Karst Management

Karst Management
Philip E. van Beynen

Editor
Karst Management
Editor
Department of Geography
Environment and Planning
University of South Florida
Tampa, Florida
USA
[email protected]
ISBN 978-94-007-1206-5 e-ISBN 978-94-007-1207-2

DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-1207-2
Springer Dordrecht Heidelberg London New York
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Cover illustration: A sinkhole covers a street intersection downtown Guatemala City, Wednesday June
2, 2010. Authorities blamed heavy rains caused by tropical storm Agatha as the cause of the crater that
swallowed a three-story building but now say they will be conducting further studies to determine the
cause. (AP Photo/Moises Castillo) (100602043877)
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To Kaya, Merik and Siena
Acknowledgments
The production of this book has been 2years in the making and has been a rewarding
experience. It would not have come to fruition without the contributors listed below,
who spared their busy schedules to produce the chapters for this book. Consequently,
I am greatly indebted to Michel Bakalowicz, Barry Beck, Robert Brinkmann,
Catherine Coxon, Michael Day, Erik Spencer Fleury, Daniel Fong, Derek Ford,
Sandra Jo Garren, David Gillieson, William Humphreys, Mikhail Leonenko, Petar
Milanovic, Diana Northup, Mario Parise, Philip Reeder, Vladimir Tolmachev, Kaya
van Beynen, George Veni, Paul Williams, Stephen Worthington and Wanfang Zhou.
It has been a pleasure to work with you over this time and I hope to do again in the
near future.
In addition, each chapter was improved through the diligent efforts of the review-
ers who provided thorough and timely reviews. Hence, I would like to thank Calvin
Alexander and his karst class, Patricia Beddows, Guy Beresford, Andrew Boulton,
Doug Boyer, Bob Brinkmann, Mick Day, Jo de Waele, Yongli Gao, Alexandra
Gemitzi, Tobias Geyer, David Gillieson, Paul Griffths, Francisco Gutirrez, Elery
Hamiton Smith, Andrej Kranjc, Alexander Klimchouk, Bogdan Onac, Armstrong
Osborne, Mario Parise, Natasa Ravbar, Steffi Schwabe, Pat Seiser, Chris Siart, Matt
Struebig, Arzyana Sunkar, Kaya van Beynen, Tony Waltham, Christian Wells, Carol
Wicks, Paul Wood, Charles Yonge, Wanfang Zhou and Ed Zisman.
I would like to thank the editorial staff at Springer Publishing: Editor Robert Doe
for accepting the proposal for this book, Robert van Gameren and Nina Bennink for
their kind and helpful assistance. You all have been a pleasure to work with during
this process, enduring my many questions and making the submission of this book
as simple as possible. I greatly appreciate your help.
Finally, I would like to thank my loving family, Kaya, Merik and Siena, for their
patience during this process, and for allowing me to take time away when I needed
it most. Last but not least, I must acknowledge my parents, Johanna and Martin,
whose support over the years has been invaluable.
vii
Contents
1 Introduction.............................................................................................. 1
Part I Management of Surface Karst
2 Engineering Issues on Karst................................................................... 9

Wanfang Zhou and Barry F. Beck
3 Dams and Reservoirs in Karst................................................................ 47
Petar Milanovi
4 Experience in Collapse Risk Assessment of Building
on Covered Karst Landscapes in Russia................................................ 75
Vladimir Tolmachev and Mikhail Leonenko
5 Agriculture and Karst............................................................................. 103
Catherine Coxon
Part II Management of Subterranean Karst
6 Management of Caves.............................................................................. 141

David Shaw Gillieson
7 Some Considerations on Show Cave Management
Issues in Southern Italy........................................................................... 159
Mario Parise
8 Geoarchaeology and Karst: A New Perspective.................................... 169
Philip Reeder
9 Management of Subterranean Fauna in Karst..................................... 201
Daniel W. Fong
ix
x Contents
10 Managing Microbial Communities in Caves......................................... 225

Diana E. Northup
Part III Management of Karst Aquifers
11 Management of Carbonate Aquifers...................................................... 243

Stephen R.H. Worthington
12 Management of Karst Groundwater Resources................................... 263
Michel Bakalowicz
13 Management of Groundwater Species in Karst Environments........... 283
William F. Humphreys
Part IV Management of Karst Regions as Integrated Units
14 National Karst Research Institutes: Their Roles in Cave

and Karst Management........................................................................... 321
George Veni
15 Using Public Policy to Affect Human Behavior
on Karst Landscapes in the United States............................................. 349
Erik Spencer Fleury
16 Karst and Sustainability.......................................................................... 361
Robert Brinkmann and Sandra Jo Garren
17 Human Disturbance of Karst Environments......................................... 379
Philip E. van Beynen and Kaya M. van Beynen
18 The Cockpit Country, Jamaica: Boundary Issues
in Assessing Disturbance and Using a Karst Disturbance
Index in Protected Areas Planning......................................................... 399
Michael Day, Alan Halfen, and Sean Chenoweth
19 Expanding South Nahanni National Park, Northwest
Territories, Canada, to Include and Manage Some
Remarkable Sub-Arctic/Arctic Karst Terranes.................................... 415
Derek Ford
20 Protection of Karst Landscapes in the Developing
World: Lessons from Central America, the Caribbean,
and Southeast Asia................................................................................... 439
Michael Day
21 Karst in UNESCO World Heritage Sites............................................... 459
Paul W. Williams
Index.................................................................................................................. 481
Contributors
Michel Bakalowicz HydroSciences, Universit Montpellier 2, cc MSE, 34095,

Montpellier Cedex 5, France, [email protected]
Barry F. Beck P.E. LaMoreaux & Associates, Inc., 106 Administration Road, Oak
Ridge, TN 37830, USA, [email protected]
Robert Brinkmann Department of Geography, University of South Florida,
4202 E. Fowler Avenue, NES 107, Tampa, FL 33620, USA, [email protected]
Sean Chenoweth Department of Geosciences, University of Louisiana, 324 Hanna
Hall, Monroe, LA 71209, USA, [email protected]
Catherine Coxon Department of Geology, School of Natural Sciences, Trinity
College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland, [email protected]
Michael Day Department of Geography, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee,
P.O. Box413, Milwaukee, WI 53201, USA, [email protected]
Erik Spencer Fleury 645 11th Avenue North, St. Petersburg, FL 33701, USA,
[email protected]
Daniel W. Fong Department of Biology, American University, 4400 Massachusetts
Avenue NW, Washington, D.C. 200168007, USA, [email protected]
Derek Ford School of Geography and Earth Sciences, McMaster University,
Hamilton, L8S 4K1 ON, Canada, [email protected]
David Shaw Gillieson School of Earth & Environmental Sciences, James Cook
University, PO Box6811, Cairns, QLD 4870, Australia, [email protected]
Alan Halfen Department of Geography, University of Kansas, 1475 Jayhawk
Blvd, Lawrence, KS 660457613, USA, [email protected]
William F. Humphreys Western Australian Museum, 49 Kew Street, Welshpool,
WA 6106, Australia, [email protected]
xi
xii Contributors
Sandra Jo Garren Department of Geography, University of South Florida,

4202 E. Fowler Avenue, NES 107, Tampa, FL 33620, USA, [email protected]
Mikhail Leonenko Antikarst and Shore Protection, 10 Gastello Street, 606019
Dzerzhinsk, Russia, [email protected]
Petar Milanovi Strumicka 19, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia, [email protected]
Diana E. Northup Biology Department, University of New Mexico, MSC03 2020,
87131 Albuquerque, NM, USA, [email protected]
Mario Parise CNR-IRPI, Via Amendola 122-I, 70126 Bari, Italy, m.parise@ba.
irpi.cnr.it
Philip Reeder Department of Geography, Environment and Planning, University
of South Florida, 4202 E. Fowler Avenue, NES 107, Tampa, FL 33620, USA,
[email protected]
Vladimir Tolmachev Antikarst and Shore Protections, 10 Gastello Street,
606019 Dzerzhinsk, Russia, [email protected]
Kaya M. van Beynen Nelson Poynter Memorial Library, University of South Florida,
St. Petersburg, FL, USA, [email protected]
Philip E. van Beynen Department of Geography, Environment and Planning,
University of South Florida, 4202 E, Fowler Avenue, Tampa, FL 33620, USA,
[email protected]
George Veni National Cave and Karst Research Institute, 1400 Commerce Drive,
Carlsbad, NM 88220, USA, [email protected]
Paul W. Williams School of Environment, University of Auckland, Auckland,
PB 92019 1142, New Zealand, [email protected]
Stephen R.H. Worthington Worthington Groundwater, 55 Mayfair Avenue,
Dundas, ON L9H 3K9, Canada, [email protected]
Wanfang Zhou Zeo Environmental, LLC, 12710, Buttonwood Lane, Knoxville,
TN 37934, USA, [email protected]
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1What Is Karst and Karst Management?
Karst is a landscape created by the dissolution of carbonate rocks, although similar

features can also be found in volcanic and permafrost areas. Water and its involve-
ment in the process of dissolution is the most significant factor in the creation of
karst. It is also of great importance for karst aquifers which are rapidly becoming
the most significant issue for karst management. Surface features characteristic of
karst include poljes, sinkholes (dolines), swallow holes, karren, pavement of vari-
ous scales, and dry and blind valleys. Subsurface karst is most commonly thought
of by the general public as caves. However, many of these voids cannot be entered
by humans as they have no entrances, and it is through these voids or conduits that
groundwater can flow. In fact, the presence of these conduits makes karst aquifers
difficult to study due to their high degree of heterogeneity with respect to flow rates
within the bedrock. Karst can be found around the world, with large regions in
Europe, Asia, North and Central America, and the Caribbean. South America,
Australia, and Africa also have areas of karst but to a lesser extent. Subsurface karst
can also be found at various depths, with conduits very close to the surface down to
thousands of meters deep in not only mountainous areas but also relatively low
relief regions such as Florida, USA.
The term karst, meaning stony ground, originates in the Dinaric Plateau in the
Balkans region of Eastern Europe. This is also where the field of karst science
began. Although he may not have been the very first scholar to study karst, Jovan
Cviji was probably the scientist who laid the foundation for our modern under-
standing of geomorphic processes in the late nineteenth century. Since then, karst
science has expanded to include other types of karst such as relict, paleokarst,
P.E. van Beynen (*)

Department of Geography, Environment and Planning, University of South Florida,
4202 E, Fowler Avenue, Tampa, FL 33620, USA
e-mail: [email protected]
P.E. van Beynen (ed.), Karst Management, DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-1207-2_1, 1

2 P.E. van Beynen
pseudokarst, volcanokarst, fluviokarst, and thermokarst (Ford and Williams 2007).

Now in the twenty-first century, the science of karst has greatly advanced, incorpo-
rating an improved understanding of karst environments, their fragility and their
value to human development.
1.2Karst as a Resource
Twelve percent of the terrestrial surface of our planet is covered by carbonate rocks
and 25% of the worlds population gets its water from karst aquifers (Ford and
Williams 2007). While there may be some debate about the accuracy of these num-
bers, there is little disagreement on the overall importance of karst environments,
not only for the value of the minerals and aquifer resources that they contain, but
also for their aesthetic and, consequently, tourism value. Regionally, karsts impor-
tance for resource extraction varies from being extensively exploited in Asia,
Europe, and North America to less so in Africa and South America. Much of the
Middle Eastern oil reserves are held in carbonate rocks. Limestone, marble, and tufa
are commonly quarried for building materials around the world. Zinc, lead, and
silver are common minerals extracted from carbonate rocks, and lime can be used
in iron works and for soil modification. Even when the karst rock is not being
actively used or extracted, the landscape also serves as a basis for agricultural pro-
duction in Asia, Europe, Central America, and the eastern half of the USA. Karst
landscapes have also been urbanized in many of these same regions.
1.3Management of Karst Resources
Environmental management is the attempt to purposely control or influence human

interactions with their physical surroundings. Karst management, the focus of this
book, is addressed through the multitude of methods and regulations used by plan-
ners, engineers, farmers, scientists, and politicians in conventional karst environ-
ments. These include everything from specific regulations to protect karst aquifers to
the building of dams and reservoirs. This book does not address vulcanokarst,
thermokarst, or pseudokarst environments all with their own management intrica-
cies that are beyond the scope of this text.
1.4Rationale for Producing Text
No one book can be an absolute, comprehensive text covering every aspect of karst
or karst management. Many excellent texts have been produced, most notably, John
Gunns (2004). Encyclopedia of Caves and Karst Science, Ford and Williams (2007)
1 Introduction 3
benchmark text on the physical processes of karst environments, Becks edited

volumes from the proceedings on sinkholes and the engineering and environ-
mental impacts of karst, and the edited volume by Parise and Gunn (2007) on
environmental hazards in karst. In addition, Whites (1988) book on karst and
Palmers (2007) text on cave geology are two other excellent works. While this is
not meant to be an exhaustive list of important karst texts, each of these books are
indispensable and should be consulted by any karst student or researcher interested
in this field of science.
To date, no single text specifically focuses on the management of karst environ-
ments. This book attempts to fill this void as experts from around the world have
been asked to summarize their knowledge on their specialties pertaining to karst
management in an aim to create a text that gives this topic a comprehensive overview.
If any pertinent issues are not covered, I apologize for the fault of this exclusion.
Additionally, while the chapters cover the main karst regions of the world, I regret
that there is not more extensive coverage of Asia, Africa and South America.
However, I would suggest that many of the case studies outlined in this book and
their proposed management solutions can be applied to most karst regions through-
out the world. Finally, this book presupposes that readers will have a basic under-
standing of the unique physical processes and scientific terms associated with karst
environments. If you are still gaining this core knowledge, please refer to any of the
previously mentioned texts as you enter the field of karst science.
1.5Structure of This Text
The book is divided into four Parts: (1) surface karst, (2) subterranean realm of
karst, (3) karst aquifers, and (4) management of karst regions as integrated units.
Part I on surface karst outlines the problems associated with living and building
on karst. Beck and Zhou (Chap. 2) investigate the major engineering issues of con-
structing buildings and other structures on karst landscapes, calling special attention
to the problems of subsurface voids and the various methods for remediation. Dams
and reservoirs are the particular focus of Chap. 3. From his vast experience as an
engineering consultant throughout the world, Petar Milanovi provides insight into
common problems that arise in dam construction on karst and mitigation efforts for
small fissures to large conduits in size under and around these structures. For a
regional perspective from Russia, Vladimir Tolmachev and Mikhail Leonenko give
a case study of assessing risk in both carbonate and sulfate bedrocks in Chap. 4.
They outline a method of evaluating the risk of karst collapse and the various laws
that govern sinkhole development. The laws and methods they suggest are applica-
ble to most karst areas. Drawing on her expertise on how agricultural activities
impact the karst environment in Western Europe, particularly Ireland, Catherine
Coxon delves into the impacts of deforestation, fertilizers, pesticides and animal
waste in Chap. 5. Risk evaluation methods and strategies to minimize these impacts
are also discussed.
4 P.E. van Beynen
Part II on the subterranean realm of karst primarily deals with managing caves
and their physical, biotic, and cultural features. David Gillieson introduces in Chap.
6 the major human impacts for caves, the importance of cave inventories and moni-
toring, and common management techniques that can lessen human impact. As a
case study of this topic, Mario Parise presents the latest information of show caves
from southeastern Italy, clearly demonstrating the local challenges confronting cave
conservationists (Chap. 7). Philip Reeder, in Chap. 8, outlines geophysical tech-
niques for finding subsurface archaeological materials in karst setting in the Middle
East and Central America. Management of cave biota is the subject of Chaps.9 and 10.
In Chap. 9, Daniel Fong outlines the importance of protecting the connections
between the surface and the cave for maintaining essential energy flows to cave
biota. In doing so, he highlights the challenges faced by cave managers, especially
from encroaching urban development. In Chap. 10, Diana Northup describes the
vast array of microbiota living in caves, their potential value for new biomedical
drugs and how humans can negatively impact these organisms.
Part III is devoted to the critical importance of managing karst aquifers. A world
expert of human interaction with carbonate aquifers, Stephen Worthington, discusses
the importance of the high permeability of karst aquifers and the complexity of their
flow (Chap. 11). Examples of the susceptibility of these aquifers to surface contami-
nants are introduced in this chapter. Michel Bakalowicz continues this discussion on
the exploitation of karst aquifers from a European perspective in Chap. 12. He also
discusses their management from both quality and quantity view points with many
examples from around the world. The final chapter on karst aquifers is by William
Humphreys (Chap. 13), who addresses the vulnerability of groundwater species to
human impact. Much of this vulnerability stems from these species narrow endemic
ranges and distinctive adaptations. Humphreys concludes with some management
actions that could lessen the disturbance of these groundwater species.
Part IV treats the karst environment as an integrated whole. In recognition of the
importance of karst to nations, National Karst Institutes have been created to coor-
dinate and focus scientific research and be a gateway for increasing public educa-
tion of karst. In Chap. 14, George Veni, the current Director of the National Cave
and Karst Research Institute for the USA, discusses the efforts of his and other
institutes around the world. On a more local level, the policies and regulations per-
taining to karst management and urban planning are outlined by Spencer Fleury in
Chap. 15. While his focus is mainly based on US policies and regulations, these
efforts could be equally applied wherever there is karst. The sustainable use of karst
is probably the desired goal of every country that benefits from the development of
karst resources. In Chap. 16, Robert Brinkmann and Sandra Jo Garren discuss the
meaning of true sustainability and how this can be applied to karst environments.
Philip and Kaya van Beynen, in Chap. 17, cover the various ways humans can dis-
turb karst environments and how these disturbances can be measured. They also
introduce methods on how karst aquifers can be protected using intrinsic vulnerabil-
ity models. Mick Day and others, in Chap. 18, take this idea of human disturbance
and discuss the implementation of the Karst Disturbance Index in the Cockpit Karst
1 Introduction 5
of Jamaica, and how it can be used to delineate boundaries for areas that can be
designated for protection.
Derek Ford provides an extensive case study on the creation of a karst national
park in Canada (Chap. 19) and outlines the decades long challenges to foster ade-
quate political will and effective management policies. In a similar vein, in the
Caribbean, Central American, and South Asian countries, Mick Day discusses the
issues of protected karst lands in developing countries in Chap. 20. While many
countries may have large karst territories officially protected under law, enforcing
these regulations with limited resources is the real challenge. In the final chapter of
the book (Chap. 21), Paul Williams outlines international efforts taken by the IUCN
to create world heritage sites for karst areas, specifically discussing the challenges
of their creation and some of the successes of their conservation.
I hope that after you have read this book you will have a strong knowledge of the
main issues facing resource managers who have to work with karst on a daily basis.
In addition, it was my aim to provide you with some potential solutions to these
issues. While not every management issue could be covered, this book should serve
as a starting point for you on your journey to other resources and to a more in-depth
understanding of karst management.
References
Ford DC, Williams PW (2007) Karst hydrogeology and geomorphology. Wiley, Chichester, p563
Gunn J (ed.) (2004) Encyclopedia of caves and karst science. Fitzroy Dearborn, New York and
London, p 902
Palmer AN (2007) Cave geology. Cave Books, Dayton, p 454
Parise M, Gunn J (eds.) (2007) Natural and anthropogenic hazards in karst areas. Geological
Society Special Publication 279, London, p 202
White WB (1988) Geomorphology and hydrology of karst terrains. Oxford University Press,
Oxford and New York, p 464
Part I
Management of Surface Karst
Chapter 2
Engineering Issues on Karst
Wanfang Zhou and Barry F. Beck
Abstract The design and construction of engineering structures in karst regions

must deal with such challenges as difficulty in excavating and grading the ground
over pinnacled rockheads, instability of ground surface, and unpredictable ground-
water flow conditions. Detailed subsurface investigation using boring exploration,
geophysical techniques, tracer testing, and groundwater monitoring helps optimize
foundation designs and minimize uncertainties inherent in their construction. Based
on the maturity of karst landscapes, depth and dimension of karst features, and vul-
nerability of groundwater contamination, methods that have been established to
control surface water and groundwater and minimize sinkhole development include
relocating structures to a safer site, filling voids/fractures with concrete, soil rein-
forcement, constructing deep foundations, and remediating sinkholes.
2.1Introduction
Karst terrane is commonly formed by limestone, dolomite, and gypsum. It is char-

acterized by sinkholes, caves, and bountiful springs and does not form the way other
landscapes do. Most landscapes form as the surface runoff, rivers, wind, waves, and
even glaciers break down and wear away the rocks. This is not the case with karst.
Karst-susceptible rock simply dissolves (Fig.2.1), leaving behind just a few insolu-
ble materials, mostly clay and silica. Additionally, water sinks into the ground
through sinkholes rather than flowing away in rivers. In fact, a river-like drainage
system of tributaries may form underground, in openings dissolved in the rocks.
W. Zhou (*)
Zeo Environmental, LLC, 12710, Buttonwood Lane, Knoxville, TN 37934, USA
B.F. Beck
P.E. LaMoreaux & Associates, Inc., 106 Administration Road, Oak Ridge, TN 37830, USA

10 W. Zhou and B.F. Beck
Fig.2.1 Classic limestone karst in Kentucky, USA
Karst poses a unique set of geotechnical and environmental problems that

influence the land uses in karst terrane. Sinkholes, either a sudden, catastrophic col-
lapse of the ground surface or a slow, imperceptible subsidence, can be damaging to
structures. Surface water sinks underground and flows rapidly through subterranean
conduits. A highly irregular epikarst creates havoc for the engineer. The bedrock may
be riddled with voids, creating unpredictable and unreliable foundation conditions.
The design of foundations in such highly irregular bedrock requires careful planning
and execution of the works from preliminary to detailed subsurface investigation,
analysis and design, and up to the construction stage where continuous feedback is
essential for the satisfactory performance of the foundations. Detailed field investiga-
tion is instrumental in developing the subsurface picture of the foundation sites.
A sinkhole is a geologic feature that is characteristic of karst areas (Fig.2.2).
Although its shape changes over time, it is usually thought of as a closed funnel-
shaped or bowl-sloped depression. A depression can range from a few centimeters
to several kilometers; however, the typical sinkhole size that is closely related to
engineering activities ranges from tens to hundreds of meters in diameter. A sink-
hole is formed by internal erosion and/or gravitational deformation of soil in addi-
tion to rock material into underground voids. Human-induced modifications of karst
lands can accelerate the dissolution processes. The inexorable and continuous dis-
solution of soluble bedrock dictates that formation of sinkholes is a dynamic pro-
cess. A sinkhole can be a natural drain to the subsurface, an entrance to a cave, or a
collapse that destroys buildings and roadways. Surface water that funnels into a
sinkhole percolates downward through the soil at its bottom or quickly drains into
the subsurface if the sinkhole has an open swallet. Losing or sinking streams develop
2 Engineering Issues on Karst 11
Fig.2.2 A sinkhole that occurred in South China
as solution-enlarged features, such as sinkholes or ponors drain water from surface

streams. However, water can also percolate underground via solutionally enlarged
joints or fractures.
A sinkhole provides an apparently convenient place to deposit trash. People who
have sinkholes in their yards may want them to be filled in the hope that it will
increase their property values or make their yards more usable. However, a sinkhole
is not just a hole in the ground. It has geological and hydrological significance.
Within the karst hydrologic system, a sinkhole usually develops as a drainage point
into a subsurface conduit system. The conduits not only carry the recharge water
from the sinkhole into the aquifer but also transmit any suspended sediment carried
by the turbulent flow and any materials resulting from human activities, including
contaminants. A sinkhole may also be a part of an integrated ecological system that
supports atypical species of plants or animals (Friend 2002). Disposal of materials
into a sinkhole requires very careful geological and hydrological consideration. Any
contaminants disposed of in sinkholes may end up in caves, springs and water wells
in the area of the sinkhole (Zhou etal. 2005).
Commercial development of an area with sinkholes requires a comprehensive
work plan to manage the sinkholes. A significant design aspect for deterring sink-
hole development is to understand and control the surface and subsurface water. Too
often, karst problems are tackled with various forms of engineering programs, such
as grouting, without careful consideration of their effects on the subsurface water
flow. The advantages and disadvantages of grouting should be evaluated before it is
implemented. Grout programs can provide a means to increase soil density for
structure support. They can also seal an epikarst drain that directs shallow water into
the underlying aquifer. However, the effect of sealing a subcutaneous drain may
result in pooling and saturation of the peripheral area with a consequence of
increased subsurface drainage to adjacent epikarst drains. In some karst areas,
grouting of one sinkhole will only divert the underground flow elsewhere, resulting
in the development of new sinkholes. Using grout to seal a natural drain also has the
potential to restrict or occlude the under-draining conduit, which can lead to back-
flooding. Without an understanding of the processes that cause the sinkhole hazards,
restricting the water flow into the existing sinkholes may adversely change the flow
dynamics in the area.
2.2Engineering Conditions on Karst
Some of the most difficult ground conditions that have to be investigated in civil
engineering are found in karst. Limestone is dissolved by water, and because the
water can most easily permeate into the rock along fractures, the top of bedrock in
karst is usually a highly irregular surface. Deep, solution-widened discontinuities
alternate with pinnacles of limestone that have not yet been dissolved (Fig.2.3a, b).
This irregular surface is buried beneath the soil and is made up of the insoluble
leftovers from the limestone. Given enough time, the deep v-shaped, clay-filled
fissures may become tens of feet deep and just as wide. The residual blocks of lime-
stone between the fissures may be of similar dimensions or larger depending on the
frequency of the fractures.
Imagine now a few exploratory borings provided to characterize a site for removal
of the overburden (Fig.2.4). Based on the depth to rock from those borings, a con-
tractor assumes that the overburden can be removed with conventional earth moving
equipment, and bids the work accordingly. Unexpectedly, excavation encounters
areas of solid limestone, first one and then another, and another. Suddenly the job
becomes more complicated and is way over budget.
Discontinuity planes are widened by dissolution of the rock. The upper few tens
of feet of the limestone are dissected by numerous solution-widened cracks forming
a permeable, interconnected network. This zone of highly-weathered rock is known
as the epikarst zone. Water percolates down into this network of cracks and then
moves laterally downgradient to the main drains. In some cases, these subterranean
drainage features become plugged with sediment. Over geologic time, the former
depression is filled with sediment and the basin is no longer obvious. In other areas,
more recent geologic processes, such as glaciation or marine deposition, may com-
pletely cover karst terrane, leaving no surface evidence of its existence. This makes
karst identification during subsurface exploration programs even more difficult.
Voids form in any soluble bedrock and overburden where there is an adequate
flow of water. The voids can be clay-, air- or water-filled. Flow rates and the
waters aggressiveness (degree of chemical undersaturation) mainly determine rates
of void enlargement, which originates in bedding planes and tectonic fractures.
Fig.2.3 (a, b) Cutters and pinnacles in karst
These enlarge to networks of open fissures, and favorable flowpaths are enlarged
selectively into caves. Caves may be abandoned when their water is captured by
other preferred routes; they may be wholly or partially filled with clastic sediment or
secondary calcite deposits, or they may collapse when their dimensions create unsta-
ble roof spans. Filled caves may appear as sand or clay-filled pipes within the solid
rock. Progressive roof collapse and cavity stopping that propagates upward may cre-
ate a pile of fallen rock in a breccia pipe within the solid limestone.
A major difficulty in karst investigations is finding underground cavities. There
may be little alternative to deep and closely spaced probes; a density of 2,500 per ha
is needed to have a 90% chance of finding one cavity 2.5 m in diameter. Probes
beneath every pile foot and column base are a better option and are essential at many
sites on mature, cavernous karst. Exploration of pinnacled rockhead in a mature
Fig.2.4 Borings in karst terrane. How would interpreted cross section look if only borings B,
D and F were drilled, or if borings A, C and E were drilled?
karst may demand extensive probing, but there is no definitive answer to the
question of how many probes are needed. Construction of a viaduct on karst in
Belgium initially had 31 boreholes for five pier sites; two caves were missed
and were revealed only during excavation for foundations. A second phase of
investigation with another 308 probes found no more caves (Waltham and Fookes
2003). Investigation of 31 boreholes was inadequate; drilling 339 holes was over-
cautious. At many karstic sites, the true ground conditions are not discovered until
foundations are excavated.
The depth probed should be a function of the likely cavity size. In juvenile and
young karst, caves more than 5m wide are unusual, and probing 3.5m should there-
fore confirm rock integrity. Engineering practice varies considerably: probing 5m
of rock beneath pile tips in cavernous Florida karst (Garlanger 1991), 4m under
foundations in South Africa (Wagener and Day 1986), 2.5 m under caissons in
Pennsylvania (Foose and Humphreville 1979), and only 1.5m under lightly loaded
bridge caissons in North Carolina (Erwin and Brown 1988). The limestone in
Florida is weaker than at the other sites, but there is no consistency in empirical data
from engineering practice on karst. Caves are usually unpredictable. Every site in
karst has to be assessed individually in the context of its geomorphology, and engi-
neering works must respond to the local conditions. Local records and observations
may indicate typical and maximum cave sizes, and these define the minimum of
sound rock to be proven by drilling beneath structural footings. Geophysical
techniques may be useful tools in such investigations.
2.3Sinkholes and Their Formation
Karst areas are prone to sinkhole formation because of their intrinsic defects including
irregular bedrock surfaces, voids in the underlying rock formation, brecciated bed-
rock, and eroded and loosened soils with low penetration resistance. A sinkhole is a
surface symptom of the complicated erosion and deformation processes that occur
on the surface and in the subsurface. Table2.1 lists five commonly used engineering
classifications of sinkholes. In modern literature, both doline and sinkhole are used
to refer to closed depressions and are no longer distinguished geomorphologically
by the mechanism of formation. Clearly, each classification system is based on the
investigators own experience dealing with the geotechnical and environmental
problems in certain geographic settings. Sinkholes can also be classified by their
hydrogeological, geomorphological or ecological properties. Although there is no
consensus in sinkhole classification, most of the investigators agree on the processes
that lead to sinkholes. A more comprehensive but genetic classification of sinkholes
is recently proposed by Gutirrez et al. (2008) based on exposures of evaporite
paleokarst in Spain.
When defining the type of sinkholes in an area, the geologist or engineer should
consistently follow one classification system. It may cause inconsistencies and con-
fusion if more than one classification system is used. For practical purposes, the
primary criterion is the type of surface material that moves downward. Sinkholes
can occur in bedrock outcrops, caprocks, and in the overburden soils. The secondary
criterion can be the mode at which the surface material moves. For example, sink-
holes can be either a catastrophic collapse feature or a slow subsidence feature. It is
important to note that the primary and secondary criteria focus on the processes act-
ing at or just beneath the surface. One should not confuse these surface processes
with what may have happened in the subsurface to create the necessary conditions
for a sinkhole to occur. Some sinkholes occur suddenly; however, the processes
leading up to a collapse may take years or even centuries. On the other hand, some
sinkholes appear to occur slowly as subsidence features; however, the processes of
creating them may be considered to be geologically fast. Any further division of the
sinkholes can be based on the exact causes that lead to the formation of sinkholes.
Williams (2003) takes a different approach to classify the sinkholes (dolines, as
preferred by Williams). The primary criterion used by Williams is the formation
mechanisms for the enclosed depressions. He listed four main mechanisms: dissolu-
tion, collapse (dropout), suffosion and regional subsidence. This classification may
be theoretically logical and scientifically sound. However, practical application of
this system faces challenges because many sinkholes result from multiple mecha-
nisms. When a sinkhole is polygenetic in origin, it can be classified into more than
one type. In addition, the exact mechanisms for the formation of a sinkhole are often
not readily known. Many formation mechanisms are actually hypotheses, and con-
vincing evidence to prove these hypotheses is difficult to collect in practice.
However, understanding the genetic mechanisms is essential for proper risk and
engineering management.
Table2.1 Selected types of sinkhole

Typical diagrams
Types of sinkhole Beck (2004) Jennings (1985)
Solution
Subsidence
Country rock sinkhole
Rock collapse
Caprock
collapse
Caprock sinkhole
Typical diagrams
White (1988) Ford and Williams (1989) Waltham and Fookes (2003)
(continued)
Table2.1 (continued)
Typical diagrams
Types of sinkhole Beck (2004) Jennings (1985)
Caprock
subsidence
Cover
collapse
Country rock sinkhole
Cover
subsidence
Suffosion
sinkhole
Typical diagrams
White (1988) Ford and Williams (1989) Waltham and Fookes (2003)
2.3.1Sinkholes in Soluble Bedrocks
When a sinkhole occurs in the soluble bedrock, it is a bedrock sinkhole. Such a type
of sinkhole can have numerous shapes and sizes. Solution sinkholes and cave col-
lapse sinkholes are two types of bedrock sinkholes that are often encountered in
bare karst areas. Solution sinkholes emphasize the chemical processes that dissolve
the rock over time. A typical chemical reaction in limestone can be expressed by:
Ca CO3 + H +
HCO3 + Ca 2 +
2HCO3 + Ca 2 +
Ca CO3 + H 2 O + CO2
The bedrock dissolution continues as long as the water in contact with the rock
remains unsaturated. The dissolution process occurs on the surface, in the thin soil
cover or in the bedrock itself, where the water is mildly acidic. More rock is dis-
solved at locations where the water flow is more rapid and turbulent. Mixing of
waters with different geochemical properties may increase the power of dissolving
carbonate rocks.
Collapse sinkholes result from mechanical breakdowns, although chemical pro-
cesses are important in developing the cave in the bedrock and removing the collapsed
materials. Caves develop when the dissolution process occurs within the bedrock. If
the rocks above the cave are rigid, they collapse only when they cannot support the
weight above the cave. Dissolution and mechanical breakdown are not mutually
exclusive in sinkhole formation. The cave collapse sinkholes are the result of both,
while the solution sinkholes may not necessarily involve mechanical failures.
2.3.2Sinkholes in Caprocks
Sinkholes can occur in nonsoluble rocks when they are underlain by soluble ones.
Under such geologic conditions, the overlying nonsoluble rock, such as sandstone, is
referred to as caprock, and the sinkhole formation processes occur in the subsurface.
The contacts between the soluble and nonsoluble rocks can be favorable locations
for karst development. The caprocks can help preserve the karst voids as they are
enlarged by dissolution. Mechanically, the formation processes of caprock sink-
holes are similar to the impact of underground mining on the land surface. Depending
on the mechanical properties of the caprock, the caprock sinkholes can be collapse
features or broad bedrock subsidences as a result of gradual sagging. Factors such
as paleokarstification in the underlying soluble rocks, interstratal karstification, and
vertical percolation of water and fracture characteristics of the caprock control the
formation of this type of sinkhole. Bedrocks above a void tend to be more fractured,
which enhances vertical flow, while the enhanced flow can further enlarge the void.
The void enlargement and enhancement of vertical flow are closely interrelated, and
the processes are self-accelerating.
While mining-induced subsidence occurs within relatively short periods due to

either rock removal or pumping down of aquifers, caprock sinkhole formation
develops over geological time scales. Solution-enlarged voids may exist in most
carbonate rocks; however, not all caprocks develop sinkholes. In addition to the
typical carbonate acid solution, other geologic processes may be involved in the
caprock sinkhole formation. One of the processes may involve gypsum dissolution,
which can significantly accelerate limestone dissolution. The basic chemical reaction
of gypsum dissolution is expressed by:
SO 4 2 + Ca 2 + + 2H 2 O
Ca SO 4 2H 2 O
In areas where thin layers of gypsum are interbedded with limestone or dolomite,
the potential for the dissolution of the gypsum is large. When dissolution occurs, it
results in cavities followed by collapse and formation of layered breccia deposits.
When gypsum is in contact with carbonate rocks, the water chemistry associated
with the dissolution is different from that for limestone alone. Waters rich in cal-
cium carbonate can aggressively dissolve gypsum and simultaneously deposit cal-
cite. When this occurs, the breccia caused by the dissolution of the gypsum may be
cemented. Gypsum dissolves easily in flowing water and increases the amount of
sulfate in solution. In addition, the presence of sodium, magnesium and chloride
ions can enhance the dissolution of gypsum. However, the solubility of gypsum in
calcium carbonate-rich waters may be decreased by the common ion effect. Lu
(1996) shows that the presence of sulfate in water increases the dissolution rate of
dolomite. For water with an SO2- content of 1mg/l, the dissolution amount for dolo-
mite was 1.67mg/l, while the dissolution for limestone was only 0.94mg/l. The
result of this groundwater chemistry on karstification is that very intense and perva-
sive leaching of the carbonate deposits, especially dolomites, can occur resulting in
a honeycomb structure of very little strength. This dissolution process facilitates the
development of collapse columns or breccia pipes that may propagate upward
through several strata.
In China, coal mining has induced ~3,000 caprock collapses in 45 mining areas.
The greatest concentration of caprock collapses is in Xishan Mine, Shanxi Province,
where 1,300 such collapses have been recorded in 18 km2. These collapses have
diameters from several tens of meters to several hundreds of meters. They penetrate
through the overlying Carboniferous and Permian coal sequences. Some caprock
collapses occur in sedimentary rocks as young as Triassic age, even though these
young rocks have now been eroded away from the local area. These caprock col-
lapses can be as deep as 300500m. The majority of the exposed caprock sinkholes
in the coal mines are within the zones where subsurface paleokarst is present. These
paleokarst features functioned as preferential flow paths in the geologic past, and
they can still be hydrologically active in groundwater flow and contaminant trans-
port (Zhou and Li 2001).
The fact that the caprock collapses in the coal mines are common along geologi-
cal structures suggests that the oxidization of pyrite may be another source of acid
for the groundwater. Pyrite commonly occurs in the coal strata. The chemistry of
pyrite weathering has been extensively investigated because of its direct relation
with acid mine drainage. Oxidization of pyrite provides sulfuric acid that reacts
with the limestone to produce gypsum.
2Fe 2 + + 4SO24 + 4H +
2Fe S2 + 7O2 + 2H 2 O
4Fe2 + + O2 + 2H +
4Fe3+ + H 2 O
Then
Fe3+ + 3H 2 O
Fe (HO)3 +3H + When pH > 4
3+ 2+ 2 +
14F e + Fe S2 + 8H 2 O
15F e + 2SO + 16H
4 When pH 4
The continuous solution of gypsum is enhanced by the continuous movement of

groundwater.
2.3.3Sinkholes in Overburden
When a karst area is mantled by unconsolidated materials, the sinkhole formation

processes become more complicated because of the involvement of internal soil
erosion. In general, there are two types of sinkholes that occur in the overburden,
cover-collapse, and cover-subsidence. Such a classification emphasizes the rate at
which the surface subsides, although the subsidence rate is a descriptive term.
Cover-collapse sinkholes often occur suddenly, and their damages to properties are
noticeably quick. Cover-subsidence sinkholes are not readily perceptible, and their
damages are more progressive.
Formation of a cover-collapse or cover-subsidence sinkhole is probably preceded
by formation of a void at the soil/rock contact by subsurface erosion of soil into an
opening in the bedrock. It is common that exploratory boreholes encounter a zone of
soft soil just above the bedrock. This soft zone may be indicative of an on-going
sloughing process of the soil. The strength of this soft soil is very low, and it can be
easily transported into the opening in the bedrock. If the strength of overlying soil is
strong enough, the roof of the soil void tends to approach a no-tension cylindrical or
domal shape. If this condition has been reached, the load is carried in compression.
Stress-strain analysis indicates that the collapse or stability of the residual soil void
is controlled by the relationship between the diameter of the void and the thickness
of overburden when the cohesion remains constant (Yang and Drumm 1999). For
soils with cohesion of 25kPa, the void tends to enlarge when the overburden thick-
ness is less than 2.5 times of the diameter of the void. Such relationships were also
illustrated by experiments of physical models for weakly cemented sand (Gooding
and Abdulla 1999). For cemented sand with cohesion of 43 kPa, the void could
progress to the surface if the thickness of sand is less than one-fourth of the void
diameter. The physical experiments indicate that the weakly cemented sand behaves
similar to badly fractured rock, in which a cavity roof could remain stable when its
thickness exceeds approximately one-fourth of the cavity width (Peck etal. 1974).
Fig.2.5 Sinkholes that occurred in a detention pond in Tennessee
Clearly, such analyses emphasize the self-weight of the overburden as a driving force
to enlarge the void. Practical investigations, however, have suggested that sinkholes
occur above relatively small soil voids. Cavities of 0.2m in diameter can cause sink-
hole collapse in over 15m thick overburden. Tank experiments, as discussed in Zhou
(1997) demonstrated that collapse could reach the surface regardless of the thickness
of the soil, as long as the fracture system was not blocked by the collapsed soil. The
collapse process ceased every time when the fracture was filled with the soil and
restarted after the filled soil was removed. The reason for such a discrepancy is that
the stress-strain models ignored the effect of water on the sinkhole formation.
It is our experience that water is the most important factor in development of
cover-collapse or cover-subsidence sinkholes and in developing solution and cave-
collapse sinkholes. Water is an enabling agent. As water seeps downward through
the soil overburden or as the water level fluctuates in the formations, soil is eroded
into solution-enlarged cracks in the underlying bedrock. Temporary formation of a
dome-shaped void often concentrates seepage in that direction, thereby accelerating
the erosion/raveling process. Continuing downward seepage enlarges the void
upward toward the seepage source, shortening the seepage path. Openings as small
as a few centimeters may be all that is necessary to allow the exit of entrained soil
from an erosion-raveling dome several meters high if the water and the suspended
solids can be transported into the network of solution-enlarged conduits (Fig.2.5).
Dome formation and enlargement in overburden soil occur naturally; however,
these processes can be accelerated by changes in water flow conditions. A rise in the
groundwater level from below the soil-rock interface to above will increase the
degree of saturation of the soil, decreasing its strength. Erosion may not start imme-
diately because the rising water helps support the soil. However, a subsequent drop
of that groundwater level is accompanied by the loss of the buoyancy support, which
may initiate the acceleration of the raveling process. Presence of a large void may
not be a necessary prerequisite for a cover-collapse sinkhole to form if rapid water
level drawdown occurs.
The impact of water on sinkhole formation was analyzed by Anikeev (1999) and
Sharp (1997, 2003) based on hydrofracturing theory. Anikeev (1999) proposed a
simple hydrofracturing criterion that is controlled by the ratio of soil cohesion to the
loss of buoyancy. A 3m drawdown in the water level could cause hydrofracturing
in soil with cohesion of 25kPa. Sharps numerical analyses indicate that hydrofrac-
turing was unlikely to occur under steady-state pore pressure, while transient pore
pressure is a more probable cause of failure. For an in-depth explanation of this
process, please see Sharp (2003).
In general, there are five ways through which water flow may increase the pore
pressure gradient around a soil void and/or decrease the shear strength in the soil:
Surface water percolating downward: Water sources include parking lots, road-
ways, roof down-sprouts, catch/detention basins, irrigation lands, construction
sites, and runoff from impervious surfaces and reservoirs.
Near-surface water percolating downward: Water sources in this category include
leakages of water lines, stormwater drainage system, sewer lines or irrigation
systems, and natural water flow within epikarst zones.
Groundwater level fluctuations: Water sources include mine dewatering, water
inrush in quarries and mines, pumping at supply wells, long durations of dry and
wet weathers. Extensive dewatering in a thick limestone aquifer may result in
two or more temporary aquifers that have different water levels but are hydrauli-
cally connected.
Water percolation from a shallow aquifer to a deeper aquifer: This often occurs
in a dual aquifer system where the water level in the shallow aquifer is higher
than the potentiometric pressure in the deeper aquifer. It can also occur in a thick
aquifer system where perched water is present in the upper section.
Water uprising from a deep confined aquifer to a shallow aquifer or to surface.
This occurs when a confined aquifer is hydrologically connected to a shallow
aquifer or to a surface water body.
Sudden ground collapses, small or large, are often referred to as drop outs,
which can be 5, 10, 15, or more feet deep and wreak havoc with foundation plans.
These features are specifically termed cover-collapse sinkholes and are intimately
tied to the larger drainage basins in the rock. Downward drainage into dissolved
shafts and enlarged cracks in the rock carry the overburden down with them. The
sediment is eroded from the bottom upward, giving no sign of the ongoing erosion
or the impending collapse at the ground surface.
The scale and rate of this cover-collapse process is variable, from small dropouts
to, under the right circumstance, gigantic collapses that envelope roads, houses, or
buildings. When the karst is covered, it is difficult to anticipate where these col-
lapses will occur. The erosion process can occur slowly, even imperceptibly, an inch
or less per year. The shallow depression that eventually forms on the ground surface
is also a sinkhole: a cover-subsidence sinkhole. An inch per year adds up to about
2ft of settlement in 25years. Suppose this process develops under the footing of a
house, then major cracks result, chimneys fall over, and the house becomes unliv-
able. There do not need to be large cavities below the surface for this damage to
occur. Although this process of collapse of large cavities does occur, experts agree
that it is so rare on a human timescale that it is virtually negligible.
2.4Design Considerations for Foundations
There is no doubt that construction activity increases the rate of sinkhole formation
in a soil-covered karst by imposing changes in various environmental parameters.
Good practices attempt to minimize these impacts, and pay particular attention to
drainage disturbance, especially in the areas of water-table decline. Positive action
can be undertaken on difficult sites to correct potential detrimental defects. This can
include surcharging the soil to precipitate small fractures before construction, com-
paction, grouting to stabilize the soil cover, grouting the bedrock fissures or the use
of driven piles instead of caissons.
Although detailed subsurface investigation helps optimize the foundation designs
and minimize uncertainties inherent in foundation construction in carbonate rock for-
mations, the inherent heterogeneity of the subsurface conditions in karst areas may
prevent geologists from identifying the problem areas at a site. However, with a
detailed subsurface exploration completed and the earthwork and design parameters
of the structure determined, a hazard assessment of this site should be made as an
integral part of the design of the structure. This should include an overall qualitative
and quantitative assessment of the probability of future subsidence occurrences. The
client should be informed of the risk of future subsidence. The design professionals
must be prepared to provide foundation alternatives to reduce or eliminate the risk.
These alternatives, in general, are regular shallow spread footings with or without soil
improvement, rigid mats and grade beams and deep foundations (piles and piers).
When the overburden is thin, the preferred choice for settlement-sensitive struc-
tures will be shallow footings placed on bedrock or engineered fill over the bedrock.
The concern in use of shallow foundations is the potential for significant seepage
inflow during excavation, particularly from the shattered or highly weathered lime-
stone. Alternatively, these structures may be carried on pile foundation socketed
into competent bedrock, which minimizes the excavation and dewatering difficul-
ties but carries uncertainties related to the quality of competent or moderately com-
petent rock and consequently the socket resistance.
If the heavy and settlement-sensitive buildings are located in an area with deeper
bedrock, the obvious choice for foundation will be piles. The choice of piles will
depend on the nature and relative density of the overburden, the presence and depth
of softer, normally consolidated layer at depth, and the depth and condition of the
bedrock. Lighter and nonsettlement-sensitive buildings can be carried on shallow
footings located in the clayey silt or the sandy silt strata. Geogrid may be used ben-
eficially to improve load distribution on softer overburden material left in place.
2.4.1Ground Improvements
Engineering design may recommend some ground improvement methods for areas
at different levels of hazard. One such method is dynamic compaction, which
involves dropping a substantial weight (on the order of 1015t) from a height of
2020 m. The resulting impact can collapse subsurface voids within the overburden.
The pattern of ground deformation developed during dynamic compaction often
indicates many areas of active and potential sinkhole development. Once unstable
areas are identified either through investigation or dynamic compaction, various
remedial methods can be employed:
Excavating the overburden to rock (if shallow enough for the available excava-
tion equipment) to reveal the actual opening in the underlying rock. The opening
can then be sealed with concrete or rock plugs and the excavation backfilled with
engineered fills.
In case of very shallow rock areas with highly fractured epikarst, the area can be
stripped and then sealed by slush grouting.
Where rock is deep and the area of concern is widespread, injection of grout
through boreholes can successfully plug the majority of the solution channels.
A cement grout tailored to the specific applications through the addition of accel-
erators or thickeners is typically used for the initial, secondary, and possibly
tertiary grouting holes. Grouting can be used to either seal the surface, prevent-
ing further soil erosion, or to completely fill the subsurface voids.
Acceptance criteria for cavity treatment using grout vary based on the specific
subsurface conditions. For soil within the treatment zone, the individual SPT-N
value at any point is no less than 20 and the average SPT-N value is no less than 25.
Verification borings do not encounter voids. If the treated section is tested for
strengths, the unconfined compressive strengths of the core are in excess of 2N/
mm2 or other design requirements.
2.4.2Foundation Options in Karst Terrains
2.4.2.1Foundations on Shallow Overburden Strata
When designing and building structures in karstified areas with shallow overburden
strata, there are certain positive characteristics of these sites that come into play for
construction. These include:
Limited dewatering if water level is close to surface.
Suitable for lightly loaded structures under engineered fill pad.
Smaller quantities of engineered fill required as compared to foundations bearing
on limestone.
Bearing capacity may be increased by increased engineered fill thickness.
However, there are also significant negative characteristics which must be

considered when building in these areas, including:
Relatively low bearing pressure to control differential settlement
May not be suitable for heavy and settlement-sensitive structures due to settle-
ment constraints (detailed study required to ascertain suitability)
Uncertain thickness due to bedrock topography and impact on differential
settlements
Presence of voids in soil may result in collapse of the foundation.
Subsurface erosion continues as a result of seepage and water-table fluctuations.
Frost susceptibility of silts.
Required use of synthetic materials (geogrid and geotextile) at silt/engineered fill
interface.
Consequently, when construction does proceed, certain characteristic features of
these shallow overburden strata have to be considered:
Pinnacles: Pinnacles are columns or cones of limestone or marble left by prefer-
ential dissolution of the surrounding rock along joints or fractures. Pinnacles are
often surrounded by cutters. The surface manifestation of this cutter-pinnacle
condition ranges from the formation of sinkholes as the overlying soil moves
downward through the cutters to differential settlement in response to loading at
the ground surface.
Slump zone: Zones of weakness often occur immediately above the bedrock of
limestone. The slump zone is usually identified by the very low SPT-N values or
low cone resistance where SPT-N values of zero are often detected. The forma-
tion is either due to subsurface erosion as a result of overburden slumping into
cavities in the limestone or renewed weathering of paleokarst features.
Voids in soil: One of the most notorious byproducts of karst activity is the
occurrence of voids in the soil above the soil-rock interface. These features repre-
sent transient conditions that need to be carefully assessed with regard to their
stability to remain stable over the design life of a project. The inherent stability of
small voids (<5ft in diameter) can be analyzed following the approach proposed
by Yang and Drumm (2002). Perhaps the subsurface conditions that present the
biggest analytical challenge are those that involve relatively large voids (>6ft in
diameter). Over the design life of a project, it is quite likely that these large voids
will collapse, regardless of the soil strength. If the void is larger, close to surface,
or if water is actively moving soil from the void, then it is quite likely that a sink-
hole will develop and this possibility should be considered explicitly in the design.
In cases where the condition is found to be unstable, an appropriate repair strategy
should be formulated. If, however, the void is located at depth and water is not
actively removing soil from the void, the foundation may be stable even when the
void collapses, due to the substantial amount of overburden above that void. The
surface expression of the collapse may be small enough to not adversely impact
the constructed facility. Adverse impacts usually result in excessive settlement
and strain at the level of the ground surface. Dynamic compaction can improve
soil in the top 320m depth range by collapsing soil cavities, but this does not
entirely remove the chance of future piping and subsidence, even in the less per-
meable compacted soil.
Lighter and nonsettlement-sensitive buildings can be carried on shallow footings
located in the clayey silt or the sandy silt overburden. Geogrid may be used ben-
eficially to improve load distribution on softer overburden material left in place.
Surface runoff should be managed properly to reduce water percolation.
2.4.2.2Foundations on Weathered or Shattered Bedrock

or Epikarst Zone (Overlying Overburden Removed)
When designing and building structures in karstified areas with weathered or shat-
tered bedrock or epikarst zone (where the overburden has been removed), there are
certain positive aspects that are characteristic of these sites that come into play for
construction. These include:
Competent bearing stratum in undisturbed conditions for lightly loaded structures.
With engineered fill cover suitable for light, as well as heavy and settlement-
sensitive structures.
Engineered fill can be placed partly under water, thus minimizing the extent of
required dewatering.
However, there are also significant negative characteristics which must be
considered when building in these areas, including:
Dewatering required at the bottom of shattered/weathered limestone.
Costly and challenging dewatering of weathered limestone.
Uncertain thickness/deformation characteristics.
Risk of bearing stratum disturbance and loss of bearing capacity due to seepage.
Consequently, when construction does proceed, certain factors characteristic to
these shattered/weathered bedrock or epikarst zones have to be considered:
Excavation to a shallow pinnacled rockhead and placement of a coarse rock
backfill can achieve a firm footing, or a crushed rock mattress can be established
in the soil. In either case, a concrete floor slab formed on the fill should be rein-
forced so that it can safely bridge any soil cavity that may reasonably be expected
to form beneath. Generally, soil over 15m deep removes any direct subsidence
hazard, unless there is a subsequent watertable decline.
Dental filling: Fill the exposed bedrock fissures and depressions with cement or
a mixture of cement and engineered fill.
Voids at rock/soil contact where the roof of the rock void is in the epikarst zone.
An initial assessment can be performed using the equations for caves in bedrock.
Ultimately, a design condition often considers the potential collapse of the roof.
Slump zone: Zones of weakness often occur immediately above the bedrock of
limestone. The slump zone is usually identified by the very low SPT-N values or
low cone resistance where SPT-N values of zero are often detected. The formation
is either due to subsurface erosion as a result of overburden slumping into cavi-
ties in the limestone or renewed weathering of paleokarst features.
Very uneven limestone bedrock surfaces demand careful foundation designs.
Where pinnacle tops lie at accessible depths, they may support structural loads
once their integrity has been proven by exploratory boreholes. Reinforced ground
beams can be designed to bear on stable pinnacles. Similar beams can simply
span buried sinkholes. In view of the difficulty of proving the integrity of the
buried limestone, reinforced slabs or beams may be used.
A water management plan is necessary to reduce subsurface erosion by surface
water and groundwater.
2.4.2.3Shallow Foundations on Competent Limestone (All Overburden,

Including Shattered/Weathered Limestone, Removed)
There are certain advantages and disadvantages when designing and building structures
in karstified areas with shallow foundations on competent limestone after all the over-
burden, including shattered/weathered limestone, has been removed. The main advan-
tage is that the sites are now suitable for all foundations, including those for heavy
loads and settlement intolerant structures. However, the main disadvantages include:
Deep and costly dewatering down to bedrock (including shattered/ weathered
limestone) required.
Presence of structural defects in limestone, voids, vugs, solution-enlarged frac-
tures could result in differential settlement over foundation span (probability low
for shallow spread and slab foundations).
Engineered fill may be required to fill depressions. Additionally, engineered fill
placed partly under water may be used to reduce the depth of dewatering.
Consequently, when construction does proceed, certain factors characteristic to
these zones with competent rock have to be considered:
Voids in rock: Caves are the most unpredictable byproduct of karst activity. In
terms of assessing stability, it is well known that the roofs in rock caverns can
span large distances for long periods of time. The shape of the cave contributes
to its inherent stability. Methods for assessing their stability can be found in
White (1988), Criss etal. (2008) and anakc and Gll (2009). The parameters
used in the equations that most significantly influence the analyses results are the
span of the roof and the thickness of the competent rock in the roof of the void.
Filling these cavities with concrete is an obvious measure to correct the defect.
Any loose materials are excavated and replaced with concrete. It is most effective
if the concrete bonds with the rock. When voids are partially filled with soil, the
grout may extend out in sheets or fingers. This may block further solution and
cavity enlargement. However, if subsurface erosion continues, the grout breaks
apart and any benefit can be lost.
Very uneven limestone bedrock surfaces demand careful foundation designs.

