10, 313, 616
Watkins, A., 377 Yunker, E. A., 449, 452
Webb, J. H., 128, 151, 161, 546
Weber, J. R., 318, 351
Weiland, W. F., 437, 452, 798
Weinland, C. E., 350 Zerbe, William H., 465
Weller, H., Jr., 452 Zieler, H. W., 76
SUBJECT INDEX
Bellows, effect of extending, 20
Binocular vision, 577
Abbe apertometer, 776-779 Bleach, catalytic, 150
Abbe number, of glass, 40 Blisters on negatives, 529-530
Aberration, chromatic, 28, 30-31 Box-camera shutter, 98
spherical, 28-30 Brightness, of optical images, 18
Acceptance angle, in photoelectric exposure Bromoil printing, 497-505
meters, 255 Buffers, 340
Achromatic lens, 30-31, 37 Bunsen and Roscoe, reciprocity law of, 128
Actinometers, 249
Additive-color process {see Color processes)
Adurol, 322
Aerial photography, 708-732 Cameras, 68-96
contour mapping, 729—731 accessories for, 80-93
laboratory operations, 720—721 view finders, 80-82
oblique pictures, 715-716 adjustments in, 78-80
rectification in,722-723 for aerial photography, 712-714
requirements 708-714
of, basic elements of, 68-69
vertical pictures, 716—720 box, 71-72
Aerocartograph, 731 color-photography, 624-629
Agfa screen color plate, 655-656 Contaflex, 76
Airy disk, 25 Contax, 76
Amidol, 324, 335, 337 as enlargers, 434
Aminophenols, 322 Exakta, 76
P-, 334 folding, 72-73
Anaglyphs, 583-584 Grafiex, 74, 78
Angle of view, 5 hand, 73
Antihalation backings, 124-125 high-speed motion-picture, 766-768
Apertometer, Abbe, 776-779 identification, 78
Aperture, of microscopes, numerical, 773-775 as integrated units, 5-6
Aperture and exposure ratio, 19-20 Leica, 76
Aperture ratio, measurement of, 20 miniature, 75-78
Aperture stop, effect on exposure, 219-220 motion-picture, 680-685
Arc, light-distribution diagram of high-intensity, and mechanical requirements
optical for, 76, 78
692 panorama, 78
Artigue printing process, 493 pinhole, 25-26, 69-71
Astigmatism, 28, 32-33 Recordak, 77, 78
Astrometry, 750 recording, 78
Astronomical lenses {see Lenses) rectifying, 722
Astronomical photography, 733-761 reflex, 71, 74-75
exposures for, 747-748 Robot, 78
737-741
lenses for, roll-film, 72-73
measuring photographic plate in, 750-751 Schmidt, 740
mechanical aids for following celestial objects, sequence, 78
736 single-exposure high-speed, 762-765
mountings for, 736 Speed Graphic, 73
photographic plates for, 744-747 stereoscope, 78, 579-580
studio,73-74
B Twentieth Century-Fox silent, 682
Ulca, 71
Back focal distance, 16 universal, 75
Barium glass, 40 view, 73-74
Barrel distortion, 31 Camera-object relationships, 93-96
Bausch and Lomb (see Lenses) Carbon arcs, 285-286
Bell and Howard photometer, 249-250 Carbon printing, 466-474
861
Carbro process, 150, 474-478, 629-640 Davis and Gibson liquid filter, 155, 160-161
Carbro solutions, 631-636 Densitometers, 171-177
Chloride paper, H and D curves for, 142 Density, determinations of, 167-177
Chromatic aberration, 28, 30-31 diffuse, 169-170
transverse, 28 filters, neutral, 307
Chromatic difference of magnification, 28, 31 fog, 181
Chromatone, 645-648 negative, incorrect, 522-523
Cinematography (see Motion-picture photog- optical, 123
raphy) print, incorrect, 540
Circle of confusion, 23 printing, 171
Clouds, printing in, 439 range of papers, 201
Coelostat, 743-744 specular. 169-170
Color control table, 442 table, 840
Color correction, of microscopic objectives, Depth of field, 90-92
775-776 table for, 92
Color filters, graduated, 303 Developers, Adurol, 322
Color index and visual magnitudes, 753-754 Amidol, 324, 335, 337
Color photography, 7-9, 616-662 aminophenol, 322
cameras for, 624-629 P-, 334
emulsions for, 148-149 color-forming, 375-377
negative materials, 148—149 Diphenal, 324
positive materials, 149 Duratol, 324
Color plate, Agfa screen, 655-656 Eikonogen, 326
Color processes, additive, 7, 148, 654—660 Elon, 335
carbro, 629-640 ferrous oxalate, 319
chemical toning, 645—648 glycine, 323, 335, 368
Chromatone, 645-648 Hydramine, 327
Duxochrome, 648-651 hydroquinone, 320, 328, 334
Dyebro, 645 inorganic, 319
dye-mordanting, 652—653 litho, 369
Eastman wash-off relief, 640-643 Metacarbol, 337
Finlay, 659-660 Meritol, 328
Kodachrome, 151, 611 metol, 334-335
Pinatype, 643-645 metoquinone, 327
subtractive, 8-9, 148 Monomet, 323
Technicolor, 150, 660 motion-picture, 363-366, 701-702
toning, 150-151 MQ, 367-368
Color response, determining, 184-190 with organic reducers, 319#.
Color separation, composite photography by, 703 Ortol, 328
Color-separation negatives, 617-629 pH of, 340
Color transparencies, 653-660 phenylenediamine, p-, 323, 337
Coma, 28, 30 Piral, 328
Comeths, photographing, 758 polyphenol, 321
Composite photography, 703-704 portrait and commercial, 365-368
Constringence, 40 printing paper for, 370
Contour mapping, 729-731 Pyramidol, 324
Contrast, 420 pyro, 320
effect of development on, 142 pyro-soda, 366
maximum, 179 Rodinal, 334
in negatives, incorrect, 520-521 for X-rays, 371-372
paper, 142-145 Developing agents, blue-black, 344—345
in prints, incorrect, 539 methods of identifying (table), 336
Contrast control in prints, 440 Development, 6, 318-377
Contrast filters, 311-313 accelerator in, 339-341
Conversion factors, tables of, 835-838 aerial fog, 342
Coupled range finders, accuracy of, 89 agitation and circulation systems in tank,
Curling of prints, 409-410, 543 355-357
Curvature of lens field, 28, 33 alkaline agents for (table), 341
Cut films, identification of, 137-138 brushed, 355
buffered borax formulas for, 340
D change produced by, 346-347
Darkroom, equipment for, 565-569 chemical, 318#.
general characteristics of, 561-565 defects in, 361-362
paints for, 563 Eberhardt effect, 362-363, 754-755
radiographic, 832-833 fine-grain, 345-348, 371
SUBJECT INDEX 863
Development, formulas for, 363 Eclipse photography, 759-761

