CRUDE DRUGS: CULTIVATION, COLLECTION, PROCESSING AND STORAGE

Cultivation of Crude Drugs: Cultivation of medicinal plants requires intensive care and
management. The conditions and duration of cultivation required vary depending on the
quality of medicinal plant materials required.

Methods of Propagation:

Vegetative propagation (Asexual propagation): Vegetative propagation can be defined as

regeneration or formation of a new individual from any vegetative part of the plant body. The
method of vegetative propagation involves separation of a part of plant body, which
develops into a new plant.

Methods of vegetative propagation

They are two types:

1. Methods of natural vegetative propagation:

2. Methods of artificial vegetative propagation.

A. Methods of natural vegetative propagation:

a. Vegetative propagation by stem

Following examples:

Runner: peppermint.

(i) Bulb: Allium, Squill

(ii) Corms: Colchicum.

(iii) Tuber: Potato, aconite.

ADVERTISEMENTS:

(iv) Offset: Valerian.

(v) Rhizome: Ginger and haldi.

b. Vegetative propagation by root: examples: Asparagus

2. Methods of artificial vegetative propagation: Various parts developed for natural

vegetative propagation have also been used for artificial vegetative propagation.

Following methods are used:

1. Cutting: These are the parts of the plant (stem, root or leaf) which, if grown under
suitable conditions, develop new plants. Stem cutting are generally used to obtained new
plants. Examples: Sugarcane and rose, etc.

PURVI H KAKRANI, SPSRC, VALASAN Page 1

2. Layering: Roots are induced on the stem while it is still attached to the parent plant. This
part of stem is later detached from the parent plant and grown into a new plant.

3. Grafting: New variety is produced by joining parts of two different plants. The rooted
shoot of one plant, called stock, is joined with a piece of shoot of another plant known as
scion. Examples: Rose, citrus and rubber, etc.

4. Micro propagation:This method consists of growing cell, tissue and organ in culture.
Small pieces of plant organs or tissues are grown in a container with suitable nutrient
medium, under sterilized conditions. The tissue grows into a mass of undifferentiated cells
called callus which later differentiates into plantlets. These are then transferred into pots or
nursery beds and allowed to grow into full plants.

Importance of asexual propagation:

1. It is a cheaper, easier and rapid method of multiplication. Many fruit trees usually require
4-5 years to bear the fruits when developed from seeds. The plants developed by
vegetative methods, take only a year to bear fruits.

2. Plants like roses and chrysanthemum, etc do not form viable seeds. Thus, vegetative
propagation is the only method of propagation is the only method of reproduction and
continuation of species in such plants.

3. All the plants developed by these methods will be generally similar to the parent plant.

4. Micro propagation is useful in raising disease free plants, homozygous diploids, and
those without viable seeds.

B. Seed Propagation (Sexual Propagation):

The process of sexual propagation:

(i) Microsporogenesis: Microspores are formed from microspore mother cells inside the
anther.

(ii) Pollination: This is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma.

(iii) Microgametogenesis: This involves the formation of male gametes from microspore.

(iv) Megasporogenesis: This process leads to the formation of megaspores from

megaspore mother cell, inside the ovule.

(v) Megagametogenesis: The events involving the formation of embryo sac from
megaspore are included in this process.

(vi) Fertilization: Fusion of male and female gametes takes place, resulting in the formation
of zygote.

(vii) Embryogeny: The process involves development of embryo from zygote.

PURVI H KAKRANI, SPSRC, VALASAN Page 2

Collection of drugs:

Medicinal plant materials should be collected during the appropriate season or time period
to ensure the best possible quality of both source materials and finished products. It is well
known that the quantitative concentration of biologically active constituents varies with the
stage of plant growth and development.

This also applies to non-targeted toxic or poisonous indigenous plant ingredients. The best
time for collection (quality peak season or time of day) should be determined according to
the quality and quantity of biologically active constituents rather than the total vegetative
yield of the targeted medicinal plant parts.

In general, the collected raw medicinal plant materials should not come into direct contact
with the soil. If underground parts (such as the roots) are used, any adhering soil should be
removed from the plants as soon as they are collected.