They may support structural loads once their integrity has been proven by explor-
atory boreholes. Reinforced ground beams can be designed to bear on stable
pinnacles.
Floaters: Exploratory boreholes may be needed to ensure the bedrock is con-
tinuous and competent.
A water management plan is necessary to reduce subsurface erosion by surface
water and groundwater.
2.4.2.4Socketed Caissons and Piles, Including End Bearing Piles
There are both advantages and disadvantages to using socketed caissons and piles,
including end bearing piles. The advantages include:
Bearing/socketed piles in solid limestone bedrock.
Possibility exists for contact grouting in case of adverse karst features in
limestone.
Dewatering/engineered fill is not required.
Lateral and uplift (due to frost) resistance is provided by socketing.
Only light equipment needed for micro-pile installation (i.e., lower cost of
work pads).
Depending on the stratum thickness, these can bridge problematic karst features
in the underlying limestone.
However, there are disadvantages, which include:
Visual inspection of holes is difficult or impossible (due to small diameter and
water inflow from bedrock in micro-piles; water inflow in cast-in place caissons).
This means relying on airlift cleaning only.
Uneven bedrock topography requires detailed exploration for designing socket
lengths.
Concentrated loads may be above karst voids (necessitating pilot hole at each
pile location to increase confidence, adding extra cost).
There are also mobilization/demobilization costs.
There are certain factors that need to be considered or may arise when using
these types of foundations. These include:
Steeply inclined bedrock surfaces: Steeply inclined bedrock surfaces in lime-
stone pose significant difficulties for piled foundations, such as inadequate end-
bearing resistance and breakage during installation of driven piles, especially for
bedrock with problematic geologic features such as vertical joints.
Steel piles can easily suffer deflection, bending, curling, or poor seating when
driven to a pinnacled rockhead, although they can be driven through any rubble
zone or even through weathered limestone to solid rock. Driven concrete piles
are more difficult to place on pinnacles, and more numerous small diameter piles
provide safer load distribution. Alternatively, bored piles can be placed a few
meters into the bedrock where the fissure densities are reduced, although pile
lengths may vary considerably where buried sinkholes exist. In view of the dif-
ficulty of proving the integrity of the buried limestone, reinforced slabs or beams
are best designed so that they can survive the failure of any one pile support.
Pinnacles with soft or loose overburden immediately above them challenge the
proper seating of piles on the rock, particularly for driven concrete piles, as well
as causing difficulty of rock socketing for bored piles. Piles (driven or auger
cased) may be deflected (doglegged) on pinnacles or may deviate on sloped rock,
and it is difficult to discern their actual bearing capacity.
Driven and jacked-in piles: Driven/jacked-in piles are generally used for low-rise
buildings, with various degrees of success. A high percentage of damaged piles
can result from excessive tilting/deflection, rotation, distortion, bending, crack-
ing, and shattering. In the design of driven piles, sloping bedrock/steeply inclined
bedrock surface, floating boulder and cavities should be considered. With the
introduction of high capacity jacked-in piling systems, jacked-in piles can also
be adopted for high-rise buildings.
Drilled piles: Drilled piles are generally used for high-rise buildings. The size of
bored piles ranges from 600 to 1,500mm in diameter, although it can go up to
3,000mm in diameter.
Micropiles: Extreme variation in ground conditions inevitably create challenges
during design and installation of deep foundation systems. For example, the ele-
vation of rockhead may vary greatly over short distances, and for substantial
depths below the rockhead, one may anticipate the presence of major solution
features. Such features may be entirely open or may be partially or completely
filled with sediments. High capacity micropiles have proved to be technically
and economically viable for deep foundation systems in such terrain. Micropiles
in limestone areas are usually designed as rock-socketed piles in the bedrock to
carry either compression load or tension load. They are small in diameter
(<305 mm), bored, grouted-in-place, and incorporate steel reinforcement. All
micropiles are designed to transfer load through the shaft friction, and end-bear-
ing at the tip is generally negligible due to its small base area.
The design of pile foundations to cater for highly erratic bedrock profiles and
sloping bedrock may include:
Provision of compensation piles within the pile group (if necessary) to ensure
that the induced rotation within the group is within tolerable limits, i.e., within
the bending moment capacity of the pile, and that no pile in the group is over-
stressed. This applies to situations where significant differences in pile length
are observed in the same pile group due to the highly irregular bedrock sur-
face. Such large differences in pile length will induce bending and uneven
distribution of loads within the pile group.
Adjustment of rock sockets based on the actual bedrock surface encountered
during construction to ensure sufficient socket capacity for bored piles or
micropiles, especially in steeply inclined bedrock areas with problematic geo-
logic features. This illustrates the importance of input during the construction
stage for successful foundation design. The bedrock level can be continuously
updated as piling work progresses.
The effect of laying the pile foundation on a floating boulder is that the axial
load in the piles laid on the intended founding layer increases, while the axial
load in the piles on the floater decreases. This will induce uneven settlement
in the pile group. Preboring is needed through the floater prior to installation
of driven or jacked-in piles. This is to ensure that the piles reach the intended
founding layer.
The interpreted bedrock profile serves as reference during pile driving. The
hammer height is reduced when approaching the interpreted bedrock to prevent
slipoff of pile point. However, the engineers should be aware that the interpreted
bedrock profile is only a rough estimate as the limestone is usually highly irregu-
lar at depth, and therefore, good engineering judgment must be exercised. When
the pile point has come into contact with the rock surface, which normally can be
recognized by a sudden change in the response to the hammer, pile driving is then
continued with very small heights of drop of the ram (100200mm). After the
pile has been subjected to a series of blows until the penetration of the pile is
negligible, the fall is increased to double the height. The steps can be repeated
until the required termination criterion is achieved. The procedure is intended to
socket the pile into competent bedrock and to prevent sliding of the pile point at
the contact of the rock surface. High strain dynamic pile tests should be conducted
to calibrate the permissible drop height to prevent damage to piles during instal-
lation of the driven piles.
2.5Sinkhole Treatment Options
Sinkhole mitigation is to repair damage caused by the existing sinkhole and to

prevent its reactivation in the future. To successfully remediate a sinkhole, a thorough
geotechnical study should be performed by knowledgeable professionals such as
geotechnical engineers and geoscientists who understand how it is formed. The
characteristics of the sinkhole and the intended use of the sinkhole site determine
the mitigation approach. For sinkholes that are related to water activities, the most
intuitive and straightforward means of preventing sinkholes from occurring is to
eliminate the various water sources. Elimination of the water sources eliminates the
internal erosion processes that lead to sinkhole formation. When this approach is
not possible, the second choice is to work on the passageways through which the
water moves. The third option is to reinforce the strength of soils/rocks. The overall
purpose of the engineering measures is to either eliminate or significantly reduce
the erosion processes. Success in sinkhole mitigation relies on the extent to which
the internal erosion and deformation processes are eliminated. The engineering
measures for sinkhole mitigation should be tailored to each sinkhole and its geo-
logic and hydrologic conditions. Sinkholes that are in a springhead or wellhead
protection area should be treated differently from those outside the protection area.
Table2.2 lists eight commonly used remediation methods. These methods provide
Table2.2 Selected options for sinkhole remediation

Sinkhole remediation Typical diagrams
Shallow sinkholes with visible
throats (Kutschke 2004,
personnel communication)
Deep sinkholes with known

throats (Kutschke 2004,
personnel communication)
Compaction grouting (Siegel

etal. 1999)
(continued)
Cap grouting (Siegel etal.
1999)
Graded backfilling (Fort

Campbell Environmental
Division 2003)
Dental filling by grout
(continued)
Backfilling with drain pipes
Designed filtration system

(Beck and Zhou 2002)
only the basic principles of sinkhole remediation, and they are not engineering
designs. A direct copy of any of the selected approaches is not recommended.
Although there is no option that fits all sinkholes, it is our experience that successful
sinkhole mitigation should include treatment of sinkhole throat, filling of sinkhole
body, and construction of sinkhole cap. In some areas, sinkhole remediation may be
regulated, and any engineering measures should be reviewed by regulatory agencies
and local engineering offices.
2.5.1Treatments of Sinkhole Throat
There are many ways to treat sinkhole throats. Because the configuration of each
sinkhole is unique, knowledgeable professionals are needed to determine the most
appropriate approaches. In general, selection of treatment methods depends on the
complexity and uncertainty about the sinkhole and its depth. For mitigation pur-
poses, sinkholes can be divided into shallow and deep sinkholes. Shallows sinkholes
are those reachable by a regular backhoe. Deep sinkholes are beyond the reach of a
regular backhoe, and drilling rigs are needed to reach to their bottoms.
2.5.1.1Shallow Sinkholes
For shallow sinkholes, excavating and plugging its throat is the most intuitive and
simplest solution of remediation approaches. In many cases, it is cost effective and
may work for a long time. It is relatively a quick solution for constructions that can
tolerate minor subsidence. Selection of this option assumes that a sinkhole throat
exists and the throat can be exposed by excavation. The excavation process should
make sure that the sinkhole throat is free of clayey materials. One rock piece or a
layer of large stones can be used to plug the drain. The plugs should be compacted
to ensure that they are jammed in the throat and are structurally stable. The plug-
ging materials can also be made of concrete blocks. A grout plug is probably the
most effective approach to remediate a sinkhole (Sowers 1996). The objective is to
plug the sinkhole throat with concrete to an approximate depth of 1.5 times the
width of the throat. To the extent possible, any clay coating along the throat should
be removed before concrete placement to secure a good bond between the concrete
and rock.
If the sinkhole lacks a throat but instead is drained via many discrete fractures,
these can be rendered impermeable by dental infilling grout. Pressure wash is rec-
ommended to help identify the fractures in the exposed bedrock surface at the sink-
hole bottom. Grout pockets are scraped at the fracture zones. If necessary, pressure
wash should be applied to ensure that the grout pockets are free of clay. The pockets
are filled with high/low slump flowable fill to plug and cap the fractures.
2.5.1.2Deep Sinkholes
For deep sinkholes, their bottoms cannot be exposed for visual inspection. The char-
acteristics of sinkhole bottoms can only be interpreted through borehole exploration
or/and geophysical surveys.
Compaction grouting is often used to plug the throat of a deep sinkhole. Grouting
holes are drilled into the sinkhole and its vicinity. A relatively high grout pressure
of 1,380kPa or greater is used in the grouting holes to fill voids, plug fissures around
each hole, and displace/improve the soil/rock within a sinkhole. Primary grouting
hole spacing is typically 3.55.0m. Higher grout pressure, greater grout hole spac-
ing, higher grout quantity refusal criteria and overburden treatment generally result
in a larger grout intake. Compaction grouting is typically performed in the soil over-
burden or/and shallow rock within sinkholes. This technique may not work well in
wet silts and clays.
Although drilling tools usually allow penetration through boulders and rock
lenses, the large primary grout hole spacing may make it possible to miss the
sinkhole throat or other major karst features. Secondary holes may be required.
In between, permeability tests are recommended to determine the effectiveness
ofgrouting.
Compaction grouting may cause additional fractures due to hydrofracturing if
it is not designed properly. Because of the wide spacing, this technique may be
less effective in pinnacled rock. Potential sinkhole features may be located
between the grout holes and grout may not be delivered to the sinkhole features.
Another concern of compact grouting is that compact grouting can inadvertently
seal off conduits that may be groundwater passageways.
When the infilling of a sinkhole throat is too stiff to displace with high pressure,
a more effective technique, jet grouting, may be successful. This process involves
pumping a fluid grout into the soil with a rotating high pressure jet. The jet erodes
soil and cuts stiff clays and soft erodible rock into gravel or small boulder-sized
pieces. Pressures of 3050MPa are typical at the grout nozzle. The pressure dissi-
pates rapidly within the soil and does not cause heave when the volume of the grout
is properly controlled. The larger particles of soil, including sand and gravel in the
sinkhole filling, mix with the grout, producing a mixed-in-place concrete.
Cap grouting is often a viable choice when a sinkhole is associated with small
but discrete fractures at the bedrock surface and the area to be treated is extensive.
Cap grouting uses low grout pressure (140kPa or less) to pump lean cement into the
bedrock-overburden interface to seal the sinkhole bottom, fill voids, plug fissures
and displace soft soil. This operation provides support to the upper layer and discon-
nects or reduces any vertical hydrologic connections. Grout hole spacing is typi-
cally 0.9m. In general, cap grouting does not consume as much grout as compaction
grouting. On the other hand, a good coverage to intersect sinkhole features requires
closer grout hole spacing, which in turn requires greater drilling footage. Auger
drilling may not extend to bedrock due to shallow refusal on floaters. Although the
use of hydrofracturing is limited for such an operation, the ground surface elevation
is monitored for heave.
Because of the uncertainties in sinkhole characterization, other options should
also be considered. For extremely deep sinkholes in which bedrock is not reachable
within a reasonable depth by boring, sinkhole mitigation occurs within unconsoli-
dated soil or materials collapsed into the sinkhole. Several approaches including jet
grouting (discussed above), vibro-compaction or dynamic compaction may be
applicable. The latter is a system generally used to compact granular soils to depths
of ~312m. The technique involves dropping heavy weights, 530 short tons, on
the soils from a predetermined height. Vibro-compaction uses larger diameter vibra-
tors to compact and strengthen granular soils or to create stone columns in mixed or
layered fine-grained soils.
Slurry grouting can be another option. This method involves the injection of vari-
ous mixtures of very fluid grouts into the ground. It fills cavities at virtually any
depth that can be drilled. It can run along planes of weakness in the limestone and
overburden, forming very effective seals. Because little to no compaction of over-
burden soil takes place, the potential remains for building settlement problems.
2.5.2Filling of Sinkhole Bodies
After the appropriate treatment of the sinkhole bottom, the sinkhole itself can be
backfilled with selected materials compatible with future loadings. If a sinkhole
remediation area is outside the footprint of a structure, settlement of the backfill
material may not be a significant concern. Therefore, the backfill material could
consist of common borrow tamped in place. If a sinkhole remediation area is within
the footprint of a structure, settlement of the backfill material is of concern. The
backfill material should be relatively noncompressible, and its placement proce-
dures should be compatible with the anticipated loading and tolerable settlement.
It is also essential that the filling materials should be analyzed for chemical compo-
sitions to ensure that they are not contaminated. Prior to filling, it is a common
practice to line the sinkhole bottom and walls with a geotextile filter fabric. If a
sinkhole is expected to continue as a drainage point, some drainage structures may
have to be constructed to facilitate this purpose. If the water is contaminated, a filtra-
tion system may be necessary to treat the runoff prior to directing into the sinkhole.
To prevent the sinkhole from reactiviating, the three filling methods discussed below
are recommended.
1. The fill practice creates an impermeable body to stop both vertical and lateral water
flow. It consists of compacted clay with a permeability of less than 10-6cm/s. Thin
layers are recommended as the compaction pressure transmitted to the soil
decreases with depth. A high degree of compaction breaks down most aggregated
or flocculated clay particles and makes them less permeable. Compaction helps to
break up the vertical structure of the soil and greatly slow leakage.
2. An inverse aggregate graded filter consists of placing boulders wider than about
half the throat opening width into the solution-enlarged fracture to arch across the
bottom opening. Successive layers are sized finer than the underlying layer but
coarse enough not to pass through the interstitial spaces of the bed beneath. It can
be permeable from top to bottom. In most cases, this kind of filter is permeable at
the lower section and impermeable at the upper part. This design allows subsur-
face water moving at the soil/bedrock interface to access the epikarst drain and
groundwater recharge to occur. Geotextile filter fabrics and even cement-grout
mixes may be used when the stone layers are emplaced. Vibration should be used
to consolidate the seal and promote the infiltration of the grout into stone pores.
The grouted zone should not penetrate below the groundwater level.
3. Development of filtration techniques may help reduce the concentration of con-
taminants in the runoff prior to flowing into a sinkhole. Keith etal. (1995) dis-
cuss the installation and contaminant removal efficiency of rock and peat filters
constructed within sinkholes. Preliminary findings indicate that one peat filter
removed ~80% of suspended particulate materials (measured as total suspended
solids [TSS] and selected total recoverable metals) and about 50% of the dis-
solved copper and zinc. Rock filters removed approximately 3376% of the TSS
and 3555% of the total recoverable metals. The field tests of an above-ground
peat filtration system in Eastern Knoxville, Tennessee, indicate that the system
can decrease the concentrations of polyaromatic hydrocarbons by 95% and the

total lead by 70%. The system was not efficient at removing the total petroleum
hydrocarbons, zinc, and the total dissolved solids. The removal efficiency varies
with the concentration of the contaminants in the runoff (Beck and Zhou 2002).
This third remediation technique considers not only the stability for the site but
also the water drainage. This kind of filters is permeable to surface water percola-
tion but stops any lateral flows into the sinkhole. This technique is viable when the
sinkhole is an indispensable drainage point. It requires an engineering design of a
filtration system based on the sinkhole configuration and the amount of runoff flow-
ing into the sinkhole. The filter materials need to be selected according to the water
quality of the runoff, so that the contaminants can be removed prior to recharging
into the aquifer. The filtration system is also designed to support the stability of the
sinkhole site. When sinkholes are improved for drainage purpose, they are consid-
ered to be Class-V Injection Wells. Therefore, this option needs to be evaluated
according to the relevant state laws.
2.5.3Construction of Sinkhole Caps
The filled sinkhole needs to be capped by a clay layer about 0.20.5m below the
planed surface to further prevent water percolation. It is advisable to use the native
soil to bring surface grade to at least 0.15m above the surrounding ground surface
to ensure a positive drainage. The purpose of surface or near-surface grading is to
further reduce the probability of water infiltration. One commonly used method is
clay compaction. A high degree of compaction breaks down most aggregated or
flocculated clay particles and makes them less permeable. When clay compaction is
used in areas where cycles of drying and wetting or freezing and thawing occur, one
needs address the possibility of reaggregation of the particles.
Permeability of coarse-grained soils (sands and gravels) can be greatly reduced by
mixing the soils with bentonite. Bentonite is clay with a high shrink-swell ratio. It can
be mixed with existing soils and compacted in layers. Upon wetting, the bentonite will swell
to many times its dry volume, which can seal soils that lack clay-size particles. Bentonite is
most effective on soils that contain <50% fines and with plasticity indices <15. Only
sodium bentonite should be used for pond or reservoir sealing.
To seal sinkholes where there are water ponds, it may be necessary to add a
chemical dispersant. As with bentonite, these chemicals should be thoroughly incor-
porated into the soil. Soda ash, sodium chloride, and sodium polyphosphate are
chemical dispersants. They change the soil structure by replacing a bivalent calcium
ion with a monovalent sodium ion. Chemical additives work only when the clay
particles are present in clusters. For best results with chemical sealing, the soil
should be fine grained at least 15% finer than clay size (0.002mm). Soluble salts
should be <0.5% of dry soil weight. Dispersants should be mixed in 0.15m lifts of
soil and compacted. The amount of compaction will affect the permeability rate.
The minimum thickness of the finished treated blanket should be 0.15m for water
depths of 2.5m or less and proportionally thicker for greater water depths. ESS-13
is another soil sealant, which is a vegetable-oil-based liquid polymer emulsion
(www.ess13.com). Because the ESS-13 molecule is larger and lighter than water, it
envelops around each soil particle and prevents cation exchange. It also helps fill
any voids in the soil profile.
Polyethylene, vinyl and butyl rubber membranes, when properly installed, can
be used to prevent seepage. The membranes must be protected from puncture during
installation and use. The lining must be secured by burying the top 0.20.3m in a
trench 0.20.25m deep and approximately 0.3m wide. The trench must be located
above the usual waterline. Because of their weakness, all polyethylene and vinyl
membranes should be protected from damage by a cover of earth not less than 0.2m
thick. Butyl rubber membranes need not be covered unless the area is subject to
damage by livestock or to danger from puncture by swimmers or fishermen. To
protect against livestock, swimmers, and fishermen, a minimum of 0.25m of earth
or a mixture of earth and gravel should cover all types of membranes. The bottom
0.1m should be no coarser than fine sand. All earth covers must be free of large
clods, sharp rocks, sticks, and other objects that could puncture the membrane, and
they must be carefully placed.
2.6Sinkhole Management Plans
It is generally acceptable not to construct any facilities within a sinkhole because of

concerns of flooding, future collapses, and potential impact on groundwater. However,
whether a safety zone around an existing sinkhole can be defined depends on the site-
specific conditions and the type of facility to be constructed. In areas where sinkhole
data is available, geostatistical methods may be used to determine the radius of influ-
ence of a sinkhole, although this is somewhat difficult at times (Gutierrez etal. 2008).
The spatial distribution of the sinkholes in a particular area is often clustered
(Gutirrez-Santolalla etal. 2005). New sinkholes tend to develop in the vicinity of
the old ones because the hydrogeologic and topographic settings for the old sink-
holes are favorable for sinkhole development, and the existing sinkholes may further
enhance the solution and erosional processes. Stochastic analysis of the sinkhole
distribution along Interstate 70 near Frederick, Maryland, indicated that the radius of
influence of a sinkhole was approximately 30m (Zhou etal. 2003). At another study
site in Missouri, the radius of influence of a sinkhole was estimated to be approxi-
mately 244m (Zhou etal. 2005). These quantitative analyses may provide technical
background for the determination of the necessary setbacks due to sinkholes.
Very often, the sinkhole data is not available for an area or the data are not sys-
tematically analyzed. Under such circumstances, the setbacks can be determined by
discussions among different groups including developers, regulators, and concerned
citizens but preferably based on objective data and scientific-technical criteria.
For residential and commercial buildings, relatively small setbacks are often
used. In Monroe County of Indiana, the setback is 7.6m (25) for sinkholes no
more than 0.1ha. For sinkholes larger than 0.1ha the setback should be 15m of
the postdevelopment sinkhole flooding area or 7.6m from the rim of the sink-
hole, whichever is less. In Knox County and the town of Farragut, Tennessee, a
15 m setback is recommended around an existing sinkhole. Any construction
within 15m radius should not compromise the drainage function of the sinkhole
and should not cause any adverse impact on groundwater, and the developer
should obtain all permits from the Tennessee Department of Environment and
Conservation and provide evidence that there is no more danger from building in
this area than there would be in other areas. This discussion relies on the clear
delineation of the edge a sinkhole, which may not always easy to discern
(Gutierrez etal. 2008).
Construction of liquid manure storage sites requires relatively larger setbacks. In
Minnesota, for example, any liquid manure storage facility should not be constructed
within 91m of the outside edge of a sinkhole (Minnesota Pollution Control Agency
2000). Kentucky, Missouri, Wisconsin, and Iowa have setbacks from sinkholes of
46, 91, 122, and 152m, respectively (ibid.). Many states also rely on the engineer-
ing designs to ensure the safety of the facilities.
Construction of landfills around sinkholes is more complicated. The U.S. EPA
and several states including Kentucky, Indiana, Maryland, Pennsylvania, Georgia,
and West Virginia have specific requirements for such facilities (Davis 1997).
Whether the area adjacent to a sinkhole is suitable for landfill sitting or how far
away the facility should be constructed from the sinkhole depends on the degree to
which the karst develops. Travis etal. (2000) and Hatheway (1996) provided detailed
discussions on this topic.
Little surface runoff is present on well-developed karst lands. Overland flow dur-
ing storms disappears into sinkholes and grikes to enter the groundwater system as
internal runoff. In many engineering designs, surface runoff and the associated con-
taminants are disposed of into the existing sinkholes. Runoff from roadways, park-
ing lots, and other impervious areas frequently discharges into sinkholes carrying
highly turbid water, road salt and hydrocarbon contaminants from automobiles.
A sinkhole that has been modified or altered to promote or accept stormwater
drainage is considered to be a Class-V Injection Well. Class-V Wells are regulated
under the authority of the Safe Drinking Water Act, U.S. EPA Underground Injection
Control Regulations, and the relevant state rules. When a sinkhole is permitted and
managed as a Class-V Well, it should prevent any injection activity from endanger-
ing underground sources of drinking water.
Sinkhole terrains, especially in regions with a shallow water table, are flood
prone. Sinkhole flooding can be caused by surface runoff and groundwater flow.
When the soil within a sinkhole is less permeable, a temporary pond or lake may be
perched above the local groundwater table after rains. Sinkhole ponds may take
days or weeks to drain. On the other hand, when sinkholes lack impermeable soil,
they connect the underlying groundwater system through their drains, and they are
part of the aquifer system. Rising of groundwater levels forces water back up
through the drain to flood the sinkhole. The sinkhole functions as a large-diameter
monitoring well. The standing water level in the sinkhole is the surface expression
of the groundwater table, and such a sinkhole can be considered as a karst window.
A spring forms when water spills out of a sinkhole. Grouting, when it is used to
remediate sinkholes or sinkhole-prone areas, can also cause sinkhole flooding.
Grouting may inadvertently seal off the subsurface drains and dam the groundwater
flow. Special zoning restriction or other stormwater runoff control measures may be
required to control the flooding problem.
In rural areas, sinkholes represent lost acreage from farming. In urban areas,
sinkholes may be efficient drains for sewage or contaminated stormwater runoff
from streets and parking lots. Because sinkholes are the loci of water recharge to the
karst aquifer, waste placed in them or the leachate can be carried directly into the
groundwater. Once underground, these materials acts as source of pollution which
can continue to function for long periods of time, even long after remedial measures
have been taken on the sinkhole itself (Loop and White 2001).
Selected best management practices for sinkholes as listed in Table2.1 include:
On-site personnel should be thoroughly briefed on the special protective measures
recommended for sinkholes and the safety concerns associated with operating
within and around them.
If a previously unidentified sinkhole is encountered during construction, operating
activities should cease until the feature is properly assessed.
Avoid excavation activities during storm events or periods of sustained heavy
rainfall to reduce the potential for soil erosion and sediment transport into the
subsurface.
Maintain the natural surface drainage pattern as much as possible to avoid
disrupting natural subsurface flow.
Pile any surplus surface materials away from sinkholes.
Minimize clearing of vegetation within sinkholes as much as possible to provide
suitable areas for infiltration of surface runoff.
If blasting is necessary, controlled blasting techniques should be used to mini-
mize the vibration and sound waves.
Avoid fuelling or servicing machinery near sinkholes.
In areas where the sinkhole is a common occurrence, conduct geophysical investi-
gation to understand the subsurface conditions and identify any buried sinkholes.
Document all information regarding the sinkhole including dimensions, shape,
drainage area, swallet information, and type.
Design erosion and sediment control and stormwater management facilities so
that the excavated materials do not drain into sinkholes.
Depending on the size of the tributary drainage area, the runoff water quality, and
the difficulty of establishing an alternate outlet, sinkholes may need to continue
accepting some or as much water as in the past. A filtering system design may be
necessary to prevent lateral erosion while allowing water to pass. A Class-V
Injection Well permit is required for this operation.
If the sinkhole may undermine the safety of the construction site, the sinkhole
should be remediated appropriately or engineering measures should be taken to
assure that the facility remains undamaged.
Keep the wheels or tracks of vehicles away from the edge of the sinkhole for
safety of the operators.
Whenever uncertainties arise, always work with a qualified geoscientist with
experience in karst to develop specific best management plans for each sinkhole.
In general, stormwater runoff management constitutes the most important part of
sinkhole management plans in karst lands. In a sinking stream where a portion or all
of the stream flow recharges into the underlying karst aquifer through a sinkhole,
the sinkhole management will include the surface watershed upstream of the sink-
ing point. Such a sinkhole is not listed in Table2.1, but is often referred to as alluvial
streamsink doline (Jennings 1985), swallet, or ponor. The management of such a
sinkhole should be included in the watershed management plan of the surface stream
(EPA 2005). The surface watershed management should emphasize the potential
impacts of land development on both the surface water and groundwater systems.
2.7Conclusions
Karst frequently presents difficult ground conditions to engineers, and its complexity
is often inadequately appreciated. The maturity of karst development, number of exist-
ing sinkholes, frequency of voids encountered, type of overburden soil, the irregularity
of bedrock surface, and groundwater conditions are factors to be considered in devel-
opment and planning of foundation designs on karst. The key in any engineering design
is the understanding of the local karst processes. The consequence of structural failure
should also be considered in selection of proper foundations. Sinkholes are a surface
symptom of often complicated subsurface erosion and deformation processes. Although
sinkholes vary in size, shape, and type, water is the dominant enabling force for their
formation. Proper land use in sinkhole-prone areas should include a sinkhole manage-
ment plan that prevents new sinkhole from occurring and avoids groundwater contami-
nation. Various techniques are available for sinkhole mitigation, and their use depends
on the physical, hydrological and ecological properties of the sinkhole and tolerance of
the construction to collapse or subsidence. The engineering measures need to be tai-
lored to address the specific conditions of that particular sinkhole. In general, a sink-
hole remediation consists of plugging of the throat, filling of the void and capping.
When the remediation requires continued surface runoff through that sinkhole, it may
be necessary that both the water quality and quantity need to be addressed.
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Chapter 3
Dams and Reservoirs in Karst
Petar Milanovi
Abstract Construction of dams and reservoirs in karst is historically known as a

very risky task. Inspite of very detailed geophysical investigations and repeated
sealing treatments, the possibility for dam failure cannot be eliminated. In the
karst environment, with its highly random distribution of dissolution features,
some uncertainties always remain. The final determination of the adequacy of
sealing measures comes after the first reservoir impoundment or even later. In
many worldwide examples, watertightness treatment during dam construction
was only partially successful, with some remedial work after impoundment being
quite common. However, in some cases, the problem is simply too complicated
and cannot be overcome.
Special approaches have to be undertaken in order to prevent seepage from res-
ervoirs. The key elements are a good geological map and proper geophysical inves-
tigations. These investigations are key prerequisites of dam construction in karst
and cutting costs through restricting them usually results in increasing the chance
of project failure. To deal with karst successfully, innovation, engineering practice,
execution feasibility, and commercial understanding have to be undertaken.
Grouting alone is definitely not adequate in the case of large karst conduits. Special
treatment of large caverns and flexibility during grout curtain execution, including
modifications and adaptations on the basis of the geological findings, should be the
standard procedure for dam construction in karst to minimize risk. Such an
approach is the basic worldwide rule in the fight against leakage from dam sites
and reservoir abutments.
P. Milanovi (*)
Strumicka 19, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia

48 P. Milanovi
3.1Introduction
In many karst regions of the world, the only resource available for economic
development was the large groundwater aquifer. Because of that, karst terranes have
been modified and adapted through a range of human activities to meet such needs
as drinking water, flood control, irrigation, and hydroelectric power. The subsequent
development of karst groundwater and rudimentary investigations of this resource
date back several millennia to old Greek, Persian, and Chinese times. However,
construction of large dams and reservoirs in karstified rocks is relatively new. The
large projects started during the first part of twentieth century, but the intensive
construction period started after World War II.
The right geological conditions are the basis for the construction of safe dam struc-
tures and watertight reservoirs. Due to the specific and complex nature of karst, it is
not easy to select sites for dams or reservoirs that would be acceptable, without addi-
tional remedial measures. Successful solutions require serious and complex geologi-
cal, hydrogeological, and geotechnical investigation programs and close cooperation
of a wide spectrum of scientists and engineers. Each karst region is unique, and
changes in the physical landscape can be unpredictable and can occur very rapidly. It
has been found that some methods already applied to other geological environments
had to be modified for karst settings. Finding new and better investigation methods in
geology, hydrology, and geophysics was of great importance.
During dam, reservoir, and tunnel construction, unique problems are posed by
the presence of caverns. The most frequent technical difficulties are water leakage
at dam sites and from reservoirs, and breaching by water and mud during tunneling
and other underground excavations. Natural or induced subsidences are also fre-
quent failures related to characteristic structures in karst (Sharp 1997; Romanov
etal. 2003; Beck 2004; Criss etal. 2008).
Because of the nature of karst, it is not easy to select the dam site location that would
be acceptable for construction without serious, large-scale underground or surface
impermeabilization. The common underground structures are grout curtain, plugging of
karst caverns and channels, and construction of different cut-offs. The common geotech-
nical methods at the surface are compaction of the bottom surface, shotcrete, grouting,
geosynthetics, plugging, and cylindrical dams or dikes to isolate large swallowholes.
Construction of dams in evaporates is a particularly risky task because solution
rates are orders of magnitude higher compared to other carbonates. A number of
dam failures in evaporates has resulted in large-scale mortality and great financial
loses. Technology of watertightness remedial works in evaporates is still rudimen-
tary compared to other karstified limestone and dolomites.
3.2Overview of Dam and Reservoirs Construction in Karst
Inadequate selection of the construction site results in either a structural failure

causing the project to be abandoned or leads to long, unpredictable remediation
works. From the experiences at the very beginning of dam construction in karst
3 Dams and Reservoirs in Karst 49
during the first part of twentieth century, karstified rock has been considered
unsuitable for these kinds of projects. Dried reservoirs or reservoirs with unaccept-
ably high leakage confirm that opinion: McMilan Dam (USA, 1893), Hales Bar
Dam (USA, 1913), Camarasa Dam (Spain, 1920), Montejaque Dam and Reservoir
(Spain, 1920), Great Falls Dam (USA, 1925), Fodda Dam (Morocco, 1928), Vrtac
Reservoir (Montenegro, 1952), May Dam (Turkey, 1959), Cevizli and Keban Dam
(Turkey, 1979/80), Lar Dam (Iran, 1978), Kalecik Dam (Turkey, 2001). These
examples have led to the opinion that reservoirs in karst may fail to fill, despite an
extensive investigation program and sealing treatment. Since the risk due to karsti-
fication could not be eliminated, the Darwin Project in Tasmania was abandoned in
1920. However, after several phases of long-term investigations (1950, 1983, 1986,
1989), construction was finished and reservoir filled in 1992 (Giudici 1999). Another
dam project in Tasmania, the Lower Gordon Dam, was aborted due to legal and
environmental reasons in 1983. This dam would have flooded caves of great archeo-
logical importance (Kiernan 1988).
After World War II started an era of intensive dam construction in karst environ-
ments (Ford and Williams 2007). Many dam projects have been successfully developed
in countries with large karst regions, mostly at Dinarides, Helenides, Taurides, Zagros,
and China. Nevertheless, the road to those successes was, in some cases, paved with
failures. New investigation techniques and new sealing technologies were devel-
oped and applied in different karst projects. Large-scale underground or surface
impermeabilization techniques were applied. Long and deep grout curtains were
constructed, including plugging of underground caverns and channels. In the case of
surface sealing, the most common geotechnical methods were clayey blankets,
shotcrete blankets, different kinds of geotextiles, and surface grouting.
However, in the case of dam and reservoir construction in karst, the risk compo-
nent cannot be eliminated in spite of detailed and long-term investigations. The risk
can be minimized to an acceptable level, but never absolutely eliminated.
Consequently, proper risk reduction strategy is important during all phases of dam
and reservoir construction. Changes caused by dam and reservoir construction impact
ecological, infrastructure, social, and political systems. Some of these impacts are
positive and predictable, but they can be also negative and unpredictable. This text is
focuses on engineering problems.
3.3Role of Geological and Geomorphological Conditions
Carbonate rocks and evaporates are prone to the intensive fluvial erosion and chemical
dissolution at the same time. Many gorges and deep canyons are developed in those
rock masses. From the geomorphological, geological engineering, and geotechnical
viewpoint, limestone gorges are perfect for dam construction, particularly for con-
crete dams. However, in many cases, karst processes deteriorate hydrogeological
properties of those rock masses.
Intensity and depth of karstification depends on different geological properties
and processes: lithology, structural composition, tectonic (particularly recent)
50 P. Milanovi
movement, density of discontinuities, position of important erosion base levels,

corrosion (dissolution), and hydraulic action (Milanovi 1981). Karst is a product of
processes that operate on continental land masses, especially when the land masses
are uplifted above sea level. In the most complex cases, karstification occurred in
discontinuous phases of bedrock uplift or submersion caused by epirogenic and
orogenic movements. For instance, the Dinaric geosyncline karst was formed over
various discontinuous periods, generating a combination of the recent karst and
stratigraphically different paleokarsts.
Two different types of karst porosity are most common:
1. Vuggy porosity found in limestone bedrock. Some of these vugs are intercon-
nected, but most are isolated. The hydrogeological role of vuggy porosity is
secondary, hence it can be easily grouted.
2. Classical karst porosity, represented by open solution channels, discontinuities
enlarged by solution, and caverns developed along the faults, joints, and bed-
dings, which create a well-connected network of conduits. This network repre-
sents the highest potential for leakage pathways.
According to generalized geomorphological and geological properties, deep and
narrow canyons usually feature shallower karstification than wide river valleys or
karst depressions (poljes). The deepest erosion base levels in narrow canyons usu-
ally correspond to riverbeds, which are manifestations of the surrounding karst
aquifer and its water table, e.g., Piva Dam (Montenegro), Tange Duk (Iran), and
Granarevo Dam (Bosnia-Herzegovina, hereafter B-H). The same conclusion has
been drawn by Chinese karstologists. However, this is not a hard and fast rule as
there are some very narrow dam sites, such as the Abol Abas (Iran), where the
groundwater level (GWL) is 50 or more meters beneath the bottom of the dam site.
A deeper water table allows greater karstification between the GWL and the surface
of the bedrock, causing engineers to design a more comprehensive grout curtain
below the dam, increasing costs and time of construction.
Below the wide karst river valleys, situated at high elevation, deep karstification can
be expected. The hanging rivers along these valleys are mostly temporary. Depending
on the position of the surrounding erosion base levels, the carbonate rock mass can be
karstified well below the valley floor, such as Keban (Turkey) and Lar (Iran).
Dam sites located at the upstream section of river bends need greater exploration
than those in the straight part of the river valley. During the karst aquifer evolution,
the section of river valley downstream from a bend plays a role of local base level
of erosion. Gradients between upstream and downstream river sections are much
steeper than along the riverbed. If monocline limestone structures occur between
the upstream and downstream river sections, then underground hydrogeological
connections through the karst channels are to be expected, e.g., Keban (Turkey),
Salakovac (B-H), Karun III (Iran) and Dokan (Iraq).
On a regional scale, structural relationships have an important role in forming the
hydrogeological properties in a karst region. If an anticline structure exists between the
reservoir and the lower erosion base level, the possibility for karstification perpendicu-
lar to the structure is considerably reduced. Of particular importance is the reservoir
watertightness, which for many dam sites and reservoirs is based on the hydrogeological
role of large anticlines, e.g., Karun III and Salman Farsi Dams (Iran), Bilea Reservoir
(B-H). If the folding structures are extensively compressed by tectonic forces with
prevailing horizontal stress, then the anticline cores will be resistant to karst processes.
The karst channels are mostly developed in the direction of axial planes rather than
perpendicular to them. An example of the hydrogeological role of such geological set-
tings is the Lastva anticline, which has a core predominantly of dolomite (Fig.3.1).
This structure acted as a hydrogeological barrier between reservoir and lower erosion
base levels. The huge Bilea Reservoir in B-H, situated completely on karstified
limestone, operates without leakage because of positive hydrogeological role of this
type of geological structure (Milanovi 2006).
In contrast, large karst depressions (poljes) are hydrogeologically complex places
for reservoir construction. Long zones with concentrated infiltration points (ponors
and estavelles) with swallowing capacities ranging from a few m3/s to 100m3/s are
common hydrogeological features along the border of poljes. During the dry season,
the water table is deep beneath the bottom of a possible reservoir. If estavelles are
prevailing hydrogeological features, the problem of artificial impermeabilization is
more complex than in the case of only ponors. In the case of estavelles associated
with huge uplift, building watertight structures are problematic. Active uplift can
easily demolish these structures or create new openings in the protected estavelles.
Huge caverns and a deep GWL below the dam foundation and bottom of reser-
voirs are common in karst. Some examples are listed below:
(a) In the case of Keban Dam (Turkey), the largest cavity, called the Crab Cavity,
was discovered at a depth of 320m below the crest level. This cave was filled
with 64,000m3 of concrete and injection solids.
(b) The lowest GWL is 200m below the Mornos Reservoir storage level (Greece).
(c) Below the Lar Dam site (Iran), a large cavern, 27m high and 68m wide, was
discovered at a depth of 210m below the riverbed. The volume of the cavern
was determined to exceed 90,000m3. A few other caverns have been discovered
at the depth of 250430m below the riverbed.
(d) In the case of Perdika Reservoir (Greece) the GWL was about 70m below the
reservoir bottom, in the karstified bedrock.
(e) Numerous large water-bearing karst channels were detected ~180m beneath the
river level at Canelles Dam site (Spain).
(f) At Wujiangdu Dam site (China), many karst cavities, particularly in the left
bank, are found down to the depth of about 250m beneath the riverbed.
(g) Part of Akkopru Reservoir in Turkey is located on highly karstified limestone
with number of vertical shafts. GWL in this part is about 100m below the res-
ervoir bottom.
(h) The water table below the Hutovo Reservoir in B-H, in drought conditions, is
more than 100m deep. With abrupt rising of the water levels, the air current
from piezometers can reach a velocity of 15m/s.
(i) Large karst caverns were detected at depth of more than 100 m below the
Chichik Dam site (Uzbekistan).
52 P. Milanovi
Fig.3.1 Right abutment of Bilea reservoir and position of lastva anticline, B-H; 1 Limestone;
2 Dolomite; 3 Large spring; 4 Small permanent spring; 5 Temporary spring; 6 Ponor; 7 Karst shaft;
8 Borehole; 9 Anticline; 10 Regional fault; and 11 General direction of underground flows
In some cases, reservoir construction in closed karst depressions was abandoned

after extensive subsurface investigations or its designation was changed. Due to
huge leakage through the number of estavelles from the Vrtac Reservoir in
Montenegro, the reservoirs role has been redesigned for temporary retention rather
than a permanent water reservoir (Milanovi 2010). Because of karstified limestone
at one section of Aliakmon River (Elati basin), the Ilarion Dam project (Greece)
was suspended. Detailed investigations and analysis have resulted in the relocation
of some projects such as the Miatlinskaya Dam (Russia) and the Havasan Dam
(Iran) (Milanovi 2010). The seepage problems with Hales Bar Dam (USA) started
immediately after the first filling (1905). Unable to overcome this problem, the dam
was demolished in 1968 and replaced with Nickajak Dam, 10 km downstream
(Bruce 2003).
One of the most complex problems related to the geology of some dam sites and
reservoirs is karstification created by the simultaneous influence of phreatic and
thermal waters, e.g., Viegrad Dam (Bosnia), Salman Farsi and Karun IV Dams
(Iran), Pengshui Dam (China), Chichik Dam (Uzbekistan), and Hamam Grouz
(Algeria). Sources of the heat for these thermal waters are usually very deep and
detection of its position is a complicated task. Consequently, the location of karst
features created by thermal water also needs complex investigations, particularly
deep boreholes for thermal measurements (for more information, see Ballard etal.
1983 and Fazeli 2007). For successful grout curtain design, particularly its inclina-
tion and depth, the exact determination of the location of karst channels produced
by the upward hot water flows is essential.
In China, construction of a number of underground dams and reservoirs has
taken place. Lu (1986) and Yuan (1999) show that these dams have storage capaci-
ties between 1105 and 1107m3. One of the largest underground reservoirs was
built on the Linlangdong underground river in Qiubei, Yunnan Province, by con-
structing a 15m high underground dam (1955-1960) with an underground flow dis-
charge varying from 23.8 to 100m3/s. Underground dams have also been constructed
for Yuhong Power Plant (Hunan), Beilou Power Plant (Quangsi), and Wulichong
Reservoir (Yunnan Province). Several underground dams have also been constructed
in the limestone in Japan (Okinawa and Miyako Islands).
One of the largest underground projects is the Ombla Underground Dam and
Reservoir (Croatia), which takes discharge (Q) from the Ombla Spring (mean
Q=24.4m3/s). At the dam, deep flysch sediments act as a hydrogeological bar-
rier and get progressively higher on each side of the spring, forming a V cross-
sectional profile. All structures (dam, reservoir, and power plant) are situated
underground. The dams grout curtain, including cut-off structures and concrete
plugs, has been tightly connected to the impervious flysch sediments. The crest
elevation of the arch-like underground dam is 100m above sea level with a grout
curtain 150200 m below sea level. Underground storage water volume ranges
between 10 106m3 and 12106m3.
One of specific characteristics of reservoirs in karst is large storage deep within
the reservoir banks. This storage is the active part of the reservoir. Based on cal-
culation of Gunay etal. (1985) the bank storage rate was determined to be 3540%
54 P. Milanovi
of water stored in the Oymapunar Reservoir (Turkey). In the case of Bilea

Reservoir (B-H), the bank storage was estimated to be 1015% of water stored in
the reservoir.
Due to dam construction in karst, large and permanent karst springs have been
affected by the new regional, higher hydraulic head created by the reservoir. In
those cases, it was important to understand whether any leakage may occur. Dumanli
Spring (Q=25 to >100m3/s) was flooded by 120m from the Oymapinar Reservoir
(Turkey; Trebinjica Spring (Qav=80m3/s) had an increase in the hydraulic head of
75 m from the Bilea Reservoir (B-H); Pivsko Oko Spring (Qav=25.5 m3/s) was
flooded by a 70m water column of the Piva Reservoir (Montenegro). After impound-
ing and many years of operation of these aforementioned reservoirs, no negative
influence of the spring submergence was observed, especially with regard to water
losses from reservoirs.
3.4Investigation Methods in Karst
A good geological map, including hydrogeological, geostructural, and geomorpho-

logical analysis, represents the basis for dam and reservoir construction in any geo-
logical environment including karst. The key investigation targets in karst are
watershed zones, the evolution process of karst aquifer, depth of the base of karstifi-
cation, location of karst conduits, and the groundwater regime. The most common
methods applied in dam construction in karst are specific hydrogeology/hydrology,
tracer tests, geomorphological analysis, specific geophysical investigations, speleol-
ogy and dissolution tests in the case of evaporates.
Hydrogeological and hydrological investigations are closely connected due to
the very complex relationship between surface water and groundwater (Milanovi
1981; Bonacci 1978). Depending upon the hydrogeological composition, hydro-
logical conditions, and karst aquifer evolution, there can be considerable variation
in connections between surface and underground waters. The relationship depends
on the capacity of underground and surface systems to convey water. Hydraulic
pressures, gradients, and friction also significantly influence the connection from
the surface waters to groundwater circulation.
Tracer tests are frequently used at the regional scale to delineate the difference
between the hydrogeologic and topographic watersheds. Watersheds with very
distinct and permanent boundaries are rare in karst. For this reason, tracer tests in
different hydrological stages are strongly recommended. For regional tracer tests,
the most commonly used dyes are fluorescein and Rhodamin B, lycopodium
spores, inorganic salts, and radioactive salts. Short distance tracer tests are applied
at the dam site areas and reservoir banks to determine position of concentrated
filtration zones, degradation of grout curtains, and velocity of concentrated flows
prior to grouting.
Geomorphological analysis is based on the close genetic relationship of
geomorphology with karst aquifer evolution. Sinkholes, collapses, dry valleys,
Fig.3.2 Ombla underground dam site (Croatia). Thermal measurements indicate the position of
major underground flows. (J, K) limestone, (E3) Eocene flysch, 1 Boreholes drilled from surface,
2 Boreholes drilled from gallery, 3 Proposed level of underground reservoir, 4 Gallery, 5 Isotherms,
6 Caverns
and karst poljes are a consequence of karstification and provide unique informa-
tion related to the geology and hydrogeology of dam sites, reservoirs, and catch-
ments areas. Finding the position and the characteristics of main discontinuities
and folding structures are crucial during dam site selection and later for the
efficient design of the grout curtain.
Geophysical methods are very important for investigation of those parts of car-
bonate rocks that are not directly observable. The best results for estimation of the
regional zone of the base of karstification are provided by the method of electrical
sounding. The charged body method (Milanovi 2001, 2004) can be appropriate to
determine the route of an active karst conduit away from a ponor or in the catchment
area close to a spring. In the case of closely spaced boreholes, the seismic cross-hole
method is frequently used. Thermal logging appears as one of the best methods
(Milanovi 2004) for concentrated underground flow detection (Fig.3.2).
Reported thermal logging measurements were used at the Ombla underground
dam project (Croatia) (Ravnik and Rajver 1998), Maotiahoe Fourth Dam (China)
(Chengjie 1988), Buko Blato Reservoir (B-H) (Bori 1980), Ataturk Dam
(Turkey), and Salman Farsi Dam (Iran) (Milanovi 2004). Thermal measurements
in the karst of France (Drogue 1985) were very useful for underground flow detec-
tion, particularly along the grout curtain routes. Besides thermal logging, the fol-
lowing methods can provide useful data for karst environments: caliper, gamma,
gama-gama, neutron, flow meter, televiewer, and borehole radar. Experiments
with the geo-bomb (a specific kind of seismic method) encourage the further
development of this particular method (Arandjelovi 1976). Recently, good results
were provided from magnetic resonance sounding and the transient electromag-
netic method (Legchenko etal. 2008).
56 P. Milanovi
Fig.3.3 Bogovina Dam project revised on the basis of speleological investigations (Milanovi
2005)
Speleology is the only investigation method for direct observations in karst

underground. In a majority of dam projects in karst, speleological investigation has
played an important role. For instance, the examination of large caverns of Sklope
Dam (Croatia), Salman Farsi (Iran), Ombla Underground Dam (Croatia), Keban
Dam (Turkey), and Marun Dam (Iran) helped with the placement of a number of
grout curtain routes (Milanovi 2004). The building of numerous underground dams
in China and the Buko Blato Reservoir (B-H) were aided by speleological studies.
After detailed speleological investigations of a cavernous system at the Bogovina
Dam site (Serbia), the proposed height of the dam was lowered by 9m (Milanovi
2005; Milanovi etal. 2010) (Fig.3.3).
3.5Common Problems and Failures
In many cases, if dam and reservoir sites are selected in a rock mass with suitable
geological conditions, leakage is not a problem or can be considerably reduced with
properly designed and implemented impermeabilization works. Some of those sites
are Ekbatan Dam (Iran), Bilea Reservoir (B-H), Castillon (France), Perua
(Croatia), Altinapa (Turkey), Genisiat (France), Nebana (Tunisia), Berke (Turkey),
Rama (B-H), Globoica (FYR Macedonia), Quinson (France), Punta Del Gall
(Switzerland), La Angostura (Mexico), Bin al Ouidance (Morocco), Greoux
(France) and Santa Guistina (Italy).
However, it is well known that seepage problems, even failures, are common in
karst. With respect to the construction of dams and reservoirs in karst, failure or
water loss can occur in the form of:
1 . Concentrated leakage during the first filling of the reservoir.
2. Slow but constant erosion of the natural fills from joints and caverns, including
degradation of grout curtain and consequently constant increasing seepage.
3. Abrupt failure (collapses in reservoir and huge seepage) after many years of
successful reservoir operation.
Concentrated leakage during the first filling of reservoir is a problem at more

than 50% of reservoirs in karst. Some regrouting or other types of treatment,
after first impoundment, are quite common in karst and the designers/contractors
need to be prepared for such work. In many cases, additional treatment is suc-
cessful and the dam/reservoir operates at full capacity. Examples from Milanovi
(2004) include Great Falls (USA), Tiangiao and Guanting (China), Canelles
(Spain), Dokan (Iraq), El Cajon (Honduras), Mavrovo (FYR Macedonia), Marun
(Iran). Sometimes after remedial treatments, leakage can be kept at acceptable
levels: Keban (Turkey), Camarassa (Spain), Slano (Montenegro), Buko Blato
and Hutovo (B-H), Mornos (Greece). However, remedial treatments are not
always capable of overcoming the seepage problem: Lar (Iran), Hales Bar
(USA), Vrtac (Montenegro), Montejaque and Maria Cristina (Spain), Vrtac
(Montenegro), Salakovac (B-H). For more information on these specific examples,
see Milanovi (2004).
Progressive erosion is also a common problem in engineering projects under-
taken in karst. A typical example is the Viegrad Dam on the Drina River (B-H).
During initial filling of the reservoir in 1989, several new springs developed
downstream of the dam, with combined discharge of 1.3m3/s. Large quantities
of clay in the discharge of these new springs indicated intensive subsurface
erosion. The seepage gradually increased to 14.0m3/s by 2008/09 and the depth
of siphon seepage flows also gradually increased from 60 to 110m (or deeper)
below the dam foundation. These values were determined using a number of
different techniques including water table investigations, chemical analyses,
tracer tests, geostructural analyses, and thermal measurements of water in bore-
holes. During the last investigation (2009) by divers, a huge karst shaft (3m in
diameter, 45 m deep) was discovered ~150 m upstream from the dam on the
former riverbed.
Increased seepage due to progressive erosion also occurred at the following
dams as discussed in Milanovi (2004): Great Falls Reservoir (USA), where water
loss rose from 0.47m3/s in 1926 to 12.7m3/s in 1945; Slano Reservoir (Montenegro),
where losses increased from 3.5 m3/s in 1971 up to 4.57 m3/s (depending on
reservoir level) by 2001 and Gorica Dam (B-H), where there was a seepage from
1.5 m3/s in 1966 to 4.4 m3/s in 2003 (maximum level). Gradual and long-term
seepage was registered at the pilje Dam (FYR Macedonia), Mosul Dam (Iraq),
and Wolf Creek Dam (USA).
Abrupt failures due to collapses occurred in the Hamam Grouz Reservoir
(Algeria) after 17 years of successful operation, in Mavrovo Reservoir (FYR
Macedonia) after 25 years of operation (alluvium collapsing into karstified
marbly limestone Milanovi 2004) and in the Slano Reservoir (Montenegro)
after 30 years of operation (new ponors created by grouting operations
Milanovi 2004). Additional examples of massive leakage either after initial
filling of the constructed reservoir or as results of complicated sealing works are
presented in Table3.1.
58 P. Milanovi
Table3.1 Dam/Reservoir leakage after initial filling or resulting from sealing operations
Location After first filling (m3/s) After sealing works (m3/s)
Keban (Turkey) 26 <10
Camarasa (Spain) 0.2 2.6
Lar (Iran) 10.8 No success
Ataturk (Turkey) 1114 ?
Salakovac (B-H) >10 No sealing works
Marun (Iran) 10 Negligible
Mavrovo (FYR Macedonia) 9.5 Negligible
Great Falls (USA) 9.5 0.2
Canelles (Spain) 8 Negligible
Buko Blato (B-H) 5 3
Dokan (Iraq) 6 No leakage
Hutovo (B-H) 3 1
El Cajon (Honduras) 1.65 0.1
Hales Bar (USA) 50? Abandoned
Montejaque (Spain) 4 Abandoned
3.6Leakage Prevention in Karst
Concentrated underground flows through channels and caverns represent the main
potential risk for reservoirs in karst. Impermeabilization of those flows needs special
approaches and technologies at the surface and subsurface.
3.6.1Surface Treatment
To reduce water losses from reservoirs and sinking rivers, the following methods are
currently applied:
Using impervious clay, asphalt, or asphalt-concrete blankets
Covering karstified limestone with shotcrete
Construction of heavy reinforced concrete slabs
Plugging of surface karst channels by self-compacting concrete
Using different kinds of geotextile or sandwich-type geotextile/clay liners
Surface compacting to protect from sinking zones in the alluvial overburden
Enclosing large ponors and estevelles with cylindrical dams
Closing estavelles with concrete plugs equipped with nonreturned valves
Isolating large ponors (swallowholes) with dikes
Plugging large open cracks with grout injections (dental treatment)
Protecting impervious blankets with aeration tubes
Blanketing with several layers of compacted clay was used in the case of Altinapa
Reservoir (Turkey), Cuber and Majorque (Spain), Tel Yeruham Dam (Israel),
Hamam Grouz, Ourkis, and Saf-Saf Reservoirs (Alger), High Mill Dam (Georgia,
USA), part of the Mavrovo Reservoir (FYR Macedonia), and the Seshpir Reservoir
(Iran). Loam blankets and asphalt blankets were applied to prevent leakage at par-
ticular areas of the Perdicas Reservoir (Greece); however, these were ineffective in
cases of high storage levels. Asphalt was used as an antiseepage blanket for the May
Reservoir (Turkey).
Reinforced shotcrete represents an efficient technology to seal shallow reser-
voirs, riverbeds, and tunnels located in karstified carbonate rocks. This method was
used in the case of exposed carbonate rock. To prevent leakage along the Trebinjica
River in B-H, 62.5km of riverbed was blanketed by shotcrete (Popovo Polje, B-H).
Natural seepage losses amounted to 75 m3/s through ponors (swallowholes) and
cracks widened by disolution along the riverbed (Milanovi 2004). The flanks of
reservoir at the end of river were also blanketed by shotcrete. Altogether an area of
2.2106 m2 was blanketed with shotcrete. At some places of the karst channel
beneath the lining, the shotcrete was demolished due to localized uplift (Milanovi
2004). After additional remedial works (including construction of nonreturned
valves) the losses at those places were eliminated. Seepage was simultaneously
measured at 16 hydrological/hydrogeological stations along the riverbed in three
different flow periods (wet, dry, and average flow).
In some cases, (if a dam is not equipped with a bottom outlet) to avoid the poten-
tial risk of reservoir failure, the most reliable method of preventing seepage is using
a heavily reinforced concrete slab. In solving the problem of watertightness of the
100m deep Akkpr Reservoir (Turkey), a 1m thick reinforced concrete slab was
constructed over the part of reservoir floor and the corresponding bank to cover
250,000m3 of extremely karstified limestone (Gunay and Milanovi 2007). A num-
ber of vertical karst shafts were plugged with concrete before the slab construction.
To prevent filtration below the concrete slab, it was recommended that a long cut-off
diaphragm wall (connected with slab) be constructed (Fig.3.4).
Compacting the surface layer in conjunction with different types of plastic foils
and geotextile sheeting is the frequently used method to prevent leakage through the
alluvial reservoir bottom affected by karstified bedrock. In the case of Hutovo
Reservoir (B-H), large capacity karst channels are situated below the reservoir bot-
tom (Fig.3.5). During rainy seasons, huge amounts of water flow through this zone.
To prevent this leakage from the reservoir, three different impermeabilization
approaches were applied: (1) compacting of natural alluvial deposits, (2) shotcrete
protection of reservoir banks (exposed limestone) and (3) plastic foil placed above
the main ponor openings in the alluvium. As the reservoir was filled, the water table
rose quickly and displaced air from the caverns. Such displacement creates a strong
pressure whereby the confined air inflates a plastic foil which could explode. To
prevent this from occurring, aeration pipes were constructed to evacuate the con-
fined air from below the reservoir bottom (Milanovi 2004).
To isolate the broad ponor (swallowhole) zone at the edges of storage reser-
voirs, earth-filled dikes are used at the Buko Blato Reservoir (B-H) and the
Mavrovo Reservoir (FYR Macedonia). In the case of large ponors and estavelles,
with single and large openings, cylindrical dams were constructed around ponor
60 P. Milanovi
Fig.3.4 Akkpr reservoir, Turkey. Seepage protection concrete slab and vertical cut-off dia-
phragm wall (Solution proposed by DSI, Ankara, Turkey)
Fig.3.5 Hutovo Reservoir (B-H). 1 Zone with concentrated underground flows, 2 Anticline axis,
3 Piezometers, 4 Large ponors (swallowholes), and 5 Main direction of underground water flows
Slivlje (diameter 50m) and estavelles, Opaica and Misor, (Montenegro, Nikiko
Polje). One way to solve the problems of estavelles in storage reservoirs is by
closing the opening with plugs equipped with nonreturned valves. Cylindrical
dams and nonreturned valves were used in many projects in China. However,
experience with nonreturned valves in Vatic Reservoir (Montenegro) has not been
totally successful because after heavy precipitation, the extremely strong upward
pressure opened a number of new estavelles at the reservoir bottom.
3.6.2Underground Treatment
3.6.2.1Grout Curtain Continual Watertight Structures
Construction of grout curtains in karst requires special approaches and technologies.