hand-agitation, 354 Eder-Hecht speed rating, 192-193
hardeners for, 343-344 Eikonogen, 326
high-temperature, 372 Elon, 335
induction period in, 348 Embossing prints, 446
influence of agitation on, 353 Emulsions, choice of negative, 133-134
inspection methods of correct, 358 in color photography, 148-149
Mackie line, 362-363 double-coated, 124-125
organic compounds for (table), 329-333 grain structure of, 118-119
physical, 318, 373-374 hyperpanchromatic, 131
preservative, 337-339 negative, 130-138
process of, 368-369 orthochromatic, 131
quantitative studies of, 348-350 orthopanchromatic, 131
rapid processing, 373 overcoated, 125
reduction potential, 337-338 panchromatic, 131
restrainer, 341-343 photographic, 116-122
reticulation, 363 physical properties of, 120-121
reversal, 372 positive, 138-146
roll-film, 370 resolving power of, 23-24, 131
silver halide solvents in, 344 reversal, 146-147
squeegee, 355, 356 spectrograms for paper, 141
stagnant, 354 Emulsion fog, 519-520
tank, 355-357 Emulsion speed and contrast, 132-133
teaspoon, 335 Emulsion supports, 121-125
technique of, 351-377 Enlarger, camera as, 434
temperature control in, 351-353 condenser, 430-432
theory of, 318-350 diffusion, 432
time-temperature, 359-360 fixed-focus, 429
toning by direct development, 454-455 variable-focus, 429-430
tray, 354-355 Enlargement, depth of focus and, 25
tropical, 344 measuring degree of, 434-435
two-solution processes, 340 of negatives by reversal, 448
velocity constant, 337, 348 Enlargement formula, 432
windshield-wiper methods in, 355 Enlarging, distortion correction in, 440
Development 518-519
fog, exposure meters in, 436-437
Diffraction, X-ray, 831-832 Enlarging lenses, 35
Diffusion, 439 Enlarging and reducing tables, 433
Diffusion attachments, 23 Entrance pupil, 18
DIN speed system, 192-193 Exit pupil, 18
Diphenal, 324 Exposure, for astronomical photography, 747-748
Distance, back focal, 16 definition of, 211-212
hyperfocal, 25 effect on, of extending bellows, 20
Distortion, 28, 31-32 effect of lamp voltage upon, 435
barrel, 31 factors affecting, 216-217
correction of, in enlarging, 440 methods of determining, 228
pincushion, 31 for motion-picture photography, 245-248
Documentary photography, ultraviolet, 600-602 for near-by objects, 227-228
Dodging, 438 over-, 178
Dolly (rotambulator), 684 photochemical action during, 208-209
Drying, 407-409 practical considerations, 217
by alcohol and ether, 408 spectral sensitivity bearing on, 223
curling of prints in, 409-410 with supplementary lenses, 224-225
prints, 409 with telephoto lenses, 225-226
(See also Fixing, washing, drying) test-strip method of determining, 436
Dufaycolor film, 147, 656-659 under-, 177-178
Duratol, 324 use of diaphragm aperture in determining, 239
Duxochrome, 648-651 ^
Exposure aids, 228-229
Dye toning, 463-465 Exposure and aperture ratio, 19—20
Dyebro color process, 645 Exposure calculators, 246-248
Dyes, basic, for toning, 464 Exposure devices, 208-260
types of, 126 Exposure disk, Zeiss Diaphot, 250
Exposure latitude, 134, 178-179
E
in processing prints, 440-441
Eastman wash-off relief, 640-643 Exposure meters, 249-200
Eherhardt effect, 362-363, 754-755 Bewi Sr., 251
Exposure meters, brightness-range method of Filters, properties of,295-296