Collected material should be placed in clean baskets, mesh bags, other well aerated
containers or drop cloths that are free from foreign matter, including plant remnants from
previous collecting activities. After collection, the raw medicinal plant materials may be
subjected to appropriate preliminary processing, including elimination of undesirable
materials and contaminants, washing (to remove excess soil), sorting and cutting.

The collected medicinal plant materials should be protected from insects, rodents, birds and
other pests, and from livestock and domestic animals. If the collection site is located some
distance from processing facilities, it may be necessary to air or sun-dry the raw medicinal
plant materials prior to transport.

If more than one medicinal plant part is to be collected, the different plant species or plant
materials should be gathered separately and transported in separate containers. Cross-
contamination should be avoided at all times.

Collecting implements, such as machetes, shears, saws and mechanical tools, should be
kept clean and maintained in proper condition. Those parts that come into direct contact
with the collected medicinal plant materials should be free from excess oil and other
contamination.

Time of collection:

The period of growth or development at which medicinal activity is highest has been
carefully determined for many plants. The proportion, of alkaloid in the leaves of
Hyocyamus Niger and of belladonna is largest at the beginning of flowering, whilst with
Stromonium the peak coincides with full bloom.

Example:

Stromonium leaves, gathered in the morning, contain a higher proportion of alkaloids than
those collected in the evening.

PURVI H KAKRANI, SPSRC, VALASAN Page 3

Harvesting:

Medicinal plants should be harvested during the optimal season or time period to ensure
the production of medicinal plant materials and finished herbal products of the best possible
quality. The time of harvest depends on the plant part to be used. Detailed information
concerning the appropriate timing of harvest is often available in national pharmacopoeias,
published standards, official monographs and major reference books.

However, it is well known that the concentration of biologically active constituents varies
with the stage of plant growth and development. This also applies to non-targeted toxic or
poisonous indigenous plant ingredients.

The best time for harvest (quality peak season/time of day) should be determined according
to the quality and quantity of biologically active constituents rather than the total vegetative
yield of the targeted medicinal plant parts during harvest, care should be taken to ensure
that no foreign matter, weeds or toxic plants are mixed with the harvested medicinal plant
materials.

Medicinal plants should be harvested under the best possible conditions, avoiding dew, rain
or exceptionally high humidity. If harvesting occurs in wet conditions, the harvested material
should be transported immediately to an indoor drying facility to expedite drying so as to
prevent any possible deleterious effects due to increased moisture levels, which promote
microbial fermentation and mould.

Cutting devices, harvesters, and other machines should be kept clean and adjusted to
reduce damage and contamination from soil and other materials. They should be stored in
an uncontaminated, dry place or facility free from insects, rodents, birds and other pests,
and inaccessible to livestock and domestic animals.

Contact with soil should be avoided to the extent possible so as to minimize the microbial
load of harvested medicinal plant materials where necessary, large drop cloths, preferably
made of clean muslin, may be used as an interface between the harvested plants and the
soil.

If the underground parts (such as the roots) are used, any adhering soil should be removed
from the medicinal plant materials as soon as they are harvested.

The harvested raw medicinal plant materials should be transported promptly in clean, dry
conditions they may be placed in clean baskets, dry sacks, trailers, hoppers or other well-
aerated containers and carried to a central point for transport to the processing facility.

All containers used at harvest should be kept clean and free from contamination by
previously harvested medicinal plants and other foreign matter. If plastic containers are
used, particular attention should be paid to any possible retention of moisture that could
lead to the growth of mould.

PURVI H KAKRANI, SPSRC, VALASAN Page 4

When containers are not in use, they should be kept in dry conditions, in an area that is
protected from insects, rodents, birds and other pests, and inaccessible to livestock and
domestic animals. Any mechanical damage or compacting of the raw medicinal plant
materials, as a consequence, for example, of overfilling or stacking of sacks or bags that
may result in composting or otherwise diminish quality should be avoided. Decomposed
medicinal plant materials should be identified and discarded during harvest, post-harvest
inspections and processing, in order to avoid microbial contamination and loss of product
quality.