The design work is only finished when curtain construction is completed. Modifications
during construction are therefore the rule and not the exception due mainly to the pres-
ence of huge caverns (filled with sediment or empty). Grout curtains in karst are more
complex and much larger than curtains in other geological formations (Table 3.2).
Common modifications to curtains are rerouting of the curtain, increasing of curtain
length or depth, increasing the number of grouting galleries, increasing of grouting
rows and cavern plugging.
Four different types of continual watertight structures (curtains) are:
Suspended (hanging) grout curtain
Grout curtain connected with impervious structures (positive cut-off)
Cut-off diaphragm wall (constructed by trench or overlapped piles)
But-tab structure (completely closed watertight structure)
The most common materials for grouting in karst are cement, clay, asphalt, and
hot bitumen. Cement-based grout mixes are commonly applied in recent grouting
practice. The cement component usually consists of >95% of the grout mix, and
additional components are bentonite, different chemical additives, polyurethane,
and artificial sponges. Clay-cement stable grout mix uses clay as its base compo-
nent with cement and bentonite as additional components. This grout mix was
used in many projects in Dinaric karst region: Perua Dam (Croatia), 75% clay;
Table3.2 Examples of large Location Dimensions

grout curtains in karst
Attar (Turkey) 1,200,000m2, length 5.5km,
geologic formations
depth 300m
El Cajon (Honduras) 610,000m2
Berke (Turkey) 533,000m2, depth up to
235m
Dokan (Iraq) 471,000m2
Khao Laem (Thailand) 437,000m2
Slano (Montenegro) 404,224m2, length
7.011km
62 P. Milanovi
Buko Blato Reservoir (B-H), 5575% clay; Granarevo Dam (B-H), 66% clay;
Rama Dam (B-H), 4557% clay and Slano Reservoir (Montenegro), 5065%
clay. Hot asphalt has been used in the USA for sealing leaks at the Hales Bar site
(1944) and for sealing Great Falls Reservoir where water losses were reduced to
2% (Milanovi 2004).
The grout mix consumption in karst is completely different than in nonkarstified
rocks. Based on the experience in nonkarstified rocks, Deere (1976) proposed a range
of medium-low to medium-high consumption between 25 and 200kg/m. According
to Heitfeld (1965), average consumption is between 60 and 110kg/m. The extreme
nonhomogeneity of the karstified rocks leads to great variability of grout mix con-
sumption. For instance, at one section of grout curtain at Salman Farsi Dam site
(Iran), grout mix consumption varies between 6kg/m and 234t/m (average 79kg/m).
Consumption of the one borehole in the grout curtain situated along the Slano
Reservoir (Niki Polje, Montenegro) was 1,600t of dry component of grout mix
and 1,841m3 of aggregate. The only registered rod-fall in this borehole was 0.3m
at a depth of about 100m. The most frequent (medium or average) value of con-
sumption in karstified rock varies between 100 and 600kg/m. Almost 70% of the
analyzed cases (74 curtains in karstified rock) belong to that range. Consumption
<100kg/m was recorded in 17% of the cases and >600kg/m at the remaining 13%.
This analysis does not include the consumption of grout mix used for filling and
plugging the large karst conduits and caverns, which usually takes >1,500kg/m of
grout (Milanovi 2000).
The common rule for grout curtain depth recommended by the U.S. Bureau of
Reclamation is not applicable to karst: D=1/3 H+C (where D is the depth of cur-
tain, H is the depth of reservoir, and C is the variable constant). According to the
results from a number of completed curtains, the relationship between depth of
curtain (D) and maximum water depth in reservoirs (H) located in karst ranges as
follows: D=0.38.0 H. For instance, depth of grout curtain beneath the 24.75 m
high upica Dam (Bosnia) is 185m. The length of curtain is 692m and its surface
is 127,777m2.
From the engineering experiences at many projects in karst, the vertical distance
of grouting galleries should not exceed 30m to intersect as many of the karst con-
duits as possible. This distance allows easy access to the cavernous space between
galleries by auxiliary shafts or adits.
One of the worlds most complex grout curtains in the karstified rocks was con-
structed as part of the Berke Dam project (Turkey). Berke Dam is a 201m high arch
dam on the Ceyhan River. The deepest part of the suspended curtain is 235m and
the curtain surface is 533,000m2. The aperture of solution channels, chimneys, and
voids range from 20 to 200cm. The deepest section of the curtain went down 225m,
which needed 33 rigs and 53 grout pumps to aid in its completion (Altug and
Saticioglu 2001).
Sizeable caverns and channels have to be plugged. However, if the cavern is
too large for curtains, then its rerouting (bypass) is the only technical and eco-
nomical solution. Detailed speleological investigations of cavernous space are a
key prerequisite in order to select the proper and lowest-risk modification for
Fig.3.6 Sklope dam site. Grout curtain bypass around the caverns. 1 Cavern, 2 One row grout
curtain, 3 Double row grout curtain, 4 Dam, 5 Reservoir, 6 Boreholes, 7 Large sinkholes (Simplified,
from Pavlin 1970)
grout curtains. To bypass a huge cavern, one of two general modification solutions
are possible:
1. The alignment of the downstream bypass means the cavern is left upstream of
curtain and has to be saturated with water after the reservoir has been filled. At
the Sklope Dam site in Croatia, caverns were discovered at both abutments. The
large cavern on the left bank of the dam site was discovered during the process
of constructing the grout curtain. The length of cavern passages were about
500m and included a large hall about 40m long, 2030m wide and 120m high
(Milanovi 2004). To address this discovery, the grout curtain route on the left
bank was modified to bypass the cave on the downstream end. On the right bank,
the grout curtain route bypass was done on the upstream side to avoid another
cavern (Fig.3.6).
2. The alignment of an upstream bypass means a cavern is left downstream of the
curtain plane and has to be empty and accessible after reservoir filling. At the
Salman Farsi Dam in Iran, many caverns along the grout curtain route were
detected and speleologically investigated. The largest cavern in the right bank
consisted of different but connected levels. The investigated cave was 130 m
long, more than 75m high and between 15 and 25m wide. On the basis of the
speleological data, the curtain route was modified to bypass the cavern on the
upstream side (Fig.3.7). Due to this modification, the length of grout curtain in
the right bank was extended by 130m (Dolder etal. 2002).
64 P. Milanovi
Fig.3.7 Salman Farsi Dam, Iran. Modification of grout curtain route due to large cavern at curtain
route (Dolder etal. 2002)
3.6.2.2Cut-Off (Diaphragm) Walls
In the case of empty or sediment-filled caverns and cavernous zones, with volumes
of tens up to hundreds of cubic meters, the efficiency of conventional grouting is
questionable. With these caverns, a cut-off (diaphragm) wall is the most effective
means of creating a watertight structure. The most common types of cut-off tech-
nologies are:
1. Mining method of an open-pit (trench) excavation between galleries if the
structure is situated above the GWL
2. Overlapping piles method that is very useful if the cut-off structure is below
the GWL
The mining method, using a combination of trenches, galleries, and shafts, was
used for cavern plugging at the Tarbela Dam in Pakistan. A large reinforced con-
crete cut-off wall was constructed at the underground Wulichong Dam in China to
block two underground rivers, surrounding caverns, and a series of wide fissures.
The concrete cut-off wall is 100.4m high, 5030m long and 2.5 to 2m thick. Loose
and weak rocks behind the wall (2835m) was excavated and backfilled with con-
crete and finally consolidated by high pressure grouting to complete the sealing
process (Milanovi 2004).
In the case of Karun I Dam in Iran, a clay-filled fault zone allowed hydrogeologic
connection between the saturated rock upstream of the grout curtain and a large
karst spring (named Big Spring) downstream of dam site. In natural conditions, the
average discharge of the Big Spring varied from 3 to 15m3/s. The leakage through
this zone was blocked by a concrete cut-off, exceeding 100m in height and about
2030m in width. This structure is supported by grout curtain from all sides.
At the Khao Leam Dam, Thailand, solution channels between 0.2 and 10.0m in
diameter posed a problem that was rectified by constructing a cut-off wall of over-
lapping piles 762mm in diameter. The piles were drilled and concreted from very
close and fully pressure-lined galleries. The vertical distance between galleries was
only 14m. For the treatment of minor karst porosity (opening width of 5200mm),
300mm diameter piles were constructed under water using the same overlapping
method. The major karst cavities were plugged by applying the mining method (for
more information on this method, see Milanovi 2004). The surface area of cut-off
at the dam foundation is 77,000 m2 and about 360,000 m2 in the right abutment
(Bergado etal. 1984).
Different schemes for cut-off construction were performed at the Wolf Creek
Dam in USA. Above the GWL, the primary elements (1.29 m diameter) were
excavated to a depth of about 21.3 m and a borehole was cased with a 1.19 m
diameter temporary steel casing. Excavation continued inside the casing down to
a depth of 42.6m. That section of the hole was cased with a 1.04m diameter cas-
ing. After installation of the permanent casing (0.66m diameter), the hole was
filled with tremie concrete. During removal of the temporary casing, the space
between the permanent casing and the wall was filled with cement grout mix
(Fetzer 1979).
One of the longest cut-off diaphragm walls was constructed as part of the anti-
seepage structure at the Akkopru Reservoir, Turkey. The cut-off consisted of over-
lapped concrete piles (440mm diameter) to prevent hydraulic connection between
pervious alluvial/conglomerate sediments (reservoir bottom) and the highly karsti-
fied limestone which was protected by a blanket of heavily reinforced concrete
(Fig.3.4). Average depth of the cut-off wall is 2040m and length is 729m. In areas
with large caverns, a second row of cut-off walls was constructed.
3.6.2.3Treatment of Karst Cavern Plugging
The most frequent technical difficulty in karstified rock is the presence of a cavern
along the grout curtain route. In this case, the cavern plugging or treatment of
karst is necessary. In engineering terms, the meaning of treatment of karst is
the geotechnical operation needed to block or reduce concentrated leakage from
reservoir through the ponors and estavelles or to block or reduce the groundwater
66 P. Milanovi
Fig.3.8 Keban Dam, Turkey. Petek cavern remediation (Boovi etal. 1981)
circulation along any karst singularity (channels or caverns) that cannot be treated
by conventional grouting technology.
The caverns filled with clay (particularly soft clay) are very questionable for
grouting, particularly in the case of caverns below the water table. This kind of cav-
ern deposit is not a groutable media. In the case of Wujiangdu Dam (China), the
special technology was applied to treat soft clay (see last paragraph in this section).
Prior to treatment of any accessible cave, speleological investigations are manda-
tory. Before plugging the cavern, the walls of the cavern should be cleaned and filled
using self-compacting concrete (SCC), mortar or thick grout mix. Finally, the con-
tact grouting of the interface between plug and the rock is necessary. During the
construction of Keban Dam (Turkey), about 30 caverns were treated with this tech-
nique. One cavity, called the Crab Cavity, located 320m below the crest level, was
filled with 64,000m3 of concrete and injected solids. However, the largest cavern,
called Petek (Fig.3.8) was discovered during the first reservoir filling. The short
subvertical karst channel connected the reservoir with the cave resulting in water
losses from the reservoir up to 26m3/s. To fill the Petek Cave, one shaft 2.5m in
diameter and 13 boreholes of 1417in in diameter were drilled. About 605,000m3
of limestone blocks, gravel, sand, and clay were used to fill the cave. After this treat-
ment, the leakage decreased to ~8m3/s, a more acceptable level, considering the
inflow from the Firat River to be 635m3/s (Milanovi 2004).
For the treatment of six large cavern systems along the grout curtain of the
Salman Farsi Dam site (Iran) (Fig3.9), 3,125m3 of SCC was used. Before filling,
all caverns and channels were speleologicaly investigated and auxiliary shafts and
access adits were excavated for concrete transport (Dolder etal. 2002).
Fig.3.9 Salman Farsi Dam. Treatment of the large cavernous system at the curtain route between
two grouting galleries (From Dolder etal. 2002)
Concrete plugs were constructed to prevent leakage through the channels

connected to the reservoir in Buko Blato (B-H). In another example, the channel of
Honeycomb Cave, Tennessee River (USA), situated in reservoir upstream from the
Guntersvil Dam, was blocked by a concrete plug. A karst channel between Krupac
Ponor and Krupac Reservoir (Montenegro) was also successfully plugged. The
large cavern was discovered at the Douglas Dam site (USA). The cave was investi-
gated by a mining operation. After cleaning, the cavern was filled with 4,965t of
concrete through the large diameter borehole at the surface. To achieve watertight-
ness of Khaobin Reservoir (Vietnam) 17,600m3 of cavities were cleaned for the
construction and concrete walls were built for 10.5km (Skiba etal. 1992).
Treatment of channels below the water table, particularly channels with flowing
water under pressure, requires a very complex treatment technology. Even with sophis-
ticated treatment methods, the ability to reduce leakage is not assured. For instance,
along the grout curtain route of the Lar Dam in Iran, a large cavern, 27m high and 68m
wide, was discovered at a depth of 210m below the riverbed. The volume of the cavern
was determined to exceed 90,000m3. Through 214mm diameter boreholes from a gal-
lery, the downstream section of the cavern was filled with about 28,000m3 of gravel,
with a grading 550mm and 34,000m3 of crushed rock. In spite of the extensive grout-
ing and filling of caverns, the reservoir losses are still very high (Djalaly 1988).
Below the El Cajon Dam site in Honduras, several large karst caverns at depth of
176m or deeper were discovered and had to be grouted under an extremely high
68 P. Milanovi
pressure head. Some of them were filled with plastic clay. The washing out of the
huge amount of clay and consolidation of plastic clay was difficult to control. To
plug larger cavities, the following solids were inserted into the cavities using
special pipe arrangements and 100mm diameter boreholes: 8,000 wooden balls
(7cm diameter), 650 mortar balls (6cm diameter), and 25,000 polyurethane bags
(Guifarro etal. 1996).
Prior to plugging the cavernous system at the left bank of Canelles Dam site
(Spain), the caves were speleologically investigated and clayey-silty material was
removed above the water table. The conduit (17m2) was plugged with an 11m long
concrete plug. To fill the cave system, 1,380t of dry material was used. Deep con-
centrated flows, down to depths of 200m, were sealed by using polyurethane foam
and acryl asphalt-resin mixes (Milanovi 2004).
Cavities 250m below the Wujiangdu Dam site in China, down to the depth of
about 250m, were filled with soft and very soft clay. To prevent clay washing from
caverns, the soft clay in the caverns was subjected to four actions: hydraulic fractur-
ing, extrusion, consolidation, and chemical hardening (Zoumei and Pinshou 1986).
For successful hydraulic fracturing, the empty space between the clay deposits and
the cavern roof was filled with cement grout mix. As a consequence of the high
grout pressure (up to 60kg/cm2), the resistance of the clay fillings to water pressure
was considerably increased.
3.7Dams and Reservoirs in Evaporates
A number of dams are situated on evaporates and many of them have been affected
by dissolution problems and failures. At least 30 dams in USA were affected by
gypsum dissolution, some with catastrophic and tragic consequences. Because of
dissolution of gypsum in the foundation of St. Francis Dam (California), the dam
collapsed in 1928. The primary cause of failure was a landslide in the schists.
However, leakage through the gypsum conglomerate could have contributed to weak-
ening foundations before landslide impact. At the time, the collapse represented the
greatest civil engineering failure in that country and killed over 450 people. After
12years of dam operation, the McMilan Reservoir, (constructed in 1893) dried up.
Failure of Quail Creek Dike (Utah) occurred in 1989. The seepage problems, after
first filling, have hampered Carter Lake and Horsetooth Reservoirs (Pearson 1999).
The proposed Magnum Dam site (Oklahoma) was abandoned because of intensive
karstification of gypsum bedrock (Johnson 2008).
Numerous dams in different countries also have gypsum dissolution problems:
Kamskaya Dam site and Bratsk Reservoir (Eastern Siberia, Russia); El Isiro (Venezuela);
Alloz San Loren, Estremera, and San Juan Dam (Spain); Mosul Dam (Iraq); Huoshipo
Reservoir (China); Poechos Dam (Peru); Yangmazhai and Mahuangtian Reservoirs
(China); Baypazinsk Dam (Tajikistan); Tange-Duk Reservoir (Iran); and the Yerevan
Dam (Armenia). Due to karstified gypsum and problems in its foundation, design mod-
ifications were required for the Casa de Piedra Dam (Argentina).
Fig.3.10 Kamskaya dam site. Geological cross-section perpendicular to the dam axis (Milanovi
2006). Alevrolite is a form of siltstone
Salt rock has been detected in the foundation of Rogun and Nurek Dams (Tajikistan)
and in the reservoir bank of Gotvand Dam (Iran). Because the salt is 160 times more
soluble than gypsum (in flowing water, dissolution rates increase tremendously), this
kind of rock will cause leakage problems and pollution of the reservoir water. At the
Gotvand Reservoir, deterioration of water quality and slope stability are the key prob-
lems. The evaporate block is 2.5km by 1km in area and 150m thick. Remediation
work involved recontouring the reservoir bank with added surface protective mea-
sures and optimizing the operation of the reservoir. However, dissolution processes
cannot be completely eliminated at the Gotvand Reservoir. The main task of remedial
measures is to decrease the intensity of solution and to improve bank stability.
The Kamskaya Dam and Reservoir was constructed in 1954 on the Kama River
(Russia). The dam is 21m high and 2.5km long and is situated on a complex lithol-
ogy of argillites, sandstone, gypsum, limestone, dolomites, and anhydrites. To pre-
vent leakage below the dam site, a horizontal impervious blanket was constructed
with an accompanying vertical grout curtain installed along its upstream border
(Fig.3.10). Immediately after reservoir impounding, leakage through the dam foun-
dation was registered. Due to dissolution and suffusion processes, the permeability
greatly increased. During the period from 1956 till 1961, 11 suffusion collapses
occurred in the vicinity of the reservoir. To improve the density of the existing
cement-based grout mix, a chemical gel-forming solution (oxaloaluminosilicate)
was developed and successfully used (Milanovi 2004).
The Huoshipo Reservoir (Guizhou Province, China) is situated in the upper
gypsum-bearing dolomite and lower dolomite interlayered with 48 strata of gypsum.
The gypsum is mostly corroded in a honeycomb shape. During reservoir impound-
ing, the seepage increased slowly to 237l/s. This water discharges at Sand Spring,
400 m downstream from the dam. As a result of the solution process, collapses
formed at the reservoir bed, and laminar filtration was replaced by conduit flow.
Antiseepage remedial work consisted of double-liquid grouting to plug the karst
conduits, and blanketing all exposed gypsum layers prevented contact of reservoir
water with gypsum-bearing strata (Lu and Cooper 1997).
70 P. Milanovi
The embankment of the Mosul Dam (Iraq) (110m high) is situated on Miocene,
well-bedded, clayey and marly rocks, gypsum, anhydrite, and limestone. During the
first partial filling of the reservoir (1986), the leakage through the dam site increased
up to 1,400l/s. The leakage paths were located at an average depth of 6070m. The
dissolution intensity of gypsum ranges from 42 to 80t/day (Guzina etal. 1991). To
replace the volume of dissolving minerals, an extensive and permanent grouting
procedure was applied, however, without success. Most probable solution will be
the construction of the very large cut-off wall.
Specific catastrophic failure of San Juan Earth Dam (Spain) occurred during the
first filling of the reservoir in 2001. The San Juan Reservoir, with a capacity of
850,000m3, was situated on gypsiferous- mantled pediment deposits overlaying ter-
tiary dispersive clay sediments (Gutierrez etal. 2003). The gypsum component was
sand size particles, and due to their intensive dissolution, the pediment structure dis-
integrated, permeability increased and part of the dam collapsed. A 10m deep breach
in the dam sent a huge flood which covered a large part of the downstream area.
The region of the Bratsk Reservoir (Angara River, Russia) was well known as a
karst environment. After the construction of the Bratsk Reservoir, many rapid col-
lapses occurred in the areas with prevailing gypsum-anhydrite rocks. During reser-
voir filling (1963-1966), up to 200 sinkholes/km2 developed each year in the
reservoir area, with damage to buildings and structures outside of the reservoir area
as well (Trzhtsinsky 2002).
Gypsum in the foundations of the weir, locks, and powerhouse of the Hessigheim
Dam on the River Neckar (Germany) dissolved and caused settlement problems.
Sinkholes have also occurred near the dam, one hole being 8m in diameter. During
the remedial site investigation, cavities up to several meters in height were encoun-
tered in the boreholes. The underlying rock has now been grouted in an 8-year
project (19861994) involving the use of about 10,600t of cement. Further work
still needs to be completed and the expected life of the remedial measures is
3040years (Cooper and Calow 1998).
3.8Conclusions
The nature of karst presents a great variety of risks associated with any kind of human
activities, particularly the high-risk nature of construction of large dams and reser-
voirs on karstified rocks. But dams are costly structures, and at the beginning, design-
ers had little or no experience or knowledge related to karst. Conventional
hydrogeological investigation methods and techniques were not successful in the
case of karst-type porosity. In some cases, the empty reservoirs are a consequence of
incorrect conclusions. Consequently, karst areas were avoided by dam designers.
In many cases, the karst regions are rich with hydro-related resources and their
development depends on successful water management. In those regions, reclama-
tion projects and construction of large dams and reservoirs have had a primary role
in regional socioeconomic development.
During the past century, existing hydrogeological, hydrological, and geophysical

investigation methods have developed or adapted to be efficient in the karst settings.
Increasing of geotechnical knowledge and development of sealing technologies
became one of key prerequisite for many successful dam construction projects.
From the earliest days of dam/reservoir construction till today, finding the position
of caverns and karst channels deep below the surface was and is still crucial. A fun-
damental geological understanding of karst and close cooperation of a wide spec-
trum of scientists and engineers is the basis of success. The final design of a grout
curtain in karst can only be finalized during the execution phase. The curtain needs
modifications and adaptations on the basis of the geological exploration of the
underground. Newly developed sealing technologies (grouting techniques, under-
ground flow plugging, surface impermeabilization of reservoir bottoms and others)
have been successful in many recent projects.
However, the reservoirs in karst may fail to fill despite an extensive investigation
program and sealing treatment. The risk cannot be totally eliminated by increasing
the investigative programs, but it can be minimized to an acceptable level. In many
cases, remedial works are necessary after the first filling of the reservoir. In other
cases, progressive erosion of cavern filling and deterioration of grout curtains can
take a long time (5-20years). To control long-term processes, a complex monitoring
program is the only way to prevent failure.
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Chapter 4
Experience in Collapse Risk Assessment
of Building on Covered Karst Landscapes
in Russia
Vladimir Tolmachev and Mikhail Leonenko
Abstract Problems that arise during development of terranes with carbonate and
sulfate-covered karst are discussed herein and are based on experiences in Russia,
where karst terranes constitute one third of the total territory. Different karst hazards
are considered with respect to various types of construction and facilities. Karst haz-
ards caused by sinkholes are classified according to specific sinkhole development
intensity (ten categories) and average sinkhole diameter (eight categories). Some
examples of accidents causing damage to buildings are presented and the reasons for
the accidents are discussed. The main stochastic laws describing sinkhole develop-
ment are considered. A method of evaluation of karst collapse risk and assessment of
the risk level is presented. Application of this method helps to plan an antikarst
protection program with both capital and maintenance types of prevention activity.
4.1Introduction
Information presented herein is based on long-term research into issues involving

engineering and construction in karst terranes in Russia (Tolmachev 2006). Russian
engineers first encountered serious karst-related problems at the end of the nine-
teenth century during construction and operation of railways in the Volga River
catchment basin and in the Urals region. That was the time when engineering kars-
tology originated as an applied multidisciplinary science combining engineering
and construction-related theory, and it later included economics, jurisprudence, and
environmental study (Tolmachev 1999). The term engineering karstology was for-
mally adopted in Russia in 1947 at the Molotov Karst Conference (Proceedings 1947).
To the best of our knowledge, this term is not used outside Russia, but there
V. Tolmachev (*) M. Leonenko

Antikarst and Shore Protections, 10 Gastello Street, 606019 Dzerzhinsk, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]

76 V. Tolmachev and M. Leonenko
are some very similar terms, such as applied karst geology (Beck 1993) or engi-
neering geology of karst (Reuter and Tolmachev 1990). Similar to engineering kar-
stology are the trends dealing with geotechnical aspects of construction in karst
regions (Sowers 1996; Aderhold 2005).
Russia has nearly 70years of experience quantitatively assessing hazards for the
purpose of development on karst terranes. The main focus was on the karst collapse
hazard in covered sulfate-carbonate karst at the depth of 2080m. The presence of
subsurface karst features is an essential (though not the only) prerequisite for the
development of this hazard. In practice, it is difficult and often impossible to locate
voids and fissures and to identify their shape and dimensions between these depths.
Despite this uncertainty, the karst collapse hazard must be taken into consideration
by civil engineers during development. Consequently, Russian researchers, while
developing methods of karst collapse hazard assessment, have attempted to both
meet the needs of practical engineering and enhance the understanding of surficial
karst development mechanisms (e.g., stochastic mechanism of sinkhole develop-
ment and processes in the overburden). Such attempts can be seen in the evolution
of karst hazard and risk assessment methods. However, other aspects of karst haz-
ards exist, and depending on the natural and technogenic situation, some of these
may become more important when considering particular economic tasks.
Analysis of karst hazard and risk assessment methods worldwide shows that
researchers and engineers follow the same approaches. We assume that the Russian
experience described here can be helpful for specialists in other countries. Some
important developments in knowledge have only been discussed in Russian publica-
tions, which are not easily accessible to foreign researchers.
There exist numerous approaches to karst hazard assessment in Russia. We sug-
gest that the method described below is the most efficient approach available. It
presents a solution to the problems of risk assessment for building in karst areas
and constitutes the basis of Russian national standards and is also the officially
recognized methodology.
As a Russian case study, we will concentrate on work undertaken in that country,
and although we recognize there are other hazards and approaches investigated else-
where, these will not be covered in the chapter. The other aspects of karst hazard
and risk assessment are discussed in different chapters of this text. These include:
Technogenic impacts on karst hazard parameters
Techniques of zoning of territories according to the level of karst hazard in vari-
ous natural and technogenic conditions
Mechanisms of sinkhole development
Use of geosciences investigation techniques (geomorphological, structural, and
lithological mapping, bedrock core drilling, geophysical methods, etc.)
In Russia, engineering karstology evolved mainly from traditional karstology.
New research methods for karst study were developed; various forecast techniques
for prediction of karst development were created to be incorporated into the con-
struction design in karst regions and even a new specific terminology arose.
Engineering karstology deals essentially with the problems of civil engineering in
4 Experience in Collapse Risk Assessment of Building 77
karst regions within the framework of an integral system that is Karst Engineering
(Tolmachev etal. 1986; Tolmachev and Reuter 1990; Tolmachev and Leonenko 2005).
The nature of karst development in Russia, with its subsurface and superficial
effects, has been studied within this system. Research has mainly focused on cov-
ered karst in carbonate and sulfate rock. In the investigation of subsurface karst
features, special attention is paid to the development of voids and deconsolidated
areas in the overburden (Tolmachev etal. 1982; Khomenko 1986, 2003). During the
investigation of superficial karst features, the emphasis is placed on sinkholes and
the conditions of their development (formation mechanisms, spatial and timing
stochastic characteristics).
Most Russian engineers and officials perceive general karst hazards and the karst
collapse hazard as one and the same, and this simplification often leads to develop-
ment-related problems on karst territories. The failure to appreciate the distinction
between karst risk and karst hazard has often resulted in serious design and engi-
neering mistakes. Nevertheless, it is necessary to recognize that for many areas of
Russia with deep karst (over 20m in depth), the most significant threat of damage
to buildings and facilities with shallow foundations is posed by a sudden collapse of
foundations. For this reason, most attention will be given to the problem of the
collapse (sinkhole) hazard.
One of the crucial issues for construction in karst regions is karst risk assessment.
The approach taken in assessment varies depending on the type of structures or facil-
ities, their overall importance, degree of their impact on the environment, their size,
and construction characteristics. Designers and contractors stress the importance of
karst risk assessment for helping guide the development of structural, building, and
operational characteristics of the construction. Their consideration of karst risk
assessment is especially important when considering the potential negative impacts
of karst development to local economies, societies, and the environment.
Engineering karstology assumes that the results obtained by research should be
rendered to engineers through new building codes and specifications. Documentation
of this kind first appeared in Russia in 1967, and since that time, a system of stan-
dardized requirements including codes of practice, guidelines, and recommenda-
tions have been developed. Some of these official documents are adopted throughout
Russia while others are valid only for separate regions or departments (Tolmachev
and Leonenko 2001). Examples of these documents are:
Recommendations on Foundation Engineering on Karst Territories (1985)
Recommendations on the Use of Engineering/Geological Information for
Selection of Antikarst Protection Methods (1987)1
Basic Track Maintenance Instructions for Karst Hazardous Terranes (1997)
1
The term antikarst protection is widely used in Russia. It is understood as a system of special
engineering and organizational activities, which involves the issues of planning, design, build-
ing, technology, geotechnics, hydrogeology, monitoring and operation and which is aimed at
prevention or elimination of negative impacts of karst processes during the period of building
and operation of constructions. The term is in the name of the authors company.
The chapter, Engineering Geological Site Investigations in Karst Terranes,

and the code of practice, Engineering Geological Site Investigations for
Construction (2000)
Technical regulation Engineering, Design, Construction and Operation of
Structures in Karst Terranes in Nizhny Novgorod Region (2010)
We have been instrumental in the development of the above documents.
The 2010 document was written in accordance with recent Federal Laws of the
Russian Federation, such as On Technical Regulation, Urban Planning Code of
the Russian Federation, On Environmental Protection, and On Safety of
Structures and Facilities, all of which put forward a binding requirement to assess
natural risk in order to assure construction does not exceed safe limits.
4.2Types of Karst Hazard
Negative impacts of karst on economic activity and, above all, on construction work
can be described in various ways which are related to specific karst hazards.
Table4.1 describes the types of karst hazard that may be reflected in decisions made
in the course of economic development. As a rule, designers of buildings and facili-
ties take into consideration only one type of karst hazard or a combination of two.
However, when designing major structures that can cause significant hazard to the
health and safety of the population, all of the risk factors outlined in Table4.1 must
be considered.
Karst hazard Type A and B always require a specific approach to the construction
and operation of water supply and drainage systems in cities and towns (e.g., appropri-
ate routing of pipelines, pipe material selection, water leakage control). As a general
rule, failure to account for karst-suffusion processes in planning water withdrawals
increases the frequency of karst development not only at the particular water removal
site but also within adjacent areas (Khomenko 1986, 2003). Water leaks usually lead
to local increases in karst hazard Type A and B (Figs.4.1 and 4.2).
Hazard Type A, B, and C are especially important for determining the price of
land. All things being equal, the price of land in a karst zone will inevitably be much
lower compared to a nonkarst area, especially since the contractor will have to bear
considerable additional expenses in order to reduce karst risks. This circumstance is
especially important for developers of city planning projects.
Notions of karst hazard and karst risk are closely connected with the insurance
of construction in karst territories. The need for insurance may arise for locations
with the Type B hazard. Unfortunately, insurance of construction against karst risks
is not used in Russia, even though the methodology for probabilistic assessment of
karst hazard was proposed long ago. In part, this absence can be explained by gen-
eral immaturity of insurance in Russia, as well as by a certain exotic character of
karst issues to the national insurance companies. This situation is contrasted with
the practice in karst areas of the USA (which has sinkhole insurance coverage)
(Salomone 1984; Zisman 2005). The American experience should be used in Russia
Table4.1 Types of karst hazard

Types of karst
hazard Object-specific conditions Typical structures and facilities causing pollution
A (Fig.4.1a) Intensive anthropogenic Waste disposal landfills
pollution of the Chemical plants
geological environment Nuclear power stations
Petroleum storage depots and petrol stations
Oil pipelines, delivery ducts
Motorways
Railways
Sewer pipelines
B (Fig.4.1b) Probability of great damage Building and facilities at the stage of design,
or destruction construction, or operation (industrial,
residential, and public buildings, pipelines,
railways, motorways, etc.)
C (Fig.4.1c) Unforeseen problems with High-rise buildings
foundations and Bridges
underground facilities Tunnels
Subway
Underwater pipelines
Da Excessive leakage from Water-storage reservoirs
water bodies Ponds
Canals
a
This chapter does not consider any particular problems related to hydraulic engineering facilities
for karst region, because they lie beyond the professional interests of the authors. Detailed infor-
mation is given in other publications (Lykoshin 1968; Lykoshin et al. 1992; Daoxian 1991;
Milanovich 2000)
as much as possible, especially in terms of interaction between the participants of

the insurance process in the following order: geologist, designer, karstologist, insur-
ance agent, and customer. Introduction of insurance procedures will have economic
impacts in development of karst regions and will obviously cause some new prob-
lems with concepts and methodology. It will be necessary to develop new terms or
to correct some of the accepted terminology in order to establish legal precedents
that are legally verifiable, clear and comprehensive for customers and experts from
insurance companies.
In the process of construction of buildings and engineered facilities in karst
terranes, a number of specific aspects of karst hazard of Types A, B, and C should
be considered.
4.2.1Karst Hazard Type A
When a Type A hazard is identified, one must consider the various pathways that
pollution may take in entering the geological environment of covered karst.
Fig.4.1 Types and subtypes of karst danger 1 Source of pollution 2 Water-permeable soils 3 Low
permeability soils 4 Karstified rock 5 Rock base 6 Karst-induced joints in the soil 7 Karst cavity 8
Friable soil area under a sinkhole 9 Increased infiltration area 10 Disintergrated soils in the rim of
the subsidence mold 11Moving direction of underground water pollutants 12 Subsurface disinter-
grated area 13 Compressible soil
Fig. 4.2 Development of a karst-suffosion sinkhole induced by a heating main leakage in

Dzerzhinsk (2009)
These are described as follows (Mamonova and Tolmachev 1997; Tolmachev

etal. 2005):
The increased rate of pollution of the geological environment is observed in loca-
tions of newly developed sinkholes, as well as old sinkholes, in the rims of the
subsidence depression, and in the areas of active subsurface karst.
Water pollutants may penetrate through karst joints to areas many kilometers
away from the source of pollution.
Pollution of underground water can be described as a pulse process dependent on
the dynamics of subterranean and superficial karst development.
Water pollutant penetration rates through karst joints are several times higher in
comparison with the values observed in other water-bearing formations.
Under certain circumstances, pollution traveling through solution pipes in karst
terranes may result in a substantial increase of dissolution rate of karst rock.
The net process may lead to reduction of the soil load-bearing capacity and,
therefore, to conditions which facilitate formation of karst features.
In the siting of locations for landfills, the main criterion of Type A in Table4.1 is
to predict a volume of potential pollutant Vp (m3 per 100years occurring in an area
of 1ha). This is the potential quantity of pollutant that may penetrate beneath the
landfill through existing and newly formed karst features (Tolmachev etal. 2005).
Depending on the values of Vp, karst areas can be classified according to their
potential environmental vulnerability into a number of conventional subgroups

using the units discussed below:
(1) (V <10); (2) (V =1050); (3) (V =50100); (4) (V =100500); (5)
p p p p
(Vp=5001,000); (6) (Vp=1,0005,000); (7) (Vp=5,00010,000); etc.
Values of Vp are usually estimated using the results of probability analysis of the
features of the developing karst and the distribution of their predicted dimensions.
For more details, see Tolmachev etal. (2005).
4.2.2Karst Hazard Type B
For covered karst areas with Type B karst hazard, risk should be assessed by
accounting for specific features and mechanisms that may occur during the life of
the facility. For the majority of buildings and facilities, karst features can be
grouped in decreasing order of potential risk: (1) soil or rock collapse, (2) local
subsidence developed in the vicinity of the construction, (3) old sinkholes located
close to the construction, (4) differential foundation settlements caused by karst
processes, (5) slow subsidence of soil and (6) karst (karst-suffosion) induced
slumps. This arrangement allows further subdivision of Type B karst hazard into
subtypes (Fig.4.1b).
Subtype B1 (collapse sinkholes) is characterized by the following factors:
Temporally, collapses are usually immediate events, though occasionally, they
are preceded by slumps, concentric fissures on the ground surface, etc.
Collapse development process has a pronounced probabilistic character (in time
and space, i.e., diameter, depth, and volume).
Often, collapses occur on the same spot or in close vicinity to previous
collapses.
The area around a fresh collapse is characterized by considerably reduced soil
load-bearing capacity and increased water permeability.
The shape of a depression formed by a collapse of the ground surface does not
stay the same and changes rather quickly (depending on the kind of soil) with the
diameter growing and the depth decreasing, which eventually results in a conical
appearance of the sinkhole.
In Russia, the following parameters of the prediction of sinkhole development
are used for karst hazard assessment:
Specific intensity (frequency) of sinkhole development (l), related to a unit area
(as 1km2 or 1ha) per unit time (as 1year or 1 century) or theoretical intensity of
sinkhole development on the area occupied by construction during a given time
period (e.g., predicted service life, pre-reconstruction period of operation).
Average (dc) and the largest (dmax) dimensions of sinkholes. In order to solve
many practical design problems, empirical (histograms) and theoretical curves of
Table4.2 Karst hazard categories according to the predicted specific intensity of sinkhole devel-
opment (l, the number of collapses on 1ha per 100years)
Category 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
l 0 <0.001 0.0010.003 0.0030.01 0.010.05 0.050.1 0.10.3 0.31.0 13 >3
Table4.3 Karst hazard categories according to predicted average diameter of a sinkhole (dc, m)
Category a b c d e f g h
dc <1 13 35 510 1015 1520 2040 >40
sinkhole diameter distribution may be needed. It is necessary to consider that

sinkhole diameter distribution for vast territories (with nonuniform conditions of
collapse development) in most cases is described by the lognormal law. In small
areas (e.g., construction sites) with practically homogeneous conditions affect-
ing the dimensions of sinkholes, diameter distribution is close to normal
(Gaussian distribution).
Current percentage of the total area of a sinkhole for a given territory and potential
vulnerability of this territory during a given period of time (e.g., for 100years).
As a rule, the assessment of sinkhole development probability includes zoning of
the territory based on specific intensity of sinkhole development l and average sink-
hole diameter dc. For the purpose of zoning, Russian national building specifications
recommend a classification with six categories of endangered territories according
to the parameter l, and four categories according to dc. This classification promotes
a much more systematized arrangement of engineering/geological research.
However, nearly 40years of experience revealed a number of weaknesses in use of
these categories, especially with respect to their objectivity and applicability for
design purposes (Tolmachev and Leonenko 2005; Tolmachev 2009). Recently, a
more detailed system of differentiation of sinkhole danger categories was created
(Tables4.2 and 4.3). It has worked well in trial cases and was approved for other
karst-endangered territories in Nizhny Novgorod region.
The karst hazard resulting from local subsidence (Subtype B2) is characterized
by the following features:
Development of local subsidence of the ground surface (and under buildings or
other construction) can take from several days to several months.
Final diameters of local subsidence of the ground surface, as a rule, can extend
to several decameters at comparatively small depths (about 1 or 2m).
In the zone of local subsidence, a significant horizontal shifting of the soil is
observed.
The rim of the local subsidence is characterized by low soil load-bearing capacity
and high water permeability.
Hazard assessment of local subsidence for vast territories should be done together
with the karst collapse hazard assessment. However, karst hazard assessment for
construction sites should be done separately from karst collapse hazard assessment.
A karst hazard caused by an old sinkhole on construction (Subtype B3) is

characterized as follows:
The zone beneath the sinkhole and around it retains high probability of another
collapse, a new local subsidence or a slump. Anthropogenic effects (due to
dynamic and static loads, water leakage from pipelines, etc.) bring the probabil-
ity value of new collapse very close to one.
The zone in the immediate vicinity of the sinkhole has low soil load-bearing
capacity and high water permeability.
Threat of differential foundation settlement (Subtype B4) is usually considered
under the following conditions:
Karstified rock with filled sinkholes and joints
Shallow covered karst overlain by karstified rock of depression, vertical channels,
layers of dolomitic lime, and other karst abnormalities
Deep covered karst with buried karst sinkholes, deconsolidated areas, and other
karst (karst-suffusion) deformities in the compressible burden
Karst hazard created by slow subsidence (Subtype B5) is characterized by the
following features:
Slow depression of the ground surface (several years or decades).
Rate of subsidence is irregular in different parts of the depression and can vary
from several millimeters to several centimeters per year. Revival and dampening
periods can be observed.
Shapes of subsidence depressions are irregular and their diameters can reach
several hundred meters.
On the rims of the subsidence depressions, there are areas of rock with decon-
solidated surface layers which facilitate seepage of rain and industrial water into
the soil, thereby increasing the probability of new sinkholes in these locations.
In the subsidence zone, horizontal and vertical deformation can be found in the
same area.
Design of construction in areas where karst subsidence is probable requires
knowledge of the interdependence between the construction and its foundation with
the help of methods that consider mechanisms of subsidence development, their
predicted rates and duration. Such methods are common for mines. In this case, the
most important design parameter is the subsidence depression slope (i, mm/m).
Depending on this parameter, the total area of the subsidence depression can be
subdivided into the following sections:
(1) i<5, (2) i=57, (3) i=710, (4) i=1020, (5) i>20
Hazards related to karst (karst-suffosion) soil slumps (Subtype B6) can be
characterized by the following features:
Like collapses, slumps are formed instantly.
Slump dimensions seldom exceed 12m and their depth is up to 0.3m.
Most often, karst slumps occur after prolonged soaking of soil and due to dynamic
and static loads imposed by construction.
In some situations, karst slumps can be followed by collapses.

Quantitative assessment of karst slump parameters is difficult and in most cases
not necessary. From the practical point of view, designers just need to be aware
of the probability of slump formation in the location in which they work. If
slumps are the only type of predicted karst features, karst hazard will be deter-
mined as Category 1 in Table4.2 (without the need for separate estimation of
slump formation intensity).
In the course of construction and operation of structures or facilities, it is extremely
important to register the exact place and time of this type of depression, as it may
be a serious symptom of new karst collapses or local subsidence.
In a karst region, when developers consider the most appropriate sites for large-
scale construction, they need to know the results of preliminary zoning of the loca-
tion according to the proportion of the total area of all karst features at the surface (a,
%/km2). Locations can be classified according to a in the following way: (1)a<5%,
(2) a=525%, (3) a=2550%, (4) a=5075%, (5) a>75% (Aderhold 2005).
4.2.3Karst Hazard Type C
Type C can be subdivided into the following subtypes:

Subtype C1 is created by the additional load from deep foundations that threaten
the roofs of karst cavities. In the absence of anthropogenic impacts, such cavities
are classified as stable. Serious problems usually arise as early as the stage of
foundation building.
Subtype C2 typically has subterranean karst deformations (voids, disintegrated
areas, etc.) in the compressible overburden.
Subtype C3 is characterized by increased karst water inflow toward underground
facilities during construction or service life.
Subterranean karst features are considered potentially hazardous for any structure.
These hazards can be determined through identification of probable deformation types
and analysis of expected structural loads. Hazard assessment of the subsurface karst
features identified by research should also be performed to account for their potential
impact on development during the service life of the construction. Karst features in the
overburden, especially in sand, demonstrate considerable dynamics. It is also necessary
to perform special karstological monitoring with the use of geophysical methods.
4.3Examples of Structural Damage to Construction

in Karst Regions
In the European part of Russia, the proportion of territory where karst presents real
danger for buildings and facilities is equal to a quarter of the total area. Karstified
rock (predominantly, limestone, dolomite, and gypsum) is found here mainly at the
Fig.4.3 Collapse of a residential building in Nizhny Novgorod region (1959)
depth of 2080 m. Generally, it is overlain by clay and/or sandy soil which are
often saturated with water. Presence of water makes karst suffosion highly probable.
At the surface, karst manifests itself in the form of sinkholes, local subsidence, or
slowly developing vast subsidence. Of the karst manifestations mentioned, the high-
est level of hazard is related to sinkholes due to abruptness of their occurrence.
Sinkholes and local subsidence often cause accidents with damage to residential
and industrial buildings, water supply systems, pipelines, railways, and motorways
(Figs. 4.3, 4.4, and 4.5). Large-scale accidents happened recently in a number of
Russian cities (Dzerzhinsk, Nizhny Novgorod, Pavlovo, Moscow, Bereznyaky,
Kungurr, Ufa, Kazan), on the Gorky and Sverdlovsk railways and on the main pipe-
line in the Perm region. Fortunately, there was no loss of life in any of the accidents.
In 1992, a catastrophic karst sinkhole, more than 10 m deep and 32 m wide
(Fig.4.6), destroyed an industrial facility of a machine-building plant in Dzerzhinsk.
It took only 20min to demolish a 125m long structure along a row of columns.
Direct economic losses were equivalent to ~$30 million, and there were indirect
losses as the production shop did not function for approximately 2 months. The
dramatic event was found to be a consequence of serious engineering and adminis-
trative errors made at various stages from selection of the construction site, research
and construction work to the operation of the industrial plant. The building was
designed as a frame on isolated foundations. When the plant was being designed in
19631964, the specialists involved in the project were under pressure from the
administrative authorities who imposed very strict cost demands. The cost was
mainly reduced at the expense of antikarst protection during construction.
Fig.4.4 Collapse of a building in the historical part of Kazan (1977)
Fig.4.5 Sinkhole in the village of Rastrigino, Vladimir region (1972)
In 1993, local karst subsidence occurred in the form of a sinkhole with a diameter
of up to 20m, threatening a chlorine warehouse for a water supply station in Nizhny
Novgorod. The station building did not have any antikarst protection. Subsidence
took only several days, during which the building was promptly disassembled to
avoid its progressive destruction.
Fig.4.6 Collapse of an industrial building in Dzerzhinsk (1992)
In 1993, a six-story civil building in Ufa was damaged to the point that it was
uninhabitable and had to be demolished. The damage was caused by multiple local
subsidences in the zone of buried karst sinkholes which had not been identified by
the exploration at the project stage. Destructive deformation continued for 14years
after the building was completed in 1979, despite continuous attempts to prevent the
collapse (jacking by sectional piles, securing of the foundation bed, etc.). The lessons
learnt from this event are discussed in Mulyukov etal. (2006).
Sinkholes and local subsidence are highly hazardous for railways as they cause
not only economic but other serious problems as well. Karst-induced events on the
Gorky railway are good illustrative examples. In 1994, a freight train accident took
place on a section of a single-way line, ArzamasKrasny Uzel. The cause of the
accident was a comparatively small 2.5m karst sinkhole which developed under the
train. Railway operation in that direction was stopped for several days. Some rail
carriages with sulfuric acid were broken in the accident, and it caused local pollu-
tion. In 1995, on the 395th km of the two-way railway from Moscow to Nizhny
Novgorod, not far from Dzerzhinsk station, a local karst-suffosion subsidence

formed on the surface. Its diameter was 35m, and although its center was 20m
away from the track, one of the lines sank 15cm along a length of 25m. As a result,
train operation was interrupted on one track for 12h, and on the other track, the
speed limit of 15km/h was instituted and remained unchanged for several months
until the remedial work was completed. It is interesting to mention that two acci-
dents caused by sinkholes occurred at the same location in 1943 and 1960.
In 2000, on a single track of Kazan-Yoshkar-Ola railway, a large local subsidence
damaged more than 100m of track. The rail track sank 1m and shifted horizontally
toward the center of the sinkhole by up to 0.5m. The train operation in all directions
was stopped and did not start for several days.
The above examples show the high vulnerability of the railway tracks in karst
terranes, characterized by high probability of sinkholes. Typically, collapses take
place simultaneously with train motion. As antikarst protection during construction
is not applicable for rail tracks (unlike structures with foundations), and grouting of
karst cavities is not efficient enough, the main safety measures taken are maintenance-
related ones (special karst monitoring of the track, arrangement of alarm, and
restrictive signalization). New, high-speed traffic programs need to deal with this
aspect of safety. In certain cases, karst hazards may present a major obstacle for
implementation of the program.
Karst and karst-suffosion processes are extremely sensitive to various anthropo-
genic effects from construction and operation of industrial plants and facilities which
can cause karst deformations. The following examples illustrate this statement.
In 1996, on the property of a chemical plant in Dzerzhinsk, a karst sinkhole
appeared with the diameter of 9m and the depth of 3.5m. It caused serious damage
to an underground water pipeline and brought the operation of some workshops to
a halt for several days. The direct cause of the event was leakage from the pipeline
which provoked intensification of the karst-suffosion process. In 1998, a 16m wide
and 8m deep karst sinkhole developed in the center of Pavlovo (a town in Nizhny
Novgorod region) and a sewage collector was damaged. The reason for the collapse
was long-term leakage of aggressive water penetrating into the soil and karstified
rock. Another disaster in 1999 with destruction of a main pipeline section in the
karst area of Perm Krai happened because trench work explosions had been used for
laying pipes. These explosions greatly increased sinkhole development in the shal-
low karstified gypsum (Kutepov etal. 2004).
Accidents related to karst development during construction work are often caused
by a combination of errors of various types. Nevertheless, the results of studies
(Tolmachev 2005; Leonenko and Tolmachev 2006; Mulyukov etal. 2006; Sorochan
and Tolmachev 2007) showed the most significant reasons for these events. These
are arranged below in ascending percentage of the total number of accidents:
Unprofessional interference of contractors or administrative bodies in research
and engineering activity (10%)
Inappropriate karstological monitoring during operation of the construction (10%)
Engineering errors (15%)
Omission of specialized (karstological) research (20%)
Table4.4 Distribution of karst deformations in dzerzhinsk district causing damage to construction

1953 1958 1963 1968 1973 1978 1983 1988 1993 1998 2003
Dates 1957 1962 1967 1972 1977 1982 1987 1992 1997 2002 2006 N
N 3 4 7 6 5 4 2 13 10 12 6 72
Exploration errors, including lack of knowledge of karst processes (20%)

Inadequate interaction between researchers and designers (25%). This item
was identified outside Russia and in one of the publications described by
Bachus (2005)
In the Nizhny Novgorod region, the highest karst risk exists in the city of
Dzerzhinsk, which is why in 1952 the Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union
founded a karst station there (at present joint stock company, Antikarst and Shore
Protection). Since that time, every karst occurrence has been registered on a regular
basis along with data on the damage to construction. The table below presents the
distribution of events and damage to construction (N) caused by 72 karst deforma-
tions in the territory of Dzerzhinsk between 1953 and 2006 (Table4.4).
On average, this territory has 1.3 sinkholes annually causing damage to construc-
tion. Their total number (72) includes all known instances of damage to buildings,
roads, railways, pipelines, etc. It also includes 14 disasters with complete destruc-
tion of various industrial sites, which gives the frequency of one disaster every
4years. The majority of instances of complete destruction (11 out of 14) were the
consequences of a sudden karst sinkhole. The distribution of these cases of destruc-
tion is close to the law of stochastic events (Poisson law), and the distribution
parameter is equal to 0.26. As it was shown earlier (Tolmachev 1968), distribution
of independent karst collapses is also described by the Poisson law. For the
Dzerzhinsk karst district, the distribution parameter reaches the value of 4.5.
4.4Stochastic Laws for Sinkhole Development
4.4.1Probabilistic and Stochastic Properties

of Sinkhole Diameters
Sinkhole diameter is one parameter that predetermines the occurrence of a karst

hazard, so prediction of probable diameters is one of the most important tasks of the
engineering exploration in karst territories. There are a number of approaches to
prediction which use various models and methods of forecasting. Theoretical and
estimation methods incorporating deterministic geomechanical models are rarely
used and only in comparatively simple engineering and geological conditions. In
our opinion, forecasting of this kind only gives a rough approximation and other
techniques should also be used. The probabilistic statistical method of forecasting
based on the statistical analysis of the sizes of sinkholes is the most objectively and
widely used (Methodology 1966; Recommendations 1987; Tolmachev etal. 1986).

