104

Morris, The stakes could hardly be higher -

the more positive and more agreeable tasks of creating

God-given dignity of all citizens regardless of race, communications between the different religious and
colour and creed. If that is not a non-negotiable cultural groups, exploring one anothers heritages,
principle, I do not know what is. But it will go by building friendships, and responding to needs of
default unless we recognize the threat to civilized many kinds. In a full and balanced treatment I would
values represented by the National Front and act write at some length about establishing contact with
before it is too late (Preface to The New Nazism of people of other faiths, about education in a multi-
the National Front and National Party: a warning to cultural community, aboutthe generation gap in many
Christians, by John Hick: AFFOR, 1 Finch Road, immigrant families, and the problems of alienated
Lozells, Birmingham 19). black youth and the tension between them and the
This is the more difficult and dramatic side of police, about language problems both in schools and at
Christian witness today concerning race; and I have work.... But much of this has been discussed by Fr.
stressed it here because unfortunately it has to be Michael Hollings, the Reverend Donald Pickard, Miss
brought to the attention of the churches as something Rashida Noormohamed and Mr. Peter Woodward in
which, locally as well as nationally, they have too their contributions to this series, and I shall not
often preferred to ignore. But there are many other transgress this division of labour.

The Cultus of Hebrews in

Twentieth-Century Scholarship
BY DR. WILLIAM G. JOHNSSON, ANDREWS UNIVERSITY, BERRIEN SPRINGS

ERICH GRASSERS long review articiel must remain As one looks to the modern study of Hebrews, the
foundational for any discussion of the literature most striking observation is the neglect of the cultus
concerning Hebrews in the twentieth century. Al- Protestant writers. At the very least estimate,
though Grasser concentrated on the period 1938-
by
7 -1018 must be assigned to the cultus -

a large
1963, his work gathered together developments section of the document and which is not only central
throughout the century. Subsequent studies, such as in location but one which is almost certainly central to
that by Professor F. F. Bru(~e2or the recent one by the over-all plan of the work, as A. Vanhoye4 has
Dr. Ronald Williamson,3 serve only to illustrate the shown. Yet a review of the literature reveals no
issues set out so clearly by Grasser. significant Protestant treatment of this portion of
Our concern in this essay is with an issue passed Hebrews in the twentieth century. Exegetes such as
over by Grasser. He discussed the currents of Moffatt,5 Nairne,6 Michael,1 and Bruce8 have con-
scholarly opinion about Hebrews in terms of the sidered the cult as part of larger works, but no
following categories: questions of New Testament monograph on the topic has appeared.
introduction (author, address, time and place of The case is very different with Catholic scholar-
composition, sources and tradition, integrity), mat- ship, however. Quite apart from the. magisterial
ters of general introduction (the text, genre, struc- commentary by C. Spicq, which is highly concerned
ture), religionsgeschichtliche relationships (to with the cult, a series of major works and articles
Judaism, Qumran, Philo and Gnosticism), connex- have focused on the cultus: A. Codys Heavenly
ions with Christianity (Paul, Synoptics, Fourth Gos- Sanctuary and Liturgy in the Epistle to the Hebrews, 10
pel), and theology (ground thought, usage of Scrip- J. Smiths A Priest for Ever,&dquo; F. Schierses Ver-
2
ture, Christology, eschatology and the Christian heissung und Heilsvoliendune and numerous
life). What we fail to find in this list is a consideration articles, especially by J. Swetnam and A.
of a subject that is manifestly significant to the Vanhove.l3
argument of Hebrews - the cultus. Yet the cultus of This division of interest in the cultus of Hebrews
Hebrews provides a ready (and surprising) point of invites reflection. On the Catholic side, the reason for
comparison of the scholarly literature, as we shall the interest is in general not difficult to trace: there is
show here by means of a brief review of the an abiding concern with the ritual of priesthood,

twentieth-century study of Hebrews. Following this often accompanied by a concern to find references
survey we shall attempt suggestions as to the manner to the Mass (especially the case with Swetnams
in which the cultic argumentation of the document is articles). But why the Protestant neglect? We cannot
to be integrated in ongoing research. pursue the matter at length here, but some pointers
 105