using photoelectric, 257-258 safe-light, 141, 312, 316
characteristics of American photoelectric. separation, 311, 313-315
256-257 theory of, 292-301
Cinephot, 250 types of, 301-305
comparison of visual, 252 for ultraviolet photography, 597-598
in enlarging, 436-437 use of several, 297
General Electric, 253 Filter factor, 128, 220, 298, 300-301
Instoscope, 250 tables of, 132, 846-849
Justaphot, 250 Fine-grain developers (see Developers)
Leudi, 250 Finger marks on negatives, 526
limiting acceptance angle in photoelectric, 255 Finlay color process, 659-660
Mini-Photoscop, 255 Fixing, 6
operation of photoelectric, 254-255 chemistry of, 380-381
photoelectric, 253-260 practical considerations in, 389-391
scale cahbrations of photoelectric, 255 purpose of, 380
Weston, 253 Fixing, washing, drying, 378-411
Exposure range of paper, 201-204 Fixing-baths, 383-399
Exposure scales of paper, 144 acid hardening, 385-386
Exposure tables, 229-248 composition of, 386-389
Exposure time and film speed, 214-216 plain, 384-385
Eye, spectral sensitivity of, 156 reducing action of, 392

Fixing-bath troubles, blisters, 392-393
dichroic fog, 393
failure of hardener, 393-394
/-number, 219-220 milkiness, 394
Fades, 705 scum, 394-395
Fading negatives, 527 sludging {see milkiness)
Ferrotyping, 410-411 stains in negatives, 395-396

Ferrous oxalate, 319 water-supply difficulties, 396-399
Field, depth of, 23-25, 90-92 Flare spot, 22
Films, characteristics of, motion-picture, 665-680 Flash guns, synchronized, 93
dimensional standards for 35-mm. and 16-mm., FlashUght powders, 238, 288
137, 664 Focal length, 14
Dufaycolor, 147, 656-659 choice of, 28, 96
identification of cut, 137-138 measurement of, 17
motion-picture positive, 139 of telescope, determining, 748
overcoated, 125 Focal-plane shutters, 106-109
positive for motion pictures, 678-680 efficiency of, 112-115
spectrograms of, 127-128 of Con tax, 112
stripping, 125 of Leica, 111
X-ray, 148 Focal points, 15
Film-base characteristics, 122-123 Focus, depth of, 23-25
Film speed, and exposure time, 214-216 Focusing, 79
Film-speed ratings, Weston, 850-854 Focusing scale, 82—83
Film-speed relations, equations for, 215 calculation of, 15
Filters, 292-317 Focusing system (see Lenses)
care of, 308-309 Fog, aerial, 342, 517
cementing, 310-311 antifogging compounds, 343
classification of, 311-316 development, 518-519
compensation, 311, 312 dichroic, 517-518
contrast, 311-313 emulsion, 519-520
Davis and Gibson liquid, 155, 160-161 light, 520
effect of thickness of, 296-297 local, 520
equalizing, 311, 312 in prints, 539

graduated color, 303 Fog density, 181
image brightness as function of, 214 Fresson printing process, 479, 493-497
for incandescent light sources, 160—161 Frilhng, 531
for infrared photography, 604-606 in prints, 543
monochromatic, 312, 315-316
in motion-picture photography, 693-697
mounting, 309-310
neutral-tint density, 307 Gamma, 179-180, 420
polarizing agents as, 303-307 reproduction, 701
polaroid, 12 time, curves, 181-183
SUBJECT INDEX 865
Gamma infinity, 181-182 Intensification, 547-554

Gelatin, photographic, 117 local,559-560
Gelatin baclcing, 123-124 proportional, 550
Gelatin relief color process, 648-651 subproportional, 550
Geologic field photography, 799-803 superproportional, 550
Ghost image, 22 Intensifiers, characteristics of common, 549
Glass, Abbe number of, 40 chromium, 551-552
barium, 40 mercury, 552-553
index and dispersion of, 40 negative gradient, 551
Glass plate characteristics, 121-122 physical, 553
Glycine, 323, 335, 368 positive gradient, 551
Gradient speed, minimum useful, 195-196 silver, 553
Grain structure of emulsion, 118-119 uranium, 553-554
G raininess, 129 zero gradient, 551
Grating mountings, 813-814 Intermittency effects, 161-162
Gum printing, 486-493 Iris diaphragm, 18
Ives stereo system, 590-591
H
H and D, characteristic of, 134, 177