This method, used to predict a sinkhole diameter d, consists of constructing a distri-
bution curve and the estimation of the statistical parameters necessary for further
definition of karst failure parameters: arithmetical mean value dc, standard deviation
S, and maximal diameter dmax.
The minimum number of karst sinkholes nd for constructing a distribution curve
can be defined by the formula:
nd = (td ) K var / (e d )2 ,
2
(4.1)
where Kvar variation ratio, ed admissible error or acceptable relative deviation

from arithmetical mean of the limited retrieval from mathematical expectation with
a given probability Pt, td normalization factor characterizing probability Pt.
For engineering and geological tasks, it can be assumed that ed=0.1 and Pt=0.95
(td=2), and then
K var = S / dc (4.2)

Value of Kvar can be preliminarily identified by the in situ measurement of the sink-
hole diameter. If the number of sinkholes obtained by the formula exceeds the actual
number of sinkholes in a certain area, the conclusion is that there was not a large
enough representative sample to provide accurate results within error limits.
Consequently, results can be improved by simply increasing the number of karst sink-
holes included in the study, provided these samples belong to the same general array.
However, it is important to realize that increasing the sample size will require a larger
area, potentially leading to averaging of nonuniform sites (from the point of view of
karst sinkholes dimensions). As a result, the accuracy of the results will be reduced.
To increase the reliability of sinkhole diameter assessment, it is necessary to find
theoretical distribution curves corresponding to empirical histograms of sinkhole
diameters. Knowledge of the distribution law for karst sinkhole diameters allows us
to obtain valid initial data for the structural analysis of karst-proof construction and
for the assessment of their efficiency. Figure4.7 shows one such example of effi-
ciency testing, where the span length is equal to the sinkhole diameter dd=12m.
Reliability of the construction obtained with the empirical and theoretical distribu-
tion curves is shown to be Pd=0.73 and Pd=0.5, respectively. Thus, in this example,
the efficiency of the designed construction determined with the use of the histogram
is significantly overestimated.
In most cases, the distribution of sinkhole diameter (especially for large areas
where natural factors influence sinkhole dimensions) is described by the lognormal
law (Fig. 4.8). However, for territories that are homogeneous, in which factors are
influencing karst sinkhole diameters, the law of diameter distribution tends toward
a normal distribution, which appears to be the case for many small karst areas
(Tolmachev 1980).
In the absence of reliable statistical data concerning sinkhole diameters on
the site, construction of a distribution curve will be possible if the distribution
parameters dc and S = (dmax dc ) / 3 are obtained through deterministic models.
Fig.4.7 The distribution P

d
curve of sinkhole diameters 1
empirical; 2 theoretical
1
1
0,8
2
0,6
0,4 1
0,2
0
3 6 9 dd =12 15 18 21
d, m
Pd
0,10
0,067
1 2
0,042
0,02
0 0,1 0,3 0,5 0,7 0,9 1,1 1,3 1,5 1,7 1,9 2,1 lg d
Fig.4.8 Lognormal distribution curve of sinkhole diameters
Here dc is estimated for average values of the initial data and dmax for the values of
the largest sinkhole diameters.
4.4.2Space and Time Laws for Karst Sinkhole Development
If in a territory with the area A during time t, the number of new sinkholes is n and the
average specific frequency (the intensity ratio, l) of sinkhole development is equal to:
= n / At (4.3)

The parameter l will precisely describe the actual intensity of sinkhole
d evelopment for large areas when detailed information on the number and the
dates of sinkholes is available. In the majority of cases, time span t is comparatively
short; therefore, the value n should be increased at the cost of increasing A. For
separate locations, the objective estimation of the parameter l by field observa-
tion data is possible only in cases of rather intensive sinkhole development. It is
frequently necessary to know the value of l for a small area; however, often it
has only been estimated for a much larger region. In this case, l can be deter-
mined using probabilistic and statistical calculation (correlation and dispersive
analyses, the theory of qualitative attributes, etc.) methods. These methods are
based on the analysis of the engineering/geological situation and the use of maps
of natural factors influencing the intensity of karst development. For a detailed
description of these, see Tolmachev (1980, 1986).
Presence of an underground karst void is an elemental component of sinkhole
development. However, some of the karst voids may never impact the surface
throughout a structures lifespan. For instance, from the results of drilling in
Dzerzhinsk karst area, it was found that more than 1,000 karst voids in carbonate
and sulfate rock located between 30 and 70m below the surface; yet, none mani-
fested itself as a sinkhole. Elsewhere in this region, ~45 collapses are documented
each year. Consequently, there is certain probability that a karst void will manifest
itself on the ground surface as a sinkhole (in the engineering sense of time).
Let us consider an area A, where during a given time interval (e.g., one year) a
certain number of karst sinkholes appear, and let us divide it into N arbitrary sites
with A/N. The probability of karst sinkhole development occurring on any site
chosen at random can be presented as:
Ps = P1 P2 (4.4)
where P1 the probability of a karst void existing on the area A/N, P2 the probability
of the subsequent collapse of the karst void within a given time span. If we increase
the number of arbitrary sites and, therefore, reduce their area, probability P1 will
also get lower. Finally, at N P10 and Ps0. We will consider only indepen-
dent sinkholes, i.e., the situation when the appearance of a sinkhole in one location
does not change the probability of a similar event in another location, and karst
voids collapse one by one.
The theory of probability requires that the following conditions are satisfied: (1)
on the area A in time t, certain points be distributed in a statistically regular way
with the average density lA; (2) the points occur independently; and (3) points
appear one by one, not in pairs, or threes, etc., at N and Ps0
limNPs = A , (4.5)

and the probability of X events for the given time interval is equal to
PSN (X ) = exp(A )A X / X! (4.6)
The distribution law described by this formula is known as the law of rare events
or the Poisson law. This statement appears to be applicable for many karst areas
(Tolmachev 1968, 1980). American karst scientists Lilly (1979), Raghu and
Tiedeman (1984) also claimed that sinkhole development distribution is close to the
Fig.4.9 The example of t

distribution of independent
sinkholes development in 2
1
karstified area of Dzerzhinsk
region 1 distribution range; 2
theoretical Poisson`s 1 2
distribution curve
0 2 4 6 8 10 Xi
Poisson law and proved this important statement from the point of view of spatial
laws of sinkhole development.
According to a valuable property of this law, mathematical expectation MX and
dispersion s2 are equal to the distribution parameter lA, i.e.,
MX = 2 = A , (4.7)
or, for a separate sample, they are approximately equal to lA, i.e.,
X c S A , (4.8)

where Xc is the arithmetical mean and S is standard deviation.
Consequently, we can assume that the distribution of independent karst sinkholes
in a region over a particular time interval is regulated by the Poisson law. The distri-
bution parameter lA is the mathematical expectation (arithmetical mean) of the
number of independent karst sinkholes in the investigated territory that develop
during a given time interval.
If we mark value Xi on the X-axis and the corresponding number of years on the
Y-axis, we will get an empirical distribution curve for karst sinkholes for the given
area (Fig.4.9). It shows alignment with the Poisson distribution curve and satisfies
assumptions of the Pearsons chi-square test.
Known values of l for the investigated territory with area A can give us the prob-
ability of the situation when not a single collapse will occur within a given time t:
P0 = exp ( A ). (4.9)

Probability P1n of at least one karst collapse occurrence equals
P1 n = 1 P0 . (4.10)

The probability that during a certain time period the area A will be affected by
karst sinkholes with the diameters exceeding the estimated sinkhole diameter d is
found by
PA = 1 exp[ At(1 Pd )] (4.11)

where, Pd is the probability that the diameter of an appearing sinkhole will not
exceed the value d (defined by an integrated diameter distribution curve).
4.4.3Methods of Assessment of Karst Territories

Using the Criteria of the Hazard of Karst Collapse
There exist several approaches to determine the level of hazard of karst collapse
in karst territories. Analysis of separate aspects of these approaches can be found
in some publications (Tolmachev et al. 1986; Tolmachev 2009; Tolmachev and
Leonenko 2001). From all the known approaches, separate qualitative and quan-
titative approaches have been most widely used during the development of
karst regions.
The qualitative approach is based on the analysis of the karst environment and
the natural factors contributing to void collapse. Standard procedure dictates that
the investigated territory is divided into two or three areas (or categories) with dif-
ferent qualitatively described karst hazard levels, e.g., dangerous area, safe area
or dangerous area, potentially dangerous area, safe area. While these qualitative
characteristics actually reflect comparative hazard, they are often perceived as an
absolute definition of karst danger. Their misuse may unreasonably disturb local
residents and give the media cause for sensational coverage resulting in contentious
public hearings. A preferable situation would be the introduction of neutral descrip-
tion of the land site categories as is done in Germany: Land Niedersachsen now
identifies eight digital categories 0, 1,,7 (Buechner 1991), while Land Hessen
identifies eleven categories 1, 2,,11 (Aderhold 2005). We feel this approach
becomes inappropriate when the range of categories widens.
In Russia, a three-stage classification scheme for land areas with respect to their
karst hazard was first introduced over 100years ago and is still often used in spite
of recent achievements in karst engineering geology, including a deeper under-
standing of collapse mechanisms, use of probabilistic methodology for prediction
of collapses, GIS-based technologies, and so forth. For the Moscow urban karst
territory, this approach was officially adopted some 25years ago. However, this
classification task has not been completed because of insufficient coordination
between geological engineers and designers, civil engineers, economists, land-use
planners, insurance specialists, and ecologists.
A two-step qualitative classification scheme may be used for general evaluation
of vast karst-prone territories in the process of large-scale administrative planning
(within the bounds of a whole country or a large region) as has been demonstrated
in multiple cases in Russia (Shoigu 2005).
The quantitative approach is to differentiate karst territories by the karst collapse
hazard has been known for about 70years in Russia, but it was not widely used until
the Recommendations (1967) were published. Stability categories in karst terranes
were supposed to be assigned depending on predicted average frequency (intensity)
of karst sinkhole development in a unit area (1 km2) per a unit time (1 year). In
accordance with the range of l values, territories were subdivided into six stability
categories: (1) l>1(very unstable), (2) l=0.11 (unstable), (3) l=0.050.1 (insuf-
ficiently stable), (4) l=0.010.05 (slightly unstable), (5) l<0.01 (relatively stable),
and (6) l=0 (stable). In view of the above discussion, too many categories would
lower the utility and value of the classification (Tolmachev and Leonenko 2001).
Intensity ratio of karst sinkhole development is an important parameter reflecting

the probability of collapses. However, the intensity ratio alone (without predicted
sinkhole dimensions, particularly diameters) does not fully characterize the karst
hazard for constructions. Civil engineers were dissatisfied with this method of karst
collapse probability assessment. That was why Methodological Recommendations of
1986 presented a new classification scheme with four classes based on sinkhole diam-
eter d: (1) d=3020m, (2) d=2010m, (3) d=103m, (4) d=30.5m. However, this
approach failed to consider the intensity of karst sinkhole development with time.
These points of concern were corrected by the building specifications Engineering
Exploration for Construction developed in 1987. This document and the more
recent Code of Practice 11-105-97, which is now in force, identify the stability
categories of karst territories using two predictable parameters: intensity of sinkhole
development l (16, no qualitative characteristics added) and average sinkhole
diameter dc: (a)>20m, (b) 10-20m, (c) 3-0m, (d)<3m. Through this approach,
engineering exploration became more manageable and focused on the technical
aspects. Nevertheless, the practical application of this method over a protracted
period revealed further weaknesses:
1. The term stability of the territory is not a correct engineering term. Originally,
it was adopted from the geographical study of karst. In our opinion, it would be
more reasonable to use the term karst collapse hazard similar to landslide
hazard and seismic hazard. Karst collapse hazard could have a numerical des-
ignation in the ascending order (depending on both the intensity of sinkhole
development and the average sinkhole diameter).
2. The unit which measures the specific ratio of sinkhole development intensity
l(the number of sinkholes on 1km2 per a year) seems difficult for civil engineers
to perceive as its origin was again geographical. It would be desirable to modify
the unit measure in spatial units more applicable to civil engineering needs. For
example, we can use 1ha (0.01km2) as a unit area, which covers most construc-
tion and the unit time period of 100years, which corresponds to the expected life
of construction. Interaction with designers shows that the resulting unit of mea-
surement is now better understood by engineers. It should be noted that the
numeric value of l remains the same, even with the new unit measure.
Differentiating karst hazards is important for solving various practical and eco-
nomic problems (Tolmachev etal. 1986). For instance, it provides data for antikarst
protection planning, defines the cost of protecting properties from the negative impacts
of karst development, assesses the risk of damage to construction in case of karst
sinkhole development, and identifies optimal conditions for insurance of construction
against karst-induced risk. Thus, the probability of damage to a property with the area
of 1ha during the time span of 100years can be estimated by the formula:
Pr = 1 exp( d ) (4.12)

Here ld (predicted value of the intensity ratio of sinkhole development) is obtained
using the average and maximal sinkhole diameter. It reflects the probability of
karst-induced damage to a unit area (1ha), including the situations when the sinkhole
center lies outside the proposed construction site. Therefore, for the purpose of selec-
tion of a potential construction site and comprehensive city planning, it is recommended
to use only the categories presented in Table4.2 for l=ld (Tolmachev 2009).
4.5Karst Risk Assessment
Karst risk can be understood as the probability of economic, social, and environmental
damage, which may be caused by karst collapses, to a territory over time. Using vari-
ous methods of assessing risk allows for the comparison of construction sites at the
selection stage by the value of predicted damage to the structure being designed, as
well as antikarst protection planning at the construction and maintenance stages.
Damage can also include loss of life and pollution of the environment.
In case of economic damage, karst risk is assessed in the following way:
Re = Pr D (4.13)

where Pr is the probability of sinkhole development on an area of 1 ha during
100years (Formula12) and D is the economic damage caused by deformation or
complete destruction of a building as well as costs for remedial work, technological
losses, residents resettlement costs among others.
Estimation of D is a difficult economic task, and it does not need to be calcu-
lated exactly for every type of construction. On the contrary, large-scale projects,
such as new residential areas of the cities, important industrial plants, nuclear
power stations, and so forth, are likely to require knowledge of predicted D values.
It is even more difficult to define monetary costs associated with social and envi-
ronmental damage. In practice, the Russian Scientific Society for Risk Analysis
suggested in The Declaration on Allowable Risk Limits to identify general types
of negative karst impacts for various scenarios based on comparative verbal char-
acterization. Consequently, Table 4.5 takes that recommendation and defines
allowable risk levels for various types of damage in karst terranes, by showing the
value of specific allowable karst risk for a 1ha economically developed area during
100years (Rn).
For practical purposes, each of these three classes of damage is further divided
into the following types:
1Economic Damage
I. Small scale (up to 10 million rubles)

II. Medium scale (from 10 to 100 million rubles)
III. Large scale (from 100 million to 1 billion rubles)
Table 4.5 Allowable karst risk level Rn in different scenarios of negative impacts of karst on
future construction and facilities (on 1ha during 100years)
Types of economic damage
I II III
Types of environmental damage
Types of social
damage 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
a 0.1 0.05 0.01 0.05 0.01 0.005 0.01 0.005 0.001
b 0.05 0.01 0.005 0.01 0.005 0.001 0.005 0.001 0.0005
c 0.01 0.005 0.001 0.005 0.001 0.0005 0.001 0.0005 0.0001
1. For existing buildings and construction never before damaged by any karst features Rn values increase
by an order, and for the construction which needs restoration the values increase by half an order
2. Allowable risk values Rn given in Table4.5 (with the fixed time span of 100years) are decreased
by two orders if the normative time span is 1year
3. For extremely dangerous and unique construction projects, possible risk types and corresponding
allowable karst risk values Rn are assessed by a situation-specific procedure
2Environmental Damage
1 . Improbable pollution
2. Probable local pollution
3. Probable pollution of large areas
3Social Damage
a . No threat to human life

b. Threat to life of a small group of people (up to ten people)
c. Threat to life of a large group of people (up to 100 people)
Comparison between the values of allowable risk Rn and the values of probability
Pr can give us the notion of relative risk level for a certain site of a particular terri-
tory and allow appropriate antikarst protection measures to be undertaken. The rela-
tive risk level is realistically described by the following expression:
LR = Pr / Rn (4.14)

Antikarst protection activity of an appropriate type helps reduce Pr and/or
increase Rn.
Consider the following example. Designers came to a conclusion that it is neces-
sary to build karst-protected foundations for any construction placed on a given site.
Such a preventive measure will exclude economic damage in future, as well as envi-
ronmental and social damage. Let us assume that prior to the use of antikarst founda-
tion design features, negative impacts of karst were assessed as (II-2-a) in the above
table, which corresponds to Rn1=0.01. It was demonstrated that karst-protected
Table4.6 Karst collapse risk land adequate antikarst protection measures

Most efficient or economically reasonable Antikarst program related to
LR antikarst protection activity to reduce karst risk karst collapse risk levels
<0.1 No measures needed
0.10.3 (A) Prevention of significant anthropogenic impact A
on the geological environment
0.31 (B) Refusal from isolated foundations for frame A+B
construction
13 (C) Constructional antikarst protection A+B+C
310 (D) Continuous control of the construction state A+B+C+D
1030 (E) Special alarm devices A+B+C+D+E
30100 (F) Reinforcement of the upper part of the A+B+C+D+E+F
construction
100300 (G) Reinforcement of karstified rock A+B+C+D+E+F+G
>300 (H) Construction is not recommended H
foundation corresponds to the predicted scenario of (I-1-a), where Rn2=0.1. Let us

also assume that the specific risk (probability) of karst feature occurrence on the
construction site became Pr1=0.2, and the risk of unacceptable damage to the con-
struction with karst-proof foundations is lowered by 70%, i.e., Pr2 = 0.20.7 = 0.14 .
Thus, relative risk values prior to and following the introduction of antikarst protec-
tion can be expressed as LR1 = 0.2 / 0.01 = 20 and LR2 = 0.14 / 0.1 = 1.4 , corre-
spondingly, i.e., LR1 values became 14 times lower. Reduction of the risk Pr2=0.14
below the acceptable level Rn2=0.1 is now possible due to the maintenance type of
antikarst protection activity, including specialized karstological monitoring, raised
awareness for construction personnel and other measures. In such cases, the residual
risk value Pr0 may be decreased to a level below, which is allowable (Pr0Rn2), i.e.,
the relative specific risk level has now become LR0<1.
The above approach encourages the combination of antikarst protection measures.
When dealing with designers, investors, developers, and especially administrative
authorities, there is a need to render the specificity of the approach in a comprehen-
sible way, and for this reason, relative karst risk values for typical buildings and
facilities can be subdivided into several classes. Table4.6 shows an example.
4.6Conclusions
The problem of building on karst areas is mainly associated with karst hazard and
karst risk assessment. These two notions are interrelated. In real life, in engineering
practice and in publications, they are erroneously used as synonyms. What they
have in common is the methodology of probabilistic assessment of karst-related
events. However, karst hazard assessment involves probability of karst features
development (on a given area during a given period of time) which can bring dam-
age to structures, whereas karst risk assessment deals with probability of any nega-
tive impacts from exposure (economic, social, and environmental). Differences
between these two notions become evident when the karst hazard is realized by
sinkholes developing on the ground surface. In addition, karst hazard assessment is
usually performed by geological engineers experienced in applied karstology (engi-
neering karstology), but karst risk assessment is performed by a multidisciplinary
team (investors, geologists, civil engineers, economists, building maintenance man-
agers, insurance agents, ecologists, etc.). Quantitative karst risk assessment is only
meaningful if we have defined safe limits of karst risk. This gives us grounds for
further planning of antikarst protection activities during both facilities construction
and operation, for evaluating residual risk and defining protection parameters to
achieve allowable risk levels.
Involvement in the karst risk assessment process can fulfill our notion of sus-
tainable development of terranes adopted by the UNO in 1987. This concept is
declared in the current legislation of the Russian Federation, although our interac-
tion with local authorities, Russian and foreign investors show that they neglect
laws in order to reduce costs. To remedy the situation, we have formulated princi-
ples of sustainable development on karst terranes (Sorochan et al. 2010) and
included them into the regulations for Nizhny Novgorod region as a product of the
karst risk assessment methodology.
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Chapter 5
Agriculture and Karst
Catherine Coxon
Abstract This chapter provides a review of the impacts of agriculture on karst

terranes, and on management approaches to minimize such impacts. It discusses the
range of agricultural activities with potential impacts on soil and water in karst
regions, including deforestation, changes in grazing intensity and changes from pas-
ture to tillage, application of fertilizers, and pesticides and storage of farm wastes.
Case studies of impacts on soil and on water quantity and quality are presented, with
a particular focus on water quality issues including suspended sediment, nitrate,
phosphorus, pesticides, and microbial pathogens. The particular vulnerability of
karst regions to such impacts is discussed, including the occurrence of point recharge
in closed depressions and swallow holes, the thin, patchy soil cover found in many
karst areas, the presence of epikarst and the occurrence of conduit flow within karst
aquifers. Methods of risk evaluation are reviewed briefly and management strate-
gies to minimize impacts of agriculture are discussed, including the use of Best
Management Practices, community-based agri-environmental initiatives, and various
legislative controls.
5.1Introduction
Of all the human activities that have a potential impact on karst terranes, agriculture
is perhaps the most ubiquitous. A few karst regions have undisturbed natural vegeta-
tion, but the vast majority have some form of agricultural activity. Karst plateaux
sometimes have low-intensity agriculture because of the constraints imposed by the
rocky terrane, shallow soils, and scarcity of water. However, where higher-intensity
agriculture occurs, the risk of problems such as soil erosion and water contamination
is generally much greater than in other terranes.
C. Coxon (*)
Department of Geology, School of Natural Sciences, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland

104 C. Coxon
Agricultural activities in karst regions have wide-ranging implications for soils,

water, and landscape, for ecosystems and biodiversity, and for social and economic
sustainability. It is not possible within the scope of this chapter to review all of these
areas, and so the following discussion is focused specifically on the impact on soils
and water, particularly on water quality, and on management approaches to mini-
mize such impacts. However, it is acknowledged that any changes to soil and water
quantity and quality will have implications on other aspects of the natural and
human environment, and that any management strategies must take these linkages
into account.
One of the greatest problems associated with land clearance for agriculture and
agricultural intensification in karst terranes is the risk of soil erosion. Karst areas are
particularly prone to this, both because limestone soils are typically shallow (as the
rock from which they are derived yields little insoluble residue) and because the
open joint systems facilitate the washing underground of soil material (Williams
1993). Intensification of land use, including irrigation and drainage schemes, may
also bring about hydrological changes to karst aquifers, including changes in timing
or amount of aquifer recharge or discharge and flooding problems. Alterations to
water quality may arise from land use change, from the use of fertilizers and pesti-
cides, and from point sources of contamination such as badly stored farm wastes.
Karst aquifers are particularly vulnerable to chemical and microbial contamination
due to the occurrence of point recharge via sinking streams and dolines, the pres-
ence of an epikarst zone, and the existence of both conduit and diffuse flow within
the aquifer itself (Field 1989; Smith 1993). Changes in water quality may have
implications for human health and for ecosystems, including cave communities and
surface water ecosystems fed by karst springs.
The range of agricultural activities with potential impacts on soil and water in
karst regions is outlined in Sect.5.2, while case studies of actual impacts are pre-
sented in Sect. 5.3. Case examples are mainly drawn from the last 15 years; for
additional earlier studies, the reader is referred to the review by Coxon (1999).
Methods of risk evaluation and management strategies to minimize impacts of agri-
culture are reviewed in Sect.5.4.
5.2Activities
5.2.1Land Use Change
Deforestation of karst regions results in a loss of biodiversity; the vegetation changes

in turn cause increased soil erosion, and the combination of changes in evapotrans-
piration and in soil cover will result in hydrological changes. Increases in grazing
pressure and the conversion of pastureland to tillage may also increase soil erosion
rates and have hydrological impacts. Land use changes are also likely to have
impacts on water quality, particularly on suspended sediment and nutrients.
5 Agriculture and Karst 105
Fig.5.1 Grazing of recently deforested land in the Vaca Plateau, Belize (Image M Day)
Prehistoric and historic occurrence of soil erosion due to deforestation has been
reported from many karst areas. For example, agricultural development by the Maya
people in the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico, Belize, and Guatemala from 4,000 to
3,000BP onwards gave rise to soil erosion in karst areas; soil conservation mea-
sures, including extensive terracing, appear to have been effective in reducing soil
loss, but a further period of soil erosion followed (Beach etal. 2002). Deforestation
continues to the present day in the karst of the Caribbean region (Day 1993, 2007;
Fig.5.1). It is also an important issue in many other tropical and subtropical karst
areas, notably in a large area of subtropical China (Yuan 1993; Wang etal. 2004).
Soil erosion due to deforestation has also been widespread since prehistoric times in
Mediterranean karst areas (Gams etal. 1993) and in karsts of cool temperate cli-
matic zones (Drew 1983). Soil erosion problems are discussed in Sect. 5.3.1.2,
while hydrologic impacts of deforestation are reviewed in Sect. 5.3.2.1 and sus-
pended sediment is discussed in Sect.5.3.3.2.
Forest clearance may give rise to other water quality changes besides suspended
sediment. Lichon (1993) found that the release and leaching of forest nutrients, fol-
lowing deforestation of Tasmanian karst, resulted in elevated nutrient loading of
karst streams and contamination of water resources, while Ellaway et al. (1999)
note that springs and cave streams from uncleared native forest catchments in
Buchan, Australia, differ in chemistry from those with catchments of cleared
106 C. Coxon
agricultural land. Jiang etal. (2006) document changes to major ion concentrations
of groundwater in the karst Xiaojiang catchment in Yunnan province, China,
between 1982 and 2004, due to deforestation and agricultural intensification.
Intensification of agriculture on existing farmland, such as increased grazing
pressure or a change from pasture to tillage, may also provoke soil erosion and
hydrological and water quality changes. Problems associated with land clearance
and intensification are documented from the Burren karst plateau, Ireland, by Drew
and Magee (1994), and from Murgia, Southern Italy, by Canora etal. (2008). In the
latter area, a dense network of drystone walls had an important role in reducing soil
erosion and retarding runoff, but wall clearance, agricultural mechanization, and a
change from grazing to tillage from the 1980s onwards caused changes to the soil
and hydrology of the region. Figure5.2 shows the contrast between the karst land-
scape unaltered by clearance and the cleared, tilled land.
A decrease in agricultural intensity, often associated with rural depopulation,
may also cause environmental problems, albeit of a different nature. In the Burren
plateau, Ireland, a decrease in winter livestock grazing in recent years has led to
increasing encroachment of hazel scrub vegetation with loss of characteristic world-
renowned arctic-alpine flora designated as priority habitats under the E.U. Habitats
Directive (Dunford and Feehan 2001; BurrenLIFE 2006). Efforts to tackle this issue
are discussed in Sect.5.4.2.
5.2.2Irrigation and Drainage
Soil water content is frequently altered to facilitate agriculture, with moisture levels
being either increased by irrigation or decreased by land drainage operations. This
is likely to have an impact on groundwater resources, with changes in amount and
timing of recharge and discharge, and such impacts will be particularly marked in
karst areas where surface waters and groundwaters are so closely interlinked.
Irrigation of agricultural land may cause a hydrological impact at the source of
the irrigation water or at the irrigation site. In karst aquifers, the lowering of the
water table due to irrigation water withdrawals may be very uneven and difficult to
predict. The irrigated land may then provide a new source of recharge to the karst
aquifer, with potential problems of salinization noted below. Problems may also
arise with damming for irrigation purposes, e.g., Gillieson and Thurgate (1999)
record damage to the Texas cave system in Australia due to the building of an irriga-
tion dam. Land drainage operations carried out with the aim of decreasing soil
moisture levels to improve agricultural productivity may also have significant
hydrological impacts. For example, in the carboniferous limestone lowland areas of
Western Ireland, channelization to relieve flooding of agricultural land has resulted
in a lowering of water tables and a change to the flooding regime of ecologically
important seasonal karst lakes (Drew and Coxon 1988) (see Sect.5.3.2).
Irrigation or drainage of land is generally accompanied by agricultural intensifi-
cation and increased use of fertilizers and pesticides, resulting in changes to soil
water and groundwater quality. Irrigation may also provoke groundwater quality
Fig.5.2 Contrast between (a) an unimproved field and (b) a reclaimed, tilled doline in Apulia (SE Italy)
(Images D Drew)
changes if it brings about increased leaching of natural or artificial chemical

constituents from the soil. Salinization of karst groundwaters due to increased leach-
ing of soluble salts has been documented from several areas, e.g., Puerto Rico (Day
1993). Equally, irrigation with water of a high salinity may have an adverse impact
on soil chemistry and productivity, as noted in Southern Italy by Gams etal. (1993).
108 C. Coxon
Drainage operations along river channels may provide entry routes for contaminants
to underlying karst aquifers. For instance, in the Clarinbridge catchment in the
Western Irish karst lowlands, channel excavation into bedrock resulted in line and
point recharge with polluted surface waters, causing a nitrate plume in the karst
aquifer (Drew 1984; Fig.5.3a).
5.2.3Landspreading of Fertilizers and Pesticides
Over the last few decades, there has been a global increase in the use of inorganic
fertilizers, which has led to an impact on groundwater quality, particularly nitrate con-
centrations. Agricultural land is also landspread with an increasing range of organic
material, including agricultural wastes (livestock manure or slurry, silage effluent, farm-
yard runoff), human wastes (sewage effluent, sewage sludge), and agro-industrial wastes
(dairy effluent, blood, offal). Pesticide use has also increased greatly in recent decades
in many countries. The resulting water quality problems are widespread throughout both
the developed and developing world and are by no means unique to karst areas. However,
karst aquifers are particularly vulnerable due to the high aquifer permeability, often
combined with thin soil cover. Furthermore, groundwater contamination may not be
restricted to the more mobile constituents such as nitrate and chloride; constituents more
usually associated with point agricultural sources (e.g., phosphorus, potassium, ammo-
nium, and fecal microorganisms) may also gain entry to vulnerable karst aquifers from
diffuse agricultural sources. Similarly, pesticide contamination in karst aquifers may not
be restricted to the most mobile compounds, as pesticides adsorbed to colloidal soil
particles may gain entry to the aquifer via solutionally widened fissures. Case examples
of karst groundwater contamination by nitrate, phosphate, pesticides, and microbial
pathogens are given in Sect.5.3.3.
5.2.4Rural Point Sources
Agricultural point sources of pollution can range from small-scale inputs of fecal
material from groupings of animals at feeding troughs or sheltered/shady locations
to larger pollutant plumes originating from badly stored farm wastes such as slurry
and silage effluent. These can cause pollution in any vulnerable hydrogeological
situation. However, in the case of karst aquifers, there is an added risk at locations
of concentrated recharge: contamination is particularly acute where agricultural
point sources coincide with karst features such as sinking streams and dolines. Thus,
cattle congregating around cave entrances or entering sinking streams can cause
severe localized contamination with fecal microorganisms and nutrients (Berryhill
1989). Dumping of animal carcasses into karst-closed depressions is another com-
mon source of contamination (Gillieson and Thurgate 1999). Storage of silage on
bare limestone pavement in the Burren karst plateau in Ireland has resulted in
Fig. 5.3 Impacts of agricultural drainage in an Irish lowland karst catchment (Clarin, County
Galway), (a) Nitrate plume due to line recharge along an artificial river channel, (b) Change in
drainage density due to agricultural land drainage (After Drew 1984)
110 C. Coxon
Fig.5.4 Silage clamp on bare limestone pavement on the Burren karst plateau, Ireland, posing a
threat to groundwater quality (Image D Drew)
contamination of karst springs in summer, at times of maximum water demand

(Drew 1996; Fig.5.4).
Another rural point source of contamination is septic tank effluent from rural housing
not served by city sewerage systems. While not strictly agricultural, this contaminant
source often occurs in close association with agricultural point sources; thus, rural ground-
water contamination by fecal microorganisms may be due to a combination of human and
animal waste. The presence of thin soils in many karst areas, providing insufficient puri-
fication in the percolation area, combined with the rapid transfer of effluent through
solutionally widened fractures in the unsaturated zone, means that fecal contamination
from septic tank effluent is particularly common in karst regions (Panno etal. 1997).
5.3Impacts
5.3.1Impacts on Soil
5.3.1.1Introduction to Agricultural Impacts on Soil
As noted in the introduction, karst areas are particularly prone to soil erosion due to
a combination of shallow, erodible soils and solutionally widened fractures into
which soil particles are easily transported. Such erosion is often triggered by clearance
of forested land for agriculture or by increase in grazing density or increased

cultivation. Examples of such impacts from karst regions around the world are given
in Sect.5.3.1.2 below.
The mechanisms of soil erosion in karst areas are discussed by Hardwick and
Gunn (1990). The greatest sediment inputs are associated with sinking streams,
particularly where these originate on noncarbonate rocks. Soils may be eroded into
karst aquifers by autogenic recharge, particularly where macropores are present and
where dolines provide routes of sediment entry. Hardwick and Gunn (1990) also
consider that sediment transport through the epikarst or subcutaneous zone is highly
likely; they suggest that it is probably very slow but should not be neglected, as they
note studies in the Dinaric karst which show suspended load in cave trickles to be of
the same order of magnitude as dissolved load. Suspended sediment in karst waters
is discussed further in Sect.5.3.3.2.
In addition to soil erosion, agriculture can also have a major impact on soil chem-
istry. Jiang (2006) documents the changes in soil organic matter content and chemi-
cal properties due to land use change in a karst agricultural region in Southwest
China and notes that the modifications in soil properties were greater in soils devel-
oped from carbonate rocks than in soils developed from sandstone. Soil carbon
dioxide levels will also vary as a result of landuse change. For example, Day (1999)
documents changes in soil carbon dioxide levels arising from slash and burn agri-
culture in the Hummingbird karst of Belize, with a drastic reduction on the day after
burning and gradual recovery in subsequent days, and he notes that such changes
are relevant to limestone dissolution.
5.3.1.2Soil Erosion Associated with Land Use Change
As noted in Sect.5.2.1, deforestation of many karst regions has given rise to soil
erosion since prehistoric times, and continues to the present day. One region where
soil erosion is particularly severe is in Guizhou Province, Guangxi Zhuang
Autonomous Region and Yunnan Province in Southwestern China, where it has
been termed rocky desertification (Huang etal. 2008; Fig.5.5). In this region, land
is being lost by the transformation of vegetation and soil-covered karst landscapes
- into exposed rock at a rate of 25,000km2 per year; about 40% of the land area is
affected by soil erosion, and in addition to causing severe impacts in the eroded
areas, this has caused problems of sedimentation of river courses and reservoirs
(Wang etal. 2004). Silt transport rates for rivers in this region subject to deforesta-
tion and rocky desertification are 2081,980 tonnes/km2/year (Yuan 1993).
Soil erosion has occurred in many Mediterranean karst regions since prehistoric
times (Gams etal. 1993). Different phases of land exploitation in the karst Venetian
Fore-Alps (Northern Italy) are reviewed by Sauro (1993), who notes that forest
clearance and cattle and sheep grazing have been responsible for significant soil loss
into subsoil karren cavities. Bou Kheir etal. (2008) note that karst landscapes which
comprise 70% of Lebanon have thin soils which are prone to erosion due to defor-
estation, burning, and overgrazing, and they readily succumb to desertification.
Gillieson and Thurgate (1999), reviewing karst and agriculture in Australia,
112 C. Coxon
Fig.5.5 Examples of karst rocky desertification in South-West China (From Huang etal. 2008,
p.391, Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences)
comment that there is a crucial link between landscape stability and vegetation
cover in Australian karst; they note that clear-cutting in the Florentine Valley in
Tasmania caused the accumulation of 1m of cave sediment, and they also record
evidence of sediment accumulation due to deforestation in the karst of New South
Wales. An increase in grazing pressure, particularly in arid and semi-arid areas, may
trigger increased soil loss; this is documented for the example in the Nullarbor Plain
in Australia (Gillieson etal. 1994). Poor tillage practices may also trigger erosion in
karst regions (Berryhill 1989). Intensive vine cultivation in the Entre-deux-Mers
karst plateau in Southern France, involving field leveling by bulldozers, has resulted
in significant soil erosion, with clogging of drainage channels and development of
suffusion dolines (Audra 1999).
5.3.2Impacts on Water Quantity
5.3.2.1Changes in Groundwater Recharge
Changes in land use such as deforestation, reforestation, and conversion of grass-

land to tillage will all have implications for groundwater recharge due to the change
in evapotranspiration rates. Lerner etal. (1990) document several case studies of
carbonate aquifers where groundwater recharge is related to vegetation cover.

Alteration to groundwater recharge due to vegetation changes and resultant changes
in evapotranspiration are not, of course, unique to karst areas. However, the recharge
mechanisms specific to karst areas may accentuate the change.
Huntoon (1992) noted that in the stone forest karst aquifers of South China,
massive deforestation since 1958 has resulted in a major impact on the magnitude
and duration of the seasonal recharge pulse. Water that was formerly retained in
the forested uplands and gradually released to recharge the aquifers on the low-
land now passes rapidly through the system, so that the decline in water level in
the aquifers during the dry season has been accelerated. Water shortages due to
karst rocky desertification in Southwestern China are also noted by Wang etal. (2004),
who comment on a reduction in the retention of surface water and drinking water
shortages due to drying up of springs and wells. Similarly, deforestation associ-
ated with increasingly intensive slash-and-burn agriculture in the karst area of
Batuan on the Island of Bohol in the Philippines is regarded by Urich (1993) as
the primary cause of a decline in spring discharges by 40% in a 20-year period.
Chandler and Bisogni (1999) also note that forest clearance in karst areas of the
Philippines has resulted in an increased frequency of water shortages: in the Leyte
uplands, a comparison was made between sites with forest cover, slash-and-burn
cultivation, plouwed land, and pastureland. The latter two land uses had reduced
infiltration and increased runoff, and it was proposed that disturbance of the soil
surface results in progressive plugging of the epikarst. Deforestation may also
trigger geomorphological changes with implications for recharge. Kiernan (1989)
notes that forest clearance for pasture in Tasmania has resulted in accelerated
sinkhole development.
Modification and intensification of existing agricultural land may also result in
changes to groundwater recharge. For example, Canora etal. (2008) modeled the
hydrological impacts of agricultural intensification on the Alta Murgia karst plateau
in Southern Italy (Sect. 5.2.1) and found that cereal cultivation on the reclaimed
shattered stone land resulted in a significant decrease in recharge to the karst
aquifer, which provides an important regional water resource.
Drainage of agricultural land in karst regions will also have an impact on
recharge. In the Western Irish carboniferous limestone lowland, channelization
carried out from the mid-nineteenth century onwards to relieve flooding of agri-
cultural land has resulted in a decrease in aquifer recharge and lowering of water
tables. For example, in the Kilcolgan-Lavally catchment in East Galway, summer
water tables have been lowered by 23m, causing previously perennial springs to
become ephemeral (Drew and Coxon 1988). In the neighboring Clarinbridge
catchment, the drainage density has been increased from 0.2 to 4km/km2, and in
the lower catchment, an artificial river has been excavated into bedrock (Fig.5.3b).
As a result, surface runoff from the basin has been increased from 0 to 40% of
effective precipitation and aquifer recharge has been reduced accordingly. Spatial
patterns of recharge and discharge have been altered, with the artificial stretches
of channel providing line and point recharge and discharge at different times of
year (Drew 1984).
114 C. Coxon
5.3.2.2Flooding
Flooding problems may sometimes result from deforestation and associated soil
erosion, due to increased runoff and blockage of the karst drainage system by the
eroded soil and sediment. For example, in a karst region of Kentucky, U.S.A.,
removal of oak-maple forest cover and cultivation of tobacco and corn in the 1930s
resulted in disastrous valley floods known locally as valley tides. Runoff was
increased, and the increased sediment load blocked the already insufficient under-
ground drainage channels, resulting in backing up of runoff and flooding of the
valleys upstream of river sinks (Dougherty 1981). Forest clearance in Mole Creek,
Tasmania, caused cave conduits to become choked by sediments, resulting in flooding
of pastures during the winter months (Gillieson and Thurgate 1999).
Some agricultural changes may cause a decrease rather than an increase in flooding.
The drainage operations in the Western Irish limestone lowlands referred to in
Sect.5.3.2.1 have also resulted in the draining of turloughs (seasonal karst lakes;
Fig.5.6); approximately, a third of turloughs have been drained since the nineteenth
century (Drew and Coxon 1988). The cessation of seasonal flooding has serious
ecological implications (Sheehy Skeffington etal. 2006). Karst poljes, which pro-
vide areas of flat, fertile land within rocky Mediterranean karst landscapes, have
also been subject to drainage schemes by various means and with varying degrees
of success. In recent decades, polje water regulation schemes have been multi-pur-
pose, for hydroelectric power generation and water supply as well as agriculture,
and have involved major tunnel construction (Milanovic 2002).
5.3.3Impacts on Water Quality
5.3.3.1Vulnerability of Karst Aquifers to Agricultural Contamination
The existence of point recharge to karst aquifers makes it particularly easy for agricul-
tural contaminants to gain access. Swallow holes provide direct access points to the
aquifer, with little or no attenuation, so contaminants more frequently associated with
surface waters, which would not normally enter by diffuse recharge (e.g., phosphate
or pesticides adsorbed to suspended sediment), may enter karst conduits by point
recharge. Furthermore, many karst areas have a mosaic of bare rock and thin rendzina
soils, and the lack of protective cover combined with solutionally widened fissures
in the limestone creates extreme vulnerability to pollution from agricultural sources.
The epikarst or subcutaneous zone may allow rapid lateral movement of diffuse con-
tamination to vadose shafts. It can also provide significant temporary storage for
contaminants, which may then be released from this zone by flood pulses (Field 1989).
The presence of conduit flow in karst aquifers allows rapid transfer of contami-
nants through the aquifer, with minimal opportunity for attenuation by adsorption,
ion exchange, chemical breakdown, or microbial die-off. The short underground
residence time also means that very little time is available for remedial action to
avoid contamination of drinking water supplies. In addition, the lack of attenuation
Fig.5.6 Kilglassan turlough, Co. Mayo, Ireland, a karst seasonal lake in winter, spring, and summer
(Many such features in Western Ireland no longer flood regularly due to agricultural land drainage
schemes) (Images P Coxon)
116 C. Coxon
in the karst aquifer can result in groundwater contaminants emerging at springs and
having an ecological impact on surface waters to a greater degree than in other aqui-
fer types. However, it should be noted that karst aquifers demonstrate a spectrum of
behavior, often reflecting the age of the limestone. In older limestones with secondary
permeability only, contaminants in recharge may move through the unsaturated
zone extremely rapidly through solutionally widened fissures, while in dual poros-
ity aquifers such as the Cretaceous Chalk, there may also be a very slow recharge
component in the primary pore space. In the saturated zone, pollutants may move
rapidly along cave conduits, or they may form a more conventional plume where
there is a significant proportion of diffuse fissure flow.
In the following sections, some of the most significant groups of agricultural
contaminants of karst groundwater are discussed, with case examples from many
different regions.
5.3.3.2Suspended Sediment
The presence of solutionally enlarged joints and sinking streams allows sediment
derived from soil erosion to enter karst aquifers to a greater extent than in other
aquifers. Suspended sediment may cause problems of turbidity in drinking water
supplies, but it is particularly important because it can provide a method of entry for
a range of adsorbed contaminants including phosphorus, pesticides, and viruses.
Suspended sediment loads show a large degree of temporal variation. For example,
in the Big Spring Basin (Iowa, U.S.A.), an agricultural karst catchment with a rotation
of corn/pasture/hay suspended sediment loads in the spring increase during flood
events from negligible values to concentrations over 4,000mgl1, corresponding to a
load of over 87,000kgh1 (Hallberg etal. 1985). Figure5.7 illustrates the chemical
Pesticides
I1
25.0
20.0 Suspended Nitrate
15.0
Sediment Discharge mgI1
10.0
mgI1 3 1
m s as NO as N
3
10,000
9.0 7 60
8.0 Nitrate 6
7.0 5 50
6.0 Discharge 4
10
1,000
5.0 3 40
4.0
3.0 2 30
Suspended Sediment
2.0 100
5
1.0 20
Pesticides 1
0.50
0.10
10
27 28 29 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
April May 1984
Fig.5.7 Changes in water quality during a summer discharge event at Big Spring, Iowa, USA
(After Libra etal. 1986)
changes associated with summer discharge events at Big Spring; it can be seen that the
suspended sediment concentrations mirror the variation in discharge, and the pesticide
peak corresponds to the suspended sediment peak. Similarly, Nebbache etal. (2001)
note that turbidity peaks in springs, fed by the Brionne Basin karst system in Normandy,
France, are short-term events coinciding with heavy rain episodes.
Pronk etal. (2007) studied sediment transport through karst flow systems draining
agricultural land in the Yverdon karst system in Switzerland. Continuous monitor-
ing of particle size distribution was undertaken during storm events (Fig.5.8); the
first turbidity peak corresponded to a mixture of coarser and finer particles remobi-
lized within the karst conduit by the flood pulse, while the arrival of the second
turbidity peak, consisting of finer particles and coinciding with an increase in total
Fig.5.8 Variation in turbidity and other parameters during a multiple flood event at the Feurtille
swallow hole and Moulinet spring, Yverdon karst aquifer, Switzerland. T0=pre-storm conditions,
T1a/b=autochthonous turbidity signals of the first/second flood event, T2a/b=allochthonous
turbidity signals of the first/second flood event (From Pronk etal. 2007)
118 C. Coxon
organic carbon, indicated the arrival of swallow hole water at the springs (with
larger particles removed by sedimentation within the aquifer).
5.3.3.3Nitrate
Nitrate contamination of karst aquifers in rural areas can arise from many sources,
both diffuse (spreading of inorganic and organic fertilizers and release of soil nitro-
gen due to land use change) and point (e.g., badly stored farm wastes and septic tank
effluent). The nitrate ion is highly soluble and mobile, so nitrate pollution is found
in many free-draining hydrogeological situations, but the characteristics of karst
regions outlined in Sect. 5.3.3.1 make karst aquifers particularly vulnerable. The
shallow, patchy rendzina soil cover overlying some karst aquifers increases the risk
of leaching. Where a thicker soil cover is present, nitrate may move slowly through
the soil matrix, or macropore flow may provide opportunities for rapid transfer
(Iqbal and Krothe 1995; Peterson etal. 2002). The presence of point recharge via
swallow holes and dolines may allow nitrate to enter the aquifer with little residence
time in the soil. For example, in the Brionne Basin in Normandy, Northern France,
nitrate reaches the karst springs both by rapid transfer of point recharge (with short-
lived nitrate peaks occurring during heavy rainfall, coinciding with turbidity peaks)
and by leaching of diffuse recharge (providing a longer-term sustained nitrate input)
(Nebbache etal. 2001). Where the aquifer has secondary porosity and permeability
only, nitrate will pass rapidly through the unsaturated and saturated zones (e.g., in
the carboniferous limestone of Ireland; Richards etal. 2005), while, if the limestone
has dual porosity, there is a possibility of retention in the unsaturated zone for con-
siderable time periods (as in the Cretaceous Chalk; Jackson etal. 2008).
Elevated nitrate is found in many karst groundwaters around the world, including
Australia (Gillieson and Thurgate 1999), China (Guo and Jiang 2009), Turkey
(Davraz etal. 2009), and Morocco (Laftouhi etal. 2003). Nitrate levels are problem-
atic in many European carbonate aquifers. For example, elevated nitrate in the
Cretaceous Chalk of Eastern England has given rise to concern since the 1980s,
breaching the European Union drinking water standard of 50mgl1 NO3 (11.3mgl1
as N) and creating a challenge for meeting improvement deadlines under the EU
Water Framework Directive (2000/60/EC) (Jackson etal. 2008). High nitrate is also
found in karst aquifers in the Franconian Alb of South Germany (Einsiedl and Mayer
2006). Such problems were a contributing factor to the introduction in 1991 of the
European Union Nitrates Directive (91/676/EEC) (see Sect.5.4). However, not all
European karst regions have such nitrate problems, as in some instances the difficult
nature of the karst terrane has meant that agriculture has remained less intensive than
elsewhere. In Ireland, the synclinal carboniferous limestone valleys in the south of
the country have intensive dairying agriculture, and as a result, there are nitrate prob-
lems from both diffuse and point sources (Bartley and Johnston 2006), but the
Western Irish limestone lowlands and the Burren plateau have less intensive agricul-
ture, and as a result, nitrate concentrations are significantly lower, as seen from Irish
EPA monitoring data in Clabby etal. (2008). A similar contrast can be seen in French
karst regions: the Brionne Basin in Central Normandy has undergone agricultural
intensification, with increased nitrogen inputs and increased area of arable land, and
shows a trend of increasing groundwater nitrate concentrations over the last few
decades (Nebbache etal. 2001), but Plagnes and Bakalowicz (2001) note that many
French karst areas have a lower intensity of human activity and therefore have
groundwater of generally good chemical quality. For example, the Larzac plateau in
Southern France has patchy soils and is mainly used for low-density sheep grazing.
However, they note that even in this area, agriculture is the main source of nitrate,
with a relationship between nitrate flux and amount of cultivation, and they suggest
that measures are needed to prevent further increases in nitrate concentration.
In the U.S.A., many papers over the last three decades have documented
concerns about nitrate in karst groundwaters. Breaches of drinking water standards
for nitrate were recorded in karst groundwaters in Minnesota, Pennsylvania, and
Iowa (Berryhill 1989). Nitrate from diffuse agricultural sources is especially well
documented for the Big Spring groundwater basin in Iowa (Hallberg etal. 1985;
Libra etal. 1986; 1999), where the nitrate problems are linked to nitrogen fertilizer
application to corn (maize). Boyer and Pasquarell (1995) found that nitrate concen-
trations in karst springs in Southeastern West Virginia showed a strong linear rela-
tionship with percent agricultural land, with the land being used primarily as pasture
for cow-calf and dairying operations. A further study of cave streams in this region
(Boyer and Pasquarell 1996) showed that nitrate concentrations were highest in
cave streams draining a dairy farm and in a cave stream draining an area of pasture
where cattle congregated for shade and water. Management approaches to tackle
these problems are discussed in Sect.5.4.2. More recently, Panno etal. (2001) have
used stable isotopes (d15N and d18O of the nitrate ion) to determine the sources of
nitrate in karst groundwater in the sinkhole plain of Southwestern Illinois and to
investigate denitrification in the aquifer. Monitoring of nitrate loads from two large
karst springs draining this aquifer indicated a loss of ~27kgN/ha/year, with approx-
imately half coming from background sources and most of the remainder coming
from fertilizer (Panno and Kelly 2004).
Temporal variations in nitrate concentration in karst groundwaters will depend
on the source of nitrate and the pathway it takes through the aquifer. In many
instances, high nitrate concentrations are associated with diffuse recharge, while
lower concentrations coincide with major point recharge inputs, when a major input
of surface water dilutes the nitrate. For example, in the Big Spring basin in Iowa,
nitrate reaches maximum levels during discharge recession when infiltration
recharge dominates (Fig.5.7). Mahler etal. (2008) noted that despite the contrasting
hydrogeological characteristics of the Chalk aquifer of Normandy, France, and the
Edwards aquifer, Texas, U.S.A., in both aquifers, nitrate was a diagnostic tracer of
resident groundwater, decreasing in concentration during storm events, whereas
potassium and turbidity were effective tracers of infiltrating storm runoff. The anal-
ysis by Guo and Jiang (2009) of temporal variations in the rising of a subterranean
river in a peak cluster karst area of China showed that there was a nitrate peak at the
start of the rainy season, which was attributed to release of nitrogen which had accu-
mulated in the soil during the dry season from fertilizers, animal waste, and general
120 C. Coxon
village waste. Analysis of shorter-term variations during three rainfall events showed
that higher nitrate was associated with piston flow from the soil and vadose zone
and with arrival of recharge from these zones.
5.3.3.4Phosphorus
Inputs of phosphorus to surface freshwaters via surface or near-surface pathways

have been a concern for many years because this is often the limiting nutrient to
eutrophication of rivers and lakes. However, over the last decade, there has been a
growing awareness that in some instances groundwater can provide a pathway of
phosphorus transfer to ecologically sensitive surface waters, and this is particularly
likely to occur in vulnerable karst situations.
Calcareous soils retain significant quantities of phosphorus, due to both adsorp-
tion and precipitation reactions. However, leaching may occur where the soils are
highly saturated with P or where it has been mobilized by the addition of manure
(von Wandruszka 2006). Leaching is particularly likely in karst areas where thin,
organic rendzina soils are present, but the greatest reason for concern about phos-
phorus in karst areas is the occurrence of point recharge bypassing the protective
soil cover, combined with rapid passage flow through the aquifer via conduits and
discharge to springs which may feed surface water bodies susceptible to eutrophica-
tion (Kilroy et al. 2001). Initial lack of evidence for phosphorus in karst springs
from studies in the 1980s was at least partly due to poor detection limits in many
groundwater phosphorus analyses, reflecting nonexistent or high drinking water
limits for P (of the order of mgl1). Ecological thresholds are much lower, e.g., the
OECD phosphorus threshold for eutrophic lakes is a total phosphorus concentration
of 35mgl1 (Vollenweider 1982).
Hardwick (1995) found elevated concentrations of phosphorus in cave waters in
a karst aquifer in Derbyshire, U.K., which increased after application of sewage
sludge to the overlying agricultural land. Alloush etal. (2003) noted a strong posi-
tive correlation between total dissolved phosphorus concentrations in rivers in the
Appalachian region of the U.S.A. and the percentage of their catchment areas clas-
sified as karst landscape. They found that the total dissolved P concentration and the
proportion of dissolved nonreactive P in soil samples increased with the amount of
cattle grazing in karst sinkholes in this region. Runoff to the sinkholes contained
very high concentrations of dissolved P (several mgl1), which was dominated by
inorganic P, whereas the cave stream contained dissolved P concentrations of the
order of 0.2mgl1 (200mgl1), which was dominated by nonreactive P (i.e., organic
or colloidal P fractions). These concentrations significantly exceeded U.S. EPA
guidelines of 0.1 and 0.05mgl1 for streams and lakes, respectively.
The western karst lowlands of Ireland contain ecologically sensitive surface
water bodies, including rivers, lakes, and turloughs which have close interactions
with karst groundwater (Coxon and Drew 2000). Investigations of phosphorus in
karst groundwaters in this region (Kilroy and Coxon 2005) showed that mean total
phosphorus (TP) concentrations in both springs and boreholes were greater than the
20mgl1 threshold for eutrophic conditions in Irish lakes. Monitoring of temporal

variations in P in eight karst springs showed a peak in P concentrations in response
to the first autumnal rains, attributed to release of P accumulated in the soil during
the summer following inorganic fertilizer and manure applications. Dissolved reac-
tive phosphorus (DRP) was the dominant P component, but particulate P and dis-
solved nonreactive P increased to a greater degree than DRP during periods of high
rainfall (Fig. 5.9a). This study also provided a case example of the passage of a
contaminant plume attributed to the release of silage effluent, resulting in an increase
in TP concentration in the down-gradient spring from 42 to 1,814mgl1 within 24h
(Fig.5.9b). Such localized pollution incidents may be of particular significance if
they impact surface waters in the summer months when groundwater constitutes a
high proportion of river flow.
The presence of phosphorus in karst groundwaters contributing to sensitive sur-
face waters can have important management implications. While evaluating the sta-
tus of Irish groundwater bodies under the E.U. Water Framework Directive (2000/60/
EC), one of the factors taken into account was the assessment of adverse impacts of
chemical inputs from groundwater on associated surface water bodies and the com-
bination of ecologically significant groundwater phosphorus concentrations. High
contributions of groundwater flow to surface waters in Irish karst regions resulted in
101 groundwater bodies occupying 13.3% of the area of Ireland being designated as
poor qualitative status. Programs of measures to restore good status are required
under the Water Framework Directive, and reducing phosphorus inputs from agri-
culture to these vulnerable karst systems is likely to have significant social and
economic costs (Daly 2009).
5.3.3.5Pesticides and Other Synthetic Organics
Pesticides vary greatly in their toxicity, mobility, and persistence. However, many
have health effects such as carcinogenicity at very low concentrations; therefore,
leaching of only a small proportion of applied pesticide can result in violation of
drinking water standards. Easily leached pesticides such as atrazine may be found in
many aquifer types, but the thin soils and subsoils associated with many karst aquifers
together with the potential for rapid movement through solutionally widened fissures
will make contamination more likely than in other hydrogeological situations. Less
mobile pesticides are readily adsorbed on to soil particles and have a lower risk of
entering aquifers but may reach karst groundwater because of the possibility of col-
loidal particles entering via sinking streams or solutionally widened fissures.
Atrazine, a herbicide used widely in maize (corn) cultivation and as a general
broad spectrum weed killer, has been the most widely reported pesticide in karst
groundwater over the last two decades. Karst aquifers in the American mid-west in
which atrazine has been recorded include the Big Spring basin, Iowa, where it is the
dominant pesticide in the groundwater (Libra and Hallberg 1999; Rowden etal. 2001);
two karst catchments in West Virginia, where atrazine and its metabolite desethylatrazine
were detected in more than 50% of samples (Pasquarell and Boyer 1996); the Green
122 C. Coxon
a Monthly Rainfall (mm) Monthly Effective Rainfall (mm)