are available. Firstly, it is only in recent times that the relation of the parenetic to the cultic matter of
Protestant interest in Hebrews has waned: the Hebrews be more clearly defined.
Reformation engendered numerous commentaries, Before leaving aside Das wandernde Gottesvolk,
including one by Luther himself (in which he argues we should note that a neglect of this work does
for righteousness by faith in the document!). We not necessarily imply a cultic concern. Indeed,
suspect that the Enlightenment emphasis on the Kdsemanns book - possibly because of the out-
teachings of Jesus and its turning from the idea of break of the Second World War - does not seem to
salvation by blood may have left its mark. Certainly have made a substantial impression on British
we are able to pinpoint a development of significance Scholarship concerning Hebrews.
in the nineteenth century in terms of the emergence A third observation has to do with the relation of
of the study of comparative religions. Under the in- the cult to Alexandrian thought-forms. The book of
fluence of works such as Robertson Smiths Religion Hebrews undeniably contains elements which em-
of the Semites, 14 the cultic aspects of religion were phasize the present aspects of salvation as well as
relegated to an earlier period and an inferior status those that look toward the Eschaton. Manifestly, the
(the evolutionary development of religion was pre- accent in the cult falls on the now; it is, therefore, to
supposed). The field of biblical studies was influ- be expected that almost all treatments of the cult tend
enced by this thinking and probably still tends to to play down the futurist eschatology.
denigrate the cultic portions of the Bible -

even A series of prominent scholars (Moffatt,

though phenomenologists of religion no longer assign Kasemann, Schierse, Grasser, Theissen, Spicq and
inferior status to primitive religion. Hering)2 see strong resemblance between the
a
These remarks lead us to a second observation authors thought patterns and those of Alexandrian
concerning the cultus in twentieth-century scholar- (Philonic) Judaism. These influences come to expres-
ship : the role of E. Kasemanns Das wandernde sion in the description of the heavenly sanctuary and
Gottesvolk. Grsser saw this work as a turning-point liturgy. On the other hand, Barrett, Bruce and
in the study of Hebrews and hence used it as the Smith 2 have argued for the Hebrew (horizontal)
starting-point for his survey. In terms of the cultus, eschatology of Hebrews. The extensive study by
Kasemanns work serves to shift the emphasis to the Ronald Williamson, Philo and the Epistle to the
pareneses. The spotlight falls on the pilgrim people of Hebrews,22 pronounced a negative verdict on the
God, who are set forth in terms of the Jewish- Philonic school. In this line-up of bedfellows, there is
Gnostic myth. The exposition is convincing as far as it one interesting exception: whereas writers who lay
goes, but in the light of the total book of Hebrews, emphasis on the cult tend to accept the Philonic
the central chapters 7-10 and the cult fail to gain a pattern for Hebrews, Smith has stressed the cult but
convincing place. Later monographs, such as E. denied the Alexandrian influence. This is because he
Grdssers Der Glaube im Hebrerbrief15 (based on ch. sees the entire book of Hebrews as extended
11), O. HofiusKatapausis 16 (chs. 3-4~, B. Klapperts metaphor, so that no specific correspondences to the
Die Eschatologie des Hebrerbriefs(ch. 12), A. cultic objects or acts are to be sought.
Oepkes Der neue Gottesvolk18 (chs. 3-4), and G. That the debate concerning the manner in which
Theissens Untersuchungen zum Hebraerbriefl9 (ch. cultus interlocks with eschatology and thought forms
6), have followed this lead. is far from resolved is graphically illustrated by two
Contrariwise, the Catholic works of Cody and recent studies -