Javelle water, 496
curves for chloride paper, 142
Halation, 525-526
Half-tone engravings, prints for, 437-438
Halide crystals, silver, 118-119
Kodachrome, 151, 661
Harcourt pentane lamp, 155
Kodak {see Lenses)
Hardeners, 343-344
Kodak coupled range finder, 85-86
Hardening fixing bath, acid, 444
Kodak pocket range finder, 84-85
Harmonizing, 559
Hartmann mierophotometer, 752
Harvard Sky Maps, 738
Hefner lamp, 155
Lamps, carbon arc, 28.5-286
Heliostat, 743
controlling light output of, 284-285
High-speed photography, 762-769
photoflash, 286-288
Hydramine, 327
photoflood, 282-285
Hydroquinone, 320, 328, 334
voltage effect, 158-160, 435
Hyperfocal distance, 25, 90-91
Lantern slides, 139, 449-450
Hyperstereoscopy, 588
Leica coupled range finder, 86-87
Hypo, electrical methods of testing, 405
Lenses, absorption and reflection in, 226-227
eliminators, 407
achromatic, 30-31
test solution for, 404-405
action of, 13
aero, 49
Agfa, 54
Aldis, 44, 54
Illumination, brightness of optical, 18 Alvan Clark, 44
depth of focus in, 24 anamorphic, 50
distance of, 15 anastigmat, principal types of, 53-67
ghost, 22 - angular field of, 27, 33-34
reversal of, 522 Aplanat, 39
size of, 16 apochromatic, 31, 49
of sloping object, 17 Astro-Gesellschaft, 54
variation of illumination over image, 20-21 Astro Tachar, 43
Image brightness, as function of filter, 214 astronomical photographic, 51, 737-741
of optical systems, 212-214 Bausch and Lomb, 55
Image tone, of prints, 145 Bausch and Lomb Aero, 43
Imbibition process, 150
Bausch and Lomb Metrogon, 44
Bausch and Lomb Plastigmat portrait, 52
Inertia, of photographic material, 180-181
Bausch and Lomb Raytar, 45
Inertia-speed ratings, 193-195
Beck, 55
Infrared, sources of, 603-604
Beck Biplanat, 53
Infrared photography, 602-614
Beck Bystigmar, 42
applications of, 610-614
Beck Isostigmar, 52
filters for, 604-606 Beck Neostigmar, 43
lenses for, 49 Beck Portrait Biplanat, 53
methods of, 608-610 Beck Symmetrical, 53
Lenses, Berthiot Perigraphique, 53 Kodak cine, 52

Lenses,
Boyer, 55-56 Kodak Ektar, 45
Bruce Doublet, 737 Laack, 59
bubbles in, 22-23 Laack Polyxentar, 52
Busch, 56 landscape, 37
Busch Bistelar, 47 Leitz, 59-60
Busch Leukar, 42 light transmission of, 21-23
Busch Omnar, 44 measurement of focal length, 17
Busch Pantoskop, 38 Meyer, 60

Busch Rapid Aplanat, 53 Meyer Aristoplan, 53
Busch Rapid Symmetrical, 53 Meyer Aristoplanat, 53
Busch Stigmar, 42-43 Meyer Aristostigmat, 44
Busch Wide-angle portrait, 53 Meyer Kino-Plasmat, 42-43
calculation of, 13 Meyer Makro-Plasmat, 52
cleaning of, 23 Meyer Plasmat, 42
combination of two, 14-15 Meyer Primoplan, 45
concave, 15-16 objective, 432
condensing, 431-432 O.I. P., 60
Cooke, 43 optics of, 10-36
curvature of fields of, 33 orthoscopic, 32, 37-38
Dallmeyer, 56-57 Pancratic, 47
Dallmeyer Adon, 51 periscopic, 38
Dallmeyer-Bergheim diffuse portrait lens, 50 Petzval portrait, 37
Dallmeyer Dallon, 47 Plaubel, 61
Dallmeyer Pentae, 46 Plaubel Tele-Makinar, 48
Dallmeyer Rapid Rectilinear, 53 Plaubel Tele-Peconar, 52
Dallmeyer Stigmatic, 52 Polyplast, 42
defects in, 28 portrait, 50, 53
double-protar, 41, 42 principal point, 14, 15
Dynar, 46 principal types, 51-53
enlarging, 35, 49 process, 48-49
equivalent refracting surface, 14 Protar, 40-41
Ernostar, 45 rectilinear, 32, 38-39
exposure -sv-ith single elements of, 225 Reichert, 61
exposure with supplementary, 224-225 Reichert Combinar, 41, 42
Fleury-Hermagis Eidoskop, 53 resolving power of, 25
focal length of, 14 Richter, 44
for astronomical photography, 739 Rietzschel, 61
for roll-film cameras, 73 Rietzschel Linear, 41, 42
and focusing system, 4-5 Rodenstock, 61
four-piece, 44-45 Rodenstock Eikonar, 42
Friedrich, 57 Rodenstock Imagonal, 52
Goerz, 57 Rodenstock Pantagonal wide angle, 52
Goerz Alethar process, 44-45 Rodenstock Recti-aplanat, 53
Goerz Celor, 44 Rodenstock Wide-angle Aplanat, 53
Goerz convertible anastigmat, 41, 42 Ross, 62
Goerz Dagor, 41, 42 Ross Concentric, 40
Goerz Dogmar, 44 Ross Homocentric, 44
Goerz Lynkeioskop, 53 Ross Telecentric, 48
Goerz Pantar, 41 Ross Teleros, 48
Goerz Paraplanat, 53 Ross Xpres, 42, 46
Goerz Telegor, 48 Roussel, 62
Gundlach-Manhattan, 58 Rudolph Planar, 45
Gundlach Perigraphic, 42 Rudolph Unar, 44
Gundlach Radar, 46 Schneider, 62-63
Harrison and Schnitzer Globe, 38 Schneider Ortho-Angulon, 42, 43
Harting Oxyn, 46 Schneider Symmar, 42
Hartnack Pantoskop, 53 Schneider Tele-Xenar, 48
Hill, 48, 52 Schneider Xenon, 45
Hypergon wide angle, 39 Schulze, 63
Ilex, 58 Schulze Euryplan, 42, 45
Ilex convertible rapid rectilinear, 53 Schulze Orthoskop, 53
for infrared photography, 49 Schulze Spiiriskop, 53
Kern, 58 scratches in, 22-23
Kodak, 58-59 Simon, 63
SUBJECT INDEX 867
Lenses, Simon Octanar, 42 Light-distribution diagram of high-intensity arc,