0
300
30-Jun 30-Jul 30-Aug 30-Sep 30-Oct 30-Nov 30-Dec 30-Jan 29-Feb

Rainfall (mm)
0
20
Daily
40
60
120
FS05
90
60
30
0
120
FS08
Phosphorus Fractions (g l 1)
90
60
30 Spring Dry
0
120
FS13
90
60
30
0
120
FS18
90
60
30
0
30-Jun 30-Jul 30-Aug 30-Sep 30-Oct 30-Nov 30-Dec 30-Jan 29-Feb
1999 2000
Dissolved Reactive P Dissolved Organic P Particulate P
Fig.5.9 Phosphorus in Irish karst springs (a) Temporal variation in different phosphorus fractions
at four springs in the Fergus catchment, County Clare (b) Short-term variation in total phosphorus
at a spring in the Robe catchment, County Mayo (From Kilroy and Coxon 2005)
10-Jul 17-Jul 24-Jul 31-Jul 7-Aug 14-Aug 21-Aug 28-Aug 4-Sep 11-Sep
b 0
10
Rainfall
(mm) 20
30
1000
900 1814 g l1
Total Phosphorus (g l1)
800 8 hourly 27/8/99

Background
700 sampling Daily Autosampling
TP = 38 g -l 1

600
500
400
300
200
100
0
10-Jul 17-Jul 24-Jul 31-Jul 07-Aug 14-Aug 21-Aug 28-Aug 04-Sep 11-Sep
Fig. 5.9 (continued)
River Basin in Kentucky, where it was detected in 100% of karst spring water
samples (Crain 2002); the Illinois sinkhole plain, where concentrations ranged from
<0.01 to 34 mg l1 (Panno and Kelly 2004); and two karst springs in Northern
Alabama (Kingsbury 2008). The drinking water limit for atrazine in the U.S.A. is
3mgl1 as a yearly average (with higher concentrations permissible in the shorter
term), while in the European Union, the limit is 0.1mgl1. It has been recorded from
a range of European karst aquifers including a Jurassic karst aquifer in Germany
(Milde et al. 1988) and a weakly karstified Cretaceous Chalk aquifer in France,
where it was present in 83% of samples at concentrations up to 5.3mgl1 (Baran
etal. 2008).
The presence of atrazine continued to be recorded for several years after its use
was banned, both in Slovenian groundwater (Gotvajn etal. 2001) and in the French
Chalk aquifer mentioned above, where it was recorded 3years after the ban in 2003
(Baran etal. 2008). Other herbicides recorded in karst groundwaters include other
triazines such as simazine (Crain 2002; Debrewer etal. 2008); alachlor, a widely
used herbicide particularly in maize and peanut cultivation (Panno and Kelly 2004;
Dalton and Frick 2008); and fluometuron, used in cotton cultivation (Dalton and
Frick 2008; Kingsbury 2008).
Pesticides which are readily adsorbed on to colloidal particles may enter karst
aquifers via sinking streams or solutionally widened fissures. Simmleit and
Herrmann (1987) examined the passage of lindane through a karstified Jurassic
limestone and dolomite aquifer in Franconia, Germany, and found that transient
rises in lindane concentration and loading coincided with increases in suspended
solids and in dissolved humic material. Libra etal. (1986) also noted the coinci-
dence between peaks in pesticide concentration and suspended sediment peaks, at
Big Spring in Iowa, as shown in Fig. 5.7. Ekmekci (2005) noted that different
pesticides of varying mobilities were found in different hydrologic zones of the
124 C. Coxon
Kestel-Kirkgoz karst system in Turkey: lindane and hepta epoxide characterized

surface water input to the aquifer via swallow holes, while aldrin and dieldrin char-
acterized shallow groundwater in the polje, and the metabolites of DDT were found
in deep groundwater with a longer residence time.
The importance of tracking pesticide metabolites in addition to the primary sub-
stance was demonstrated by Pasquarell and Boyer (1996). These authors found that
prolonged storage of atrazine in the soil results in loss of its metabolite desethyla-
trazine (DEA) from the soil to karst groundwater, but atrazine may also be trans-
ported more directly to groundwater through dolines and conduits, bypassing the
soil desethylation process. Baran et al. (2008) also found DEA occurring as fre-
quently as atrazine in a French chalk aquifer. Similarly, Kingsbury (2008) noted that
degradates of the herbicides atrazine and fluometuron were detected at concentra-
tions comparable to or greater than the parent pesticides. In the Floridan limestones
of Southwest Georgia, Dalton and Frick (2008) noted that degradates of alachlor
and metoalachlor were generally found at higher concentrations than their parent
compounds.
Antibiotics are another group of synthetic organic compounds which are a poten-
tial cause of concern in karst groundwaters. Landspreading of animal manures in
vulnerable karst situations may not only cause problems of nutrient loss and micro-
bial contamination, but may also contaminate water supplies with antibiotics, giv-
ing rise to concern about the spread of antibiotic resistance. Dolliver and Gupta
(2008) documented a 3-year study of leaching and runoff losses of antibiotics from
land application of hog and beef manures in a karst area of Wisconsin, U.S.A.: chlo-
rtetracycline was detected in runoff while monensin and tylosin were detected in
both runoff and leachate, with detections occurring mainly during the nongrowing
season (November to April) following autumn application of manures.
5.3.3.6Microbial Pathogens
Microbial pathogens are a particular problem of karst aquifers because the lack of
filtration within the aquifer and the short underground residence times mean that if
organisms manage to pass through or bypass the unconsolidated material overlying
the aquifer, they are almost certain to appear in water supplies. The presence of
conduit flow within the karst aquifer can allow viable organisms to travel for hun-
dreds of meters or even several kilometers from the point of entry. The microorgan-
isms involved include bacteria, viruses, and protozoan parasites.
Fecal bacteria have been reported from karst aquifers for several decades. The
large numbers of bacteria present in human and animal waste, combined with the
fact that pathogenic bacteria and indicator organisms such as fecal coliforms and
fecal streptococci must be absent from drinking water supplies, mean that the prob-
lem is not solved by dilution. Kelly etal. (2009), reporting on fecal bacterial con-
tamination of karst groundwater in Southwestern Illinois from domestic wastewater
and livestock manure, noted that there was chemical evidence of substantial dilution
of the wastewater, but that this did not lower bacterial concentrations sufficiently to
meet drinking water limits. In Ireland, fecal bacterial contamination of groundwater

supplies from karst aquifers has been reported since the 1980s (Thorn and Coxon 1992)
and continues to the present day (Clabby etal. 2008). Celico etal. (2004) record
bacterial contamination of karst springs in Southern Italy resulting from manure spread-
ing, with the highest bacterial numbers found when intense rainfall produced concen-
trated infiltration of runoff in a swallow hole. Fecal bacterial contamination is also well
documented from karst aquifers in North America. Boyer and Pasquarell (1999) com-
pared bacterial contamination in cave streams in a beef cattle area and a dairying
area and found that fecal coliforms and fecal streptocci were present in much greater
numbers in the dairying area. However, bacterial numbers were much lower where
best management practices were in place (Sect.5.4.2). Kozar and Mathes (2001)
found that 32% of wells in a karst limestone and dolomite aquifer in West Virginia
contained E. coli, with contamination rates being higher where there was nearby
agricultural activity.
A current serious concern with fecal coliform contamination is the possible pres-
ence of verotoxin-producing E. coli (VTEC) such as E. coli 0157, which causes
dysentery and hemolytic uremic syndrome, which can be fatal (Percival etal. 2004).
The presence of VTEC in a karst spring in an agricultural catchment in the Swiss
Jura was correlated with high E. coli concentrations and with rainfall events: con-
tamination was attributed to local infiltration of polluted surface waters and rapid
passage through karst conduits (Auckenthaler etal. 2002). The most serious recorded
case of karst groundwater contamination by E coli 0157:H7, combined with
Campylobacter jejuni, took place in Walkerton, Ontario, Canada, in May 2000,
when 2,300 people became ill and seven people died. The contamination appears to
have come from cattle feces which entered the karst groundwater following heavy
rainfall. Tracing experiments demonstrated a significant degree of karstification,
with flow velocities 80 times faster than predicted in the initial modeling which had
treated the aquifer as an equivalent porous medium (Worthington etal. 2002).
Many viruses are retained in soils by adsorption to soil particles, particularly
where the soil has a high clay content (Gerba etal. 1991), but they may gain entry
to karst aquifers while adsorbed to such particles. Enteric viruses are recorded in
karst groundwaters in the U.S.A. by Berger (2008). Viral transport through karst
groundwater has been studied using bacteriophage tracers (i.e., virus infecting bac-
teria and harmless to humans). For instance, Auckenthaler etal. (2002) carried out
tracing experiments in a karst spring in Switzerland using marine bacteriophages
H4 and H40 and found a similar breakthrough curve for these as for E. coli and
enterococci bacteria occurring naturally in the spring.
A recent and growing concern is contamination by protozoan parasites, particu-
larly Cryptosporidium parvum, which causes acute gastroenteritis and persistent
and potentially fatal disease in immune-compromised individuals. This organism
has caused disease outbreaks even where water supplies are treated by conventional
chlorination, because it forms an oocyst which is resistant to chlorination; success-
ful removal requires physical barrier treatment, e.g., flocculation and filtration or
ozonation (Percival etal. 2004). The first outbreak of cryptosporidiosis linked with
karst groundwater occurred in Braun Station, San Antonio, Texas, in 1984, when
126 C. Coxon
more than 200 people became ill due to contamination in the Edwards aquifer
(DAntonio etal. 1985). Cryptosporidium has been detected in many karst ground-
water supplies in the last decade, including springs in West Virginia, U.S.A. (Boyer
and Kuczynska 2003), a karst spring in Switzerland (Auckenthaler etal. 2002) and
the karst springs which provide the water supply for the town of Ennis in Ireland
(Page etal. 2006, p.64).
Microbial contamination in karst aquifers is often ephemeral and not easily
detected by routine monitoring at regular wide intervals (e.g., monthly or quarterly).
Where even brief exposure to a pathogenic microorganism in a water supply could
have serious consequences, the need to predict temporal variations is particularly
acute. Soil moisture levels may play a role in controlling temporal variations in fecal
coliform numbers, with bacteria stored in the soil zone being released once soil mois-
ture increases and groundwater recharge occurs (Pasquarell and Boyer 1995).
Several authors have noted that peak bacterial numbers often coincide with flow
peaks ( Thorn and Coxon 1992; Auckenthaler etal. 2002) and with turbidity and
sediment peaks (Dussart-Baptista etal. 2003; Boyer and Kuczynska 2003; Pronk
etal. 2006; 2007). In Fig.5.8, it can be seen that the peaks in E. coli numbers coin-
cide with the second turbidity peak corresponding to the arrival of allochthonous
sediment from the swallow hole.
5.4Management
5.4.1Risk Assessment
The first step in implementing management measures to minimize the problems

discussed above is to evaluate the degree of risk. This enables appropriate controls
to be taken, with the most stringent measures and most rigorous monitoring being
applied in the highest-risk situations. The approaches used will differ depending on
the nature of the problem, but in many instances, the source-pathway-receptor
model of risk assessment is applicable. The source term relates to the agricultural
pressure (e.g., animal stocking densities, fertilizer application rates), while the path-
way term relates to the transfer route (i.e., the geological pathway through the karst
system), and the receptor will vary depending on the nature of the impact being
considered (e.g., a drinking water supply or an ecosystem).
While soil erosion risk assessments in most terranes focus on downslope sedi-
ment movement, risk of gullying, etc., in karst terranes, the risk of vertical move-
ment into solutionally widened joints and closed depressions must also be taken into
account. Nevertheless, Yue-Qing etal. (2008) found that the revised universal soil
loss equation (RUSLE) integrated in a Geographic Information System was of value
in predicting soil erosion risk in a rural karst catchment in Guizhou Province, China.
A remote-sensing and GIS-based model has also been used to assess soil erosion in
the Lebanese karst (Bou Kheir etal. 2008).
Risk of groundwater contamination from agricultural sources is commonly eval-

uated in the context of groundwater protection schemes. These are now widely used
around the world, but the extent to which karst is taken into account varies consider-
ably. Groundwater vulnerability assessment methodologies, which take account of
karst, include the EPIK method (Doerfliger etal. 1999), the PI method (Goldscheider
2003) and the pan-European method developed in COST Action 620 (Daly etal. 2002).
These methods are general purpose assessments of intrinsic vulnerability, while
some approaches (Sinreich and Zwahlen 2002) evaluate specific vulnerability to
particular types of contaminant. Risk assessments relating to particular substances
have also been undertaken in the delineation of nitrate vulnerable zones for the EU
Nitrates Directive and in risk assessments for particular groups of chemical param-
eters for the EU Water Framework Directive (WFD). The Irish WFD groundwater
body risk assessments for diffuse source pollutants including nitrate and phospho-
rus involved an evaluation of agricultural pressures, pathway susceptibility, and
receptor sensitivity; the pathway susceptibility took karst aquifers into account, and
in the case of phosphorus, the presence of swallow holes was also included in the
risk assessment (Working Group on Groundwater 2005).
5.4.2Management Strategies and Planning Controls
Controls on particular agricultural activities (discussed further below) often form

part of an overall land management plan or a groundwater protection policy for the
karst region. Groundwater protection policies in karst aquifers incorporate the vul-
nerability and risk assessment procedures discussed in Sect.5.4.1, with more strin-
gent planning controls being implemented in the higher-risk zones.
The impact of deforestation can be minimized by good management practices.
Planning requirements for timber harvesting in karst areas outlined by Kiernan
(1987a) include an inventory of karst features and the designation of karst reserves
within the overall karst area where felling is prohibited, while operational measures
(Kiernan 1987b) include a prohibition of logging on steep limestone slopes or in the
vicinity of sinkholes and cave entrances, and the provision of silt traps in situations
where there is a risk of karst stream siltation. Where damage has already occurred
due to deforestation, management strategies are required to restore and rehabilitate
the landscape. Measures to reverse karst rocky desertification in Southwestern China
include programs of reforestation, the planting of economically useful woodland
plants, and the development of ecologically sensitive agriculture (Wang etal. 2004).
A major difficulty in implementing planning controls in karst groundwater pro-
tection zones is that the nature of karst flow systems means that such zones are
much more extensive than in most other aquifer types. Plagnes and Bakalowicz
(2001), reviewing groundwater protection in the Larzac plateau in Southern France,
note that whereas in nonkarst regions, protection zones typically extend over a few
square kilometers, the two springs acting as water supplies in this area have recharge
areas of 100 and 110 km2. Furthermore, karst spring catchments may have large
128 C. Coxon
partial contributing areas, where sinking streams contribute a varying proportion of

their flow to the spring, as seen in the Western Irish karst lowlands (Coxon and
Drew 2000).
Diffuse or nonpoint source pollution is often tackled by a combination of carrot
and stick approaches: in some instances, farmers are encouraged to implement
good land management strategies on a voluntary basis and may be grant-aided or
provided with free management advice (as in implementation of Best Management
Practices [BMP] in the U.S.A.), while in others, there is an increasing degree of
legislative control (such as the European Union Nitrates Directive). Agricultural
point sources are somewhat easier to deal with than diffuse sources, given that in
many instances they can be eliminated by simple pollution control measures such as
constructing adequate storage tanks, rather than requiring fundamental changes to
the agricultural system. Point sources have also been addressed in some instances
by advice and grant aid, and in others by legal controls.
Initially, agricultural BMPs in the U.S.A. were not specifically geared to karst
areas: Berryhill (1989) reviewed BMPs for controlling diffuse pollution in tillage
areas (e.g., conservation tillage, crop rotation, reduced input agriculture) and in
grazing areas (e.g., rotation of pastures with rest periods to allow regeneration, and
fencing animals away from water bodies and areas subject to erosion), and he com-
mented on their relevance to karst areas. He also assessed BMPs used to control
pollution from agricultural point sources (e.g., leak-proof feed and manure storage
facilities, runoff control structures, and vegetative filter strips for erosion and nutri-
ent control). More recently, BMPs more specific to karst areas have been imple-
mented and have met with a varying degree of success. In some cases, they have
been of value in minimizing bacterial contamination of karst groundwaters: Boyer
and Pasquarell (1999) found that while a karst stream in a dairying area in Central
Appalachia without BMP had more than 4,000 fecal coliforms per 100ml, a dairy-
ing area with BMP for control of animal and milking shed waste was not contribut-
ing significant amounts of fecal bacteria to the karst aquifer. However, Currens
(2002) found that BMPs implemented in a karst groundwater basin in Kentucky
were only partially successful, and Boyer (2005) noted a lack of consistent water
quality improvement in two karst study areas in Southeastern West Virginia follow-
ing several years of implementation of BMPs. He suggested that BMPs should be
targeted at well-defined contributing areas that significantly impact water quality
(e.g., excluding cattle from particularly vulnerable sinkholes). BMPs subsequently
implemented include the use of vegetative buffer strips around sinkholes (Petersen
and Vondracek 2006). Boyer (2008) described a sinkhole filter involving filter fabric
sandwiched between layers of crushed rock, which was not effective in reducing
nitrate concentrations but achieved a considerable degree of success in reducing
fecal coliform concentrations; he proposed that it would be a valuable tool in
some situations when used in combination with land management measures such as
buffer strips.
While catchment controls involving agricultural BMPs may improve the microbial
quality of karst waters, they are unlikely to succeed in eliminating microbial con-
tamination. Shutting down of raw water intakes at times of maximum risk, during
the passage of flood waves at karst springs, may also be of value. However, reliable
prediction of contamination incidents can be problematic. Because analyses of fecal
microorganisms take hours or days, they cannot be used for instant monitoring of
karst groundwater supplies. As noted in Sect.5.3.3.6, turbidity is often highly cor-
related with microbial pathogens, and monitoring a combination of turbidity and
total organic carbon, or monitoring turbid particle size distribution, may enable
autochthonous turbidity (from remobilization of sediments within the karst conduit)
to be distinguished from allochthonous turbidity (representing arrival of swallow
hole waters and potential pulses of microbial contamination) (Pronk et al. 2006,
2007; Fig.5.8). However, Auckenthaler etal. (2002) warn that in some karst sys-
tems, microbial numbers may rise several hours before turbidity, so they suggest
that spring discharge may be a safer warning parameter. Because of the difficulty of
prediction and potentially serious public health consequences, adequate treatment,
including treatment to remove microorganisms such as Cryptosporidium that are
resistant to chlorination, remains of considerable importance.
In the European Union, the Nitrates Directive is implemented by means of man-
datory action programs within nitrate vulnerable zones and voluntary codes of prac-
tice outside these zones; these are drawn up by individual member states, so the
extent to which karst is taken into account varies. The Irish legislation, giving effect
to the directive, includes a ban on landspreading of manure within 15m of karst
features such as swallow holes and collapses and a ban on manure storage within
50m of such features, while spreading of soiled water is strictly limited in karst
regions where the depth to bedrock is less than a meter (Stationery Office Dublin
2009). Management measures to reduce nitrate contamination may also involve
limits on nitrogen fertilizer application, such as the livestock manure limit of
170 kg N/ha/year imposed in the E.U. Nitrates Directive. However, the time lag
between a reduction in fertilizer inputs and a reduction in groundwater nitrate levels
can vary greatly; as noted in Sect.5.3.3.3, time lags are greatest in dual porosity
chalk aquifers. Thus, Nebbache etal. (2001) comment that while short-term peaks
in nitrate concentration in the Brionne Basin due to point recharge may be addressed
on a short-term, local basis, the longer-term trend of rising nitrate over the last few
decades will require a longer-term approach, with solutions applied today poten-
tially taking decades to have a tangible effect in this Chalk system.
While nitrate pollution is being tackled by a series of measures including a reduc-
tion in fertilizer inputs, in the case of pollution by some pesticides, a complete
elimination of inputs is being recommended or enforced. For example, Milde etal.
(1988), working on pesticides in German karst aquifers, suggested that substances
such as atrazine should not be used in highly vulnerable karst catchments. Atrazine
was subsequently banned throughout the European Union, but in parts of the world,
where a general ban is not currently in place, a ban on its use in vulnerable karst
situations may be justifiable.
In areas where the rocky karst terrane has resulted in low-intensity agricultural
systems and where nitrate and pesticides are not currently at problem levels (e.g.,
the Larzac plateau in France, mentioned above, and some of the Slovenian karst
plateaus discussed by Kovai and Ravbar (2005)), a useful management approach
130 C. Coxon
Fig.5.10 Farming for conservation in the Burren karst plateau, Ireland (a) Hazel scrub removal
(b) traditional winter cattle grazing (c) Arctic-alpine flora (Dryas octopetala) (Images
B Dunford, BurrenLIFE)
may be to combine catchment controls such as groundwater source protection zones

with a positive promotion of the values of such regions. In the karst areas of Croatia,
organic sheep breeding involving indigenous breeds of sheep, adapted to the karst
environment, is being promoted as a means of economic growth while preserving
the traditional way of life and protecting the environment (Radin etal. 2008). In the
European Union, whereas earlier schemes funded by the Common Agricultural
Policy sometimes exacerbated environmental problems in karst regions (Drew and
Magee (1994) and Canora etal. (2008), discussed in Sect.5.2.1), more recent com-
munity-based E.U. projects have had a more positive influence. In the Burren pla-
teau in Western Ireland, the BurrenLIFE project was initiated in 2005 with funding
from the European Commission LIFE Nature Fund, combined with national and
local sponsorship, in recognition of the importance of farming in protecting interna-
tionally important habitats such as limestone pavements and orchid-rich grasslands,
which are subject to scrub encroachment as noted in Sect.5.2.1. This project aims
to develop a model for sustainable agriculture, bringing together farmers, scientists,
conservationists, and others to develop farming systems and supports to protect the
Burren karst plateau (BurrenLIFE 2006, 2009; Fig.5.10). Another EU LIFE-funded
project, the Limestone Country Project, which ran in the upland karst of the
Yorkshire Dales, U.K. from 2002 to 2008, also sought to promote sustainable land
management and restore limestone pavement and limestone grassland habitats by
encouraging a return to mixed farming using hardy upland cattle breeds (Yorkshire
Dales National Park Authority 2009).
5.5Conclusions
From the wide range of research studies carried out over the last few decades, it is
clear that agricultural activities can have a wide range of impacts on karst land-
scapes and karst waters. Clearance of forest vegetation for agriculture gives rise to
problems of soil erosion, impacts on groundwater recharge and degradation of water
quality. Increases in grazing intensity or a change from pasture to tillage may trigger
further soil erosion and impacts on water quality. Irrigation and drainage operations
associated with agricultural intensification may have both hydrological and water
quality impacts. Landspreading with fertilizers and pesticides can result in water
quality problems in drinking water supplies and groundwater-fed ecosystems.
Animal wastes, if stored inappropriately or if landspread in vulnerable situations,
may give rise to contamination with a range of constituents, with fecal microorgan-
isms posing particular risk to human health.
While such environmental problems associated with agriculture are by no means
unique to karst areas, they may occur with particular severity because of the pecu-
liar characteristics of karst: the occurrence of concentrated recharge in closed
depressions and swallow holes, combined with the presence of conduit flow and
flow in solutionally widened fractures in the aquifer, render karst regions particu-
larly susceptible to soil erosion and entry of contaminants to groundwater. The
thin, patchy soil cover found in many karst areas may act as a check on agricultural
132 C. Coxon
intensification, but it can further increase the risk of adverse impacts of any agricul-
tural activities that do take place.
Appropriate management measures will vary depending both on the nature of the
agricultural systems and also on the nature of the karst region in question. Karst
aquifers overlain by significant thicknesses of soil and subsoil are more likely to
have intensive agricultural operations such as tillage or intensive animal rearing; in
such regions, a combination of approaches may be desirable. This might include a
program of education for farmers about the vulnerability of karst systems and on the
use of Best Management Practices to avoid problems, combined with appropriate
legal controls on application of fertilizers and pesticides and on storage of farm
wastes. National programs required to meet national or international legislation,
such as the EU Nitrates Directive and Water Framework Directive, may need to be
modified to suit the particular needs of karst regions.
Management measures to minimize adverse impacts of agriculture must strike a
difficult balance between the need for environmental protection and the need to
maintain agricultural activities. In rocky karst plateau regions, maintenance of tra-
ditional farming practices may be of importance in preserving distinctive karst land-
scapes and ecosystems. Measures such as the promotion of indigenous organic
sheep production in the Croatian karst and initiatives such as the BurrenLIFE proj-
ect in Ireland may be of value in preserving distinctive karst flora and fauna and in
preventing problems of rural depopulation, while minimizing any adverse impacts
on the environment.
Although the quest for an environmentally sustainable solution to the develop-
ment of agriculture in a particular karst region must take local geological, hydro-
logical, ecological, and socioeconomic factors into account, in many cases, there
are valuable opportunities to benefit from work in other similar karst regions around
the world, sharing scientific research on environmental processes and impacts and
sharing experience of management approaches.
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Part II
Management of Subterranean Karst
Chapter 6
Management of Caves
David Shaw Gillieson
Abstract People have used caves in many ways for tens of thousands of years and
only recently recognized their recreational, aesthetic, and scientific value. However,
this has not prevented their degradation and some suggest the carrying capacity of a
cave is effectively zero. Caving results in a variety of impacts on the physical cave
environment, although not equally for all caves or every part of the cave, which is
then a challenge for management is to correctly evaluate the relative vulnerability of
cave passages. These impacts can arise because tourist caves require physical altera-
tion of natural passages, installation of lighting, pathways, platforms, and associ-
ated infrastructure. Cave fauna are impacted by alteration of cave hydrology,
temperatures, lighting conditions, and carbon dioxide levels. Resulting invasive
plants, desiccation of cave formations, and localized sedimentation highlight the
need for effective ongoing monitoring of the cave atmosphere, water quality, and
particulate deposition. Even scientific researches have impact; therefore, proposed
research projects must minimize damage and maximize benefit for all cave stake-
holders. Cave inventories are important for documenting valuable cave features, and
they also allow for inter-cave comparisons and help with management classification
and/or zoning. More enlightened management regimes consider good relations with
park neighbors as essential and parks are run using principles of adaptive manage-
ment. Cave managers should embrace the new management paradigms whilst con-
serving what are essentially nonrenewable resources.
D.S. Gillieson (*)

School of Earth & Environmental Sciences, James Cook University,
PO Box6811, Cairns, QLD 4870, Australia

142 D.S. Gillieson
6.1Introduction
Caves have been used by people in many ways over tens of thousands of years. They
are used for a wide variety of purposes, apart from water supply, recreational caving,
and tourism. Recorded industrial and agricultural uses include fish breeding, mush-
room growing, rope making, cheese production, harvesting of birds nests, extraction
of guano for fertilizer and therapy (hot springs and sanatoria). Caves and other
limestone landforms are widely regarded as sacred sites by indigenous peoples
and are used as temples, especially in Asia.
The recreational use of caves in a modern sense dates from the early seventeenth
century, when the Vilenica Cave in Slovenia was open for visits by paying tourists. By
1816, a number of caves worldwide were being regularly visited (Postojna, Wookey
Hole, Mammoth Cave). A rapid expansion in the number of show caves occurred in the
second half of the nineteenth century. Today, there are more than 600 show caves open
worldwide, with some receiving several million visitors each year (Gillieson 1996).
The IUCN Guidelines for Cave and Karst Protection (Watson etal. 1997) pro-
vides a general list of the impacts which may result from human activities in caves:
Alteration of the physical structure of the cave
Alteration of water chemistry
Alteration of cave hydrology
Alteration of air currents and microclimate
Introduction of artificial light
Compaction or liquefaction of floors
Erosion or disturbance to cave sediments or their contents
Destruction of speleothems
Destruction of fauna
Introduction of alien organisms or materials (e.g., concrete, climbing aids), pol-
lutants, nutrients, animal species, algae and fungi
Surface impacts such as erosion, siltation, vegetation change
It should be said that any consideration of human impacts in caves should also
take into account activities in the catchments overlying the cave. These activities are
covered in other chapters. In this chapter, I consider the impacts of both recreational
caving and show cave development. I also review some methodologies for assessing
the values and vulnerability of caves, including the impacts of scientific research.
Finally, I comment on the changing paradigms for protected area management
which have implications for the way in which caves will be managed in the future.
6.2Recreational Caving and Its Impacts
The aesthetic and scientific values of wild caves (caves not modified for tourist
development) are being degraded as a result of increased recreational use (Spate and
Hamilton-Smith 1991). Aley (1976) stated that the carrying capacity of a cave is
6 Management of Caves 143
Fig. 6.1 Damage vs. time during the exploration and visitation phases of a hypothetical cave.
Total damage will vary widely depending on popularity, knowledge, limitations on access, experi-
ence of visitors, etc. (From Ganter 1989)
effectively zero. That is, the capacity of a damaged cave system to regenerate in
anything like human generational timescales is very limited or nonexistent. This is
because natural rehabilitation processes in caves operate very slowly in the com-
paratively low-energy cave environment. It is therefore important to attempt to
quantify both the extent and severity of actual or potential impacts to establish
appropriate management regimes for wild caves and to determine the acceptable
limits of environmental change (Wilde and Williams 1988). Coupled with this is the
need to establish some monitoring to provide baseline data, to assess the direction
and rate of change, and to identify the causes of change. It is unusual to have abso-
lute baseline data as many caves have been entered before; we therefore often start
with an existing level of damage and must mitigate further damage. Various strate-
gies exist to achieve this (Fig.6.1), for example by limiting access and reducing the
number and frequency of visitors, permit systems and trail marking (Ganter 1989).
Recreational caving results in a variety of impacts on the physical cave environment
(Gillieson 1996; Bunting 1998). In the first instance, there is a direct contact between
the caver and the floor, walls and ceiling of the cave. Cavers moving through a cave
cause direct impacts to the physical cave environment such as disturbances to cave
sediments and cave breakdown deposits, erosion of cave rock surfaces, damage caused
by bolting and rigging, modification of cave entrances and passages, speleothem break-
age, and disturbances to fossil deposits (Gillieson 1996). In addition, there are impacts
associated with sediment transfer to previously clean areas of cave, carbide dumping,
carbide staining on cave walls and ceilings and the introduction of energy sources from
mud and food residues and sometimes deposition of feces and urine.
The impacts listed above may not occur in every cave or in every part of one
cave system. Not all parts of caves are equally vulnerable to disturbance, and the
challenge for management is to correctly evaluate the relative vulnerability of cave
passages. One approach that is valuable takes account of the relative energy status
144 D.S. Gillieson
of the cave passage (New Zealand Department of Conservation 1999:1011) in

evaluating potential visitor impacts.
High-energy cave passages are subject to high-energy events, such as flooding or
rockfall, on a regular basis. These cause the regular modification of the passage and
may involve rapid sedimentation as well. Speleothem formation is rare because they
are quickly scoured away or broken off, unless they are in elevated or secluded
alcoves. The effects of visitors on such passages will be minimal, and they may
cope with high visitor numbers. Examples include the large river caves of Southern
China, Sarawak, and Vietnam.
In medium-energy cave passages, forces such as running water, air currents, or
animal activities operate at a somewhat lower magnitude. These caves often contain
the most abundant active speleothem formations, reflecting inflow of abundant satu-
rated water. Cave pools may have abundant life with periodic influx of organic matter
providing an energy source (Tercafs 1993). The effects of visitors may be more
evident than in high-energy caves, although they may be masked by occasional
flooding and sediment reworking. Many tourist caves fall into this category.
For low-energy cave passages, a major event may be a single falling droplet of
water. Speleothems in a low-energy cave are characterized by small and delicate
formations resulting from the slow rate of crystal growth. Sediment deposits may
have been in place for tens or hundreds of millennia. The influx of energy may be
measured on decadal timescales. The presence of visitors in a low-energy cave may
have a serious cumulative effect on the cave environment, as the amount of energy
released by them in even a short visit may be more than what the cave has experi-
enced in hundreds of years.
In most cases, individual caves are likely to contain components of all three dif-
ferent types of energy levels. Many caves are medium- or low-energy environments,
with essentially little input of energy on a human timescale. The entry of a single
caver can change the energy balance by affecting the heat, light, and nutrients
therein. One factor that is only now being realized is the potential introduction of
microflora and microfauna by cavers (Cunningham etal. 1995). The effects of visi-
tors to caves are generally cumulative and quite possibly synergistic.
Damage to bone deposits in caves has been well covered by Griffiths and
Ramsey (2005). Significant paleontological/archeological assemblages are less
likely to occur in high-energy caves or cave passages, since regular flooding or
rockfalls are liable to redistribute or cover them. Such assemblages are far more
likely to be found in medium- or low-energy passages. The same stable environ-
mental conditions which would tend to facilitate the preservation of paleontologi-
cal assemblages and their contexts are those which are most vulnerable to
disturbance. Excavations in such passages may entail significant changes to the
energy regime, with corresponding impacts on the underground environment. In
contrast to disturbances to surface sites, traces or effects of human activities in
medium- or low-energy underground environments may persist for hundreds or
even thousands of years consider what is believed to be a Cro-Magnon footprint
discovered on the surface of a sediment deposit in Chauvet Cave, France (Tattersall
and Schwartz 2001)
Documented attempts at quantifying recreational impacts in caves have been

limited (Bodenhamer 1995; Bunting 1998; Bunting etal. 2001) and may indicate
difficulties in quantifying and, subsequently, documenting recreational impacts in
the cave environment. Cave photomonitoring is one method that can be used to
assess and monitor the effects of recreational use of caves. This involves the collec-
tion of precise photographs of selected points within the cave, taken on regular
basis, appropriate to the management cycle (Uhl 1981). The main problem with
photomonitoring is the difficulty in accurately and efficiently replicating the image
view (Bunting 1998).
Many of the problems listed above can be avoided or minimized by adoption of
a minimal impact code for caving (Table6.1; Webb 1995)
6.3Impacts of Visitors and Infrastructure on Show Caves
The development of caves for mass tourism requires physical alteration of natural
passages, installation of lighting, pathways, platforms, and associated infrastruc-
ture. Under such conditions, the cave biology is the first to suffer, and heavily used
areas are generally depauperate of cave fauna (Culver and Pipan 2009:202). The
cave hydrology may also be altered, and there may be pollution from car park and
road runoff, gray water and sewage in extreme cases. The organic pollution of
Hidden River (Horse) Cave, Kentucky, was both catastrophic and long lasting. The
cave was commercialized in 1916, and at that time, its underground river had a rich
fauna including fish and crayfish. Contamination by sewage and creamery waste led
to the extinction of the cave fauna and closure of the cave by 1943. Since the 1980s,
the pollution has been stopped, and the cave is now recovering as fauna recolonizes
from more pristine upstream sections of the cave. It has now reopened to visitors
(Lewis 1996).
Cave entrance modification is widespread in show caves but can also occur in
wild caves. This action can have a profound effect on terrestrial fauna. Infilling or
gating can restrict or stop the movement of animals, especially bats. Enlarging an
entrance or creating a new artificial entrance can alter air flows, changing the micro-
climate. At Mammoth Cave, Kentucky, the Historic Entrance was blocked to stop
cold winter air from entering (Elliott 2000); bats abandoned the cave as a result. Cave
entrance gates can be designed to allow free passage of bats (Fig.6.2), though some
species will avoid any gate and alternative solutions like fencing must be found.
Large numbers of visitors in a cave can significantly raise the air temperature.
A single person releases heat energy at 80120W (Villar etal. 1986), about the
same as a single incandescent light bulb. Thus, a party of 50 or 60 people on a
cave tour can locally raise temperatures by 12C. The passage of tourists through
Altamira Cave, Spain, raised air temperature by 2C, CO2 concentration from 400
to 1,200ppm and decreased relative humidity from 90% to 75% (De Freitas and
Littlejohn 1987). The main effect of the reduction in humidity is drying and flaking
of flowstone surfaces. According to Cigna (1993), management needs to ensure that
Table6.1 Minimal impact code for caving (Adopted by the Australian Speleological Federation
(Webb 1995))
1. Remember every caving trip has an impact. Is this trip into this cave necessary? If it is just
for recreation, is there another cave that is less vulnerable to damage that can be visited?
Make this assessment depending on the purpose of your visit, the size and experience of
the proposed party, and if the trip is likely to damage the cave
2. Where possible the party leader should have visited the cave previously and hence should
be aware of sensitive features of the cave, the best anchor points, and generally reduce the
need for unnecessary exploration
3. Cave slowly. You will see and enjoy more, and there will be less chance of damage to the
cave and to yourself. This especially applies when you are tired and exiting a cave
4. If there are beginners on a trip, make sure that they are close to an experienced caver, so
that the experienced caver can help then when required, e.g. in difficult sections. Ensure
that the party caves at the pace of the slowest caver
5. Keep your party size small four is a good party size
6. Cave as a team help each other through the cave. Dont split up unless impact is reduced
by doing so
7. Constantly watch your head placement and that of your party members. Let them know
before they are likely to do any damage
8. Keep caving packs as small as possible and dont use them in sensitive caves or extensions
9. Ensure that party members dont wander about the cave unnecessarily
10. Stay on all marked or obvious paths. If no paths are marked or none is obvious define one!
11. Learn to recognise cave deposits or features that may be damaged by walking or crawling
on them. Examples are: Drip Holes, Stream Sediments, Paleo soils, Soil Cones, Crusts,
Flowstone, Cave Pearls, Asphodilites, Bone materials, Potential Archaeological sites, Cave
Fauna, Coffee & Cream, Tree Roots
12. Take care in the placement of hands and feet throughout a cave
13. Wash your caving overalls and boots regularly so that the spread of bacteria and fungi are
minimized
14. If a site is obviously being degraded, examine the site carefully to determine if an
alternative route is possible. Any alternative route must not cause the same or greater
degradation than the currently used route. If an alternative is available suggest the
alternative route to the appropriate management authority and report the degradation
15. Carry in-cave marking materials while caving and restore any missing markers. Tape off
sensitive areas you believe are being damaged and report the damage to the appropriate
management authority
16. If it is necessary to walk on flowstone in a cave remove any muddied boots and or clothing
before proceeding or dont proceed! Sometimes it is better to assess the situation and
return at a later date with the appropriate equipment
17. Treat the cave biota with respect, watch out for them, and avoid damaging them and their
traps, webs, etc. Also avoid directly lighting cave biota if possible
18. If bone material is found on existing or proposed trails it should be moved off the track to a safer
location if at all possible. Collection should only be undertaken with appropriate permission
19. If you eat food in a cave ensure that small food fragments are not dropped as this may
impact the cave biota. One way is to carry a plastic bag to eat over and catch the food
fragments. This can then be folded up and removed from the cave
20. Ensure that all foreign matter is removed from caves. This includes human waste. If long
trips are to be made into a cave, ensure that containers for the removal of liquid and solid
waste are included on the trip inventory
21. When rigging caves with artificial anchors, e.g. traces, tapes, rope etc., ensure that minimal
damage occurs to the anchor site by protecting the site. For example protect frequently
used anchors, e.g. trees, with carpets, packs, cloth, etc. Bolts should only be used where
natural anchors are inappropriate
22. Cave softly!
Fig.6.2 Construction of the Tumbling Creek Cave chute gate, March 2004. The open chute allows
pregnant gray bats to use the entrance freely, but excludes human intruders. Bats have increased in
numbers since the gate was built (From Elliott and Aley 2006)
these fluctuations lie within the range of natural variation for the cave, and that they
return to normal levels in a short period of time (Fig.6.3). Calaforra etal. (2003)
provide a good example of determining visitor thresholds in such cases (Fig.6.4).
Increases in CO2 concentration due to visitor respiration can range from 1,500 to
2,000 ppm, at which point people start to be distressed. At such concentrations,
speleothems will start to redissolve. A threshold for this corrosion is reached at
2,500 ppm in the Glow-Worm Cave, New Zealand, while at Jenolan Caves, the
threshold is at 2,7002,800ppm. Managing carbon dioxide levels requires effective
monitoring, limiting the party size and frequency of tours, and modifying doors to
improve air circulation. Studies at Jenolan Caves have shown that well-ventilated
sites reach background levels in a few hours, while poorly ventilated sites can take
days (James 2004).
The continuous lighting of cave features provides an opportunity for the estab-
lishment and growth of green plants (blue-green and filamentous algae, mosses, and
ferns) in a concentric zone around the light. This is known as lampenflora and has
been the subject of considerable research (Aley 2004). Reduction in light intensity
below the threshold for photosynthesis, movement activated switches, and C-Bus
technology controlling lights can all help to eliminate this problem. C-Bus is a
148 D.S. Gillieson
Fig.6.3 Sample 24h records 14.6
Temperature (C)
August 18, 1982
of air temperature and relative
humidity in Ancona Hall, 14.5
Grotta Grande del Vento, 14.4
during the peak of the tourist 14.3
seasons in 1982 and 1983 6116 persons
(From Cigna (1993)) 14.2
100
Humidity ( )
99
98
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Hour
14.6
August 11, 1983
14.5
Temperature (C)
14.4
14.3
14.2
14.1 7011 persons
14.0
100
99
98
Humidity ( )
97
96
95
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Hour
microprocessor-based control and management system for cave lighting. It is used

to control lighting and other electrical services such as audio-visual devices, pumps,
motors, etc. A twisted pair cable network operates at 36V and allows installation in
wet places where conventional mains power would be dangerous. A lighting or
audio-visual sequence can be preprogrammed or can be interrupted or changed at
any location by a ranger or tour guide. The technology has now been employed in
many caves in Australasia, Europe, and North America.
The introduction of microflora and microfauna into caves is an ongoing problem.
In the Lascaux Cave, the first problem that attracted management attention was the
maladie verte, due to algal development. Later on, fungal colonies appearing as
white and/or black spots created the main conservation problem. Only recently, a
research project has been funded which aims at studying the ecology of the cave,
Fig.6.4 Number of visitors producing an increase in temperature of more than 0.1C: 1maximum
mean daily variation of temperature under natural conditions; 2 mean variation caused by visitors
(From Calaforra etal. (2003))
including interactions between microorganisms (bacteria and fungi), other organisms

(protozoa, and arthropods) and human presence. Currently, the most important point
of interest in Lascaux is the development of black spots corresponding to the
growth of melanized fungi (Bastian and Alabouvette 2009). Introduced microbiota
can also be a problem in more pristine caves; in Lechuguilla Cave, New Mexico,
biofilms associated with water siphoning tubes serve as a substrate for coliform
bacteria (Hunter etal. 2004). Many apparently pure pools have significant bacterial
colonies as a result.
Within caves, pathways and stairs may concentrate the flow of drip water away
from flowstones or stream channels, causing desiccation of cave formations and
localized sedimentation. Leachates from concrete can also form deposits mimicking
natural speleothems. Construction debris, including wire clippings, can leach toxins
into cave streams. Galvanized steel railings and steps have been shown to leach vari-
ous metallic ions, including cadmium, which can harm freshwater fauna (Buecher
1995). Today, there is increasing use of stable materials such as stainless steel, plas-
tic decking made from recycled PET bottles, plastic rails, and similar products
(Fig.6.5). In Australia and in Europe, there is now a widespread use of recycled
materials to produce inert resin products for guiderails, decking, and other outdoor
infrastructure. The materials derive from post-consumer plastics, principally
HDPTE, and wood waste. These recycled products do not leach any chemicals,
require low energy for production and have almost zero carbon emissions. See
http://www.advancedplasticrecycling.com.au/index.php for further details.
150 D.S. Gillieson
Fig. 6.5 Re-lighting of the Donna Cave, Chillagoe Queensland. Main lighting sequence is
controlled by c-bus programming and can be modified by a guide. Tracklights are low energy use
LEDs. Note use of inert materials plastics and stainless steel for all stairs and railings (Photo
by David Gillieson)
In many caves, speleothems and pathways are cleaned on a regular basis due to
the deposition of dust, hair, and lint from visitors and of algae and fungi. High pres-
sure water jets are commonly used, often with external mains water supply. Steam
cleaning and use of surfactants have also been used. All of these methods have some
impact on the surface being cleaned. Spate and Moses (1994) studied the impact of
cleaning at Jenolan Caves, New South Wales. They found that repeated cleaning with
Identify and assess

apparent issues
or threats
Identify critical issues

or threats
Introduction of theoretical
Determine appropriate and conceptual bases
indicators & other relevant
research data
Monitoring &
data collection
Analyse &
summarise data
Determine implications
for decision making
Present action
proposals
Fig.6.6 Outline of Visitor Impact Management (VIM) process implemented at Jenolan Caves,
New South Wales (From Jenolan Caves Reserve Trust (1995))
high pressure jets damaged crystal facets and recommended other strategies such as
protective clothing for visitors and mesh entrance walkways to limit dust tracking.
These impacts highlight the need for effective ongoing monitoring of the cave
atmosphere, water quality, and particulate deposition. A set of biophysical indicators
can be defined and their state reviewed periodically. Coupled with this is the need
for a set of social indicators that address the issue of the level of satisfaction of both
visitors and staff (Hamilton-Smith 2004; Davidson and Black 2007). These should
form part of an ongoing process of adaptive management (Fig. 6.6) that takes
account of monitoring results and is informed by the latest research.
152 D.S. Gillieson
6.4Cave Lighting
Lighting of show caves has tended in the past to over-illuminate the cave passages
and chambers, as if they were offices or shopping malls. A more enlightened
view would light the cave as a cave with deliberate use of darkness and sequenc-
ing of illumination on selected cave features. There are two important principles
to be borne in mind when designing the lighting for a show cave: access and
atmosphere.
Lighting for access should be at the minimum level consistent with safe move-
ment of all cave visitors. Effective lighting can be used to create safe access through
an unfamiliar environment, a zone of familiarity that relaxes the visitors. The use of
LED strip lights, 12V downlights and other low-energy technology can all achieve
this aim. These can be attached to railings or path edges, with necessary inverters or
batteries well hidden below. In general, all fixtures and cabling should be well hid-
den from visitors but accessible for maintenance without further damage to the cave
and its contents. Reduced power consumption has benefits beyond reduction of CO2
emissions: lower power requirements facilitate the use of local uninterruptible
power supply when there is a mains power failure. Less heat is produced as well.
There are many technologies available remote controls, c-bus controlled electrical
systems, high lumen per watt output lighting, batteries/inverters, optical fibers, etc.
but they should be used as tools to achieve an end, not as an end in themselves.
The second principle is that of atmosphere. There should be an underlying phi-
losophy to the lighting scheme. A theme should be established which illustrates
aspects of cave development or history. The lighting should be sequential, with visi-
tors led from one scene to the next. This avoids the massed illumination of a whole
chamber. The manager needs to be very selective about what to light and what not
to light. Any light in a dark environment will have a dramatic effect, and sometimes,
a very distant light will enhance the illusion of depth and mystery we are trying to
foster. Lighting of water features can be very effective (Fig.6.7). In all of these, the
fragility of the cave contents needs to be considered, with some areas being out of
bounds for any installation of lighting.
A final principle is that of creating a performance, with analogy to an orchestral
performance (Kell 2002). All too often, a show cave tour proceeds from the entrance
to the rear of the cave over half an hour or so, then there is a bolt and run back to
the entrance. Clever use of lighting and c-bus sequencing allows for a different
experience on the return journey to the entrance at a leisurely pace. This provides a
more satisfying experience and may allow for a different theme to be explored.
6.5Research in Caves and Its Impacts
As stated before, all human activities in caves have some impact. Thus the dilemma
for cave management is to determine whether the net gain in knowledge from a
research project justifies the damage done to the cave. This concept may be difficult
Fig.6.7 Effective lighting of the Lake Cave, Margaret River, Western Australia. Minimal path
lights and c-bus technology allow for a varied experience with illusions of depth and darkness. The
water table in the cave has lowered significantly in recent years due to extraction for irrigated
viticulture (Photo by David Gillieson)
for some researchers to grasp, used as they are to free access and elevated social
status as scientists. Thus, it is important that scientists and managers work together
to evaluate proposed research projects and modify them to minimize damage and
maximize benefit for all cave stakeholders.
One method of evaluating any project is to use a matrix developed by Griffiths
and Ramsey (2005) for paleontological projects in Canadian caves. Any project can
be evaluated against several criteria:
Direction does the work have beneficial effects on cave resources; is it neutral
or does it have adverse effects? In most cases, the effects will be adverse.
Scope is the effect limited to a small area of the cave, to the immediate area of
the action, or does it extend throughout the cave system?
Duration effects may be significant for less than 1year or less than one genera-
tion of cave biota, may be significant for 110years or one generation of biota,
may be significant for more than 10years or more than one generation of biota.
Frequency effect occurs once only or rarely and irregularly or on a regular basis
and at regular intervals.
Magnitude minimal impairment of the cave systems function or processes;
measurable impacts on functions and processes but recovery to preaction level,
154 D.S. Gillieson
or serious measurable impairment of function and processes that is not recoverable

and leads to serious habitat loss or degradation.
Confidence how robust are the conclusions? Can we have confidence in the
general applicability of the results?
6.6Cave Inventories and Classification
Caves have values that relate to their aesthetics, their geology and geomorphology,
their biology, their archeology and paleontology, and their history, to name but a
few. Cave inventories provide a means of documenting all of the values of an indi-
vidual cave. It also allows for comparison between caves and therefore underpins
management classification and/or zoning. Detailed inventories can also provide a
valuable snapshot of baseline conditions in caves, against which subsequent degra-
dation of cave values may be measured. Many recreational cavers produce basic
inventories as part of mapping and documentation activities. These provide very
valuable, but sometimes unacknowledged, sources of data for management agen-
cies. Maps produced by cavers are especially valuable, as a wealth of detail is usu-
ally recorded. In caves with exceptional values, a more detailed multidisciplinary
approach may be needed. This can include geomorphology and ecology, archeology
and paleontology, groundwater hydrology and ecology, microbiology, tourism, and
cultural heritage.
Caves should be carefully evaluated on an individual basis for the significance of
each category of values and the vulnerability of the cave to disturbance. The signifi-
cance of each category of values can vary from cave to cave. One cave might have
high recreational and hydrological values but demonstrate low biological, archeo-
logical, and geological values. Another might only be significant in terms of its
historical associations.
Kiernan (1988: 41) points out
There is a need for cave managers to recognise that each cave has a limiting factor on
usage (i.e., the value most at risk). Each site needs to be managed on the basis of the particu-
lar limiting factor for that site.
The limiting factor for some caves may be biological, mineralogical or any of the
other values listed above. Management authorities need to establish what that limit-
ing factor is, prior to making any decisions about a caves use, either by researchers
or the general public.
This provides an alternative view to more conventional recreational planning con-
cepts and tools such as Limits to Acceptable Change, Recreation Opportunity
Spectrum, and Visitor Impact Management. All of these are well entrenched in the
outdoor recreation planning literature. They are all based on the premise that the
system in question has some capacity to regenerate over a relatively short timescale.
This is simply inappropriate for most caves. They are also based on the premise that
visitor needs should be more important than natural or cultural heritage considerations.
In Western Canada, parks are preparing to adopt cave management guidelines

using a three-tier classification system to manage access (Horne 2005). Class 1
caves are access by application only they have the highest resource value and
are not for recreation. Each visit must add significant knowledge or give nett benefit
to the cave. Class 2 caves are access by permit recreational use is allowed, and
there are some management concerns. Entry for education/orientation is possible
under the permit. Class 3 caves are unrestricted public access there are few or
no management concerns, and no permit is required. In order to determine which
class a cave will fall into, three sets of factors are considered: (a) cave resources, (b)
surface resources, and (c) accident and rescue potential. Other countries have simi-
lar systems of cave classification in place or under development.
6.7Trends in Cave Management
Over recent years, many cave sites worldwide have been listed as World Heritage,
either in their own right or as part of larger nominations. There are now 45 cave and
karst properties inscribed on the World Heritage register, with a further 30 listed as
being worthy of nomination (Williams 2008). A National Geographic survey of 415
World Heritage sites, undertaken by over 400 independent, suitably qualified people,
found that the standard of management across these sites had declined significantly
since 2004. Presumably, World Heritage sites should be the best managed, as the
sites with outstanding universal values to be presented to the world. Identified causes
for this decline were mass tourism, inappropriate tourism products and rampant
commercial and industrial development. There is a strong conflict between tourism
and heritage management on one hand and a focus on economic return on the other.
These issues also apply to other caves being managed by state or federal agencies in
many countries.
There are a number of common issues which are raised by cave managers. Funding
is usually dispensed on an annual basis with little chance of carryover into the next
financial year. Long-term plans are difficult if not impossible to implement under this
model, and so many activities, especially monitoring, are compromised. Funding is
more available for tourism development than for scientific studies aimed at managing
the resource. Staff training to build capacity and enable them to deliver professional
outcome has suffered in quality and availability. Cave guide exchange schemes, a
valuable source of cross-fertilization of ideas, have been virtually abandoned. Many
organizations are preoccupied with occupational health and safety issues to the
exclusion of all else. Clear lines of communication between agencies are not main-
tained and thus a holistic approach to management is made more difficult.
For many governments, the environment is now low on the political agenda and
is being overshadowed by industries such as logging and mining. There is a recent
proposal to allow mining in the National Parks of New Zealand including its karst
areas. Geodiversity conservation is also very low on the political agenda.
Environmental concerns and conservation planning are dominated by biodiversity
156 D.S. Gillieson
Table6.2 Contrasting Paradigms for Protected Areas (From Phillips 2003)