As per WHO Guidelines:

1. Medicinal plants/herbal drugs should be harvested when they are at the best possible
quality for the proposed use.

2. Damaged plants or parts plants need to be excluded.

3. Medicinal plants/herbal drugs should be harvested under the best possible conditions
avoiding wet soil, dew, rain or exceptionally high air humidity. If harvesting occurs in wet
conditions possible adverse effects on the medicinal plant/herbal drug due to increased
moisture levels should be counteracted.

4. Cutting devices or harvesters must be adjusted such that contamination from soil
particles is reduced to a minimum.

5. The harvested medicinal plant/herbal drug should not come into direct contact with the
soil. It must be promptly collected and transported in dry, clean conditions.

6. During harvesting, care should be taken to ensure that no toxic weeds mix with
harvested medicinal plants/herbal drugs.

7. All containers used during harvesting must be clean and free of contamination from
previous harvests. When containers are not in use, they must be kept in dry conditions free
of pests and inaccessible to mice/rodents, livestock and domestic animals.

8. Mechanical damage and compacting of the harvested medicinal plant/herbal drug that
would result in undesirable quality changes must be avoided. In this respect, attention must
be paid to

(a) overfilling of the sacks,

(b) Stacking up of sacks.

9. Freshly harvested medicinal plants/herbal drugs must be delivered as quickly as possible

to the processing facility in order to prevent thermal degradation.

10. The harvested crop must be protected from pests, mice/rodents, livestock and domestic
animals. Any pest control measures taken should be documented.

Primary processing:

PURVI H KAKRANI, SPSRC, VALASAN Page 5

Harvested or collected raw medicinal plant materials should be promptly unloaded and
unpacked upon arrival at the processing facility. Prior to processing, the medicinal plant
materials should be protected from rain, moisture and any other conditions that might cause
deterioration. Medicinal plant materials should be exposed to direct sunlight only where
there is a specific need for this mode of drying.

Medicinal plant materials that are to be used in the fresh state should be
harvested/collected and delivered as quickly as possible to the processing facility in order to
prevent microbial fermentation and thermal degradation.

The materials may be stored under refrigeration, in jars, in sandboxes, or using enzymatic
and other appropriate conservation measures immediately following harvest/collection and
during transit to the end-user. The use of preservatives should be avoided if used, they
should conform to national and/or regional regulations for growers/collectors and end-users.

Medicinal plant materials that are to be employed fresh should be stored under
refrigeration, in jars, in sandboxes, or using enzymatic or other appropriate conservation
measures, and transported to the end-user in the most expeditious manner possible.

The use of preservatives should be avoided. If used, this should be documented and they
should conform to national and/or regional regulatory requirements in both the source
country and the end-user country.

All medicinal plant materials should be inspected during the primary-processing stages of
production, and any substandard products or foreign matter should be eliminated
mechanically or by hand.

For example, dried medicinal plant materials should be inspected, sieved or winnowed to
remove discoloured, mouldy or damaged materials, as well as soil, stones and other foreign
matter. Mechanical devices such as sieves should be regularly cleaned and maintained.

All processed medicinal plant materials should be protected from contamination and
decomposition as well as from insects, rodents, birds and other pests, and from livestock
and domestic animals.

Drying:

When medicinal plant materials are prepared for use in dry form, the moisture content of
the material should be kept as low as possible in order to reduce damage from mould and
other microbial infestation.

Medicinal plants can be dried in a number of ways:

1. In the open air (shaded from direct sunlight);

2. Placed in thin layers on drying frames, wire-screened rooms or buildings.

3. By direct sunlight, if appropriate.

PURVI H KAKRANI, SPSRC, VALASAN Page 6

4. In drying ovens/rooms and solar dryers.

5. By indirect fire; baking; lyophilization; microwave; or infrared devices.

6. Vacuum drying

7. Spray dryer: Examples: Papaya latex and pectins, etc.

When possible, temperature and humidity should be controlled to avoid damage to the
active chemical constituents. The method and temperature used for drying may have a
considerable impact on the quality of the resulting medicinal plant materials.

For example, shade drying is preferred to maintain or minimize loss of colour of leaves and
flowers; and lower temperatures should be employed in the case of medicinal plant
materials containing volatile substances. The drying conditions should be recorded. In the
case of natural drying in the open air, medicinal plant materials should be spread out in thin
layers on drying frames and stirred or turned frequently.