soft-focus, 50 692
Stable (Staeble), 63 Light filters, 292-317
Stable Neoplast, 48 Light fog, 520
Steinheil, 53, 63 Light output of lamps, controlling, 284-285
Steinheil Unofocal, 44 Light reflection, from colored objects, 218
Steinheil Orthostigmat, 42 diffuse, 262-263
stray light 22-23
in, specular, 262-263
supplementary, 50-51 Light reflectors, 289-291
Suter Aplanat, 53 Light sources, artificial, 277-288
Sutton's panoramic, 38 carbon arcs, 285-286
system of, magnification in, 16 flashlight powders, 288
Taylor-Hobson, 34, 64 moonlight as, 276
Taylor-Hobson Aviar, 44 natural, 273-277
Taylor-Hobson convertible, 42-43 photoflood lamps, 282-285
Taylor-Hobson Opic, 45 photographic, 261-291
Taylor-Hobson Speedic, 43, 44 reflectors as, 289-291
Taylor-Hobson Super-speed Panchro, 45 for sensitometry, 154-161
Taylor-Hobson telephoto, 47 spectral-intensity curves for, 271
Technicolor, 34 for spectroscopy, 819-820
telenegative, 47 Light spectra, 266-268
telephoto, 16, 46-48 Light transmission of lens, 21-23
Tessar, 45-46 Lighting, motion-picture, 685-693
tests for, 34-35 spotlight characteristics, 690
thin, 15 Littrow mounting of spectrograph, 809
transmission of, 18 Lumiere Autochrome plates, 147
Turner-Reich convertible, 41, 42
Voightlander, 64 M
Voightlander CoUinear, 41, 42
Voightlander Euryskop, 53 Mackie line, 362-363
Voightlander Heliar, 46 Magnification, in lens system, 16
Voightlander Heliostigmat, 46 longitudinal, 16-17
Voightlander Tele-Dynar, 47-48 telephoto, 16
Watson, 65 Map, aerial, 721-731
Watson Holostigmat, 41, 42 compiling mosaic, 724-729
Wollensak, 65 Harvard Sky, 738
Wollensak Versar, 53 Marten's polarization densitometer, 175-177
Wray, 65 Masking, 438-439
Wray Lustrar, 44, 45 Medical radiography, 824-825
Wray Platystigmat, 53 Meritol, 328
Zeiss, 65-66 Metacarbol, 337
Zeiss Biotar, 43, 45 Metallography, 780
Zeiss Biotessar, 46 Metals, microscopy of, 780-783
Zeiss Convertible Protar, 42 Meteors, photographing, 758-759
Zeiss Magnar, 47 Metol, 334-335
Zeiss Ortho Protar, 42 Metoquinone, 327
Zeiss Orthometar, 43 Microphotometer, Hartmann, 752
Zeiss Sonnar, 43-44 Microscope, numerical aperture of, 773-775
Zeiss Tele-tessar, 47, 48 optical diagram of, 789
Zeiss Triple-Protar, 41, 42 optical systems of, 771
zoom, 684 resolving power of, 773
Light, actinic, 261 ultraviolet, 783-797
definitions of, 261 Microscopic objectives, color correction of, 775-
intensity and quality of, in determining 776
exposure, 217-219 Microscopy, of metals, 780-783
limitation of beam, 17-18 technical, 770-798
nature and properties of, 10-12, 266 Miniature cameras {see Cameras)
photographic effects of, 268-273 Monomet developing agent, 323
polarized, 12 Montages (see Photo montages)
scattering of, by negative, 168-169 Moon, photographing, 758
solarspot incandescent, 689 Moonlight, as light source, 270
stray, in lenses, 22-23 Mosaic map, 724-729
Light beam, effect of inserting parallel plate into, Motion-picture cameras, liigh-speed, 760-768
34 Motion-picture developers, 363-360
Motion-picture photography, 7, 663-707 Paper, storage of printing, 426