As it was: protected areas were As it is becoming: protected areas are
Planned and managed against people Run with, for, and in some cases by local people
Run by central government Run by many partners
Set aside for conservation Run also with social and economic objectives
Paid for by taxpayer Paid for from many sources
Managed by scientists and natural resource Managed by multi-skilled individuals
experts
Managed without regard to local Managed to help meet needs of local people
community
Developed separately Planned as part of national, regional and
international systems
Managed as islands Developed as networks (strictly protected
areas, buffered and linked by green corridors)
Established mainly for scenic protection Often set up for scientific, economic and cultural
reasons
Managed mainly for visitors and tourists Managed with local people more in mind
Managed reactively within short timescale Managed adaptively in long term perspective
About protection Also about restoration and rehabilitation
Viewed primarily as a national asset Viewed also as a community asset
Viewed only as a national concern Viewed also as an international concern
Managed in a technocratic way Managed with political considerations
issues and fail to recognize the importance of geological heritage in integrated

landscape management. There is a new paradigm emerging of public vs. contracted
management or private ownership of cave and karst areas. While in many cases
outsourcing of park management can inject new ideas and funding, safeguards need
to be in place to ensure that nature conservation values are not compromised in
favor of accelerated tourism development.
On a more positive note, there has been a quantum shift globally in the underlying
philosophy of protected area management. Previous management regimes about
protection were exclusionary and restrictive and took little regard of public opinion.
We are now moving to more enlightened management regimes, where good rela-
tions with park neighbors are seen as critical, and parks are run using principles of
adaptive management (Table6.2: Phillips 2003). The challenge for cave managers
will be to embrace the new paradigms whilst conserving what are essentially nonre-
newable resources.
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Chapter 7
Some Considerations on Show Cave
Management Issues in Southern Italy
Mario Parise
Abstract Show caves represent an important tourist attraction, especially when

located in rural territories where not many sites of interest, except those naturalistic,
are present. For people working on karst and cave science, they are the main way to
allow great number of people to visit a cave, experience safely the underground
world, transfer information to raise public awareness about karst environments, and
understand the need to protect and develop them in a sustainable way. Some consid-
erations about management of show caves in peninsular Southern Italy are pre-
sented through description of lessons learned from direct and indirect experience in
show caves in Campania and Apulia. Overall, many problems have to be faced,
starting from the lighting system (often quite old and promoting the lampenflora
growth), the quality in the guides explanations as well as updating safety measures.
In addition, the high number of tourists allowed, regardless of the visitor capacity of
each cave, has also to be mentioned, since it determines degradation in the cave
atmosphere and the overall underground environment.
7.1Introduction
Show caves represent an important tourist attraction and a possibility for exploita-
tion in karst, especially when located in rural territories where there are not many
sites of interest, except those naturalistic. Show caves are also the main contact
between the general public and the karst environment and are the main way to allow
high numbers of people to visit a cave and experience safely the underground world.
A one-day experience may become, especially for children and young people, a
fundamental tool to transfer information to raise in the public an environmental
M. Parise (*)
CNR-IRPI, Via Amendola 122-I, 70126 Bari, Italy

160 M. Parise
awareness about karst ecosystems and resources, the need to protect them and
develop in a sustainable way.
It has been known for a long time how opening a cave to the public may com-
pletely transform the life of nearby towns and villages, bringing great number of
visitors in the area, and strongly contributing to its tourist development. On the
other hand, the inevitable infrastructure needed to allow untrained persons to safely
visit the cave irreversibly change its characteristics, with serious consequences for
the karst ecosystems and several negative effects, among which one of the most
common is the unwanted growth of vegetation (lampenflora) due to installation of
lights along the tourist trail (Aley 2004; Mulec and Kosi 2009).
Visitor capacity is defined as that flow of visitors into a defined cave that con-
fines the changes in its main environmental parameters within the natural ranges of
their fluctuation (Cigna 1987; Cigna and Forti 1988). It represents a powerful con-
cept for cave environmental impact assessment, useful to reach a sustainable com-
promise between maximum number of visitors allowed and protection of the karst
ecosystem. Identification of the visitor capacity for each single cave should ideally
be derived from a specific monitoring program (lasting not less than 1 year, possibly
2; Cigna 1993), while results obtained in a cave should never be taken as transfer-
able to another site, since each cave has its own features and characteristics, depend-
ing upon a great number of variables, including size, depth, presence of water, air
circulation, etc. (Huppert etal. 1993). Further, given the increasing variability of the
climatic regime, it would be preferable to adopt monitoring programs for longer
timeframes, at least 35years. This will allow controlling the response of the karst
system even on the occasion of particular events, from the occurrence of extreme
rainfall, to drought, to other local situations related to anthropogenic activities.
7.2Case Studies
To focus on some of the aforementioned issues, show caves from Southern Italy are
briefly dealt with in this section. The considerations presented here derive from
direct experience of the author, integrated by interviews with cave managers, cavers,
local inhabitants, and tourists, and scrutiny of the existing documentation and pub-
lications. The analyzed caves are located in peninsular Southern Italy, and specifi-
cally in Apulia (Castellana Caves, Zinzulusa Cave) and Campania (Castelcivita
Cave, Pertosa Cave; Carucci 1907; Boegan and Anelli 1930).
The Castellana Caves were discovered in 1938, and soon after it became a tourist
cave in 1939, the access tunnel to the first room (the largest cavern of the karst sys-
tem, named Grave; see Fig.7.1) was dug by miners from Sardinia, and the cave was
opened to the public, even though for a short trip. Since then, it has always been a
great attraction for tourists, and in 1950s, the town changed its name, becoming the
present Castellana-Grotte, to acknowledge the importance of the caves in the devel-
opment of this small Apulian town. During the years, several different phases
occurred in the management, with the number of visits progressively increasing,
reaching over 450,000 in 1982. After that peak, and realizing that such numbers
7 Some Considerations on Show Cave Management Issues in Southern Italy 161
Fig.7.1 Castellana Caves: left, the Grave (photo: G. Campanella), the largest cavern in the karst
system, produced by fall of the vault of the underground cave; from here the tourist visit starts.
Note the caver ascending the 55m deep shaft. Right, descent in the deepest shaft of the system,
reaching the maximum depth at 122m from the ground surface
Fig.7.2 Zinzulusa Cave: left, the cave entrance (photo: S. Inguscio); right, plan of the cave (After
Cadastry of FSP, the Apulian Speleological Federation)
were producing severe damage to the cave system, a decrease in the visitors number
had to be attained until the present average of about 250,000 visitors per year.
Discovery and exploitation of the Castellana caves played an important role for the
rest of the region, and many attempts were carried out to establish other show caves
from the several hundreds of karst caves in Apulia.
Among these, Zinzulusa Cave was opened to the public in 1950s. Originally
discovered in 1793, this cave is a site of great importance for biodiversity, as testi-
fied by the presence of many aquatic species, and one of the most famous anchialine
caves in Southern Italy (Fig.7.2). Located along the Adriatic coast, in a sector of
162 M. Parise
Fig.7.3 Photo taken at Castelcivita in August 1930, at the time of realization of the first gate for
the show cave (After Trotta 1931)
high naturalistic value, it is intensely exploited during the summer season, due to
the great amount of tourists in this area. With an average of 100,000 tourists per year
(peak of 3,500 visitors per day), it has a tourist section150m long (out of a 260m
total length), while the remaining part of the cave, in part flooded, is closed to visitors
due to its remarkable importance as a biodiversity hot-spot (Pesce 2001).
In the Campania region, the Castelcivita and Pertosa caves are located on oppo-
site foothills (respectively, SW and NE) of the Alburni Massifs, which is the most
important karst area in Southern Italy, hosting several hundred caves (Bellucci etal.
1995). Castelcivita became a show cave in 1930 (Fig. 7.3), and Pertosa in 1932
(even though the first lighting was installed only 30 years later, due to a dispute
between the municipalities of Pertosa and Auletta; Russo et al. 2005). The first
exploration of Castelcivita cave was tragic (Boegan and Anelli 1930). In 1889, two
brothers from a nearby town entered the cave using oil lamps. Carbonic acid from a
lateral branch of the cave system shut off the lamps after the two brothers had
entered 300 m into the cave. They were not able to find their way out, and only
8days later were rescued. One died soon after, and the other went insane. With a
total length of 5,400m, Castelcivita is the longest cave in Southern Italy.
Without any doubt, Pertosa Cave (Fig.7.4) represents the best example so far
regarding exploitation: today, the cave is managed through a foundation (Mida) that
also is in charge of two museums in the area. A number of activities were recently
started in order to improve the quality of the site and increase the touristic experi-
ence. For instance, taking advantage of the peculiar underground environment, fur-
ther enriched by the presence of water, theater shows are scheduled every week,
such as a presentation of Dantes Inferno. These shows have been improved by the
recent change in the light system: light emitted diode (LED) lamps were installed in
the cave, which resulted in significant energy saving (>80%) and better scenography
(due to the use of LED with different colors). Following the success of Inferno
theater show at Pertosa in 2009, a new show has been started at the nearby Castelcivita
Cave: Orpheus and Euridice, once again a drama whose best set is in an under-
ground environment.
7.3Discussion
One of the worst aspects of the management of show caves in Southern Italy is the
quality of the cave guides. Obviously, the great majority of visitors are not experts
and their only aim is the experience of a short visit to the underground world, and
therefore they are not very interested in scientific or technical issues. However, this
does not imply that the guide talks should not touch on any science at all. A balance
should be pursued between human interest topics and scientific sound information,
in order to reach, on average, a good level of satisfaction for the tourists.
However, it commonly happens that most of the talk is about the cave discovery,
and while moving through rooms and caverns, the tourists are simply invited to look
at the main speleothems, named after daily objects or animals (i.e., ham or bacon
slice, the camel, the owl, etc.). This may be interesting to listen and look at, but
should not represent the only information offered to visitors. In many caves, even
passing through points of high interest regarding geology, speleogenesis or geomor-
phology, nothing is said about the processes involved in the cave genesis, develop-
ment, and evolution. In addition, it has to be noticed that most of the guides are not
young people, while, on the other hand, involvement of specifically educated young-
sters, especially if linked in some ways to the caving world (cavers, students in earth
sciences, etc.), might contribute to raising professionalism in the field. Simply put,
it appears that at present the guide explanations are not based on scientific knowl-
edge, and it is very common that, when specific questions are posed by the tourists,
164
Fig.7.4 Map of Pertosa cave: the entrance is to the left (W). The pale blue marks the flooded sectors, where tourists are transported by means of boats moved
by the guides
M. Parise
the answers may strongly differ, depending upon the level of knowledge of the
individual guide. That is, there is no uniformity in the product that is offered to the
public, and the tourist satisfaction is essentially dependent upon personality and
approach of the accompanying guide.
This problem was clearly displayed at Castellana Caves, where in 2004, a training
course was organized for the guides. During this course, there was a strong effort in
presenting scientifically based information about karst, cave formation, speleogen-
esis, from both a general point of view and in the specific case of Castellana. The
guides were not very open to include in their explanation new facts and information.
In particular, it was very difficult to convince them that some of the most common
beliefs that they narrate tourists every day were wrong and not based on any science.
Overall, the course was a very stimulating experience, but, sadly, the outcomes were
not so satisfactory, since in many cases, the guides preferred to keep working
with the previous knowledge. Of course, this was permitted by the lack of control
of the managers, who did not seem to be interested in any feedback coming from the
tourists at the end of the visit.
A further, crucial problem is monitoring of the cave parameters, especially with
regard to changes over time once the cave is open to the public. Discussing cave
monitoring priorities in Central America and the Caribbean, Day and Koenig (2002,
p. 131) concluded their study stating that cave monitoring is poorly developed and
is hampered by a general lack of awareness of its importance and utility. In addi-
tion, they also listed, as further impediments, limited funding, absence of requisite
equipment, and scarcity of qualified personnel. Of course, the situation is very dif-
ferent in Italy, one of the countries where knowledge about cave and karst started,
and qualified scientists are working in this field, including that of show caves, over
several decades. Nevertheless, the experience in Southern Italy has shown that cave
monitoring (Cigna 2002; Osborne 2002) is rarely carried out properly, following a
detailed time schedule and especially using the outcomes to improve the quality of
the cave and the offerings to tourists. Therefore, it is not the case, in Italy, of any
lack of knowledge or equipment or personnel or lack of funding: in most of the
cases, it is a conscious choice.
Why should the cave managers put money into monitoring? It is something that
needs to be done (theoretically) at the beginning of the activity, but then, once the
show cave is open to public, it is rarely done. Actually, it is from that very moment
of the cave opening to the public that assessment and monitoring of changes become
extremely important. Up to that moment, we only have a partial understanding of
how the cave works, but nothing is yet known as regards the effects of tourists on it:
their impact, the negative changes they are going to produce. Monitoring is essential
at this stage, since it is the main tool to capture timely changes in the cave atmo-
sphere and ecosystem and to intervene accordingly. It has to be stressed that moni-
toring means not only the collection of data but also (as a fundamental part) their
analysis and the evaluation of the observed changes to address the following questions:
why was the change produced? Does it represent a problem to the cave? What are
the factors causing it? How can we solve the problem (if any)?
166 M. Parise
Lack of awareness of the importance and utility of cave monitoring, and even
more of karst fragility, is probably the main issue. Owners and managers of show
caves have a wide range of objectives, many of which have a purely financial moti-
vation (Hamilton Smith 2004). In many cases, they are more interested in spending
the money coming from the cave on other activities, able to have a rapid feedback
in terms of notoriety and gratefulness from the locals, rather than using these funds
to improve the quality and safety of the touristic offering. This is often a conse-
quence of the fact that no specialist or cave scientist or caver is involved in cave
management, and in rare occasions when this happens, they are generally limited to
act as counselors, while the final decisions are always taken by other people, who,
in most of the cases, are not competent in cave management and are motivated by
political-economical rather than scientific or environmental reasons. Therefore, it is
very clear that this type of management does not move toward creation of a sustain-
able exploitation of show caves or raising an environmental awareness about karst,
which is, on the other hand, crucial for a proper management, in both the social and
economic terms (LaMoreaux etal. 1997; Hamilton Smith 2002).
Such an approach can be quite dangerous to the natural environment, since peo-
ple, being unaware of the high fragility of karst and its extreme vulnerability to
different types of hazards (Parise and Pascali 2003; Parise and Gunn 2007), may
carry out actions that have the potential to greatly degrade or destroy karst ecosys-
tems. Application of a recently developed index (van Beynen and Townsend 2005)
to evaluate the disturbance induced to karst by human activities in Apulia has
already shown, for instance, many problems in the management of these territories
(Cal and Parise 2006; North etal. 2009), in particular as regards the stewardship of
the karst region. It must therefore be concluded that, even though Italy has a long
history of cave explorations and development of show caves too, there is still a long
way to go in the attempt to improve the tourist experience and to safeguard as much
as possible the cave ecosystem. On the other hand, something is slowly moving: for
instance, the Apulia Region recently (December 2009) updated the existing law on
safeguard of the geological and karst heritage. The newly approved legislation per-
mits opening of show caves only after specific steps are carried out to ensure feasi-
bility of the work and guarantee didactic and tourist interest of the site and safety of
the cave. Simply put, this type of environmental legislation should encourage better
compliance in the near future.
References
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Morano, Napoli
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dellambiente sotterraneo caso delle Grotte di Castellana. In: Proceedings of XIV National
Congress Speleology, pp 9991012
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central Florida and southeast Italy. J Environ Manag 90:17701781
Osborne RAL (2002) Significance and monitoring. Acta Carsologica 31(1):2133
Parise M, Gunn J (eds) (2007) Natural and anthropogenic hazards in karst areas: recognition,
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Trotta M (1931) Grotte della Campania. Le Grotte dItalia, pp 130
van Beynen PE, Townsend KM (2005) A disturbance index for karst environments. Environ Manag
36:101116
Chapter 8
Geoarchaeology and Karst: A New Perspective
Philip Reeder
Abstract In the context of karst-related research, the multidisciplinary approach is

necessary and the paradigms of the emerging field of geoarchaeology provide a new
perspective for completing studies that contains the human-element. Research
completed at the Cave of Letters (COL) and the Qumran Archaeological Site in
Israel and on the Vaca Plateau in Belize, utilizes the multidisciplinary approach
endemic to geoarchaeology. By creating a series of digital, updatable maps for the
COL and Qumran, spatial trends in and relationships between the physical and
cultural landscapes become apparent. Additionally, through the use of geophysics
(ground penetrating radar (GPR) and electro-resistivity tomography (ERT)), an
ancient living surface (the Bar Kokhba layer) was delineated in the COL, and
potentially collapsed caves, that may contain archaeological remains, were located
at Qumran. GPR also delineated possible grave sites at the cemeteries of Qumran.
In Belize, petrographic analysis of rock samples determined that the physical
landscape is dominated by limestone breccias, which are mostly depositional in
origin. Comparison of these results, with data collected related to quarried and cut
stones used to face structures at the Ix Chel Archaeological Site, suggested some
stones were quarried locally but, due to the sheer number of stones required to build
the site, dictates that other regional sources were required. The studies detailed in this
chapter point to the need for continued karst-based research within the multidisci-
plinary realm of geoarchaeology, because this marriage only enhances the quest for
new knowledge and understanding.
P. Reeder ()
4202 E. Fowler Avenue, NES 107, Tampa, FL 33620, USA

170 P. Reeder
8.1Introduction
Multidisciplinary and cross-disciplinary research is becoming the norm rather than

the exception in many disciplines, including karst-based research. By pulling together
the elements of several disciplines into one research design, a new, fresh perspective
can be gained as new information is added to the existing base of knowledge. With
respect to karst-related research, it has always drawn from the basic paradigms of
many disciplines (e.g., geography, geology, biology, geochemistry, geomorphology,
geophysics, hydrology), which were often melded together under the banner of
undertaking a karst-based research project. This is still the case, but the scope has
been further broadened to include other disciplines and sub-disciplines such as
history, anthropology, archaeology, human ecology, climate and paleoclimate,
environment and paleoenvironment, resource conservation and management, and
the use of emerging technologies such as remote sensing, geographic information
system science, and new approaches in geophysics.
Over the last 20years the numerous karst-based projects I have been involved
in have utilized multidisciplinary approaches. Some of these projects fall into the
emerging cross-disciplinary field of geoarchaeology, which combines archaeological
research with methods and concepts of the earth sciences (Butzer 1982). As stated by
Fouache (2007), geoarchaeology can be more precisely defined as the use of methods
borrowed from geography and geosciences to reconstitute paleoenvironments and
landscape dynamics from an archaeological perspective. The archaeological
perspective is a logical fit with the geosciences in that archaeology offers a deep
time perspective on historical patterns and process that allows researchers to
examine the intersection of long- and short-term sociological and natural phenomena,
and to compare them across different spatial scales.
The research presented in this chapter utilizes the tools of disciplines often
grouped together as the geosciences, which individually or collectively, within the
framework of geoarchaeology can be applied to archaeological studies. A small
body of literature merges methodologies and technology from archaeology and the
geosciences to complete research that falls within the realm of geoarchaeology and
karst studies. Many of these studies involved the use of geophysical techniques such
as electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) (Gautam etal. 2000; Zhou etal. 2000;
van Schoor 2002; Roth etal. 2002) and geographic information systems (GIS) to
study karst features (Szukalski 2002; Lyew-Ayee etal. 2006).
Geography (both physical and human), geology, geomorphology, and geophysics,
can be combined with archaeological methodologies to develop a multidisciplinary
research design, within which new and innovative research can be conducted.
The examples used in this chapter come from studies conducted at the Cave of
Letters and the Qumran Archaeological Site in Israel (Reeder and Jol 2006; Reeder
etal. 2004a, b; Jol etal. 2002, 2000) and on the Vaca Plateau in West-Central Belize,
Central America (Colas etal. 1999, 2003, 2006; Reeder etal. 1996, 1998; Reeder
2003, 2009; Webster 2000; Webster etal. 2007; Polk etal. 2006, 2007).
By conducting these projects within the multidisciplinary framework of geoar-
chaeology, the full range of earth/geosciences was combined with archaeological
8 Geoarchaeology and Karst: A New Perspective 171
pursuits to infer past processes and events (Rapp Jr. and Hill 1998). Collecting and
understanding physical and cultural data in a cross-disciplinary framework are
major components within these projects research designs, as was understanding
the intrinsic relationships that exist between the physical and cultural landscapes,
and natural resources in these areas. It is the intent of this chapter to build upon the
previous studies by further illuminating these relationships within the framework of
a karst-based inquiry. First, the background of each project will be reviewed. This is
followed by a discussion of the various research designs and methodologies. Then
the salient results from the different projects will be presented and discussed, as will
the conclusions drawn from the analysis of the data. Additionally, the contributions
that these studies have made with regard to expanding the base of knowledge related
to the karst-geoarchaeology of the Dead Sea area of Israel and the Vaca Plateau in
Belize will be addressed.
8.2Background
8.2.1The Cave of Letters
In 132CE, the legendary Shimeon Bar Kokhba led the Second Revolt of the Jews
against Roman rule. The First Revolt, which occurred 62years earlier, ended with
the famous resistance at Masada in the land of Israel. During the Second Revolt,
Bar Kokhbas troops captured Jerusalem, and restored the Jewish state, but they
were eventually defeated in 135CE by the Roman general Julius Severus. Events
associated with the First Revolt, recorded by Josephus Flavius, are part of the
historical record for this period, but no such historian existed for the Second Revolt; so
for nearly 2,000 years, Shimeon Bar Kokhba remained a mythical figure known
mostly through Jewish folklore. All of this changed in 1960 and 1961 when archaeo
logical expeditions headed by famed Israeli archeologist Yagael Yadin explored a
Judean Desert cave in the Nahal Hever near the village of En Gedi (Aharoni and
Rothenberg 1960; Yadin 1963) (Fig.8.1). Rebel commanders, and their families,
sought refuge in the cave near the end of the Second Jewish Revolt against the
Romans (~135 C.E.). Research at the Cave of the Letters (COL) has yielded a
priceless collection of artifacts.
Hall A (see Fig. 8.3), the first large chamber in the cave, contained a large
cache of bronze objects. Excavations in Hall B (the second large chamber in the
cave) led to the discovery of a fragment of a scroll that contained a rendering of an
old psalm. In Hall C (the final large chamber in the cave), Yadin and his team
discovered a bundle of leather, which later proved to be a goat waterskin that
contained beads, perfume flasks, cosmetic tools, a hand mirror, and a bundle of
papyri tied with string. Among the papyri were four wooden slats that were covered
with writing, which were later determined to be letters from Shimeon Bar Kokhba
to military commanders stationed at En Gedi. The first wooden slat contained the
heading Shimeon Bar Kokhba President over Israel. The goatskin belonged to
172 P. Reeder
Fig.8.1 Location of the

Cave of Letters and the
Qumran Archaeological
Site in Israel
Babatha, a young woman from a remote village in the Dead Sea area, and the wife
of Yehonatan bar Beayan, one of Bar Kokhbas military commanders. When
she fled to the cave, she had taken these items with her as part of her household
belongings (Aharoni and Rothenberg 1960; Yadin 1963). The bundle of documents
she left chronicles what life was like for a Jewish family at this important time in
history. In all, approximately 70 documents written in Hebrew, Aramaic, Nabatean,
and Greek were discovered in the cave, hence the name, Cave of Letters. About a
dozen documents bore the name of Simeon Ben Koseva, the historical figure known
as Bar-Kokhba.
No sanctioned research was conducted in the cave between 1961 and 1999,
although it was postulated that a substantial amount of new information about this
unique period in history remained to be discovered. Research expeditions to the
Cave of Letters in July 1999 and July 2000 (the John and Carol Merrill Cave of
Letters Expeditions) utilized state-of-the-art technology (ground penetrating radar
(GPR), electrical resistivity tomography (ERT), a gradiometer, a high-resolution
transient EM metal detector, and an endoscope), as well as traditional geologic,
archaeologic, and surveying techniques. Their purpose was to add a substantial
amount of new information to the existing bases of knowledge about the Second
Jewish Revolt, as well as the viability of geophysical research in caves. Because the
COL is located in the tectonically active Dead Sea Rift Zone, and local limestone
layers are being wedged apart by the growth of gypsum crystals, the cave floor is
covered with roof fall that obscures the underlying archaeological deposits.
8.2.2Qumran
The Qumran Archaeological Site, also in Israel, is located along the western shore of
the Dead Sea (Fig.8.1). This site is most famous for the caves located in the cliffs west
of the site, where the Dead Sea Scrolls were discovered. In 1947, Arab shepherds
found a cave whose contents were soon hailed as the greatest archaeological discovery
of the twentieth century (VanderKam 1994). Approximately 800 manuscripts have
been found in the 11 caves at Qumran (VanderKam 1994).
Data compiled by Roland de Vaux (1973), based on his excavations from 1953
to 1956 assert that Qumran was occupied by a group engaged in communal activi-
ties and religious rites (Schiffman 1995). In an attempt to understand the historical
context of the Dead Sea Scrolls, scholars have tried to identify the group respon-
sible for these documents (VanderKam and Flint 2002). Schiffman (1995) feels
that the Qumran Sect was intrinsically linked to the scrolls found in the caves.
The most widely adopted view of the Qumran Sect is that they were a small
branch of the larger Essene movement (Sukenik 1955; VanderKam and Flint 2002),
and that this sectarian group was responsible for gathering together, copying
(mostly between 150 B.C.E and 68C.E.) and depositing documents in area caves.
After modern discovery, these documents came to be called the Dead Sea Scrolls
(Schiffman 1995).
Another important facet of Qumran is the cemeteries located at the site. There
are three cemeteries associated with Qumran, with the largest one located just east
of the site, and smaller cemeteries found to the north and south (VanderKam 1994).
In the main cemetery, de Vaux excavated 37 tombs out of the estimated 1,100 graves
at the site, in the north cemetery two out of 12, and in the south four out of 30.
Therefore, based upon de Vauxs estimates, there are a total of 1,142 graves in the
three cemeteries at Qumran.
Past and present research efforts at Qumran have focused on the caves, the site,
and the cemetery. Nine earlier reports, dating back as far as 1850 and continuing
174 P. Reeder
through 1947, described various aspects of the Qumran Site, but no one had
subjected the ruins to a thorough examination (VanderKam and Flint 2002). After
the discovery of scroll material in cave one in early 1947, the site became of great
archaeological importance. It was not until February 1949, because of political
instability and hostilities that the first scholars began to work at Qumran. The 1949
excavation at cave one was directed by de Vaux and G. Lankester Harding. During
this excavation, they also visited the ruins of Qumran and conducted a quick surface
examination (VanderKam and Flint 2002). They returned in late 1951 and began to
excavate portions of the surface ruins and cemetery. They returned again to work
in newly found caves and at the surface ruins and cemetery in 1953. Additional
expeditions were also staged in 1954, 1955, and 1956. After the final de Vaux-Harding
expedition in 1956, Qumran received very limited archaeological attention. Little
work was done with the archaeological remains at Qumran between the end of
the de Vaux-Harding digs and the mid-1980s. Since then, several studies have been
completed, in part supporting de Vauxs work and in part revising or refining his
conclusions (VanderKam and Flint 2002). In 19951996, Magen Broshi (former
curator of the Shrine of the Book at the Israel Museum in Jerusalem) and Hanan Eshel
(Bar Ilan University) conducted a six-week season of excavation in an area of
collapsed caves just north of Qumran. This was the last organized research effort at
Qumran, until the John and Carol Merrill Excavations, which I was a part of, began
at the site in July 2001.
8.2.3The Vaca Plateau in Belize
Since 1990, the Northern Vaca Plateau Geoarchaeological Project (NVPGAP) has
conducted 21 seasons of field research on the Northern Vaca Plateau in Belize, Central
America (Fig.8.2). The 25km study area is made up of mostly hilly, rugged terrain
that exhibits landform features indicative of fluvio-karst topography, with the suite
of landforms including an integrated system of dry valleys separated by residual
hills and interfluves, single inlet and compound sinkholes, isolated cockpits, cutters,
solution fissures and corridors, and caves (Reeder etal. 1996; Colas etal. 2008).
Petrographic analysis completed on rock samples collected in the study area
concluded that the Campur Formation, the predominant geologic formation in the
area, is a limestone breccia. Specifically, the study area is dominated by depositional
breccias that formed in materials eroded off the Mountain Pine Ridge area of Belize
just east of the Vaca Plateau, that were deposited and re-cemented in a shallow sea
environment, and that now form the geologic materials we see on the Vaca Plateau
today (Reeder etal. 1996). Geomorphic analysis in the study area has focused on
relationships between structural elements of the areas bedrock, and the formation
and evolution of area caves and the karst landscape. It was determined that planes
of structural weakness formed in the Campur Limestone have similar orientations
to contemporary karst landform features such as solution valleys, the long axis of
sinkholes, and cave passages. These relationships suggest an important structural
Fig.8.2 Location of the Northern Vaca Plateau study area in Belize, Central America
control on the formation and evolution of area caves and the karst landscape.
Furthermore, the dry-valleys and stair-step cave profiles indicate that the lowering
of base level through time was interspersed with relatively stable periods when
horizontal cave passages developed (Reeder etal. 1996).
The multidisciplinary research completed in the study area has provided a wealth
of geologic, geomorphic, and speleologic data, as well as archaeological information
about Late Classic Maya society and their usage of caves (Reeder etal. 1998; Colas
etal. 2000, 2008), which are common in the rugged karst terrain of the Northern Vaca
Plateau. As part of the cave-based component of the research, over 200 caves have
been entered and explored, with maps created of the larger and/or more geologic or
archaeologic important caves. Although most of the research in the study area has
176 P. Reeder
concentrated on caves, a large surface site, which was discovered in 1993, has been
investigated as well (Colas 2001; Colas etal. 2006). The archaeological site of Ix
Chel was discovered situated at the top of one of the many isolated hilltops in the
study area. A sketch map of the Ix Chel Site was created in the mid-1990s, and in
2006, a detailed map of the sites core was produced (Fig.8.12). Collected surface
ceramics from Ix Chel suggest a Late Classic occupation, as do the artifacts in many
of the caves that have been investigated thus far. Because these caves lie relatively
close to Ix Chel, they may have been used by Ix Chels inhabitants as ritual places
(Colas etal. 2008).
8.3Research Designs and Methodologies
8.3.1Cave of Letters
The research design used at the Cave of Letters was cross-disciplinary and involved
aspects of Geography, Geology, Geophysics, Archaeology, History, and Biblical
Studies. The overall objective for the project was to better clarify some of the
uncertainties associated with the Second Jewish Revolt, and the use of the cave by
associates of the legendary Shimeon Bar Kokhba, who led the revolt against Roman
rule. The research was conducted within the multidisciplinary framework of the
emerging discipline of Geoarchaeology, and specifically it sought to: (1) Quantify the
specifics of the areas geology and geomorphology, and to link it to the formation of
the cave, the caves setting in the Dead Sea Fault Zone, and the patterns of cave use
by Bar Kokhbas followers; (2) Produce the most up-to-date and detailed maps of
the cave that are digital and thus easily updatable; (3) Use geophysics to locate and
then study the Bar Kokhba living surface layer in the cave; (4) Study the spatial
and temporal nature of the microclimatic variations in the cave environment, and
relate these variations to cave geology, geomorphology, and the patterns of cave
use; and (5) Complete archaeological excavations in the cave to study the Bar
Kokhba era living surface and the associated artifacts.
Much of the research conducted at the Cave of Letters and Qumran sites in Israel
involved the collection of data to produce maps, and the collection of geophysical
data to assess the nature of the near surface materials at these sites, and to designate
the optimal sites for archaeological excavations. In order to create new, detailed
maps for the Cave of Letters, surveys were completed using the traditional methods
utilized in cave surveying, which included the use of the following hand-held survey
instruments: (1) An optical compass, (2) an optical inclinometer, and (3) a nylon
survey tape. More technologically advanced instruments, such as laser surveying
devices (Lerma etal. 2010), were not available for use by the survey team; hence the
traditional methods were used. A total of 82 survey stations were established within
the cave. Data collected between each station includes azimuth, inclination, and
distance. At each survey station, a sketch of that segment of cave passage was also
produced. The survey data was plotted using the CAVEPLOT computer program,
and the plots were exported to Adobe Illustrator for map production. Plan view
and cross-sectional maps were produced, as well as maps that depict the locations
where geophysical and archaeological analyses were completed. A portable digital
pulseEKKO 100 and 1,000 GPR system was used to obtain the GPR profiles.
Four antennae frequencies, 100, 200, 225, and 450MHz, were tested. To reduce
data collection time in the rugged cave environment, a backpack transport system
was employed. The digital profiles were processed and plotted using pulseEKKO
software. The application of radar stratigraphic analysis, an approach for interpreting
sedimentary environments (Beres and Haeni 1991; Jol and Smith 1991), provided
the framework to investigate both lateral and vertical geometry of the reflection
patterns. After processing, printing, and interpreting the GPR profiles while in the cave,
archaeological probes were completed at selected locations using an endoscope,
metal detector, and/or traditional archaeological excavation techniques.
The two-dimensional electrical resistivity and tomography (ERT) analysis in the
cave involved introducing an electrical current into the ground with two electrodes,
and measuring the voltage drop across the cave-floor with two other electrodes.
Because electrical flow disperses throughout the surface of the geologic materials
that make up the floor of the COL, these measurements provided information about
the electrical character of materials below the surface of the cave floor.
ERT is a surface geoelectric technique for mapping the distribution of subsurface
electrical resistivity in a cross-sectional format. Data are collected through a linear
array of electrodes coupled to a DC resistivity transmitter/receiver and an electronic
switching box. The collection process is driven by a computer that is also used for
data recording. The entire dataset is then inverted using a two-dimensional (2-D)
finite difference, smooth inversion routine. The final product is a 2-D geoelectrical
cross-section, plotting true resistivity (in ohm-m) versus true depth. The acquisi-
tion hardware used in this program was the ABEM Lund Imaging System.
The locations of two of the ERT sections surveyed are presented in Fig.8.4. For
line # 1, a minimum electrode spacing of 1m was used, providing a maximum depth
of investigation of approximately 12m below ground surface (mbgs). This line was
80m in length and ran from Hall A, through the AB connection, through Hall B, and
into passage BB (Fig.8.4). ERT Line 2 was a 40m line running from the northeast
corner of Hall B, north through the Hall C Connection, and across the southwest
corner of Hall C. The length of Line 2 was constrained by the geometry of the cave.
A minimum electrode spacing of 0.5m was used, providing a maximum depth of
investigation of approximately 6mbgs. While smaller minimum electrode spacing
decreased the depth of investigation of Line 2, as compared to line 1, it increased
the spatial resolution. In order to facilitate good electrode contacts (i.e., lower the
contact resistance), approximately 200ml of water was poured around each electrode
placement. It is believed that the large amount of halite present on the surface, when
saturated with water, significantly assisted in decreasing the contact resistance,
making the ERT survey practicable in this extremely arid cave environment. Each
of the electrodes used in each ERT spread were surveyed for relative relief along
the line. The inverted (modeled) geoelectric sections account for any changes of
relief along the lines.
178 P. Reeder
Profiles were produced by modeling the data from a series of measurements with
different depths and locations along a survey line (Reynolds 1997). In the COL, two
electrical resistivity and tomography transect lines were established. A gradiometer
and a high-resolution transient EM metal detector were also used in the COL, with
limited success, to locate artifacts in and below the rubble.
8.3.2Qumran
The multidisciplinary research project completed at the Qumran Archaeological

Site was focused on efforts to uncover new information about the site by (1) finding
new caves using geophysics, (2) expanding the base of knowledge about Qumran by
studying the cemetery, and (3) producing maps that depict the site, caves, cemeteries,
and the spatial relationships between these features. My main area of focus during
this 2year project (2001 and 2002) was to complete the most detailed maps to date
of the Qumran Cemeteries and surrounding areas, from which we began to assess
the spatial relationships between the cemeteries, caves, the Qumran site, and the
physical and cultural landscapes of the area. One physical/cultural landscape feature
that received special attention was the aqueduct system at Qumran. The sectarians
that occupied Qumran spent a large amount of time engaging in activities associated
with ritual purity (Schiffman 1995). Among the most striking features at the Qumran
ruins are the cisterns and baths at the site. A growing population made it necessary to
provide a plentiful and constant supply of water for the settlement; so, an aqueduct
was constructed to carry water provided by winter rains (de Vaux 1973). This segment
of the research sought to determine (1) how the Qumran Sectarians manipulated
their water resources, and (2) what role the local geologic conditions played in the
manipulation of area water resources.
It has been previously noted that accurate maps of the Qumran cemeteries are
pivotal in understanding the archaeological evidence collected thus far at Qumran
(Schiffman 1995). The detailed maps produced as part of this research allowed
the spatial aspects of the databases developed for Qumran to be assessed, compared,
and contrasted. Past mapping efforts by de Vaux and others did not produce a
complete, accurate depiction of the site and surrounding area. At Qumran, a Total
Station Surveying instrument was used to map the cemeteries, as well as the Qumran
Aqueduct system, the Qumran Archaeological Site, and the location of ERT lines,
and GPR lines and grids. A Total Station is a surveying instrument that utilizes a
laser to measure distance, and x and y coordinates are collected relative to a know
point of reference (a benchmark), so that a map can be created.
Most graves in the cemeteries were located visually, but additional graves, or
what are suspected to be graves, were located using ground penetrating radar (GPR).
Location and elevation data were collected for each grave using the total station,
then the data was entered into spread sheets, and transferred to a plotting program
(CAVEPLOT), and the plots were then exported into a graphics program (Adobe
Illustrator 10.0) for map production.
A Noggin GPR system mounted on a cart for increased mobility was used to
explore the cemeteries at Qumran. The system emits radio waves into the ground
and then collects these waves as they reflect back from the underlying geologic
materials. In a known cemetery, GPR can look for locations where the materials had
been disturbed, indicating a grave location with no surface expression. GPR surveys
in some parts of the cemetery indicated undisturbed flat-lying layers of geologic
materials while other places had obviously been disturbed. The GPR plots for these
locations indicated a v-shaped pattern indicative of a site that had been dug and
then refilled with the same material. Suspected graves, located using GPR, were
identified in all of the cemeteries at Qumran. Additionally, 2-D resistivity, and EM
were used to search for subsurface voids at Qumran with the intention being to better
understand the burial practices of the people of Qumran, and to locate potentially
collapsed caves that may or may not contain written materials.
The multidisciplinary research design implemented for the Vaca Plateau in Belize
includes (1) exploration and mapping of caves and surface ruins in the study area,
(2) studying area geology, geomorphology, hydrology, and speleology to better
understand the study areas physical landscape, (3) mapping, collecting, and analyzing
soils from archaeological sites and terraces, (4) collecting sediment and speleothems
from caves for physical, chemical, and paleo-climate/paleo-environmental analysis,
(5) collecting rock samples from outcrops, caves, archaeological sites, and possible
quarry sites, (6) determining the usage patterns of caves via archaeological excavation
and interpretation, and (7) determining relationships between cave formations
(speleothems) and long-term changes in climate, vegetation, and land use patterns.
This manuscript will focus on two subtopics within the projects multidisciplinary
research design. These subtopics revolve around the theme, how aspects of the
physical landscape affect the cultural landscape. Examples will be presented and
discussed regarding how the areas geology has affected and influenced the Maya
cultural landscape that developed on the Northern Vaca Plateau. Specifically, local
geology will be quantified to develop an overall understanding of the areas physical
landscape, and this knowledge will be compared with geologic evidence related to
area quarrying activities and the stones used in monumental construction, thus
establishing a linkage between the physical and cultural landscapes.
Data regarding the petrology of the geologic formations in the study area were
obtained by analyzing thin sections prepared from 25 rock samples. Rock specimens
were collected at five general landscape positions and were grouped as follows:
(1) Residual hilltops (7 samples), (2) residual hillside slopes (9 samples), (3) dry
valley bottoms (2 samples), (4) cave entrances (4 samples), and (5) cave walls
(3 samples). Three of the cave entrance samples were collected in dry valley
bottoms, and one was from a residual hillside slope. The cave passages from which
samples were collected have entrances located on a residual hilltop (1 sample) and
180 P. Reeder
on a residual hillside slope (2 samples). Thin section analysis was used to identify
rock constituents. Initial investigation indicated a large degree of heterogeneity,
making the point count method of analysis (Folk 1962) inadequate. On brecciated
rocks, the point count method may be misleading because of variations in lithology
of the clasts, and the type and amount of cement. The relative abundance of sparite,
micrite, fossils, or other characteristics becomes meaningless in these rocks, and it
is more appropriate to classify the rock by using field relationships, stratigraphy,
and petrographic analysis. The samples were therefore classified first using systems
described by Pettijohn (1975), and then by methods described by Blount and
Moore (1969).
Additionally, 32 rock samples were collected in and around the Ix Chel, with these
samples coming from the surface of ruined buildings at the site, suspected quarry
sites, and area outcrops. The purpose of this inquiry was to determine similarities
and differences between stones used to face the buildings at Ix Chel, and area rocks
from outcrops and suspected quarries. The determinations that were made, based
upon this research, assisted in establishing a better understanding of the use of
local resources versus using resources, in this case quarried stones, from the broader
region. Analysis of the samples allowed a determination to be made regarding
whether the sample was a breccia or non-breccia (Pettijohn 1975), and non-breccias
samples were further analyzed using methodology utilized by Folk (1962), and
breccia samples were described using the criteria outlined by Blount and Moore
(1969). The brecciated rocks in the area cannot be quarried and carved because of
their physical structure (large clasts embedded in a matrix of sparite or micrite), and
extreme hardness. Once identified, the non-brecciated building stone samples were
compared with non-brecciated samples from the suspected quarry sites to determine
if the quarries were indeed the source for the building stones used at Ix Chel.
8.4Results and Discussion
8.4.1Cave of Letters
The mapping of the Cave of Letters (Fig.8.1) was a major component of the projects
overall research design because (1) it facilitated the creation of a new base map of the
cave, and this map could be stored in a digital format and was thus easily updated, (2)
layers of data could be added to the map in real-time, (3) the mapping process in the
cave facilitated a through exploration of all passages, and (4) detailed maps could be
created which highlighted the various components of the research (i.e., geophysics,
geology, and archaeology). The collection of survey data, and the eventual production
of a series of maps related to the 1999 and 2000 research completed in the cave, took
place as a series of steps that included (1) data collection and acquisition, (2) data
entry, storage, and manipulation, (3) plotting, (4) data export to a graphics program
and de-construction of data plots created in the plotting program using this graphics
program, and (5) map production using the graphics program. By combining the
Fig.8.3 The 2002 base map from the Cave of Letters, Israel
plotting program output that plots the cave walls, and the map sketch that was produced
during the survey of the cave, a general base map of the Cave of Letters was produced
in 1999, and updated after the 2000 expedition (Fig.8.3). Based on the 1999 base
map, the length of the Cave of Letters, based upon the most direct route through
the cave, was estimated to be 335m. The 474m surveyed length of the cave reflects the
distance between the 66 survey stations which were used to produce the map. In the
three large chambers in the cave (Halls A, B, and C), the layout of survey stations
meandered through chambers, not taking the most direct route. Hence, the 474 m
distance value is an over-estimation, although it does reflect the surveyed length of the
cave. The addition of the 16 survey stations from the year 2000 survey added 65m to
the surveyed length of the cave.
Using the base map created after the 1999 and 2000 surveys, more detailed,
and sometimes topic specific maps were created. One map generated provides
details related to the location of roof fall on the cave floor, holes in the cave floor,
the topography of the cave floor, and features in the cave ceiling. A line plot of the
cross-section of the cave was also created which could be added to maps, as were 25
individual cross-sections from throughout the cave, hence allowing the maps to
depict both the plan view and cross section view of the cave on the same map sheet.
Data related to archaeological finds in the cave were plotted on a version of the map
182 P. Reeder
Fig.8.4 A detailed 2001 map of the Cave of Letters that depicts cave cross-sections, the location
of archaeological excavations and selected geophysics transects in the cave
as well (Fig.8.4). Because the map data was in digital format, it could be stored in
a hand-held touch screen computer and information related to the archaeological
loci and associated baskets could be added to the map database in real-time.
This process greatly facilitated updating the archaeology research map of the cave.
In addition, utilizing the same base map and the detailed physical and archaeology
maps, maps were created that depict the location of Ground Penetrating Radar
or ERT survey lines, as well as the locations where rock splitting efforts were
concentrated in 2001.
The set of maps that were produced as a result of this research provide a mecha-
nism for understanding the spatial complexities/inter-relationships of the research,
as well as a means of visually conveying this information. Very few researchers, or
members of the general public, have been privileged to visit the Cave of Letters, but
the set of maps produced as part of this research have contributed to establishing a
better understanding of the geography of the Cave of Letters.
With regard to the use of GPR in the Cave of Letters, parallel transects were
collected in each of the three rooms in the cave, as well as all the passageways that
connect the rooms. In all, over 50 GPR transects were completed in the cave over
the two field seasons (1999 and 2000). The lowest GPR antennae frequency used
in the Cave of Letters was 100MHz. A 27m long 100MHz profile was collected in
Hall B, with the antennae separation of 1.0m and a step size of 0.25m. The upper
area of the profile is similar in appearance to the underlying area, but it is separated
by a near continuous, undulating reflection. The interpretation for this assemblage
is that the upper area of the profile is the most recent roof fall (dislodged by the
frequent earthquakes that occur in the area) which has accumulated on the hypo
thesized Bar Kokhba habitation layer.
Additional GPR transects were completed to further corroborate the existence of this
layer. A 19m long transect using 200MHz antennae, with a separation of 0.5m and a
step size of 0.1m, was completed in Hall B. This transect was at a 45 angle to the
100MHz transect and crossed that transect in the southwestern part of the cave room.
The reflection patterns in this transect were very similar to the first transect, with the
upper levels of the profile in more detail because of the use of a higher resolution
200MHz antennae and a closer step size (0.1m). Again, the nearly continuous, undulat-
ing reflection that separates the two layers in the upper profile is interpreted as the Bar
Kokhba floor. Additionally, above these reflection patterns, which became apparent
using the higher resolution 200 MHz antennae, are several reflection patterns which
were interpreted as additional material from more recent roof fall events that occurred
since the cave was abandoned during Bar Kokhba times. Other 200MHz survey transects
were completed in various parts of the cave and they were able to image the undulating
bedrock surface (original cave floor) and the hypothesized Bar Kokhba habitation layer.
In addition, the first 4m of the 19m long transect discussed above was examined using
an even higher frequency antennae (450MHz) with a separation of 0.17m and a step
size of 0.05m. With the increase in frequency to 450MHz, the profile shows a decrease
in depth of penetration (to approximately 3m), but an increase in the resolution of the
upper layers, with more details of the roof fall material apparent including the internal
stratigraphy of the materials that the survey crossed.
A three-dimensional (3D) dataset was also developed for the Cave of Letters
(Fig.8.5). These type of datasets are useful for interpreting the framework of
the subsurface materials and they provide a more detailed view of the geometry
of individual units within the stratigraphy. In the Cave of Letters, three-dimensional
datasets were collected in each large room in the cave to assist in the detailed
184 P. Reeder
Fig.8.5 A three-dimensional GPR depiction cut away to the suspected Bar Kokhba habitation layer
interpretation of the cave deposits, and to possibly indicate optimum locations for
archaeological excavation. A dataset for eventual three-dimensional depiction was
collected in Hall B with the 200MHz antennae with an antennae separation of 0.5m
and a step size of 0.1m. The grid, the data was collected from, was 5.5 by 2.5m.
The reflections discussed in the previously cited two-dimensional examples are also
visible in a 3-D perspective, wherein the three-dimensional cube created by the
software is sliced and the Bar Kokhba habitation surface is exposed. The more
continuous reflections in the cube below the Bar Kokhba layer may be former
cave floors that pre-date the Bar Kokhba layer. The success in locating this surface
beneath the roof fall materials provided locations for further exploration beneath the
rubble using an endoscope, and pinpointed locales for possible excavation.
Interpretation of the data collected along ERT Transect 1 identified two distinct
layers in the profile. An upper layer is thought to be composed of various sized roof
fall material. The deeper and thicker layer is believed to be limestone bedrock.
There is no evidence of internal layering within the roof fall materials. If a packed
earth floor exists, as was interpreted using the GPR data, this layer should appear as
a less resistive layer within the roof collapse debris. One explanation for the absence
of this horizon is that it is too thin to be detected using ERT.
Similar to ERT 1, ERT 2 has two prominent layers, consisting of a highly resistive
layer of roof collapse debris, which overlies a moderately resistive layer interpreted
to be limestone bedrock (Fig. 8.6). Different from Transect 1, ERT 2 contains
a mostly continuous, lower resistivity layer that cuts almost completely across
Hall B and partially through the floor materials in the BB Passage. This layer varies
from just below the cave floor surface to approximately 3m below the cave floor.
Similar to the interpretations made based upon the GPR data, this layer is hypo
thesized to be the remains of the Bar Kokhba period surface. This layer was detected
8 Geoarchaeology and Karst: A New Perspective
Fig.8.6 An ERT cross-section from the AB passage, though Hall B and down the BB passage, which highlights the Bar Kokhba habitation surface, locations
of ancient roof fall materials, as well as recent rock fall
185
186 P. Reeder
Fig. 8.7 An ERT cross-section from Hall B, through the BC passage and into Hall C, which
highlights the Bar Kokhba habitation surface, the location of bedrock, locations of ancient roof fall
materials, as well as recent rock fall
in the ERT 2 Transect and not ERT 1, because ERT 2 crossed the center of the room,
and ERT 1 traversed along the wall. Most of the activities in the cave would have
taken place more in the open areas of the cave toward the center of the rooms
and not along the walls.
As with ERT Line 1 and 2, Line 3 contains two layers, including a highly resis-
tive (>20,000ohm-m) layer of roof collapse rubble overlying a moderately resistive
(1,0009,000ohm-m) layer interpreted to be limestone bedrock. Only a relatively
small thickness of the limestone bedrock is imaged as the depth of investigation of
the 40m long section is only 6m below the cave floor. The roof collapse rubble
reaches a thickness of about 6m in Hall B and in the Hall C Connection. The rubble
reaches at least 5m below the cave floor in Hall C.
Similar to Transect 2, ERT 3 contains a continuous, lower resistivity layer that
exists for almost the entire extent of the 40m line (Fig.8.7). The depth of this layer
varies from just below the cave floor surface to approximately 1.5m below the cave
floor. This interpretation corroborates interpretations based on the GPR data that
this layer is the Bar Kokhba habitation surface. In the C Connection Passage,
excavation revealed a densely packed surface of fine grained material which required
a digging tool to penetrate. Excavation of this layer revealed a Vespasian coin
(in conjunction with metal detection surveys), 72 pieces of Roman period pottery,
and a pointed wooden stick that was possibly a writing instrument.
8.4.2Qumran
The Dead Sea Scrolls are approximately 900 different manuscripts discovered in
eleven caves in the vicinity of Qumran between 1947 and 1956 (Fig.8.1). The scrolls
contain every book of the Hebrew Old Testament except the Book of Esther, with
the scrolls predating any other version of the Bible by more than 1,000years. Thus,
the Dead Sea Scrolls are often referred to as the most important archaeological find
of the last century, and Qumran is perhaps the most important archaeological site in
the world from the perspective of the development of Judeo-Christian civilization.
An intriguing aspect of the Qumran Site, along with the ruins, caves, and aqueduct
system, is the cemeteries (Fig.8.8). Qumran is arguably one of the premiere sites from
Fig. 8.8 A map of the Qumran area depicting the spatial relationships between the caves, the
archaeological site, and the cemeteries, with tomb 1,000 highlighted
188 P. Reeder
antiquity in Israel, but the cemetery had never been thoroughly studied and systemati-
cally mapped. The 2001 and 2002 surveys of the cemeteries at Qumran found 1,056
graves with surface expression in the main cemetery, fingers and North Cemetery (978
were located visually). Seventy-eight of these graves had been previously excavated.
Records indicate that there are 46 legally excavated graves in the cemeteries, so it can
be assumed that the other 32 are the result of illegal excavations. If the South and
Highland Cemeteries are included, four additional excavated graves (for a total of 82)
and 17 additional visual graves (for a total of 995) are added, producing a total of
1,077 graves in all of the cemeteries that have some visual expression.
To non-intrusively assess the subsurface of the cemeteries at Qumran, a Noggin
GPR system mounted on a cart for increased mobility was used to explore the
cemeteries. In a known cemetery, GPR can look for locations where the materials
had been disturbed but have no surface expression. GPR surveys in some parts of
the cemetery indicated undisturbed flat-lying layers of geologic materials, while in
other locations v-shaped patterns indicative of a site that had been dug and then
refilled with the same material were located. Suspected graves, located using GPR,
were identified in all of the cemeteries at Qumran, with 84 located in the main
cemetery, one in the Middle Finger, six in the South Finger, 22 in the North Cemetery,
five in the South Cemetery, and nine in the Highland Cemetery. A total of 122 GPR
anomalies were found.
The total number of graves in all the cemeteries at Qumran, including suspected
graves found using GPR, is 1,199. Of the 995 graves located visually in all the
cemeteries (not including excavated graves), 14 (1.4%) were in excellent condition,
164 (16.5%) were in good condition, 424 (42.6%) were fair, 301 (30.3%) were poor,
and 92 (9.2%) were in very poor condition.
Two graves located on the middle finger of the east extension of the main
cemetery took on a special significance (Figs.8.8 and 8.9). In 2002, a skeleton was
discovered in a grave that has been designated Tomb 1,000, the same site where the
remains of two women from the first century AD were found during the summer of
2001. Prior to the discovery of the two women in 2001, an anomaly was found at the
site using GPR. Excavation revealed a building that was eventually determined to be
a mourning enclosure, and the skeletal remains of the two women. In 2002, the floor
of the mourning enclosure was again surveyed using GPR and another anomaly was
located which proved to be the location of a skeleton. This skeleton was discovered
1.5m below the surface, and approximately 1.0m below the remains of the
two women. This building (mourning enclosure) is situated in a prominent elevated
position on the periphery of the cemetery. The positioning of this burial chamber
may indicate that a person of some importance was buried in this location, and a
ceramic dated to the first century CE was found alongside the skeletal remains
(Jacobson 2002). The skeleton was found facing east and the first rays of the rising
sun would strike the burial chamber. This burial chamber is one of the most elaborate
in what is otherwise a very simple place (Jacobson 2002). The eastwest orientation
is generally thought to coincide with Muslim burials that have taken place in the
cemetery over the last several hundred years, but the presence of the first century pot
confuses this issue. Scholars generally agree that the other eastwest burials in the
Fig.8.9 A more detailed map of the Qumran Archaeological Site, with the caves and cemeteries
close to the site included, as well as the areas topography
190 P. Reeder
cemeteries are either Christian or Muslim (Bedouin) dating to the last few centuries
(Zias 2000; Eshel etal. 2002), but the Tomb 1,000 burial remains a mystery.
Another mystery in the cemeteries at Qumran is grave 978, which contains the
remains of a zinc coffin. This grave was likely excavated by looters, and portions
of the zinc coffin were damaged or removed. This grave is oriented northsouth,
which is interpreted as a burial from the era of the Qumran Sect (Schiffman 1995;
VanderKam and Flint 2002). The zinc coffin may have been used to transport a
body from another location for burial at Qumran.
A map of the aqueduct in the vicinity of the Qumran Site was also completed.
A growing population made it necessary to provide a constant supply of water for
the settlement (de Vaux 1973). A narrow canyon extends from the mountains west
of Qumran, connecting with the upper reaches of Wadi Qumran. Structures were
created in the lower portions of the canyon to move water toward the site, rather
than down the wadi into the Dead Sea. At some points, the aqueduct going through
tunnels cut into the rock, and in other places the water flowing through channels
excavated into surface exposures of bedrock. Once out of the rocky canyon, the
aqueduct was dug into the marl terrace that slants toward the settlement (Schultz
1960). Upon reaching the settlement, the channel was coated with plaster and, for
some part of its winding course between buildings it was covered with stone
slabs (de Vaux 1973). The difficult and elaborate construction of the aqueduct is a
testimonial to the importance of water to the Qumran Sect.
In addition to the use of GPR at Qumran, other geophysical techniques, namely
two-dimensional electrical resistivity and tomography (ERT), were used as well. ERT
can detect cavities in the subsurface that have no surface expression. The previously
discovered caves that contained scroll material are in areas of rugged, exposed
limestone cliffs, with many of the caves adjacent to the Qumran Site and others up to
1.8km away. This limestone topography is very common in and around Qumran, the
area is tectonically active, and there is a distinct possibility that earthquakes caused
caves containing artifacts to collapse. ERT surveys in the vicinity of the Qumran
Site were completed to pinpoint possible locations for excavation. The ERT surveys
delineated several locations where possible voids (collapsed caves) existed (Fig.8.10).
These areas were probed with an auger (a portable hand-held drilling device), but no
cavities were found. The original research design for this phase of the project called
for the use of a power auger to drill into the voids, but this request was not approved,
and only the use of a hand auger was allowed. No further research permits were
submitted to continue this work at Qumran; so, we will never know if a more sophis-
ticated drilling device would have been able to probe the suspected voids.
Geologic, geomorphic, speleological, and archaeological research has been conducted