In order to secure adequate air circulation, the drying frames should be located at a
sufficient height above the ground. Efforts should be made to achieve uniform drying of
medicinal plant materials and so avoid mould formation.

Drying medicinal plant material directly on bare ground should be avoided. If a concrete or
cement surface is used, medicinal plant materials should be laid on a tarpaulin or other
appropriate cloth or sheeting. Insects, rodents, birds and other pests, and livestock and
domestic animals should be kept away from drying sites.

For indoor drying, the duration of drying, drying temperature, humidity and other conditions
should be determined on the basis of the plant part concerned (root, leaf, stem, bark,
flower, etc.) and any volatile natural constituents, such as essential oils.

If possible, the source of heat for direct drying (fire) should be limited to butane, propane or
natural gas, and temperatures should be kept below 60C. If other sources of fire are used,
contact between those materials, smoke and medicinal plant material should be avoided.

Vacuum drying:

This is conducted in steam- heated ovens with perfect closure, and a pump is used to
exhaust the air. The low pressure maintained within the oven ensures rapid and complete
drying.

Example:

Digitalis

Advantages of vacuum drying:

(i) Rapid drying.

(ii) Relatively low temperature.

PURVI H KAKRANI, SPSRC, VALASAN Page 7
(iii) Cleanliness and freedom from odour and dust.

(iv) Independence of climate conditions.

(v) Control of temperature.

(vi) Elimination, of risk of fire.

(vii) Compactness.

Specific Processing:

Some medicinal plant materials require specific processing to: improve the purity of the
plant part being employed; reduce drying time; prevent damage from mould, other
microorganisms and insects; detoxify indigenous toxic ingredients; and enhance therapeutic
efficacy.

Common specific processing practices include pre selection, peeling the skins of roots
and rhizomes, boiling in water, steaming, soaking, pickling, distillation, fumigation, roasting,
natural fermentation, treatment with lime and chopping. Processing procedures involving
the formation of certain shapes, bundling and special drying may also have an impact on
the quality of the medicinal plant materials.

Antimicrobial treatments of medicinal plant materials (raw or processed) by various

methods, including irradiation, must be declared and the materials must be labelled as
required.

Only suitably trained staff using approved equipment should carry out such applications,
and they should be conducted in accordance with standard operating procedures and
national and/or regional regulations in both the grower/collector country and the end-user
country. Maximum residue limits, as stipulated by national and/or regional authorities,
should be respected.

Storage:

1. Storage facilities for medicinal material should be well aerated, dry and protected from
light, and, when necessary, be supplied with air-conditioning and humidity control
equipment as well as facilities to protect against rodents, insects and livestock.

2. The floor should be tidy, without cracks and easy to clean. Medicinal material should be
stored on shelves which keep the material a sufficient distance from the walls; measures
should be taken to prevent the occurrence of pest infestation, mould formation, rotting or
loss of oil; and inspections should be carried out at regular intervals.

3. Continuous in-process quality control measures should be implemented to eliminate

substandard materials, contaminants and foreign matter prior to and during the final stages
of packaging. Processed medicinal plant materials should be packaged in clean, dry boxes,

PURVI H KAKRANI, SPSRC, VALASAN Page 8

sacks, bags or other containers in accordance with standard operating procedures and
national and/or regional regulations of the producer and the end-user countries.

4. Materials used for packaging should be non-polluting, clean, dry and in undamaged
condition and should conform to the quality requirements for the medicinal plant materials
concerned. Fragile medicinal plant materials should be packaged in rigid containers.

5. Dried medicinal plants/herbal drugs, including essential oils, should be stored in a dry,
well-aerated building, in which daily temperature fluctuations are limited and good aeration
is ensured

6. Fresh medicinal plant materials should be stored at appropriate low temperatures, ideally
at 2-8C; frozen products should be stored at less than -20C.

7. Small quantity of crude drugs could be readily stored in air tight, moisture proof and light
proof container such as tin, cans, covered metal tins or amber glass containers.

8. Wooden boxes and paper bags should not be used for storage of crude drugs.

PURVI H KAKRANI, SPSRC, VALASAN Page 9