exposures for, 245-248 texture, 145-146
laboratory practice in, 697-702 weight, 146

polarizing screens in, 697 Paper base characteristics, 123-124
Motion-picture positive film, 139 Paper contrast, 142-145
JMotion-picture process photography, 702-706 Paper negatives, 446-447
Mounting prints, 445-446 Parallax, 82
in view finders, 36
N Paraxial ray, 13
Periscopic lens, Steinheil's, 38
Negatives, blisters on, 529-530 Perspective, 26-27, 94-95
blurred, 512-513 Petzval theorem, 39
color-separation, 617-629 pH of developing formulas, 340
condition, for correct, 211 Phenylenediamine, p-, 323, 337
defects in, 507-538 Photo montages, 439-440
distorted image, 514-517 Photo murals, 447-448
emulsions 130-138
for, Photoflash lamps, 286-288
choice 133-134
of, Photoflood lamps, 282-285
enlarged by reversal, 448 Photographic materials, 5, 116-152
fading of, 527 graininess of, 129
finger marks on, 526 methods of use, 126-127
fogged, 517-520 reciprocity failure, 128-129
531
frilling, resolving power, 130
harmonizing, 559 sensitivity, 140-142
image reversal in, 522 spectral sensitivity, 125-127
incorrect contrast in, 520-521 speed, 190-196
incorrect density 522-523 of, types of dyes, 126
matching of, with paper, 418-422 Photographic sketching, 448-449
materials for, types of, 135-136 Photography, color (see Color photographj')
multiple image on, 513-514 elementary, 3-7
opacity-brightness relation, 196-199 motion-picture (see Motion-picture photog-
paper, 446-447 raphy)
reticulation in, 531-532 present status of, 1
standard sizes of, 136-137 Photometer, Bell and Howard, 249-250

static lines and markings on. 511-512 Photometry, 751-753
Photomicrography, 770-798
O Photon, 264
Pigments, for gum printing, 488
Object distance, 15 Pinatype color process, 643-645
Opacity, 23 Pincushion distortion, 31
Opacity-brightness relation, 196-199 Pinhole camera, 25-26
Optical density, 23 Piral, 328
Optical diagram of ultraviolet microscope, 789 Planets, photographing, 759
Optical printer, diagram of, 704 Plateholder, double-slide, 737

Optical system, of microscopes, 771 Plates, for astronomical photography, 744-747
Optics, of lenses, 10-36 Eastman spectroscopic, 745

Orthoscopic lenses, 32, 37-38 measuring in astronomy, 750-751
Ortol, 328 Platinum printing, 478-486
Polarized light, 12
Ostwald ripening, 116
Polarizing agents, as filters, 303-307
Polarizing screens, in motion-picture photog-
raphy, 697
Polaroid filters, 12
Faints, for darkroom, 563
Polaroid stereo system, 584-585
Paper, characteristics of contact, 423
Polyphenols, 321
density range of, 201, 422
Pomeroy-Dunning system, 703
direct positive, 147, 450-451
422-425
POP (see Paper, printing-out)
effect of curvature of,
Portrait lenses (see Lenses)
exposure range of, 144, 201-204 Positive materials, 138-146
H and D curves for chloride, 142 characteristics of, 199-204
matching with negative, 418-422 Principal point, 14, 15
for platinum printing, 480 Printer, optical, 704
printing-out, 146, 451 Printing, 7
projection, 424 Artigue process, 493
sheen of, 145 carbon, 466-474
SUBJECT INDEX 869
Printing, carbro, 474-478 Rectification, of aerial photographs, 723