for the past 20years within a 25km2 area of the Northern Vaca Plateau centered
6km east of the border between Guatemala and Belize, 15km south-southeast of
Fig.8.10 An ERT cross-section from Qumran from near the archaeological ruins to an area called
the dump site, with the location of a possible cavity (cave) included, as well as some subsurface
geological features
the Augustine Forestry Station, and 8km north of the Caracol Archaeological Site,
the largest archaeological site in Belize (Fig.8.2). One component of this research
was to quantify the physical landscape characteristics of the Northern Vaca Plateau
(i.e., limestone petrology, structure, geomorphology, and hydrology) and to relate
these parameters to landscape and cave formation and evolution, and the development
and evolution of the Maya cultural landscape. A beginning point in this study was a
detailed analysis of the areas geology. Specific research regarding the physical
landscape in this portion of Belize has not been conducted prior to the onset of our
(the Northern Vaca Plateau Geoarchaeology Project) work which began in 1990.
The only sources for physical geography and geology information were very
general country-wide or regional assessments, citations in publications regarding
the Mountain Pine Ridge and Maya Mountain section of Belize, or detailed studies
in other areas with similar geologic characteristics.
What follows is a small segment of the research completed on the Vaca Plateau
that deals with quantifying the study areas geology. Once a firm understanding of
the areas geology was obtained, an additional study was completed that assessed the
petrology of the building stones used at Ix Chel, and the relationship between these
stones and rocks from suspected quarry sites in the area.
The petrology of 25 samples collected from outcrops in the study area was
analyzed. Twenty-one samples were classified as breccias, and four were classified
as non-breccias. Using Pettijohns (1975) system, the breccias were classified into
192 P. Reeder
Fig.8.11 Thin sections depicting six different types of rocks found on the Vaca Plateau in Belize
four types: (1) 12 samples were micrite clasts dominate, sparite cement (Fig.8.11a);
(2) 3 samples of sparite clasts dominate, sparite cement (Fig.8.11b); (3) 3 samples were
fossiliferous micrite clasts dominate, sparite cement (Fig.8.11c); and (4) 3 samples of
pelletic micrite clasts dominate, sparite cement (Fig.8.11d). The non-breccias were
classified as follows: (1) 2 samples of micrite dominates with some pellets (Fig.8.11e);
and (2) 2 samples were sparite (Fig.8.11f). The four breccia types were further
classified using Blount and Moores (1969) system, which is based upon the origin
of the breccias as determined from field relationships, stratigraphy, and petrographic
analysis. All 21 breccia samples are lithoclastic (reworked fragments of an older
lithified limestone). They consist primarily of pre-existing limestone fragments with
some samples containing rudistid (a bivalve mollusk) fossil fragments and/or pellets
(probably mollusk feces). The clasts are considered lithoclasts, rather than intrac-
lasts (penecontemporaneous, usually weakly consolidated carbonate sediment that
eroded from adjoining parts of the sea floor) (Folk 1962), because the lithoclastic
interval is over 200m, based upon the elevation difference between breccias found
deep in vertical caves and on the highest hilltops.
In 12 samples, micrite clasts dominate and the matrix is sparite. The lithology of
the lithoclasts is similar to non-lithoclastic limestones from the same formation,
indicating they are intraformational (from the same geologic formation). Based
upon these characteristics, and criteria outlined by Blount and Moore (1969),
these samples are designated depositional breccias. In three other breccia samples,
sparite clasts are embedded in a secondary matrix of sparry calcite cement and these
specimens were classified as tectonic breccias (Blount and Moore 1969). In three
samples, fossiliferous micrite clasts dominate within a sparite cement. The fossils
appear to be broken rudistid fragments and the lithoclasts are intraformational.
These specimens were classified as depositional breccias as well. In three samples,
pelletic micrite fragments are cemented by sparite, and these specimens were
classified as depositional breccias. Two samples classified as non-breccias are
probably homogeneous fragments of the breccia. Two other samples were composed
entirely of sparite. Based upon their homogeneous carbonate mineral composition,
they were classified as non-breccias, but they are probably directly related to area
breccia formation.
The analysis of these samples assisted in establishing a basic understand of
the geology of the study area. Equipped with this knowledge, an assessment of the
nature and source of the building stones used in the construction of Ix Chel was
completed. The Ix Chel site is comprises three distinct groups, namely the main
plaza (Group A), a possible palace complex (Group B), and the acropolis (Group C)
(Fig.8.12). These groups extend roughly along a northsouth axis. In the periphery
of Ix Chel, agricultural terraces, too numerous to be mapped, were observed.
At present, only a relative chronology for Ix Chel exists, and absolute dating
remains difficult. Collected surface ceramics suggest a Late Classic occupation,
as do the many caves that have been investigated thus far. Because these caves
lie relatively close to Ix Chel, they may have been used by Ix Chels inhabitants as
ritual places.
Thirty-two rock samples were collected with these samples coming from the
surface of ruined buildings at the site, suspected quarry sites, and area outcrops.
The purpose of this inquiry was to determine similarities and differences between
stones used to face the buildings at Ix Chel (Fig.8.13) and area rocks from outcrops
and suspected quarry sites. The analysis of the samples was blind, in that they were
collected in the field and thin sections were prepared from the collected samples,
and sample id numbers were coded to thin section id numbers; however, this
information was not made available to the researchers completing the analysis.
Hence, it was unknown to these researchers which samples were from building
stones, which were from quarry sites and which were from outcrops. In this way,
any bias introduced because of prior knowledge was kept at a minimum.
194 P. Reeder
Fig.8.12 A map of the Ix Chel Archaeological site on the Vaca Plateau in Belize
Fig.8.13 A quarried and shaped building stone from the Ix Chel Archaeological Site in Belize
Fig.8.14 Determinations based upon the analysis of thin sections with respect to the relationship
between know building stones and other rock samples collected in the study area
Analysis of the sample thin sections determined whether they were breccia or
non-breccia (Pettijohn 1975), and non-breccias samples were further analyzed (Folk
1962), and breccia samples were described using criteria outlined by Blount and
Moore (1969). The brecciated rocks in the area are not used as stones to face the
exterior of buildings at Ix Chel. The buildings are faced with softer, more easily
formed and shaped stones. The various samples (building stones versus suspected
quarry versus area outcrops) were compared to determine if they were petrographi-
cally similar.
Samples were analyzed by clast and matrix, and the calcite crystals were
determined based on their measurement and translucence. Using criteria outlined
by Folk (1962), the samples were classified in terms of lithology for the clasts, and
matrix for the breccias cement. Examination of the thin sections revealed that of the
32 samples, 22 (68%) were micrites, although 21 of these samples contained some
microsparite and sparite clasts. Two of the samples were classified as fossiliferous
micrite (6.25%), while three were pelletiferous micrites (9.4%). In four samples all
clasts were sparite (12.5%).
Based on the modal percentages, and clast angularity, the samples were divided
into three catagories: Building stones, non-building stones, and conglomerates.
Figure8.14 provides the summation of which samples originate from what source.
From a mineralogical standpoint, several of the non-conglomerates had >3% sparite/
microsparite, which may be indicative of the same source, or may include samples
near the transition zone in the rock outcrop between the conglomerate/breccias
common in the area, and limestone (probably secondary depositional deposits) used
for building stones. Of the non-conglomarates, samples 2, 8, and 10 were brecciated
on a portion of the sample. Based on the brecciation in those samples and in the
samples classified as conglomerates, the following were probably non-building
stones: 2, 8, 10, 11, 15, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, and 32. Of these, the following are
conglomerates: 11, 15, and 2732. Thus, samples 1, 37, 9, 1214, and 1626 are
likely to be building stones (Fig.8.14).
196 P. Reeder
The building stones were collected directly from ruined structures in and around
Ix Chel, and they were obviously shaped for their function. Quarry site 1 is located
behind the B Group at Ix Chel and it is an outcropping of rock that is obviously
different than most of the breccias/conglomerate rocks that outcrop in the area.
The outcrop also appears to be extensively modified, possibly by quarrying. This
rock is much softer, and more porous. Samples 29 and 30 were collected from this
suspected quarried area, but at points where the softer, more porous rocks transition
to the harder breccias. Samples 31 and 32 were collected from a site near Ix Chel
that appeared to have been modified (excavated), but the rocks were brecciated.
Below is the list of samples and where they were collected.
Building stones: 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 12, 13, 14, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26,
Quarry Site 1 (Soft Rock): 8, 9, 10
Quarry Site 1 (near transition to Breccia): 11, 29, 30
Quarry Site 2: 31, 32
If the list above is compared to the determinations for sample source in Fig.8.14,
the determination for building stones, based on modal percentages and clast angu-
larity, matches precisely with the list of collected building stone samples. One of the
soft Quarry Site 1 samples (#9) was classified as a building stone, and samples 8
and 10 were classified as non-conglomerates with >3% sparite/micrite. The other
suspected quarry samples were classified as conglomerates (although they were
more porous than the normal conglomerates in the study area) and showed very
little similarity to the building stones or other suspected quarry sites. Although not
exactly similar to the building stones collected at Ix Chel, samples 8, 9, and 10 from
the suspected quarry were similar enough to conclude that they could have been
carved into building stones and they were similar enough to have been from the
same source as the building stones at Ix Chel. Although the volume of material that
appeared to have been removed from suspected quarry site # 1 was substantial, it
was not near the volume that was required to construct the buildings at Ix Chel.
Therefore, the suspected quarry site was a source for building materials for Ix Chel,
but other sources must exist as well, and these sources have yet to be determined.
8.5Conclusions
The multidisciplinary framework of geoarchaeology allows the full range of related

disciplines such as geography, geology, archaeology, and religious studies (and when
working in karst areas speleology) to be melded and applied to pursue new avenues
of research and add to existing bases of knowledge. Understanding the cultural
implications of physical data within a multidisciplinary framework were major
components of the research discussed in this chapter. Such an approach enhances
the understanding of the intrinsic relationships that exist between physical and
cultural landscapes, and in some cases the utilization and exploitation of natural
resources in these areas. It was the intent of this chapter to take previous studies
conducted in Israel at Cave of Letters and Qumran, and in Belize at the Ix Chel
Archaeological Site on the Vaca Plateau, and stress the utility and importance of
conducting karst-based, multidisciplinary research within the framework of the
emerging discipline of Geoarchaeology.
The 1999 and 2000 John and Carol Merrill Cave of Letters Projects, and the 2001
and 2002 John and Carol Merrill Qumran Excavations Projects have added to the
base of knowledge about both of these important locations, with the completion of
detailed and accurate maps depicting multiple aspects of the site. These maps not
only detail the spatial and temporal relationships at the sites, but the relationships
between the physical landscape and the cultural landscape are highlighted. The use
of geophysical applications also played a prominent role in this research. Ground
penetrating radar at COL indicated the location and depth of the Bar Kokhba
habitation surface, as did ERT, which aided in pinpointing the most advantageous
locations for excavation. At Qumran, these technologies proved useful as well,
indicating the possible locations of burials that have no surface expression and
pinpointing a location where eight buried jars were discovered. GPR also indicated
an area of disturbance that may be the location of the latrines for the city. ERT
discovered new cavities beneath the Qumran site, and provided important informa-
tion about the nature of the subsurface geologic materials in the area. Working
within the multidisciplinary framework of geoarchaeology, we were able to apply
various aspects of the geosciences to interpret past processes and events at the
Cave of Letters and Qumran, providing new insights into the physical and cultural
landscapes of these locations.
The same can be said for the research conducted in Belize. Analysis of lithologic
and geomorphic features within the 25 km2 study area revealed that the karst
landscape is greatly influenced by the lithology and structure of the bedrock.
The majority of limestone in the study area formed adjacent to a structurally
emergent area, as a depositional breccia consisting mostly of lithoclasts of micrite
with a sparry calcite cement. Variations in composition of the lithoclasts reflect local
variations in the depositional environment. Geologic structures including faults,
joints, and fractures formed during periods of uplift in and adjacent to the study
area. These periods of uplift account for the existence of some tectonic breccias in
the study area. By studying the petrology of the area and related features, it was
possible to gain a limited understanding of the formation and evolution of the northern
Vaca Plateaus karst landscape. It also aided in understanding the relationships that
exist between the physical landscape and the cultural landscape developed by the
ancient Maya. They were very much guided by the nature of the physical landscape
in their daily lives, be it ritual activities in caves, extensive terracing of the poor
quality, clay rich soils that exist on the karst landscape, or the source of the building
materials used to built their cities. A study of the building stones at Ix Chel, and
comparison to the rocks at a nearby suspected quarry site, indicated that some of
the building materials did indeed come from very near Ix Chel. However, it also
indicated that there was another, yet unknown source, which leaves yet another
avenue for future research to be added to the already extensive list.
Karst research has drawn from the basic paradigms of many disciplines (e.g.,
geography, geology, biology, geochemistry, geomorphology, geophysics, hydrology),
198 P. Reeder
which were often amalgamated under the zeitgeist of a karst-based research project.
This is still the case, but the scope has been furthered broadened to include other
disciplines and sub-disciplines such as history, anthropology, archaeology, human
ecology, climate and paleoclimate, environment and paleoenvironment, and resource
conservation and management. Karst-based research needs to continue this evolu-
tion, for it only makes it a more viable pursuit in the quest for new knowledge and
understanding.
Acknowledgements The research associated with the projects discussed in this manuscript could
not have been completed without the contributions of many people. With regard to the Israel
research, I thank Richard Freund Director of the Maurice Greenberg Center for Judaic Studies at
the University of Hartford, who served as Project Director on most of the projects, as well as fellow
researchers Harry Jol (University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire) and Paul Bauman (Worley-Parsons).
I also thank the Israel Antiquities Authority for all of their assistance, as well as all the students
who have assisted with this work over the years. In Belize, I thank Dr. James Webster and Bill
Reynolds who have worked with me on this research for over 20years, as well as all of the other
researchers and students who have come and gone on the project. Thank you to Melissa Milner for
her tireless work on the Ix Chel building stone study. I also wish to thank the Belize Institute of
Archaeology, its Director Jamie Awe, and the Research Director John Morris. Your support through
our 20 plus years of work in Belize is greatly appreciated. I also thank my wife Keen, and my sons
Will, Sam, and Joe for their love and support as I travel the world in my quest for new knowledge.
Lastly, I dedicate this manuscript to and thank Pierre Clint Colas, for his knowledge of
the Maya, his friendship, sense of humor, and his love of life. You may be gone, but you will never
be forgotten. I really miss you man!
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Chapter 9
Management of Subterranean Fauna in Karst*
Daniel W. Fong
Abstract Ensuring the appropriate quantity and quality of energy flow from the
surface to the subterranean environment is a universal challenge of managing subter-
ranean fauna in karst. This chapter covers four major issues central to an understand-
ing of the energy connections between the surface and the subsurface ecosystems.
The first issue is that there needs to be a greater focus on species that are not restricted
to subterranean habitats because some of these species act as major vectors of energy
into subsurface ecosystems. The second issue is that a greater understanding of the
paths of allochthonous energy into the subterranean ecosystem is necessary to ensure
the long-term health of the subterranean fauna. Percolating water delivered from the
epikarst appears to be more important than organic matter transported by sinking
streams in supporting the biofilm that serves as the base of the aquatic food web.
Energy transported by active movement of organisms from the surface is essential in
supporting the terrestrial food web and possibly some aquatic species as well. The
importance of many potential sources of energy, such as the organic matter left on the
riparian zones of subterranean streams, has not been studied. The third issue is that
management practices need to focus on factors that threaten the energy flow from the
surface to the subsurface because, unlike many other threats to subterranean ecosys-
tems, disruptions of such paths of energy are usually not overt and easily recogniz-
able. The fourth issue is that the metabolic adaptation of many subterranean species
to the underground environment may increase their resilience to disruptions of energy
flow from the surface. Thus, management practices that recognize threats to such
energy paths may allow for a higher probability of successful interventions leading
to restoration of the health of subterranean ecosystems.
*When we try to pick out anything by itself, we find it hitched to everything else in the universe
John Muir
D.W. Fong (*)
Department of Biology, American University, 4400 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington,
D.C. 20016-8007, USA

202 D.W. Fong
9.1Introduction
Globally, there is growing awareness of a need for protection of organisms dwelling

in subterranean habitats in karst regions. Subterranean organisms appear to be espe-
cially at risk because most species exhibit a suite of characteristics that increase
their vulnerability to anthropogenic disturbance. These characteristics include lim-
ited geographic range (Barr and Holsinger 1985; Christman etal. 2005), poor vagil-
ity (Verovnik etal. 2004; Hoslinger 2005) and low reproductive potential, long life
span and small population size (Culver etal. 1995). These life history characteris-
tics are excellent adaptations to the subterranean environment, but they also lead to
a slow population growth rate, and, in concert with the high degree of endemism
and low dispersal ability, greatly reduce the ability of these organisms to rapidly
recover from a reduction in population size for any reason. The vulnerability of the
subterranean fauna is underscored by the fact that, a decade ago, over 20 subterra-
nean invertebrate species were listed as federally threatened or endangered and about
600 were listed as critically imperiled in the United States alone (Culver etal. 2000),
and the numbers are likely much higher now.
The identification of subterranean species at risk and the development of effec-
tive strategies for their management face a set of unique challenges. First, most of
the physical space in the subterranean environment is too small to be accessible to
humans. Cave passages, wells and even submerged caverns represent only small
windows into vast expanses of unreachable space. Basic information on the ecology
and life history of most subterranean species are unknown because gaining entry to
their habitats is often technically challenging and because their lengthy life span
and low population density render ecological studies difficult. Aquatic subterranean
species pose additional problems because of conflict between management prac-
tices and demand for ground water from expanding urban and agricultural develop-
ment, and these problems are especially acute in karst regions.
A large number of human activities pose threats to the subterranean fauna (Culver
and Pipan 2009; Romero 2009; Tercafs 2001). It is impossible to provide an in-
depth discussion on managing subterranean fauna in karst areas to deal with all
threats in one chapter in a collected volume. Instead, this chapter stresses the impor-
tance of surface-subsurface connections and develops the central theme that ensur-
ing the appropriate quantity and quality of energy flow from the surface to the
subterranean environment is a universal challenge of managing subterranean fauna
in karst. This is the general conclusion drawn by many researchers who have exam-
ined this issue (Elliott 2000; Hamilton-Smith and Eberhard 2000; Humphreys 2000;
Tercafs 2001; Culver and Pipan 2009). Although this volume and chapter focus on
karst, subterranean fauna also exist in nonkarst habitats, especially habitats associ-
ated with groundwater such as wetlands and the hyporheic zone (Hancock and
Boulton 2008; Humphreys 2009; Hahn 2009). The importance of surface-subsur-
face connections in terms of energy flow discussed in this chapter should apply in
general to these nonkarst habitats as well, although the specific details may be more
complicated in nonkarst habitats (Gibert and Culver 2009).
9 Management of Subterranean Fauna in Karst 203
This chapter begins with the example of Robber Baron Cave and the management
issues that arise, focusing on the path of energy from the surface to the underground.
It then details the different ways that energy is transferred from the surface to
the subterranean ecosystems, following the theme that a thorough understanding of
the connections between the surface and the subterranean environments in terms
of energy flow is the key to effective management and protection of the subterra-
nean fauna. The chapter concludes with a discussion on management of the subter-
ranean fauna in light of the different paths of energy flow from the surface to the
underground.
9.2The Case of Robber Baron Cave
Robber Baron Cave is located in the City of San Antonio in the State of Texas, USA
(Veni 1988). It was a commercialized show cave, drawing 300,000 visitors from
1926 to 1933. The owner had even physically modified the cave by erecting false
cave walls to hide some passages from tourists. Because of its urban location, the
cave has experienced much vandalism and associated human activities. A gate
installed at the entrance was frequently tampered with and had to be replaced peri-
odically, at times requiring physical rearrangement of the entrance area with heavy
machinery. In spite of such intense anthropogenic impact, the cave still boasts a rich
fauna. It houses at least ten troglobionts, species that occur only in subterranean
habitats and are never found above ground. Two of the species, the Robber Baron
Cave Spider, Cicurina baronia (Fig.9.1), and the Robber Baron Cave Harvestman,
Texella cokendolpheri, exist only in this one cave, and both are listed as federally
endangered by the US Fish and Wildlife Service. A number of other species that are
not troglobionts are also found in the cave. Some are occasional visitors but many
are residents that move between the cave and the surface on a seasonal or daily
basis, such as the cave cricket Ceuthophilus secretus (Fig.9.2). Robber Baron Cave
has been protected and managed according to a management plan since it was
acquired by the Texas Cave Management Association in 1995. However, many pop-
ulations of its fauna still appear to be in decline since. The cause was encroachment
by urban development toward the cave entrance, which severely limited the forag-
ing area of the cave crickets when they left the cave at night to feed on the surface
(Taylor etal. 2005). Consequently, the amount of energy the crickets brought back
to the cave, in the forms of guano, eggs and newly hatched nymphs when they
reproduced and biomass when they died, was insufficient to sustain the food web
within the cave.
The situation at Robber Baron Cave illustrates some of the major issues in the
management of subterranean fauna in karst areas. The first issue concerns the mean-
ing of subterranean fauna itself in light of a historically biased research and man-
agement focus on only a subset of the subterranean fauna. The second issue concerns
the importance of energy flow from the surface to subterranean ecosystems, the
central theme of this chapter. The third issue concerns the apparency of different
204 D.W. Fong
Fig.9.1 A Cicurina cave spider, displaying the troglomorphic features of reductions in eyes and
in body pigmentation as well as elongated appendages. Photograph by Dr. Jean Krejca, Zara
Environmental LLC. Used with permission
Fig.9.2 The cave cricket Ceuthophilus secretus. Photograph by Dr. Jean Krejca, Zara Environmental
LLC. Used with permission
types of threats to the subterranean fauna and that threats to the paths of energy flow
to the underground are usually less apparent than other threats, such as those that
directly affect the physical integrity of the subterranean habitats. The last issue illus-
trated by Robber Baron Cave is the potential resiliency of the subterranean fauna to
disruptions of energy flow from the surface because of the metabolic adaptations of
many subterranean species. These issues are discussed in turn below.
9.2.1The Subterranean Fauna
In general, when considering subterranean fauna, most often species that are not
adapted exclusively for the subterranean environment come to mind. These adap-
tations include a suite of features termed troglomorphy by Christiansen (1962),
including reduced-to-complete loss of eyes and body pigment, elaborated extra-
optic sensory structures, elongated appendages and more slender body forms
compared to related surface-dwelling taxa. The endangered harvestman and spi-
der in Robber Baron Cave both exhibit this classic troglomorphic phenotype.
Research on and management practices concerning subterranean fauna have and
are mainly focused on troglomorphic troglobionts. Less emphasis is placed on
non-troglomorphic troglobionts, such as Spelobia tenebrarum, a small fly found
only in caves over a wide geographic area but exhibits no obvious troglomorphic
feature. Other than bats, and, more recently, cave crickets, species that are not
troglobionts, ones that also occur in but are not limited to subterranean habitats,
have received the least attention. This bias is understandable in light of our long
history of fascination with the often bizarre appearance of troglomorphic species,
such as the European Cave Salamander, Proteus anguinus (Sweet 1986), and the
tremendous academic interest in elucidating the mechanisms of the evolution of
troglomorphy, dating back to Darwin (Culver et al. 1995; Culver and Wilkens
2000; Culver and Pipan 2009). In addition, the study of troglomorphy may also
provide information on the mechanisms of evolutionary loss of features in gen-
eral, a common phenomenon not exclusive to members of the subterranean fauna;
the loss of hearing in moths on islands without bats is just one of many examples
(Fong etal. 1995).
The lack of emphasis on non-troglomorphic species in the study and manage-
ment of subterranean fauna may also partially follow from the tradition of ecologi-
cal classification of the subterranean fauna into troglobites: obligate cave-dwelling
species, troglophiles: facultative-cave dwelling species and trogloxenes: surface
species that are occasionally found in caves. According to this scheme, troglobites,
rather than troglophiles and trogloxenes, are the more interesting species, with the
mindset that trogloxenes and troglophiles are merely troglobites in training and
have not yet arrived at their destinations on their evolutionary paths. But as Culver
(1982) pointed out, many troglophilic species are very successful in caves, and that
many species are often assigned to one of these ecological categories based on
morphology instead of ecology, circular reasoning at its most basic. Furthermore,
206 D.W. Fong
inherent in these designations is that evolution of subterranean organisms is a linear

process, from trogloxene to troglophile to troglobite. However, adaptations to the
subterranean environment surely follow multiple paths, with different species evolv-
ing different solutions at any one moment, thus what are designated as troglophiles
or even some trogloxenes are no more but certainly no less adapted to the subterra-
nean environment than are troglobites; some troglophiles may evolve into troglobites
but many may not. Even entire subterranean communities without a troglobitic spe-
cies may be severely constrained by the subterranean environment (Gunn etal. 2000).
The utility of these designations is in doubt (Sket 2008), and they are not used
further in this chapter.
The lack of emphasis on non-troglomorphic species may also result from
inadequate resource for species identification. Colonization of, and adaptation to,
subterranean habitats by surface species are continuous, ongoing processes.
Therefore, at any time, the subterranean fauna must consist of a variety of species,
many that have successfully adapted to the subterranean environment in different
ways but also many more that are recent arrivals. Therefore, the subterranean fauna
consists of many more species that are not troglomorphic or are not troglobionts, or
both, than species that are troglomorphic troglobionts. Thus identification of both
troglomorphic and non-troglomorphic species from any subterranean ecosystem
would require a greater commitment of time by more taxonomic specialists than
identification of only the troglomorphic species. In addition, troglomorphic species
generally exhibit high degrees of endemism (Culver and Pipan 2009). Troglomorphic
specimens from different subterranean systems are more likely to constitute new
taxa than non-troglomorphic specimens and may enjoy a higher priority for identi-
fication by taxonomic specialists. Constraints in money and time are real impedi-
ments to a full description of the entire fauna in a subterranean ecosystem. For
example, in a 3-year survey of the invertebrate cave fauna of West Virginia, Fong
etal. (1994) documented only troglobionts, most of them troglomorphic, because it
would have been too expensive and too time consuming to obtain complete taxo-
nomic information on all the species collected.
The lack of emphasis on non-troglomorphic species is unfortunate. Although the
traditional view of the pinnacle of adaptation to the subterranean environment is that
of troglomorphic species, such as the Robber Baron Cave Spider, many more non-
troglomorphic species are also well adapted to this environment and are integral
components of subterranean ecosystems. Some of these non-troglomorphic species,
such as the cave cricket in Robber Baron Cave, are keystone species that play a criti-
cal role in supporting the entire subterranean fauna, including the endangered tro-
glomorphic spider and harvestman, and they do so by serving as biological vectors
bringing energy from the surface, or allochthonous energy, into the subterranean
ecosystem. Indeed, most of the troglomorphic taxa are effectively energy sinks,
while many non-troglobionts, by serving as vectors of allochthonous energy, are
effectively proximate energy sources of subterranean ecosystems. Therefore, man-
agement practices need to consider all of the taxa in addition to the troglomorphic
species and especially their ecological roles in the subterranean ecosystem.
9.2.2The Importance of Allochthonous Energy
The hallmark feature of the subterranean environment is constant darkness and thus
the absence of primary production through photosynthesis. In most underground
ecosystems, the base of the food web depends on input of allochthonous energy
derived ultimately from photosynthesis on the surface. There simply is no other
source of energy for the fauna in subterranean ecosystems except for systems based
on chemoautotrophy (see below). As the situation at Robber Baron Cave illustrates,
protecting the subterranean fauna requires management practices that maintain the
ecological integrity of not only the subterranean system itself but also that of the
surface terrane, which is the ultimate source of energy, as well as that of the natural
paths of energy flow from the surface into the subterranean system. Management of
energy flow in situations similar to that of Robber Baron Cave means ensuring suf-
ficient energy input into the cave to support the underground trophic structure by
biological vectors, such as the cave cricket, and by other means.
Management of energy flow also means preventing excessive energy input, par-
ticularly in the form of organic pollution. This problem is especially acute in karst
areas experiencing heightened intensity of agricultural activity or housing and
industrial development. Pollutants, both organic and inorganic, may be toxic by
themselves or may alter the chemistry of the subterranean environment so as to pose
a direct threat to the fauna (Pasquarell and Boyer 1993; Elliott 2000). For example,
Culver et al. (1992) documented the near extirpation of one of only four known
populations of an endangered troglomorphic aquatic isopod crustacean, Lirceus
usdagalun, due to illegal dumping of sawdust into a cave entrance sinkhole in
Virginia, USA. Organic pollution may also indirectly affect the cave fauna through
excessive nutrient enrichment of the subterranean habitat, which then promotes
invasion by surface species that may out-compete and displace resident species
(Sket 1999). Of course, such point sources of organic pollution are easier to identify
than the nonpoint sources, such as the slow accumulation of pesticides and fertiliz-
ers from agriculture runoff that then drain into subterranean systems.
Another form of excessive energy input, affecting mainly caves developed for
commercial tourism, is from lighting used to illuminate passages and especially
rock formations. Prolonged illumination promotes growth of a lampenflora, plants
and algae associated with electrical lighting (Aley 2004). Development of a lampen-
flora destroys the aesthetic value of the cave itself at best and may enable establish-
ment of invasive surface species and subsequent displacement of the native cave
fauna at worst. In large systems where commercialized trails comprise a small per-
centage of the total passages, lampenflora may not be a major issue, but even then,
affected passages are known to have fewer cave species compared to unaffected
passages (Culver and Pipan 2009). In small systems, lampenflora may, in concert
with other effects of physical alteration of the passages for and from tourism, have
a large adverse effect on the cave fauna. Installation of low wattage lighting of
appropriate spectra may address this issue but requires a large initial monetary
investment.
208 D.W. Fong
Frequently, one management practice to protect a subterranean system and its

fauna is gating cave entrances to minimize human activity. The assumption is that
human activity inside a cave will have a negative impact on the cave fauna. However,
Robber Baron Cave still harbors a diverse cave fauna in spite of a long history of
high- impact human visitation. The fauna in Robber Baron Cave was in decline
because of curtailment of energy flow into the cave due to urban development on the
surface, not because of disturbance from human visitation inside the cave. A cave
gate is effective in curbing incidences of vandalism, theft of speleothems and out-
right malicious attacks on large aggregations of animals such as roosts of bats
(Elliott 2000). A cave gate is also an attractive management tool because the gate is
a visible, physical evidence that something has been done. It is becoming clear,
however, that gating a cave by itself is not an effective tool to protect the fauna in
the cave, especially the invertebrates. The design of cave gates has evolved from
early ones that actually hindered to modern ones that allow for the movement of
vectors of allochthonous energy, such as bats and other small mammals as well as
crickets and other insects, between the surface environments and the caves (Elliott
2000). However, as the scenario at Robber Baron Cave shows, if the integrity of the
surface ecosystem is compromised and its ability to generate and provide allochtho-
nous energy to support the subterranean ecosystem is diminished, even a perfectly
designed gate is ineffective in protecting the community of organisms in the cave.
Thus, a thorough understanding of the connections between the surface and the
subterranean environments in terms of energy flow is one crucial key to effective
management and protection of the fauna.
In some subterranean systems, the trophic structure is supported by energy pro-
duced within the system from chemoautotrophy and is independent of allochtho-
nous energy derived from photosynthesis. The best documented type of
chemoautotrophy is based on the oxidation of hydrogen sulfide, such as in Moville
Cave in Romania (Sarbu etal. 1996), which supports a large number of troglomor-
phic species. Engel (2007) detailed other such chemoautotrophic subterranean sys-
tems. The two types of energy sources are not mutually exclusive. For example,
Grotta di Frasassi in Italy shows two distinct food webs, one based on allochthonous
energy input in the form of bat guano and the other based on energy from chemoau-
totrophy (Sarbu et al. 2000). Chemoautotrophic systems are largely driven by
microbial activity. The topic of management of the subterranean microbial fauna
and flora in karst is discussed elsewhere in this volume.
9.2.3Apparency of Threats
A host of human activities unrelated to the energy base of the subterranean ecosys-
tem in karst areas also affect the underground fauna. Much of these activities causes
physical disturbance of the karst terrane. Examples include limestone quarrying,
flooding of cave systems as a result of water impoundment behind dams, mining of
groundwater aquifers and road building, among others. These activities have severe
consequences for the subterranean fauna because they physically alter the landform
at best and can completely obliterate a cave system at worst. The relative intensity
and impact of these activities differ in different locations. For example, on a global
scale, limestone quarrying is growing at the highest rate in Southeast Asia (Clements
etal. 2006). This region is considered a biodiversity hotspot for both surface and
subterranean fauna and flora, because the limestone karst in the area is relatively
untouched by other human activities and the fragmented nature of the karst terrane
in the region promotes endemism. Quarrying activities there have probably resulted
in extirpation of numerous species before the species were discovered (Culver and
Pipan 2009). Quarrying activities also threaten the cave fauna in much of Australia,
especially the Cape Range (Hamilton-Smith and Eberhard 2000; Humphreys 2004),
but it is of concern in only some parts of the U.S. (Dasher 2001; Jones etal. 2003).
There are many additional threats to the subterranean fauna. Tercafs (2001) gave a
detailed discussion of a long list of potential threats to the subterranean ecosystems
and the subterranean fauna. Some of the issues raised are especially intractable. For
example, Culver and Pipan (2009) reasonably suggested that global warming is a
universal threat to subterranean fauna.
Effects of such human activities that pose direct physical threats to subterranean
systems and the activities themselves have high apparency because they are usually
overt, visible and some may even be well understood. Likewise, point sources of
pollution can be identified. This is not to minimize the complex issue of managing
karst resources and the subterranean fauna in face of such overt threats. Local,
regional and national laws protecting karst resources, especially caves and associ-
ated fauna with threatened or endangered status, exist in many parts of the world.
Application and enforcement of such laws, however, are often tempered by social
and economic realities at the local scale. But clearly all these threats have high
apparency, and at the emotional level, at least, people are motivated to action for
protecting a subterranean system or its fauna or both when the threats are identifi-
able and apparent. A good example is recounted by Elliott (2000), who led a 3-month
project in 1976 to relocate all 30 species of the entire fauna along with as much cave
soil, rocks and woody debris as could be carried from a cave to a nearby abandoned
mine because the cave was to be completely inundated from rising water behind a
newly constructed dam, and the cave was one of the only two known sites at the
time of the rare cave harvestman, Banksula melones.
In contrast, how allochthonous energy is made available and delivered to the
subterranean fauna is generally not immediately obvious, and disruptions to the
delivery of this vital resource to the underground are not readily apparent. As illus-
trated by the situation at Robber Baron Cave, an understanding of how cave crickets
act as the main vector of allochthonous energy revealed the major mechanism by
which urban development affected the cave fauna. In this instance, the cause of
degradation was not disturbance by increased human visitation or the increased
potential of pollution. When the threat has low apparency, such as when cave crickets
return less and consistently less energy to Robber Baron Cave as their foraging area
becomes smaller and smaller, it may be difficult to understand the issue at hand to
begin with, and once it is understood, it may be difficult to garner support to address
210 D.W. Fong
the problem than when the threats are highly apparent. This is understandable,
because in the first case, support means well-defined action, such as helping to stop
quarrying activity toward a certain direction or to reroute a road being built or even
to relocate an entire fauna of a cave, but in the second case, it is unclear what sup-
port means in terms of specific action for each potential supporter involved. One
inherent challenge to management practices for protecting subterranean fauna is
first to recognize such threats with low apparency and then to motivate public sup-
port to deal with such threats.
9.2.4Potential Resilience of the Subterranean Fauna
Although not universal, many subterranean species have lower metabolic rates and
longer life spans compared to surface counterparts (Huppop 2000), and some may
also be adapted to ramp up reproduction during infrequent episodes of increased
influx of energy resources (Turquin and Barthelemy 1985). Low metabolic rates and
long life spans may allow such species to persist for some period even when the
normal paths of energy input have been disrupted or curtailed for a duration. This
may be the situation with many of the species in Robber Baron Cave. Encroachment
of urban development toward the cave entrance in San Antonio leading to the reduc-
tion in energy input from cave crickets has been an ongoing process for a lengthy
period, yet the fauna in the cave has persisted, and their persistence may be possible
because of this metabolic adaptation. Recognition of this resilience means that
recovery of the subterranean fauna is a real possibility, provided that the route of
energy input is understood. The documented decline of the fauna in Robber Baron
Cave has probably resulted from natural attrition of individuals over time coupled
with the lack of recruitment of new individuals from reproduction due to insuffi-
cient food. However, now that the critical role of the crickets in this system is under-
stood, increasing the energy flow into the cave by restoring the surface ecosystem to
enable expansion of the foraging area of cave crickets should be a long-term man-
agement goal. Reversing urban development may even be achievable in light of the
number of small dams that have been removed since the severe ecological conse-
quences of such dams are understood and widely publicized. In the meanwhile,
management practices that emphasize a gradual increase coupled with periodic
jumps in input of energy into the cave system in the future may allow the fauna to
recover. Such energy may be artificially augmented, e.g., by establishing protected
night time feeding stations for Ceuthophilus secretus near the cave entrance.
9.3Paths of Allochthonous Energy
Allochthonous energy enters subterranean systems via four main paths (Tercafs
2001; Culver and Pipan 2009). The first and most obvious is transport by water. The
second is transport by active movement of organisms into caves. Energy also enters
via passive input from gravity or by wind. A less common path is by tree roots
projecting into cave passages. The relative importance of these paths differs in dif-
ferent regions and for terrestrial and aquatic habitats.
9.3.1Transport by Water
The most obvious path of energy from the surface to the underground is via water,
as dissolution is how caves are created in limestone karst. Water enters subterranean
systems via sinking streams or as percolating water infiltrating vertically through
the soil. The quantity and the quality of the energy delivered via these two routes
differ in significant ways.
9.3.1.1Sinking Streams
Surface streams usually sink and become part of a karst subterranean drainage at the
contacts between water impermeable rock and soluble limestone. Sinking streams
vary greatly in size, from intermittent rills to permanent rivers. The volume of water
carried by a sinking stream may vary seasonally by several orders of magnitude. In
forested, temperate regions, sinking streams can transport underground a large
amount of organic matter in the form of leaves, twigs, branches and even entire tree
trunks, known as coarse particulate organic matter (CPOM). However, the energy
quality of this CPOM input appears very low. Generally, the CPOM is rapidly pro-
cessed by shredders, such as some crustaceans and larvae of aquatic insect, into fine
particulate organic matter (FPOM) and quickly becomes unimportant in the metab-
olism of the cave stream organisms (Simon and Benfield 2001, 2002). Furthermore,
the aquatic subterranean fauna, such as snails and amphipod and isopod crusta-
ceans, actually depends on energy from the biofilm coating rocks and sediment in
the cave stream (Simon etal. 2003). The biofilm consists of a variety of microorgan-
isms as well as organic and inorganic particles embedded within a polysaccharide
matrix (Boston 2004), and the biofilm is limited by carbon in dissolved organic mat-
ter (DOM), not FPOM (Simon etal. 2003). The importance of sinking streams as an
allochthonous energy source therefore depends on the quantity of DOM they trans-
port underground. The quantity of DOM in the surface stream is positively corre-
lated with the duration of processing of CPOM and FPOM by biological agents and
mechanical breakdown by physical disturbance of the substratum (Allen and Castillo
2007). However, this duration is also positively correlated with the size of the stream
and therefore the velocity or scouring power of the water current. Therefore, a larger
sinking stream will bring in more DOM to support the biofilm but will cause physi-
cal disturbance of the substratum where biofilms are located, while a smaller sink-
ing stream will have little DOM. Thus, in temperate regions, although sinking
streams are the source of a large quantity of particulate organic matter in cave
streams, the quality of this organic matter is such that they do not constitute an
important source of allochthonous energy for subterranean aquatic fauna.
212 D.W. Fong
The large quantity of particulate organic matter delivered underground by sinking

streams, however, may not be inert for the subterranean ecosystem. Sinking streams
frequently deposit CPOM and FPOM on banks of cave streams, and organic matter
is quickly colonized by fungi and possibly bacteria. Although these deposits are
spatially and temporally highly heterogeneous within a cave system, most cave
organisms are adapted to rapidly seek out and utilize ephemeral resources as they
become available (Culver and Pipan 2009). In fact, when searching for terrestrial
cave invertebrates, speleobiologists commonly focus their attention first on any
available leaves and wood debris left behind by flood water if other organic matter
such as guano is absent. Whether these deposits of organic matter and their associ-
ated fungal or bacterial colonies constitute a significant allochthonous energy base
for terrestrial cave organisms such as springtails, millipeds and beetles that patrol
the riparian zone is yet to be quantified. Clearly, this resource is utilized by the ter-
restrial cave fauna. The unanswered question is whether the absence or reduction of
this resource will adversely affect the diversity or the carrying capacity, or both, of
the terrestrial cave fauna.
Sinking streams also inject more than particulate organic matter into subterra-
nean habitats. It is common, especially after spring thaws and storm events, to find
washed into cave streams numerous individuals of the surface aquatic fauna, such
as larvae of aquatic insects, especially of mayflies, caddisflies and stoneflies and
even some surface vertebrates such as amphibians and fish. Their biomass, when
consumed by resident subterranean species immediately as prey or later when they
die, certainly represents a spatially and temporally unpredictable energy resource of
high quality directly or indirectly through increased microbial activity similar to
fungal colonies on particulate organic matter left on cave stream banks. Possibly,
some of the subterranean fauna are stimulated to initiate reproduction by such an
influx of high-quality energy, but there is no direct evidence to support this. The
relative importance of this resource for the diversity and abundance of the aquatic
cave fauna has not been quantified.
9.3.1.2Percolating Water
Precipitation reaching the ground surface and not utilized by plants can move laterally
and form streams or lakes, or infiltrate vertically through the soil. Water percolating
through the soil will accumulate dissolved material, and more importantly, dis-
solved organic carbon (DOC) resulting from decay of vegetation and metabolism of
soil organisms, as well as microbes and other organic compounds adsorbed onto soil
particles. In karst areas, the transition zone between the soil and the underlying
limestone is a potentially vast network of minute cavities and channels, termed the
epikarst, which can retain a large volume of water (Williams 2008). Epikarst water
percolating further downward through fractures in the limestone can intersect cave
passages, forming water drips from cave ceilings. The epikarst has a tremendous
storage capacity. Thus, it is common to find water dripping from cave ceilings even
if the local surface terrane has experienced a prolonged dry period. Indeed, water in
the majority of small headwater streams in a subterranean drainage basin likely

originates from the epikarst rather than from sinking streams.
Drip water from the epikarst contributes DOC to cave streams (Simon etal. 2007).
Although the concentration of DOC in drip water is usually low, it may be the
only source of organic carbon available to support the biofilm, which in turn, is
the foundation of the aquatic food web in cave streams (Simon et al. 2003).
Furthermore, the large number of water drips in cave passages point to the delivery
of a potentially vast quantity of DOC over time from the epikarst to cave streams.
Epikarst water is potentially a highly significant source of allochthonous energy
for the aquatic subterranean fauna, especially at small, upper level headwater cave
streams.
Examination of drip water also reveals a diverse assemblage of organisms,
including bacteria, small crustaceans, microarthropods and even archaeannelids
(Pipan 2005; Pipan and Culver 2005), indicating that the epikarst is the primary
habitat for many species and is likely an ecosystem in itself. Fong and Culver (1994)
show that in a large subterranean drainage basin, diversity of aquatic crustacean
species is highest at smaller, upper-level headwater streams and decreases towards
larger, lower-level streams. They attributed the higher diversity of headwater streams
in part to a higher rate of influx of epikarst species, because the upper-level headwa-
ter streams are closer to the epikarst and because there are more upper-level head-
water streams than larger streams in any drainage basin. Recent biological surveys
in caves with an emphasis on water of epikarst origin have yielded many new spe-
cies of copepod and amphipod crustaceans (Fong etal. 2007, Holsinger JR pers.
comm.). The scenario is thus one of a constant rain of epikarst water delivering not
just DOC but also animals into cave streams. Knapp and Fong (1999) and Fong
(2003) examined the temporal variation in the population size of an amphipod crus-
tacean, Stygobromus emarginatus, in a headwater cave stream and suggest that
movement of organisms between the epikarst and the uppermost reaches of some
cave streams is an active, dynamic process in addition to the passive downward rain
of animals trapped in ceiling drips. Whether these animals of epikarst origin consti-
tute a significant input of allochthonous energy to cave streams in the form of bio-
mass is unclear. Simon etal. (2007) and Culver and Pipan (2009) conclude that the
energy input in terms of numbers of organisms from ceiling drips, consisting mostly
of copepod crustaceans of 1mm or less in body size, is insignificant compared to
the quantity of DOC in drips. This conclusion does not take into account the possi-
bility of active movement of potentially large numbers of organisms of large body
size, up to 10mm in body length for S. emarginatus in the Knapp and Fong (1999)
study, between the epikarst and the cave stream via means other than drips. My
experience from collecting live amphipods from cave streams is that S. emarginatus
must be separated immediately from Gammarus minus, another amphipod of about
the same body size whose primary habitat is the cave stream, because most speci-
mens of S. emarginatus would be quickly eaten by G. minus if both are left in the
same container. Thus, it is reasonable to assume that S. emarginatus, which likely
originates from the epikarst, is a high-quality energy source for G. minus in the cave
stream habitat itself. In general, whether the biomass of organisms of epikarst origin
214 D.W. Fong
is or is not a significant component of the allochthonous energy input in addition to