G. W. Buchanans commentary in
Smith, which are concerned primarily with the cult, the Anchor Bible 23 and L. K. K. Deys dissertation,
make no apparent attempt to relate their studies to The Intermediary World and Patterns of Perfection in
the results achieved by Kdsemann. Philo and Hebrews.2~ The difference in interpretation
Our observations here point to a division in the is extraordinary. Buchanan finds the document to be
investigation of Hebrews: either the cult or centred in a group of migrant Jewish Christians who
Kasemanns pilgrim people of God. In practice, the are waiting in Jerusalem for the literal fulfilment of
treatment is never wholly so one-sided as the contrast the promise to Abraham: the alien rulers are to be
suggests; in point of emphasis, however, the division expelled and the land at last to be theirs. They are a
holds. It may be argued that, after all, one cannot monastic group, zealous for ritual and cultic regula-
take up everything in Hebrews in a single work; one is tions, yes, even celibates! Deys study, however, sees
thereby forced to limit the subject matter after the the book of Hebrews as a polemic grounded in a
pattern of Kasemann or Cody. Granting this point, it Philonic-type milieu. The writer of Hebrews is
is still surely significant that studies in Hebrews lend concerned to set out the superiority of Jesus to
themselves to so ready a division under the heads of readers who are steeped in thought patterns charac-
pareneses (Kasemann) or cult (Cody). The division is terized by an intermediary world and perfection
itself a reflection of the two types of material in the where access to God is direct and unmediated. He
document. It would, therefore, seem imperative that argues that through faith -and hope the Christians
106

may even now enter this realm of perfection. With which are most concerned with hamartia are
all the new ideas set out in these two works, it is Romans and Hebrews. The complex of ideas sur-
interesting to note that once again the position that rounding hamartia in each case is radically different,
stresses futuristic eschatology (Buchanans) is as- however. Whereas for Paul sin is a power which
sociated with a categorical rejection of Philonic brings man into its bondage (Ro 6-7), for the author
influence, while that which sets aside futuristic of Hebrews sin is defilement (13, 913,14,22,23, l(f2,
eschatology, emphasizing perfection in the now 1215, 134). For the one, Christs work issues in the
time, argues for a thoroughgoing dependence. right-wising of the unrighteous man; for the other, it
These observations, brief as they are, nonetheless issues in purification of the unclean man.26 Romans
serve to demonstrate the significance of the cultus for moves in the theological orbit of sin-righteousness-
the understanding of Hebrews. They indicate that the justification-faith, but Hebrews in that of sin-
modern study of Hebrews may be conveniently cleansing - sanctification - perfection - access - faith
classified according to the manner in which the cultus (different from Romans: more as faithfulness). Ro 51
is taken up. and He 1022 epitomize the respective schemes:
More particularly, important questions of in-
terpretation of the document are exposed. We are Therefore, since we are justified by faith, we have peace
left wondering if the pamphlet evinces an essential with God through our Lord Jesus Christ.
tension between the cult and futuristic eschatology,
or if the apparent tension is the result of an Let* us draw near with a true heart in full assurance of
inadequate grasp of the authors view of cult or faith, with our hearts sprinkled clean from an evil
conscience and our bodies washed with pure water.
eschatology. Again, we confront the issue of em-
phasis : is the primary intent of the author to be found
in the cultic argumentation or in the pareneses? It is therefore unfortunate that so many commen-
. In our judgment, the solution to these problems tators slide frompurification to forgiveness in their
will lie in a holistic view of the book of Hebrews. The interpretation of Hebrews - a mistake perpetuated
concern with parts of the document, while yielding by the R.S.V. and N.E.B. in translating 922 and
some valuable insights, has led to a fragmentation of 1018.21 In fact, forgiveness is a category outside the
opinion concerning its interpretation; as the book is conceptual scheme of Hebrews. It belongs to the
studied in toto agreement may be possible. By theology where sin is viewed as debt (possibly also as
considering the work as a whole, we may seek for the broken relationship, although in such a case recon-
manner in which the cult is integrated with eschat- ciliation is the more appropriate term); this is not the
ology, both present and futuristic, and for the schema of Hebrews.
interlocking of theology with pareneses. Likewise the presuppositions of Hebrews indicate
It seems obvious that such a holistic approach to the internal logic of the argument. Apart from
Hebrews must be prepared to give considerably more unstated givens, the writer sets out a series, of
attention to the cultic language of the document than statements having to do with necessity state-
-