contact, 426-427 Rectilinear lenses, 32
equipment for, 427-428 Reducer, Farmer's, 556
contrast control in,440 Haddon's, 557
Fresson process, 479, 493-497 proportional, 558-559
gum, 486-493 subtractive, 556-558
gum platinum, 484-485 superproportional, 559
materials for, 414-415 Reducing and enlarging tables, 433
characteristics of, 20 1#. Reduction, 554-560
multiple-carbon, 471-473 local, 559-560
oil and bromoil, 497-505 Reflected light (see Light)
papers for exposure range, 415 Reflecting-type finders, 81-82
tone range, 415 Reflection, diiTuse, 262-263
platinum, 478-486 factors in, 290
practical considerations in, 417-426 specular, 262-263
projection, 428-438 Reflectors, 289-291
safe lights for, 442 Refraction, 10
Printing-in clouds, 439 law of, 12-13
Printing processes, 412-452 (See also Lenses)
control of, 438-440
Resolving power, of emulsions, 23-24, 131
special, 466-506
of lens, 25
types of, 412-414
of microscopes, 773
Prints, curling of, 409-410, 543
Reticulation, 363, 531-532
defects in, 538-545
Reversal, enlarged negatives by, 448
embossing, 446
Reversal emulsions, 146-147
exposure latitude in processing, 440-441
Reversal materials, 147-148
fog in, 539
Reversal process, Kodachrome, 151
frilling in, 543
Rodinal, 334
glossy, 416-417
Roll-film cameras, focal length of lenses for,
for half-tone engravings, 437-438
73
high-key, 425
Ross corrector, 739-740
image tone, 145
Rotambulator (dolly), 684
incorrect contrast in, 539
incorrect density in, 540
low-key, 425
matte, 416-417
mounting, 445-446 Safe Ughts, 141, 312, 316
paper for, 140 for printing, 442
processing of, 440 Scheiner speed ratings, 192-193
tonal quality of, 339 Schmidt camera, 740
tone control of, 441-442 Sensitometer, Eder-Hecht, 192-193
toning, 453-465 practical, 165
waxing matte, 416 Sensitometry, application of, 154
Purkinje shift, 264-265 development for, 166-167
Pyramidol, 324 light sources for, 154-161
Pyro, 320, 328 practical applications of, 196#.
Pyrogallol (see Pyro) Sepia toning, 456-461
Short-stop baths, 378-380, 444
Shutters, 5, 97-115
automatic, 100
care of, 114-115
Quantum, 264
Compur, 103, 104
Deckel, dimensions of, 105
R focal-plane, 109-110
of Contax, 112
Radiation, effects of, 292-295 efficiency of, 112-115
Radiographic darkroom, 832-833 of Leica, 111
Radiography, 822-834 Graflex, 110, 111
industrial, 825-831 106-107
Ilex specifications,
medical, 824-825 interlens,97-100
radium, 834 Kodamatie, 104
Range finders, 83-89 Kodo, 98
Reciprocity law, 128-129, 161-162 of modern box-camera, 98
Recording cameras and projectors, 78 multiblade, 100-106
(See also Cameras) retarding devices, 102-104, 107-109
Shutters, single-blade, 97 Stereophotography, Ives system, 590-591
special types of, 109-110 polaroid system, 584-585
testing, 110-112 theory of, 572-576
tests for, 114 viewing instruments for, 580-583
Wollensak Betax, 104 Stereoplanigraph, 730
WoUensak, dimensions of, 108 Stereoscopic photography, 572-594
Wollensak Regno, 101 Stop, effects of shifting, 38
Wollensak studio, 109 uniform scale of designating, 19
speed of, 221-222 Stripping film, 125
to stop motion, 222 Subtractive color process (see Color processes)
Siderostat, 743 Sun, photographing, 757
Silver halide crystals, 118-119 Sutton's panoramic lens, 38
Silver halide solvents, 344
Solarspot incandescent lighting, 689
Solutions, accuracy in compounding, 571
Spark photography, 765-766 Technicolor, 150, 660
Spectra, comparison, 816-817 lens for, 34
light, 266-268
Telenegative, 16
Spectral intensity, of mean noon daylight, 157 Telephoto lenses, exposures with, 225-226
Spectral-intensity curves, for common light (See also Lenses)
sources, 271
Telephoto magnification, 16
Spectral sensitivity, 125-127, 183-190
Telescope, determining focal length of, 748
bearing of, on exposure, 223 refracting and reflecting, 734-736
of human eye, 156
Temperature, maintenance of, in darkroom, 569-
of negative emulsions, 130-132
570
of typical photographic materials, 271
Threshold-speed ratings, 191-196
Spectrograms, of film, 127-128
Time-gamma curves, 181-183
for various paper emulsions, 141
Tintype, 147
Spectrographic measurements, 755-757
Tone, control 441-442
of,
Spectrographs, astigmatic, 810
rendition 204-207
of,
commercial, 811-812
reproduction of, requirements for, 209-212
illumination of, 814-815
Toning, copper, 462
Littrow mounting of, 809
direct development, 454—455
stellar, 741-742
direct sepia, 456
stigmatic, 810
dye, 463-465
Spectroheliograph, 742-743
ferrocyanide, 462
Spectroscopic photography, 804-821
green, 463
Spectroscopic plates, Eastman, 745
Spectroscopy, light sources, for absorption, 819- hypo-alum gold, 457—458
820 hypo-alum sepia, 456-457
819-820
for emission, indirect sepia, 458-459
Spectrum, visible, 11 intermediate sepia method, 460—461

liver of sulphur sepia, 458
wavelengths of, 817-819
Speed, DIN system of rating, 192-193 mercury sulphide sepia, 459-460
Eder-Hecht rating, 192-193 obtaining red tones from sulphide-toned print,
film, and exposure time, 214-216 461
inertia ratings, 193-195 potassium permanganate sulphide, 460
latitude-inertia method of determining, 195 of prints, 453-465
minimum useful gradient, 195-196 processes of, for color photography, 150-151
of photosensitive material, 190-196 sepia on bromide papers, 461
Scheiner ratings, 192-193 sulphide processes, 455-456
shutter, 221-222 uranium, 462-463
to stop motion, 222 Transmission of lens, 18-19
threshold ratings of, 191-193 Transparencies, color, 653—660
Weston system of rating, 195 materials for, 138-139
Speed relations, equations for film, 215 Transverse chromatic aberration, 28
Speed scale, Watkins, 194 Tray cleaners, 568
Speed system, Wynne, 194 Tripack, 149
Speed tables, 839 Tripod, 93
Spherical aberration, 28-30
Spotlight characteristics, 690 U
Stereophotography, anaglyphs in, 583-584
cameras for, 579-580 Ultraviolet (see Microscope)
distortions and aberrations in, 591 Ultraviolet filters, 597-598
hyper-, 588 Ultraviolet microscope, 783-797
SUBJECT INDEX 871
Ultraviolet photography, 595-602 Washing, of prints, 405-406