has been shown by most twentieth-century scholars. ments that are considered axiomatic for the writer.
The enigmatic world of the cultus is to be probed and With regard to the cultus, we find that:
pondered until it begins to yield its rationale. With 92Z-

without shedding (or sprinkling)28 of blood

this endeavour in mind - the elucidation of the there is no aphesis.
cultus in the effort to gain a total view of Hebrews - 923 - the heavenly things must be purified.
we shall lay out in the remainder of this paper salient 83 the high priest must have something to offer.
-

aspects of the cultus of the document. We suggest 104-

it is impossible for the blood of bulls and

that there are at least three matters to be kept in goats to take away sins.
mind: the internal logic of the cultus, exegetical While these statements were no doubt self-evident
issues, and the recognition of the religious character to the auctor ad Hebraeos, they are by no means
of the cultic language. obvious to us. Nor does the Old Testament cultus on
1. The internal logic of the cultus: commentators of which they rest help us in our search for their
Hebrews not uncommonly make mention of the meaning. In these statements we look straight into
foreign, archaic, or primitive impression which the heart of the cult, as it were, and more than
the cultic language makes upon them. The interpre- anywhere else face the problem of understanding the
ter of Hebrews must therefore make an unusual writers thought.
-

effort if he is to allow the text to speak in its own We should note also a series of additional concepts
terms, without minimizing or distorting its argumen- of peculiarly cultic character which emerge in the
tation. pamphlet. There is, first of all, the collctive view of
Consider the documents teaching concerning sin. The author seems to reason in terms of the
sin, for instance. The two New Testament writings Christian society, bypassing the individual. Grasser
 107

pointed out the collective view of faith; 29 the same is hodon (way, so N.E.B., Jeremias and others). The
apparently the case in the teaching concerning sin as former interpretation, if correct, would supply unam-
defilement (especially evident at 1215). The high biguous evidence of a spiritualizing intent on the
point of the cultic argument, chs. 9-10, centres in the part of the author. Other verses, while not so sharply
analogy of the Yom Kippur ritual: Christs work drawn as 1019, zo, have been called up in support of
cleanses the community. This does not preclude the such an interpretation: 9, where much is made of the
individuals falling away from the pilgrim of kosmikon used of the earthly sanctuary; 9, 9, with its
people
God and thus failing of the heavenly rest (6 lOZ6-31, cryptic hitis parabole eis ton kairon ton enestekota
12~~); the stress, however, is clearly on the group (which is symbolic for the present age, R.S.V.)
rather than on the individual. applied to the first tent; 9~1, where Christ is termed
Then there is the non-moral view of sins. By this high priest through the greater and more perfect tent
we do not imply that Hebrews is unconcerned with not made with hands, that is, not of this creation; and
ethical behaviour (cf. ch. 13).3 Rather, we seek to 924, where we are told that Christ has not entered a
indicate the apparently materialistic view of sin sanctuary (or Most Holy) made with hands, but into
which is operative. Sacrifice appears to cleanse sins heaven itself.
in a mechanical way. The authors use of suneidisis Do these passages provide the clue to the writers
illustrates the point: the term indicates conscious- purpose in his extensive use of the cultic language, or
ness of sins rather than conscience. 31 are they unable to bear the weight that would be

Finally, we meet the group of ideas focused in the thrust upon them? The significance of the issue
concept of priesthood (offerings, drawing near to exposed here so far has not been adequately grasped
God, intercession, propitiation). It is to be noted by modern scholars and awaits resolution.
here that (1) it is the heavenly high priest who 3. The religious character of the cultic language: In
specifies the general concept of priesthood, and not a close study of the text, it is easy to overlook that
the reverse ( e. g. , the characteristic of sympathy is not which is most obvious -

its religious character. In

an Old Testament mark of the priesthood: 52, 218, dealing with the talk of blood, defilement, priests and
415);32 (2) the priesthood takes priority over law (712); temples, we come face to face with endeictic
(3) it is the indissoluble life of Jesus which is language, to borrow Joachim Wachs term.34. If the
constitutive of his priesthood (715-25); and (4) the distinction may be permitted, we confront religious
heavenly high priest must at the same time be ex rather than theological terminology.
henos (211) and separate (726). These points all call The method of Religionsgeschichte immediately
for wider explanation and could in themselves occupy suggests itself, So far, however, the results from this
a full study. We need here merely to notice that they approach have not been encouraging. Attempts to
point to a single priest rather than to priesthood, i.e. connect Hebrews to Philonic-type thought, Qumran
in the authors view there can only have been one true or elsewhere have not won a consensus of scholarly

priest.33 Such a view entails that we cannot without judgment: the religionsgeschichtliche contours of the
considerable elaboration begin to think of Christ as document continue to remain elusive. The essential
our representative before God: we have no modern problem lies in the roots of the cultic language of
analogy to this concept of his priesthood. Hebrews: while they reach back into the Old
2. Exegetical issues: When we have attempted to Testament cultus, they are not there explained.
engage the thought-world of the cult along the above The alternative to Religionsgeschichte would ap-
lines, we confront important questions of exegesis. pear to be Religionswissenschaft, phenomenology of
The overriding concern is this: just how seriously religion. Here is a discipline which is primarily
are we to take all this cultic talk? That is to say, Did concerned with religious rather than historical con-
the auctor ad Hebraeos understand reality in terms of siderations, which would see the cultic language as
a concrete heavenly place and action of Christ? Or having its own force, direct and irreducible, not to be
was he only using a sustained typology to emphasize simply equated with theological expression.
that salvation is presently available? Will even the Although books on exegetical method such as the
second possibility stand in its own right, or does it one by Kaiser and Kilmmel35 give a place to

require a filling-out of content? The matter is similar Religionswissenschaft, it has not usually been em-
to that of other New Testament metaphor of the ployed by biblical exegetes. Our own study of
work of Christ: granted that salvation, redemp- Hebrews, Defilement and Purgation in the Book
tion, reconciliation and so on are metaphors, they of Hebrews,36 took up two of the cultic motifs of
nonetheless presuppose a content. the document and demonstrated how insights from
In this exegetical task, certain passages call for phenomenology or religion were helpful in illuminat-
intensive study. At 1019~ zo, the question is whether ing the cultic argumentation. Presumably, parallel
the tout estin tes sarkos autou refers to katapetas- studies of priesthood and temple would provide
rnatos (curtain, so R.S.V., Bruce and others) or to additional clarification.
108

Indeed, if we go back into the previous century we It is along such lines a grappling with the cultic
-

find a notable pioneer in such endeavours. The argumentation in its own internal logic, a resolution
monumental commentary by Bishop B. F..Westcott, of the exegetical cruces interpretum of the cultus, and
produced in 1889 before the emergence of Reli- a full of the religious nature of the cultic
granting
gionswissenschaft per se, showed not only a lively language that a grasp of the cultus of Hebrews is to
-

interest in the cultus of Hebrews but efforts to be achieved. With that we may be better enabled to
understand it by reference to the religious pheno- take that holistic view of the document which seems
mena of priests and sacrifice not in terms of
-
so much to be needed. Then scholarly treatment of

establishing historical links but from generalized Hebrews, so inadequate in terms of the total.docu-
religious phenomena. 37 ment during this century, may take a new course.