applications of,600-602 {See also Fixing, washing, and drying)
filters for, 597-598 Washing time, minimum, 404
methods of, 599-600 Wash-off relief, 150, 640-643
Uniform scale, 19 Watkins speed scale, 194
Watkins and Wynne actinometers, 249
Wavelength determinations, 817-819
Waxing matte prints, 416
Weber-Fechner law, 265
View finders, 35-36, 80-82
Wedges, neutral-tint, 307
Viewing distance, proper, 95-96
Weston speed system, 195, 850-854
Viewing instruments, for stereo, 580-583
Wynne speed system, 194
Vignetting, 21, 33, 35
Vision, binocular, 577
normal, 264-265
Visual magnitudes and color index, 753-754
X-ray diffraction, 831-832
Voightlander {see Lenses)
X-ray films, 148
Voltage, effect of, on incandescent lamps, 158-160
X-ray photography, 822-823
W Z
Washing, 399-407 Zeiss {see Lenses)

406-407
effect of container on, Zeiss coupled range finder, 87-89
multiple-bath, 402-403 Zincke-Sommer, 37
1

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HANDBOOK OF PHOTOGRAPHY

WHITTLESEY HOUSE London

All rights reserved. This book, or parts thereof, may not be

PUBLISHED BY WHITTLESEY HOUSE

The Optics of Photographic Lenses 10

The Development of the Photographic Objective 37

Appendix A. Tables of Conversion Factors 835

Appendix B„ Relative Film-speed Designations 839

Appendix C. Density-opacity-transmission Conversion

Appendix D. Filter Factors 846

Appendix E. Weston Film -speed Ratings 850

Author Index 855

Subject Index 861

D. Burchan, Paper Testing Department, Agfa Ansco Corp., Binghamton, N. Y. Ton-

V. Bush, Eng. D., D. Sc, President, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington,

O. O. Ceccarini, consulting engineer, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Pictures, Culver City,

Walter Clark, Ph. D., technical assistant to Vice-President in Charge of Research,

R. F. Collins, A. B., A. M., Department of Geology, Smith College, Northampton,

Ira B. Current, Paper Testing Department, Agfa Ansco Corp., Binghamton, N. Y.

Carl Dreher, B. S., Consulting Engineer, Hollywood, Calif. Motion-picture

Beverly Dudley, B. S., Managing Editor, Photo Technique; Associate Editor,

Harold E. Edgerton, Sc. D., Department of Electrical Engineering, Massachusetts

Keith Henney, M. A., Editor, Photo Technique; Editor, Electronics, McGraw-Hill

R. Kingslake, M. Sc, Associate Professor of Optics, University of Rochester, Roches-

F. F. Lucas, Hon. D. Sc, member of technical staff. Bell Telephone Laboratories.

Haywood Parker,M. Sc, Service Department, Eastman Kodak Co., Rochester,

John T. Rule, S. B., Division of Drawing, Massachusetts Institute of Technology,

J. R. Weber, M. Sc, Ch. E., Du Pont Film Manufacturing Company, Parlin, N. J.

Deane R. White, Ph. D., Du Pont Film Manufacturing Company, Parlin, N. J.

Developers and Theory of Development; Technique of Development.

A. T. Williams, Engineering Department, Weston Electrical Instrument Corp..

Robert C. Woods, physicist, National Testing Laboratories, Inc., Rochester, N. Y.

Present Status of Photography. —The

the effectiveness of pictures is so great that a large portion of newspaper readers,

Lens fp cusses image

photography. Its negatives are subject to deleterious effects of grain, scratches,

blue-violet- filter positive is projected through the blue-violet filter.

THE OPTICS OF PHOTOGRAPHIC LENSES

Table I. Some Typical Approximate Refractive Indices

Substance Index Substance Index

Water 1.33 Fluorite 1.43

Monobromonaphthalene 1.66 Dense flint glass 1.65-1.92

THE OPTICS OF PHOTOGRAPHIC LENSES 11

in vacuum to its velocity in a transparent material is called the "refractive index"

Table II. Approximate Wavelength and Frequency Limits of Colors

Frequency limits, Wavelength limits

(Infrared) . . Below 4.0 X 101 Greater than 0.75

Blue 5.9-6.5 0.51-0.46

Polarized Light. —In ordinary

the whole phenomenon being known as "refrac-

n sin i = n' sin i' (2)

Fig. 5. — The equivalent refracting surface of a lens.

focal point" Fi, the distance from Pa to

Fig. 6. —A system composed of two separated lenses.

Distances of Object and Image.

Fig. 7. — Focal and principal points of a concave lens.

(A negative magnification merely implies an inverted image.) If an object is very

the image moves to the right also.

Fig. 10. — Diagram illustrating longitudinal magnification.

The focal length can also be measured by a "nodal