1
Der Hebräerbrief 1938-1963, T. Ru. 30 [1964], Eschatology, ed. W. D. Davies and D. Daube (Cambridge
138-236. 363-393.
2
Recent Contributions to the Understanding of
[1956]),
22
Leiden [1970].
23
Hebrews, E.T. LXXX [1968-69], 260-264. To the Hebrews: Translation, Comment and Conclu-
3
The Background of the Epistle to the Hebrews, E.T. sions (New York [1972]).
24
LXXXVII [1975-76], 232-237.
25
Missoula, Montana [1975].
La Structure littéraire de lÉpître aux Hébreux (Paris
4 Jean Héring, for instance, associates the cultus with a
[1963]). magical conception of religion: op. cit., 78.
5 James Moffatt, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary 26 The proem sounds the note: The Sons work is to make
on
the Epistle to the Hebrews, I.C.C. (Edinburgh [1924]). katharismos ).
3
(1We should note, however, that this view
6 Alexander Nairne, The Epistle to the Hebrews (London of sin as defilement is attached to the cultic argumentation
of Hebrews. In the pareneses, the sin to be guarded
[1955]).
, 12
23-31,35-39
10 ).against
1-3,25
7
Otto Michel,
mentar
8 F.
Der Brief an
(Göttingen [1966]).
F. Bruce, The Epistle
die Hebräer,

to the Hebrews
Meyer Kom-

(London
is
unfaithfulness lacks
,
1-4
The text of 9
27 (2 6-19 ,
3
, 11,
4 4-6
6
the ton hamarti
n which elsewhere
ō
in the N.T. is associated with aphesis to indicate forgive-
[1965]). ness. The context suggests purification rather than forgive-
9
LÉpître aux Hébreux, 2 vols. (Paris [1952]). ness.
28
10
Aelred Cody, Heavenly Sanctuary and Liturgy in the The argument favours application of blood rather than
Epistle to the Hebrews: The Achievement of Salvation in the shedding as the meaning of haimatekchusia. T. C. G.

Epistles Perspectives (St. Meinrad, Ind. [1960]). Thornton advocates a similar position on different grounds:
11 The Meaning of αíματϵ&kap a;χσíα in Heb. IX: 22, J.T.S. 15
Jerome Smith, A Priest for Ever: A Study of Typology
and Eschatology in Hebrews (London [1969]). [1964], 63-65.
12 29
F. J. Schierse, Verheissung und Heilsvollendung; Zur In Der Glaube im Hebräerbrief.
Theologischen Grundfrage des Hebräerbriefes (Munich Cf.
30 H. Koester, "Outside the Camp": Hebrews
[1955]). 13.9-14, Harvard Theological Review 65 [1962], 299-315.
13
We will not attempt to list them here; one may find 31 A conclusion reached also by C. A. Pierce, Conscience
more than a dozen articles since 1963, principally in CBQ., in the New Testament (London [1955]).
32
Bib. and Verbum domini. Note especially He 7 3in the Melchizedek argument: it
14
W. Robertson Smith, Lectures on the Religion of the is Melchizedek who is likened to ō aph the Son
(
menos)
moi
Semites: The Fundamental Institutions (London [1927]). of God.
33
The first edition appeared in 1889. A point made also by W. P. Du Bose, High Priesthood
15
Marburg [1965]. and Sacrifice: An Exposition of the Epistle to the Hebrews
16 York [1908]).
Katapausis: Die Vorstellung zum endzeitlichen Ruheort (New
34
im Hebräerbrief (Tübingen [1970]). The Comparative Study of Religions, ed. Joseph M.
17
18
Munich [1969]. Kitagawa (New York [1958]), 60: that by which something
Der neue Gottesvolk in Schriftum, Schauspiel, bildender is pointed at, hinted at, or expressed in veiled form.
Kunst und Weltgestaltung (Gütersloh [1950]). Endeictic language is to be distinguished from discursive
19
Gütersloh [1959].
20 See the works cited above for each of these scholars; expression.
35
Otto Kaiser and Werner Georg Kümmel, Exegetical
for Héring, see Jean Héring, The Epistle to the Hebrews Method: A Students Handbook, trans. by E. V. N.
(London [1970]). Goetchius (New York [1967]), 30.
21 36
See works previously cited for F. F. Bruce and J. Ph.D. dissertation, Vanderbilt University, 1973.
37
Smith; position is set out in a significant essay:
Barretts Note his essays on the pre-Christian priesthood (pp.
C. K. Barrett, The Eschatology of the Epistle to the 137-141) and the pre-Christian idea of sacrifice (pp.
Hebrews, in The Background of the New Testament and Its 281-292).