DOC from the epikarst, the importance of epikarst water as a source of energy for
the aquatic cave fauna cannot be overemphasized.
9.3.1.3Humidity
Although the previous sections emphasize the role of water as a vector of energy
into subterranean systems, the presence of water itself is obviously vital to the cave
fauna. This is self-evident for the aquatic cave fauna. Many terrestrial cave species
show a reduction in the thickness of the cuticle. The interesting question of whether
this is an adaptation to the high humidity of caves or an adaptation to metabolic
economy or simply a result of relaxed selection is not yet settled. In any case, a thin-
ner cuticle clearly results in increased water permeability and thus a heightened
sensitivity to desiccation (Howarth 1980). Some cave beetles in both North America
and Europe have elaborated, specialized organs functioning as humidity detectors
(Peck 1977; Accordi and Sbordoni 1978), ensuring that they can seek out areas of
high humidity and suffer low rate of water loss. Thus, water entering subterranean
systems either from sinking streams or the epikarst also serve to maintain a high
humidity in cave passages, which is vital to the survival of some, if not most, of the
terrestrial cave fauna. Again, it is common experience among speleobiologists that
both the diversity and abundance of the terrestrial fauna are lower in drier than in
moister cave passages.
9.3.2Transport by Movement of Animals
A variety of animals actively move in and out of caves from the surface environ-
ment. Some are accidental or occasional visitors to caves, such as snakes, raccoons
and wood rats, while others migrate between the cave and the surface on a daily or
seasonal basis, such as the cave crickets, in Robber Baron Cave, and bats. To differ-
ent extents, all these animals bring energy resources from surface habitats into
caves, but, clearly, bats and crickets are major vectors. The quantity and type of
resources brought into caves differ among different groups of organisms.
Guano deposited by animals in caves after foraging outside is a major mecha-
nism of energy delivery. In Mammoth Cave, for example, sources of guano range
from animals such as unpredictable raccoons to highly predictable cave crickets,
and each type of guano is associated with different specialized communities
adapted to differences in ease of physical processing and assimilation of the guano
(Poulson 2005).
In addition to guano, another important mechanism of energy delivery into caves
by cave crickets is the laying of eggs in caves. As detailed below, some beetles have
become specialized cricket egg predators, relying only on cricket eggs during parts
of the year.
9.3.2.1Bats
Many bat species forage outside at night and return to caves during the day, often
forming large roosts, both in the tropics and the temperate regions. Many species
also form large seasonal aggregations in caves, either as maternity colonies or win-
ter hibernation colonies. The dominant form of resource they produce inside caves
is guano. Caves harboring large bat colonies can receive an impressive amount of
guano. About 20 million Mexican free-tailed bats, Tardarida brasiliensis, deposit 5
104 kg of guano per year in Bracken Cave in Texas (Barbour and Davis 1969).
Even smaller colonies, such as the 3,000 gray bats, Myotis grisescens, forming a
maternity colony in Cave Springs Cave in Arkansas produce 9kg of guano each
year (Graening and Brown 2003). The importance of bat guano as a high-quality
energy resource for cave invertebrates, especially in the tropics, is underscored by
the existence of whole communities specializing in bat guano with complex trophic
structures and many species showing different degrees of troglomorphy (Deharveng
and Bedos 2000). The importance of bat guano as an energy source for the fauna in
a temperate zone cave is illustrated by an inadvertent experiment in Shelta Cave in
the City of Huntsville, Alabama, as described by Elliott (2000). The cave harbored
a large colony of the gray bat, M. grisescens, as well as a rich and abundant aquatic
invertebrate fauna including three species of crayfish and a shrimp along with
amphipod and isopod crustaceans. Because of potential threats from encroaching
urban development, the National Speleological Society bought the property around
the cave entrance, and the entrance itself was gated in 1968 to protect the cave and
its fauna. Unfortunately, the bats abandoned the cave within 2 years, partially
because the gate was ill-designed for transit by bats and because of accelerated
urban development, and did not return even after a bat-appropriate gate was installed
in 1981. The subsequent demise of the aquatic cave invertebrate fauna was well
documented in a series of studies (see Summary in McGregor et al. 1997). It is
impossible to tease apart the specific effect of the absence of bats and the diffuse
effects of increasing urban development, such as nonpoint source pollution, on the
decline of the cave fauna; but the sudden cessation of a once reliable influx of a
high-quality energy resource in large quantity in the form of bat guano is very likely
a major contributing factor. Recently, Fenolio and Graening (2009) documented a
large congregation of the aquatic isopod crustacean Caecidotea macropropoda in a
cave in Oklahoma. They estimated 10,00015,000 individuals forming a mat in a
pool that was 3m in diameter and less than 10cm at the deepest point. The cave has
accumulated much guano deposited by a seasonal maternity colony of the gray bat,
M. grisecens, and the pool bottom was covered with decaying bat guano. They also
cited previous work indicating this isopod was extremely abundant back in 1982 in
this cave, and that tens of thousands of the cave flatworm, Dendrocoelopsis ameri-
cana, were observed in the same cave in 1950. Clearly, the bat guano in this temper-
ate zone cave has supported highly abundant populations of at least two aquatic
troglomorphic species for a long time.
In situations where bat guano is scattered rather than concentrated, no special-
ized guano community exists and the guano is certainly utilized by the usual cave
216 D.W. Fong
fauna. The importance of this scattered resource, similar to particulate organic

matter on cave stream banks, however, has not been quantified.
Bats, of course, leave more than just guano in caves. Bodies of dead bats and
some newborn bats fall onto cave floors, and underneath large bat roosts especially
in the tropics, they are quickly consumed by scavengers that are part of the guano
communities (Deharveng and Bedos 2000). Where bats do not form concentrated
colonies and specialized guano communities are absent, it is assumed that dead bats
represent a spatially and temporally unpredictable, high-quality energy resource uti-
lized by the subterranean fauna.
9.3.2.2Bats and White-Nose Syndrome
Since it was first noticed in early 2006 in a cave in Northern New York, a fungus has
devastated winter hibernation colonies of several bat species in the Northeastern
U.S. (Blehert etal. 2009) and has subsequently spread to other states. This disease
is termed bat white-nose syndrome (WNS) because the white fungus appears most
prominently on the noses of infected bats. The fungus is identified as Geomyces
destructans, a new species genetically related to but is morphologically distinct
from other species of the wide-spread genus Geomyces (Gargas et al. 2009).
Although the origin of WNS is unknown, its effect is dramatic, killing up to 75% of
bats in infected sites (Blehert etal. 2009). Appropriately, there are much ongoing
research and management concerns targeting WNS. Management practices are
focused primarily on monitoring of unaffected sites to detect the spread of WNS,
and on prevention of the spread of WNS to new sites via restriction of human traffic,
although there is no evidence indicating any new WNS infestation directly resulting
from movement of humans (Aley 2010). Management of WNS is reasonably con-
centrated mainly on bats in caves. However, Aley (2010) indicates that the other
members of the cave fauna must not be neglected. Because bats are important vec-
tors bringing in allocththouous energy into caves, the drastic reduction in bat popu-
lation sizes means that the invertebrate cave fauna in infected caves will probably
also suffer from the effects of WNS well into the future. Management of WNS
should include practices that recognize the fauna of the entire subterranean ecosys-
tem in addition to the bats. A possible management practice to buffer the inverte-
brate cave fauna in infected caves may involve artificially supplying energy into
these caves in the form of guano harvested from laboratory colonies of small mam-
malian insectivores such as shrews.
9.3.2.3Crickets
Large aggregates of cave crickets of the family Rhaphidophoridae are commonly

encountered just inside cave entrances, especially during the warmer months, in
many parts of the world (Culver and Pipan 2009). They move out at night to forage
on the surface under appropriate temperature and humidity conditions and may
range up to 100m from the cave entrance, return before dawn and stay in caves
during the day (Taylor etal. 2005; Lavoie etal. 2007). These crickets are omnivo-
rous, feeding on a variety of foods and bring energy resources into subterranean
systems in two main forms: guano and eggs. Poulson (1992) shows that cricket
guano is the major energy base for many terrestrial cave invertebrates in Mammoth
Cave, Kentucky. Cricket guano is likely the critical energy base for the invertebrate
community in Robber Baron Cave. In particular, cricket eggs are extremely impor-
tant resources for a number of cave beetles in the U.S. During the reproductive
season, cave crickets insert their eggs with their ovipositors in holes up to 10mm
deep in sandy substrate. Several species of cave beetles, including Rhadine subter-
ranea (Mitchell 1968), Darlingtonea kentuckensis (Marsh 1968) and Neaphaenops
tellkampfi (Kane etal. 1975), are specialized predators equipped to dig up the cricket
eggs and consume the contents. The importance of eggs of the cave cricket,
Hadenoecus subterraneus, as an energy source for N. tellkampfi is illustrated by the
following: Firstly, the average dry weight of a cricket egg, at 2.26g, is about 67%
of the average dry weight of an entire beetle (Studier 1996); secondly, after consum-
ing a single cricket egg, it takes about 50days for a beetle to return to its prefeeding
weight (Griffith and Poulson 1993); lastly, cricket eggs are the only food available
to the beetle during the cricket egg-laying season (Kane and Poulson 1976). Without
doubt, in this situation, any reduction in egg production by H. subterraneus will
have a detrimental effect on the abundance of N. tellkampfi.
The crickets leave more than just guano and eggs in caves. It is not uncommon to
encounter dead crickets covered in fungi within cave passages. Certainly, these are
utilized by other cave organisms, although the quantitative importance of this
resource to the cave fauna is unknown. In addition, the newly hatched and very
young cricket nymphs may be important prey for predators such as cave spiders and
adults and larvae of other cave beetle species as well as cricket egg specialists.
There is no evidence that any of the subterranean species in Robber Baron Cave
specialize on cricket eggs. It is very likely, however, that newly hatched and very
young cricket nymphs are important prey for the endangered harvestman and spider
in the cave.
9.3.3Passive Transport by Gravity or Wind
Some openings to subterranean systems, such as open air pits, sinkholes and cave
entrances located at the base of steep slopes, can receive large amounts of leaves
and other plant material or aerially dispersing arthropods by gravity and wind. Most
of this fallout usually accumulates near the openings, but depending on the geome-
try of the opening, some of this fallout may be blown deep into the subterranean
system. There has been little research to quantify or to determine the quality of this
potential resource for the terrestrial subterranean fauna. The quality of the plant
matter as an energy source will depend on how rapidly it is colonized by fungal and
bacterial decomposers, which, for any given temperature, should be positively
218 D.W. Fong
correlated with the moisture content of the fallout material. In temperate regions
with ample precipitation, a high rate of colonization is expected, but the high mois-
ture content and, thus, the tendency to form clumps and the heavy weight of this
material should reduce the distance it can be blown further underground. Thus, the
delivery of this material deeper into the subterranean system in temperate regions
will depend more on actions of other agents, such as flowing water or active move-
ment of organisms that have initially utilized this resource near the opening. In arid
regions, this relatively dry and light-weight material may be blown far underground
by wind but a low rate of colonization by decomposers and thus low energy quality
is expected.
Aerially dispersing arthropods may be a better source of high-quality energy
fallout in arid regions. Ashmole and Ashmole (2000) estimated 40mg in dry weight
of arthropods per m2 per day falling on a volcanic field underlain by a vast expanse
of mesocaverns. They suggest that terrestrial species occupying mesocaverns,
including many with troglomorphic features, actively forage for such fallout on the
surface when physical conditions are favorable, such as lower temperature and thus
higher relative humidity during the night than during the day.
Although some animals labeled as accidentals become trapped after having
actively moved into caves, many do fall into caves due to real accidents. It is not
uncommon to find at the base of vertical cave entrances emaciated but living,
decomposing carcasses, and bones of small vertebrates such as frogs and snakes to
large ones such as foxes or deer or even cattle. These are temporally unpredictable,
high-quality energy resource in large quantity, but there is no published study exam-
ining their relative importance in the energy budget of the subterranean fauna.
9.3.3.1Fallout and Phreatic Habitats
There is indirect evidence supporting the importance of fallout for a population of

the cirolanid isopod crustacean, Antrolana lira. This species inhabits phreatic waters
under the Shenandoah Valley in the Eastern U.S.A. (Holsinger etal. 1994) and may
be captured with baited traps placed in wells or in caves with access to the water
table. The population sizes are small, with ten or usually fewer individuals captured
per sampling attempt at most of the 19 sites where it has been collected, including
several sites where only one specimen has ever been collected in spite of repeated
sampling attempts (Hutchins and Orndorff 2009; Hutchins etal. 2010). The excep-
tion is at Stegers Fissure, where the estimated population size is two to three orders
of magnitude higher than at other sites (Fong in prep.). The Stegers Fissure site is
also the only site where the water table is open to the surface, with two vertical, 1m
diameter openings at the base of a rock outcrop next to a steep hillside allowing
leaves and other organic material to fall in. The surface of the water table is about
5m below the opening and is usually obscured by a mat of plant material, including
tree branches. This isopod seems an opportunistic predator preying on any organism
that falls in rather than utilizing the copious amount of plant fallout material. Collins
and Holsinger (1981) found remains of insect cuticles in the gut contents of several
specimens. Raw shrimp is the usual bait used to trap A. lira, and my experience at
this site is that two shrimp abdomens, each about 8cm in length and 2cm in diam-
eter, may attract about 200300 specimens, and the bait pieces are usually com-
pletely consumed after 2h. There is no other prey for A. lira as it coexists in this
system with only one other crustacean, the amphipod Stygobromus stegerorum,
which is only 3mm in length compared to up to 15mm for A. lira. The large popula-
tion size of A. lira at this site, and only at this site, is probably a result of occasional
fallout of high-quality energy resource in the form of surface organisms, effectively
raising the carrying capacity at this site by orders of magnitude compared to other
sites where fallout is absent. Because phreatic waters are extremely nutrient-poor
(Culver and Pipan 2009), fallout, when available, may be a critical source of energy
for organisms inhabiting this habitat.
9.3.4Tree Roots
Tree roots commonly penetrate into shallow caves, usually in the form of long
strands of aerial roots hanging from cave ceilings. Condensation forming on the
roots from the highly humid cave air is a source of water for the trees, and this is
especially important in arid regions. In some situations, such as lava tube caves, tree
roots are the only stable source of high-quality energy for cave organisms (Howarth
1983). A variety of cave invertebrate specialists feeding on these aerial roots, includ-
ing planthoppers, terrestrial isopods and even a moth have been described from lava
tube caves in Hawaii, the Cape Verde Islands and the Canary Islands (Howarth
1972; Oromi and Martin 1992; Hoch et al. 1999). These specialists are in turn
preyed upon by other cave organisms. Thus tree roots form the critical energy base
supporting a whole ecosystem of diverse organisms in many lava tube caves
(Stone etal. 2005).
In some shallow caves in parts of Australia, with low air humidity and little soil
moisture, cave streams are an important source of water for some trees. Aquatic
roots of these trees penetrate into the cave stream, forming dense, compact mats of
fine rootlets. A diverse assemblage of organisms depend on the energy supplied by
these root mats, including amphipods, isopods, leeches, and even fish (Jasinska and
Knott 2000). Root mat communities generally support more species with higher
abundances than communities based on aerial roots (Jasinska etal. 1996).
9.4Conclusions
It is unsurprising that, except for those based on chemoautotrophy, subterranean

ecosystems are ultimately dependent on the surface ecosystem for energy. That they
are intimately connected to surface ecosystems in myriad ways is less obvious.
Effective management of the subterranean fauna thus requires holistic approaches
220 D.W. Fong
that emphasize these continuities between the surface and the subsurface.
Maintenance and protection of the physical integrity of the subterranean environ-
ment is obviously an important management practice, yet this must go hand in hand
with the same for the surface environment and the paths that connect them.
The extent of the surface environment that must be comanaged with the subter-
ranean environment will depend on the nature of the regional setting. In situations
where sinking streams provide the main input of organic material into the subsur-
face, the scale of focus must be at the level of the drainage basin. It is uncommon,
however, that an entire surface drainage basin in a karst area is protected and
extremely rare that one is protected as part of a plan to manage the associated sub-
surface ecosystem. Curiously, as pointed out above, maintaining the integrity of a
surface drainage basin may be less important for the aquatic subterranean fauna but
more so for the terrestrial subterranean fauna that patrol the riparian zone for organic
matter carried in by sinking streams.
In situations where the main input into the subterranean ecosystem is via vertical
movement of water, the focus of protection must be at the scale of the recharge area
of the epikarst. The epikarst is beginning to be recognized as a subterranean ecosys-
tem in itself with a community of endogenous species. It is also documented to be
the major source of dissolved organic carbon needed to support the biofilm which is
the base of the food web for the aquatic subterranean fauna, especially in small,
upper-level cave streams. The physical extent of the recharge area of an epikarst
zone is difficult to delineate; however, at the very least, one or more epikarst zones
must map onto the subterranean drainage basin as indicated by surveyed cave pas-
sages underneath. Fortunately, extensive archives of such information exist and
should be available to resource managers.
In arid to semi-arid regions, animals, such as bats and crickets as discussed
above, are the major vectors of energy to the underground. The importance of bats
is well recognized, especially for tropical and semiarid subterranean ecosystems.
There is evidence indicating bat guano may also be an important energy source in
some temperate zone caves. The importance of crickets is beginning to be docu-
mented. More studies similar to that of Taylor etal. (2005) are needed to understand
the foraging areas of crickets and fully appreciate their role in supporting subterra-
nean ecosystems. Clearly, many organisms may serve similar roles in different set-
tings, and the physical extent of the connected surface environment will differ. The
one constant is the integrity of the entrance to the subterranean systems, such as
cave entrances. Cave entrances are also potential points of conflict among different
management goals, such as ones focused on protecting archeological, geological,
historical or other resources by keeping humans out with a gate ill designed for
transit by energy vectors.
Of course, the mechanisms of energy transfer, as discussed, for any one setting
are not exclusive to each. All the different paths of energy transfer linking the sur-
face and the subsurface likely occur in any one setting but differ in relative impor-
tance. Because some of these paths often have low apparency, recognizing the
important links that may be impaired for a given situation is critical to the creation
of management plans to protect subterranean fauna at risk. Repairing any such
impacted energy links may be extremely effective management practices in light of

the metabolic adaptation of the subterranean fauna. Their low metabolic rates may
allow some of them to persist for a period of interrupted energy input and slowly
recover upon restoration of the normal energy flow. Once a subterranean system has
been quarried away or drowned behind an impoundment, it is gone and unrecover-
able. However, the potential resilience of some subterranean fauna to restricted energy
input means that many of the impacted communities have a likelihood of recovery.
Karst resource managers just need to recognize the situation and make it apparent.
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Simon KS, Benfield EF (2001) Leaf and wood breakdown in cave streams. J N Am Benthol Soc
20:550563
Simon KS, Benfield EF (2002) Ammonium retention and whole stream metabolism in cave
streams. Hydrobiologia 582:3139
Simon KS, Benfield EF, Macko SA (2003) Food web structure and the role of epilithic films in
cave streams. Ecology 84:23952406
Simon KS, Pipan T, Culver DC (2007) A conceptual model of the flow and distribution of organic
carbon in caves. J Cave Karst Stud 69:279284
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Conserv 8:13191338
Sket B (2008) Can we agree on an ecological classification of subterranean animals? J Nat Hist
42:15491563
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White WB (eds.) Encyclopedia of caves. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 477484
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and their egg predator, Neaphaenops tellkampfi. Amer Midl Nat 136:101109
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and ecological synthesis of the world fauna inhabiting subterranean waters (including the
marine interstitial). E.J. Brill, Leiden, pp 734740
Taylor SJ, Krejca J, Denight ML (2005) Foraging and range habitat use of Ceuthophilus secretus
(Orthoptera Rhaphidophoridae), a key trogloxene in central Texas cave communities. Am Midl
Nat 154:97114
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Williams PW (2008) The role of the epikarst in karst and cave hydrogeology: a review. Int
J Speleol 37:110
Chapter 10
Managing Microbial Communities in Caves
Diana E. Northup
Abstract Microbial communities in caves vary from striking microbial mats

observed in many lava tubes worldwide, to occasional colonies on the wall, to invisible
biofilms on rock walls and ceilings of caves, to microbial end products, such as
manganese oxides. The investigations of the last decade, using culture-independent
techniques in which we extract DNA from environmental samples and sequence
clones to identify organisms present based on their genetic sequence, have revealed
a wealth of microbial species never before described. These microorganisms represent
a minimally explored treasure trove of organisms that can be impacted by the actions
of humans living above caves and exploring within caves. The degree to which we
impact cave microbial communities depends on the nature of the cave. Mammoth
Cave in Kentucky, USA, and other similar caves, have rivers or streams running
through major portions of the cave. Water flowing into caves may either bring
plumes of pollutants to many parts of the cave and/or may help to wash away some
impact caused by human visitation. Arid-land caves, such as Lechuguilla Cave in
New Mexico, USA, that lack much in the way of flowing water, may be subjected
to other kinds of impacts. Several strategies have been suggested to lower the impact
that we explorers, scientists, and people living above caves have on cave microbial
communities in order to preserve them for future study. Cave microbial communities
can represent an extremely valuable resource that is worth protecting by modifying
our behavior in visiting and living above caves.
D.E. Northup (*)

Biology Department, University of New Mexico, MSC03 2020,
87131 Albuquerque, NM, USA

226 D.E. Northup
10.1Introduction
Microorganisms in caves range from completely invisible to highly colorful microbial

mats (Fig.10.1) that line the walls of lava tubes to microbial waste products, such
as iron oxides. It is hard to appreciate and value something that you cannot even see
(Fig. 10.2), but there are many compelling reasons to protect and conserve cave
microorganisms and their habitat, including the immense amount of novel diversity
that we are finding, the roles that microorganisms play in the formation of speleothems
in caves, and the potential compounds of biomedical and biotechnological use that
cave microorganisms may produce.
In the last two decades, we have seen a major increase in research concerning the
role that microorganisms play in the dissolution of bedrock and other surfaces and the
precipitation of secondary mineral deposits (Barton and Northup 2007; Northup and
Lavoie 2001). New discoveries of sulfur oxidizing bacteria in caves are revealing
microbial roles in cycling sulfur in caves (Fig. 10.3) and enlargement of cave
passages through sulfuric acid dissolution, as well as a possible role in sulfuric acid
driven speleogenesis (Engel etal. 2004; Hose etal. 2000; Macalady etal. 2007).
Fig.10.1 Colorful microbial mats adorn the walls of many Azorean lava tubes. The photo on the
left gives an overview of a yellow microbial mat, while the photo on the right shows a closeup of
yellow microbial colonies growing on organic ooze on a basalt formation. Photos courtesy of
Kenneth Ingham
10 Managing Microbial Communities in Caves 227
Fig.10.2 Microscopic organisms that live on cave walls in limestone caves and lava tubes present
an amazing array of shapes when viewed with a scanning electron microscope. (a) Putative bacterial
filamentous morphology was found in a gold mineral-like deposit from Four Windows Cave, El
Malpais National Monument, New Mexico, USA. (b, c) Rods, filaments, beads-on-a-string, and fuzzy
coccoid morphologies were observed in white microbial mats from an Azorean lava tube on the
island of Terceira, Portugal. (d) Fuzzy cocci and segmented filaments were revealed in a sample from
a Cape Verde lava tube. Photomicrographs by Michael Spilde, Penelope Boston, and Diana Northup
Spilde etal. (2005) have shown a microbial role in the production of ferromanganese
deposits in arid-land caves, where little organic carbon exists to fuel microbial
processes (Fig.10.4). These and other studies are showing key geomicrobiological
roles for microorganisms in caves. Although much remains to be learned about the
microbial role in energy transfer and elemental cycling, some evidence suggests
that microorganisms facilitate the transfer of energy between cave life and organic
carbon and serve as food for the cave life (Simon et al. 2007). Perhaps, most
exciting is the amount of novel biodiversity that culture-independent molecular
studies are revealing in caves (e.g., Barton etal. 2004; Gonzalez etal. 2006; Northup
etal. 2003). Some of these novel (and not so novel) species may produce chemical
compounds that are very useful to humans, such as new antibiotics to replace those to
which bacteria are now resistant (Dapkevicius, Terrazas and Northup, unpub. data).
The geomicrobiological studies (Barton and Northup 2007) and those of novel
228 D.E. Northup
Fig.10.3 Pendant acidic

microbial structures, termed
snottites, hang from the walls
of sulfur caves such as Cueva
de Villa Luz in Tabasco,
Mexico. Photo courtesy of
Kenneth Ingham
Fig.10.4 Red, brown, and pink ferromanganese deposits, which contain varied microbial com-
munities, adorn the walls of Spider Cave, Carlsbad Caverns National Park, New Mexico. Photo
courtesy of Kenneth Ingham
microbial biodiversity also serve to aid our understanding of how to detect life on
other planets, such as Mars, where life is likely to shelter from harsh surface
conditions in the subsurface (Boston etal. 2001). Thus, our research emphasizes the
critical nature of cave microbial communities and suggests that their conservation is
vital. However, several threats to cave microbial populations exist.
10.2Threats to Microbial Populations
Cave microorganisms are susceptible to a variety of threats, including human

visitation, soil compaction, pollutant spills, cave restoration, habitation above caves,
and organic carbon enrichment. Whether microorganisms reside in arid-land caves,
or those in areas with more rainfall, affects the degree to which these threats are an
issue for microbial populations. Rivers and streams running through caves can carry
away pollutants and dampen the effects of various threats; however, rivers and
streams can also be the vehicle for introducing pollutants. Such pollutants can
have a major impact of aquatic microbial communities within caves with potential
subsequent impacts on the invertebrate communities that feed on these microbial
communities. Some threats are common across this spectrum, while others are more
problematic in arid-land caves.
10.2.1Organic Carbon and Other Nutrient Enrichment

from Human Visitation
Arid-land and caves are much more subject to the effects of organic carbon enrichment
and other impacts that result from human visitation of caves due to their oligotrophic
nature. When we visit caves, we shed tens of thousands of skin cells, many of which
are life rafts for our own microbial inhabitants, as well as hair and fibers and mud
from our clothing. If we are sick and vomit in the cave, we greatly enrich organic
carbon in the habitat. Longer cave trips may bring the issues of urine and feces
deposition (Fig. 10.5). While cricket and beetle feces are a natural part of the
ecosystem, human feces are not. Humans obviously deposit much more feces than
a cricket and human feces has almost 50% microorganisms. Urine can lead to the
buildup of harmful compounds that change the microbial ecosystem (Lavoie 1995).
Most cave visits are several hours in duration and often involve eating. Dropping
crumbs of food in the cave may not seem much of an impact, but to the microbial
communities it represents a large infusion of organic carbon, which may, over time,
fuel the growth of weedy heterotrophic organisms such as the fungus pictured in
Fig. 10.6. These microorganisms, which may be transplants from the surface,
may then outcompete the resident microorganisms, if organic carbon levels
throughout the cave have increased. Where native microbial populations reside
in oligotrophic habitats within caves, we may see the most profound effects.
230 D.E. Northup
Fig.10.5 A sign warns against depositing feces in the cave
Fig.10.6 Human visitors dropped a jelly bean, which fueled the growth of microorganisms in this
lava tube. Photo courtesy of Kenneth Ingham
Oligotrophic microorganisms do not simply get fatter when you feed them more;
they often die off, allowing more surface-adapted microorganisms to take their place.
Koch (1997) suggests that organisms in low nutrient environments grow at very slow
rates and that cultivation studies using standard amounts of nutrients simply provoke
death, which suggests that carbon enrichment of the cave, may prove harmful to the
native micro biota. Thus, human visitation can introduce new organic matter and exotic
microorganisms into caves, which may harm native microbial populations.
Some organic carbon enrichment originates from the surface in a variety of ways
(Fig. 10.7). Sinkholes have long been a favorite place for the dumping of trash.
Fig.10.7 Sinkholes are convenient trash dumps; sewage pipes occasionally penetrate caves; and
land use above caves, such as grazing, can provide higher levels of nutrients entering caves. Photos
courtesy of Kenneth Ingham
232 D.E. Northup
Besides being a source of organic carbon enrichment into caves, some trash brings
toxic chemicals which may harm microbial communities, or in some cases may
stimulate the growth of microorganisms that can utilize chemical substances that are
toxic to most life forms.
Sewage leakage into caves can be a major source of organic carbon and other
nutrient enrichment. In some rural communities, sewage pipes have been known to
penetrate caves (Fig.10.7), dumping raw sewage into the cave. In other instances,
cave visitor centers have had inadvertent sewage leaks into the caves when the aging
sewer system cracked and failed without being detected for a prolonged period of
time. This led to the growth of bracket fungi in one case. Leaks such as this, invari-
ably test positive for fecal coliforms and pose a health hazard to cave visitors.
10.2.2Physical Threats
As we walk through areas of the cave with soil or detrital material, we cause
compaction of the soil, which decreases the available oxygen. Some organisms may
be killed outright by this physical compaction. Because of the lack of substantial
weathering in caves, such compaction takes a very long time to reverse. Some
visitors draw their names and dates in microbial mats (Fig.10.8), eliminating micro-
organisms in the path of their finger and leaving behind their own microorganisms
and skin oils (Varela 2009). Some of the names and dates that we have observed in
lava tubes have only minimal microbial re-growth after two decades.
10.2.3Threats from Imported Exotic Microorganisms
Human visitors to caves shed many of their associated bacteria and fungi as
they walk, climb, and crawl through caves. Our studies (Lavoie and Northup 2006;
unpublished data) suggest that human associated bacteria (e.g., Staphylococcus
aureus) are preferentially found in areas with more human impact (Fig. 10.9).
Because fungi produce copious numbers of spores that travel easily through the
air, they are often found in equal measure in low and high impact of more open
caves. If the cave is given time to rest (i.e., no human visitation), and we limit the
amount of organic carbon buildup, these exotic populations generally die off.
However, some exotic populations of bacteria and fungi, brought in by humans and
arthropods, can persist and damage cultural artworks, such as those found in the
caves of France and Spain (Dupont etal. 2007; Jurado etal. 2008; Bastian etal.
2010 and references therein). Recently, a newly described fungus, Geomyces
destructans (Gargas etal. 2009), has been hypothesized to contribute to the death of
more than a million bats in the eastern United States. It is currently unknown whether
the fungus is native to caves or whether humans have transported the fungus into
the cave; research is ongoing to determine the cause of the massive die-off and
Fig.10.8 Human visitors write their names (top image) in the microbial communities of these
Azorean lava tubes, or leave finger smear marks behind when touching the walls (bottom image).
Photos courtesy of Kenneth Ingham
a b
Percentages of Presence/Absence of S. Precentages of Presence/Absence of S.
aureus in High Impact Sites aureus in Low Impact Sites
28% 33%
Absence
Absence
Presence
Presence
67%
72%
Fig.10.9 (a, b) Relative proportion of Staphlococcus aureus in high (a) and low (b) human impact
areas of Carlsbad Cavern, Carlsbad Caverns National Park, New Mexico, USA. Graphs courtesy
of Jessica Snider
234 D.E. Northup
Persistence of E. coli Over Time in Five Types of

Cave Soils
per ml (log scale)

Bacteria Cells
Number of 1000000000000
1000000000 Gypsum
1000000
Sand
1000
Spcyst
1
Mdcy
0
10
31
51
72
93
5
11
Moon
Time (in days)
Fig. 10.10 E. coli inoculated into five different soil types form Carlsbad Cavern and Spider
Cave in New Mexico, show different patterns of persistence over time. Graph courtesy of Amaka
Nwagbologu
illustrates how little we actually know about the role that humans play in changing
the makeup of microbial populations in caves.
One conservation technique, designed to protect the pristine pools of Lechuguilla
Cave in Carlsbad Caverns National Park, did not have the desired outcome. Explorers
and land managers introduced plastic tubing into pools designated as drinking water
sources in order to circumvent the need to dip water bottles in the pools, thereby
hopefully preventing the contamination of the pools. However, the tubing used
contained plasticizers that leaked into the pool, promoting the growth of native
bacteria that grew to visible streamers within the tubing, putatively due to the
enrichment of organic carbon from the plasticizers. This population explosion of a
native bacterial population may have supported or introduced E. coli population
growth in the pool (Hunter etal. 2004). In response to our study, Barton and Pace
(2005) raised the issue of whether E. coli would persist in the cave environment.
We believed that it would (Hunter etal. 2005), and subsequently conducted experi-
ments with cave soils inoculated with E. coli. These studies demonstrate that E. coli
can persist in a variety of cave soils at cave temperatures for extended periods of
time (Fig.10.10). E. coli appears to persist in clay soils, in particular. More research
is needed into how human associated microorganisms affect microbial populations
in caves and the extent to which they persist in the cave environment.
10.2.4Threats from Cave Restoration Efforts
Our well intended efforts to restore and clean caves can lead to many problems for
microbial communities as detailed in Boston etal. (2005). Some restoration efforts
use chemicals that can harm cave macro- and microbiota. Chlorine bleach is one of the
major hazardous chemicals that is often used in restoration work. The problem with
chlorine bleach comes from its nature as a strong oxidant, which can lead to a major
decimation of organic matter and the death of invertebrates and microorganisms.
Techniques such as pressure water sprays also can be harmful from two perspectives.
The high pressure water can remove and kill biofilms. Secondly, depending on the
source and nature of the water, it can introduce non-native microorganisms into the
cave and may be acidic in nature. Another consideration in cave restoration is how
to clean cave pearl nests. There is some evidence that microorganisms may play a
role in cave pearl formation, or at least be associated with cave pearls. Removing
the water from around them, or handling the pearls themselves, may either remove
needed nutrients or may damage biofilms on the pearls. Extreme care should be
taken in cleaning cave pearl areas until we know more about their formation. Thus,
careful consideration of what techniques can be used in restoration, without major
harm to microbial communities, is essential.
A major target of restoration work is algae and other organisms whose growth
is associated with lights in show caves. This growth, which can be from algae,
cyanobacteria, or other microbial partners, is often quite luxuriant (Fig. 10.11).
Olson (2005) has recommended the use of lighting that employs wavelengths that
are utilized extensively by the photosynthetic organisms growing in lampenflora.
Fig.10.11 Show caves, such

as this lava tube in Hawaii,
utilize lights to guide visitors
to the caves. These lights
result in the growth of
lampenflora. Photo courtesy
of Kenneth Ingham
236 D.E. Northup
Both Olsen (2005) and Mulec and Kosi (2009) offer additional strategies for
controlling the growth of lampenflora, while lessening harm to native microbiota.
10.3Is Protection Possible During Active Exploration

and Scientific Investigation?
Should microbial communities in caves be protected at the expense of human

access to some caves? Should we entertain the idea of creating microbial
preserves that protect critical microbial populations within certain areas of caves?
At one end of the spectrum is the case of Lascaux Cave in France, which houses
some of the worlds most fabulous cave paintings. Microbial damage to the paintings,
caused in part because of human visitation, led to the closure of the cave in order
to protect the paintings and many investigations and mitigation strategies have
ensued (reviewed in Bastian etal. 2010). The seriousness of the deterioration led to
the formation of the International Committee for the Preservation of Lascaux
and the passage of resolutions by UNESCOs World Heritage Committee to work
toward more effective means to save these paintings whose value is beyond measure.
In the case of Lascaux, there is little doubt that extreme preservation is warranted.
But what about less well-known caves, where what is threatened are microbial
communities that are invisible to the unaided eye. Additionally, because the research
is just beginning into how much of an effect that humans have on microbial popula-
tions, it is often hard to make a strong case for making some areas off limits to
human visitation in order to protect microorganisms. What is clear is that we need
to advance the study of microorganisms in caves and the effect that humans have on
cave microbial populations.
In the meantime, there are some relatively simple things that can be done to
protect microbial communities in caves. The success of recommendations for
protecting cave microbial populations rests in the acceptance of the value of these
microbial populations by cavers, scientists, and other visitors to caves. It is hard to
think about and protect things that you cannot even see. If cave microorganisms
are perceived to be a key component of the cave ecosystem, or an effective
treatment for cancer or a new antibiotic that could save a life someday could come
from a cave microorganism, then people may be more willing to go the extra mile for
the microbes. To provide the information to increase motivation for microbial conser-
vation in caves, we will need to conduct more research into what harms and what
protects microbial communities in caves, in conjunction with using that information
to educate cave visitors about the problems and solutions. One of the payoffs is that
educational programs about cave microorganisms often excite and engage cave
visitors the microbes have wonderful stories to tell. We have begun efforts to share
our scanning electron micrographs of cave microbes through the IDEC (Imagery
Data Extraction Collaborative) website (http://idec.aisti.org). This site allows
viewers of all backgrounds to comment on images and the features contained in them
and allows teachers to download images that they can use in their curriculum.
10.4Recommendations
To protect a subject of interest, you need to understand it. Our knowledge of cave
microbial communities is rudimentary, limiting our ability to know precisely what
efforts will protect microbial communities in caves. Several laboratories around the
world are conducting outstanding culture-independent molecular studies of cave
microbial communities to identify novel biodiversity, while others are culturing
cave microorganisms to shed light on their physiology and biochemistry, but we
need more scientists involved. The first molecular study of microbial diversity was
published in 1997, and while many others have followed it, much remains to be
learned. Microbial inventories across gradients of depth, nutrient richness, distance
from entrances, human impact, etc. are needed to compile a more complete picture of
cave microbial communities. Many interesting ecological and evolutionary questions
about cave microorganisms await researchers (e.g., Snider etal. 2009). Thus, research
and inventory are key steps in our efforts to protect cave microorganisms.
Several research questions concerning the impact of humans on microbial commu-
nities in caves require additional research. These include, but are not limited to:
How do we differentiate native microorganisms from non-natives?
What human associated microorganisms can be used as tracers of human impact?
Do human associated microorganisms persist in cave soils and surfaces? Are
they metabolically active?
To what extent does human visitation in caves contribute to organic matter
buildup?
Does organic matter and other nutrient enrichment harm native microbial
communities?
What effects do surface land use practices in karst areas, such as grazing and
other human activities, have on cave microbial communities? Do these activities
result in increased nutrients entering the cave?
What techniques can we employ to decrease organic matter enrichment from
cave visitation and surface activities?
We also need to identify critical microbial habitats within cave and karst areas
that need additional protection. Different kinds of caves are going to vary in
their microbial community makeup and vulnerability. We know little about these
differences as yet.
The following recommendations to conserve microbial habitat and micro
organisms are based on our preliminary investigations and insights into microbial
communities in arid-land caves, but their effectiveness remains to be tested:
Establish trails for movement through the cave. When you establish trails, use
inert markers that do not enrich organic carbon in the cave and do not degrade.
Some forms of flagging have proven to be tasty to microorganisms and inver-
tebrates, such as camel crickets. If there are no marked trails, always walk where
the elephant tracks are.
For caves in which camping is necessary for exploration, establish camps to
concentrate human impact. If at all possible, carry out all human waste.
238 D.E. Northup
Eat over bags to catch all crumbs. What is a crumb to you is a supermarket to a
microorganism.
Clean your clothes and boots between cave trips to prevent cross contamination
of microorganisms between caves.
Brush your hair and beard to remove loose hairs before going caving.
Find ways around pristine pools and avoid dipping anything, including yourself,
in the pool. Establish a clean pitcher for obtaining water. If you use plastic tubing
to siphon water, make sure that the tubing does not leak plasticizers that can
support microbial growth (Hunter etal. 2004).
Educate new cavers about cave microbial communities and the ways to preserve
and protect microbial communities.
Scientists, cavers, and cave managers who find unusual deposits that may be
microbial should consider establishing a microbial preserve to allow investigation
before visitation occurs to any extent. If you see something really intriguing, send a
photo to one of the microbiologists around the world who studies these communities
in caves. Scientists often study a few areas very intensively and may miss key
discoveries. Cavers and scientists should collaborate on microbial discoveries for
mutual benefit. Scientists can excite cavers and visitors by providing engaging
information about their findings through public talks, articles, and other media that
bring the science to the public.
10.5Conclusions
Our knowledge of microbial diversity in caves is growing rapidly and revealing a

wonderland of microorganisms that participate in precipitation and dissolution of
cave mineral deposits that have roles in nutrient cycling within the cave ecosystem,
that may produce chemical substances of great use to humans, and that serve as an
analog for possible life on other planets. These important communities are,
however, threatened by some of our actions when we visit or live and work above
caves. By being conscious of the ways in which we may enrich organic carbon in
caves, explorers, scientists, and landowners can do much to protect microbial
habitats and microorganisms in caves. Are cave microorganisms threatened?
In 1997, Jim Staley wrote the following concerning microorganisms in general:
Our knowledge of microbial diversity, particularly bacterial diversity, is so meager that we
do not yet know if and when most species are threatened.
This is particularly true of cave microorganisms and enhanced efforts to study

and understand cave microbial communities are essential to our being able to
truly answer the question of whether these populations are threatened. Through a
variety of ways, we provide challenges to subterranean microbial populations, but
you are not yet fully informed about what these challenges are and the best ways in
which to mitigate them.
Acknowledgements Many cavers and fellow scientists over the years have provided immeasurable
help in carrying out the various research projects that led to observations that formed the basis
for the ideas contained in this manuscript, and in providing leads to new microbial habitats.
They include, but are not limited to: Kathy Lavoie, for being my partner in many of the research
projects that have begun to explore the impact of human associated bacteria in caves; Amaka
Nwagbologu, Jessica Snider, and Elizabeth Lavoie carried out several of the experiments and
analyzed data; Kenneth Ingham, for all his great microbe photography; Val Hildreth-Werker
and Jim Werker, for photography, engineering, and lots of great research; Andi Hunter, for her
invaluable research into the contamination of pools in Lechuguilla Cave; the staff of the Cave
Resources Office at Carlsbad Caverns National Park, including Dale Pate, Harry Burgess, and Stan
Allison for supporting the project; and Penny Boston and Mike Spilde, with whom I have had
many stimulating conversations about microbes. The Charles A. and Anne Morrow Lindbergh
Foundation, Mammoth Cave National Park, and T & E, Inc. provided financial support for the
human impact studies that were carried out in collaboration with Kathy Lavoie who contributed
substantially to the ideas on human impact. Thanks go to Leslie Melim and Kenneth Ingham for
insightful comments on the manuscript.
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Qumica dos Alimentos, pp 146
Part III
Management of Karst Aquifers
Chapter 11
Management of Carbonate Aquifers
Stephen R.H. Worthington
Abstract Carbonate aquifers are common globally and are widely utilized due to
their high permeability. Advances in recent decades in understanding dissolution
kinetics have facilitated the numerical modeling of dissolutional enhancement of
permeability. This has shown how the dissolution results in an interconnected network
of channels that not only results in high permeability but also in rapid groundwater
velocities. The high permeability often results in a lack of surface water and thick
unsaturated zones, so utilization of groundwater is often from low-elevation springs,
especially in mountainous areas. Groundwater divides may not coincide with
surface-water divides, sometimes resulting in jurisdictional issues over exploitation
of the groundwater. Contaminant transport in carbonates is more complicated than
in porous medium aquifers. Transport through the channels may be several orders
of magnitude faster than transport through the matrix of the rock. This results in
complicated contaminant plumes and makes carbonate aquifers more susceptible to
bacterial contamination than other aquifer types.
11.1Introduction
The approach to managing aquifers in carbonate rocks is (or should be) somewhat
different from that used with porous medium aquifers such as sand due to the different
permeability structure. In carbonate aquifers, dissolution produces a network of
solutionally-enlarged pathways that enhance the permeability. These aquifers are
sometimes called karst aquifers.
There is no widely agreed definition of what constitutes a karst aquifer. A narrow
definition includes only the small fraction of carbonate (limestone and dolostone)
S.R.H. Worthington ()
Worthington Groundwater, 55 Mayfair Avenue, Dundas, ON L9H 3K9, Canada

244 S.R.H. Worthington
aquifers that have known caves, demonstrable turbulent flow in conduits with
diameters >1cm, or a surficial karst landscape. A broad definition focuses on
the permeability structure of the aquifer, defining a karst aquifer as having
self-organized, high-permeability channel networks formed by positive feedback
between dissolution and flow (Worthington and Ford 2009, p. 334). However, it
is less important to classify carbonate aquifers than to recognize the dissolution-
enhanced permeability structure of these aquifers which results in high permeability
and rapid groundwater velocities.
Infiltrating precipitation will usually dissolve 100400mg/L of calcite or dolomite
in a carbonate aquifer. The combination of the high permeability that results from
this dissolution combined with the widespread distribution of carbonate rocks result
in these aquifers being important globally. It has been suggested that at least 20% of
the worlds population depends largely or entirely on groundwater obtained from
carbonate aquifers (Ford and Williams 2007).
This chapter will describe how dissolution enhances permeability in carbonates
and the permeability and porosity characteristics of these aquifers, and then will
address the management issues specific to these aquifers.
11.2Dissolution Processes in Carbonates
There are two aspects to the dissolution of carbonate rocks. These are equilibrium
solubility and kinetic solubility effects.
11.2.1Equilibrium Solubility Effects
Equilibrium solubility refers to the concentration at which a mineral species is

at equilibrium when dissolved in a solute, which in a carbonate aquifer is the
groundwater. At lower concentrations, the solution is under-saturated with respect
to that mineral and so dissolution will occur. At higher concentrations, the solution
is supersaturated with respect to that mineral and so precipitation of the mineral
will occur.
The solubility of calcite in pure water at 25C is 14mg/L. However, its solubility
increases substantially with increased carbon dioxide partial pressure. Concentrations
of CO2 in soil air are typically one to two orders of magnitude greater than in the
atmosphere. This results in groundwater in limestone aquifers typically having
dissolved CaCO3 concentrations of 100400 mg/L. Variations in carbon dioxide
partial pressure are usually the most important factor in determining dissolved
CaCO3 concentrations, but there are several other factors. Calcite solubility decreases
as a function of temperature and the common ion effect. It increases as a function
of pressure, the ionic strength effect, open rather than closed system conditions
and the presence of organic complexes (Ford and Williams 2007, pp. 4562).
11 Management of Carbonate Aquifers 245
While the dissolution potential of CaCO3 is greater for cold than warm environments,
tropical regions typically have more productive soils which produce more dissolved
CO2 and also have higher precipitation amounts, leading to greater amounts of
CaCO3 being dissolved.
11.2.2Kinetic Solubility Effects
Kinetic solubility effects refer to the rate at which reactions occur. It has commonly
been assumed that reaction rates of carbonate and evaporate mineral dissolution are
rapid with respect to groundwater flow. The implication for dissolution is that the
water would come to equilibrium on first coming into contact with a soluble mineral
near the ground surface or shallow in the bedrock, and that no dissolution would
subsequently occur as the water flows through the deeper bedrock, assuming that
the equilibrium solubility does not change. Limited experimental data supported
this conclusion for limestone (Weyl 1958).
This conclusion posed a problem as it appeared that karst aquifers could not
develop. If the groundwater solution comes to full equilibrium on first contact with
the carbonate rock, then there is no further dissolution potential further along
groundwater flow paths. However, karst aquifers clearly do exist and sometimes
have deep flow paths extending to great distances from the infiltration site where
water first comes into contact with the carbonate bedrock. It was therefore clear that
there was an incomplete understanding of dissolution processes.
Further laboratory experiments on the dissolution of calcite provided a resolution
to this conundrum. It was found that dissolution rates diminish precipitously as
chemical equilibrium is approached for calcite and dolomite and so only slowly
reach full equilibrium (Berner and Morse 1974; Morse and Arvidson 2002).
Consequently, most groundwater is slightly undersaturated with respects to calcite
and so dissolution is able to proceed throughout most carbonate aquifers even deep
within the aquifer and distant from the site of infiltration. Dissolution rates can be
expressed as
F = k (1 c / ceq )
n
(11.1)
where F is the dissolution rate, k is the reaction coefficient, c is the solute concentra-
tion, ceq is the equilibrium solute concentration, and n is the reaction order (Dreybrodt
1996). The reaction order far from equilibrium is one, but it increases to between 4
and 11 where c/ceq exceeds 0.60.8 (Eisenlohr etal. 1999).
These results turned conventional wisdom on its head. Rather than karst aquifers
being rather rare, it now became clear that the majority of, if not all, carbonate
aquifers should be karstic, at least in their upper parts where most flow is likely
to be concentrated. This theoretical evidence provided an explanation for the
high permeability that is common in carbonate aquifers. These findings have been
supported by the results from the many numerical simulations of the development
of karst aquifers, which are described in the following section.
11.2.3Reactive Transport Numerical Models of Karst

Aquifer Development
Reactive transport numerical modeling of karst aquifers commenced with one-

dimensional models (Dreybrodt 1990; Palmer 1991). These early models showed
how karstification leads to increases in permeability of several orders of magnitude
over periods of 103106 years. Early two-dimensional models with small grids
(i.e., a small number of large dimension cells) showed how preferential flow would
result in most of the flow becoming focused on one main channel. Many of the early
papers had simulated recharge at sinking streams, where the water is often signifi-
cantly under-saturated with respect to calcite. However, Dreybrodt (1996) showed that
karstification occurs even where there is just percolation recharge to a carbonate
aquifer. In the late 1990s, larger grids (with a large number of smaller dimension cells)
were employed that gave more insights to competition between different pathways.
Dreybrodt etal. (2005) systematically examined many aspects of dissolution of
limestone, using percolation networks and networks with log-normal aperture distri-
butions and large grids (10,000 nodes). Liedl etal. (2003) developed a numerical model
based on MODFLOW, adding subroutines to simulate dissolution and to simulate
turbulent flow. The latter subroutine was subsequently added to the US Geological
Survey release of MODFLOW 2005 (Shoemaker etal. 2008; Reimann and Hill 2009).
Evidence from numerical modeling, preferential flow directly observed in wells,
and the distribution of caves supports the concept that carbonate aquifers vary
between macrokarstic and microkarstic end members (Worthington and Ford 2009).
Macrokarstic development commonly occurs where there are sinking streams;
recharge is substantially undersaturated with respect to calcite, which results in a
small number of large channels and in some instances caves. Microkarstic develop-
ment is common where there is percolation recharge; most dissolution occurs in the
upper few meters of bedrock, resulting in a high-permeability weathered (or epikarst)
zone. Infiltrating water below this zone is close to saturation and follows many
pathways, resulting in a dense network of many small channels. Other factors
promoting macrokarst include sparsely fractured rock and low initial hydraulic
gradients. Conversely, densely fractured rock and high hydraulic gradients both
promote the development of microkarstic networks.
11.3The Permeability Structure of Carbonate Aquifers
11.3.1Local-Scale Characteristics
Measurements in boreholes are important for investigating the local variability of

permeability in carbonate aquifers. Pumping tests are commonly used to determine
aquifer properties and give average values over the whole depth of the borehole for
transmissivity, hydraulic conductivity, and storage. However, flow into boreholes in
carbonates is rarely represented by seepage from the whole saturated thickness.

Instead, preferential flow from a limited number of horizons is more common
(Morin et al. 1988; Schrch and Buckley 2002). Packer testing and measuring
flow while pumping from the borehole at a low rate are the most useful methods of
determining preferential flow into boreholes. Optical or acoustic televiewer, video,
temperature, and conductivity are also helpful for identifying and characterizing
preferential flow, and gamma ray logs facilitate comparisons between boreholes to
be made (Fig.11.1).
Ideally, porosity and hydraulic conductivity measurements are made separately for
the matrix, fractures, and solutionally-enlarged channels. However, in many cases it is
challenging to measure hydraulic conductivity and porosity for these three compo-
nents. A somewhat simpler approach is to group fracture and channel properties
together. Plotting porosity and hydraulic conductivity together shows that matrix and
fracture/conduit values plot in two distinct fields (Fig.11.2). In all the examples shown,
the matrix of the rock has high porosity and low hydraulic conductivity. Furthermore,
the fractures and channels account for a smaller fraction of total porosity but a much
higher fraction of total hydraulic conductivity than the matrix. Consequently, most
of the storage is in the matrix but most of the flow is in the channels.
11.3.2Aquifer-Scale Characteristics
The development by dissolution of interconnected channel networks in carbonate

aquifers makes them distinctly different from porous medium aquifers. The most
common ways to investigate these differences are tracer tests and spring studies.
Tracer tests have been most commonly used where there are sinking streams,
and many thousands of such tests have been carried out over distances of up to tens
of kilometers (Fig. 11.3). These tests have been used to determine groundwater
velocities and the existence of flow paths between the injection and the observation
sites. The geometric mean velocity for the 3,015 tracer tests shown in Fig.11.3 is
1,740 m/day (Worthington and Ford 2009). These tests are all between sinking
streams and springs and represent flow along large channels.
Springs in carbonates represent the outlets of channel networks, and heads in
large channels are lower (except at high flow) than in the surrounding bedrock.
Consequently, mapping of heads in boreholes can help identify the location of large
channels and thus the major flow paths in an aquifer. Figure11.4 shows a number of
contrasting characteristics at a scale of kilometers or more. These differences can be
used to estimate the nature of karstification in an aquifer, for instance, whether an
aquifer is closer to macrokarstic or microkarstic end members.
The specific discharge (L/s/km2) from an area can be calculated from the
gauged discharge of river basins. If the mean discharge for a spring is measured,
then the area of the groundwater basin feeding that spring may be determined.
The boundaries of that groundwater basin can be determined by a combination of
measuring heads in wells together with tracer tests to the spring (Fig.11.5).
Fig.11.1 Stratigraphic correlation from gamma ray logs (black line) and inflow from flow meter
measurements (blue dots) at the three municipal wells in use at the time of the Walkerton Tragedy
(after Worthington etal. 2002)
11.3.3Scaling Effects
In carbonate aquifers, most randomly-drilled boreholes are unlikely to intersect

major channels. Consequently, localized hydraulic testing such as packer tests
will have lower average permeabilities than tests such as pumping tests that sample
Fig.11.2 Porosity and hydraulic conductivity values for the matrix and for fractures and channels
for Silurian dolostone (Ontario, S), Mississippian limestone (Kentucky, M1; England, M2), Permian
limestone (England, P), Jurassic limestone (England, J), Cretaceous limestone (England, K) and
Cenozoic limestone (Mexico, C), (after Worthington and Ford 2009)
Fig. 11.3 Groundwater velocities for 3,015 tracer tests along channels in carbonate aquifers
(after Worthington and Ford 2009)
a larger volume of the aquifer. This property is known as the scaling effect.
It was introduced by Kiraly (1975), and his data for limestones in the Jura
Mountains in Switzerland are shown in Fig.11.6, as well as data from several other
carbonate aquifers.
Fig. 11.4 The principal aquifer-scale differences between (a) an ideal karst aquifer and (b) a
homogeneous porous-medium aquifer (after Worthington 2009)
There are large differences in the hydraulic conductivity for tests on core rock
samples (effective test radius assumed to be 0.1m) because the matrix permeability
of poorly compacted rocks (e.g., Cenozoic carbonates) is much higher than for
highly compacted rocks that were deeply buried (e.g., most Paleozoic carbonates).
However, as the test radius increases by moving from fist-sized rock samples to
methods like pumping tests that sample ~100m of the rock surrounding the borehole,
the permeability values tend to converge, as all the carbonate aquifers shown have
channel networks and thus have broad similarities at the scale of the whole aquifer.
Scaling effects are substantial where karstification has occurred. However, where
karstification is absent and bulk permeability is very low (e.g. <110 m/s), then the
bulk permeability is likely to be similar to the matrix permeability and scaling
effects may be absent. This broad similarity between different carbonate aquifers is
also illustrated by Fig.11.2, where the results are grouped into two well defined
areas, irrespective of the age, climate and recharge, folding, or other geological
history characteristics
The contrasts between the two distinct fields on Fig.11.2 can be described as
double-porosity behavior. Water moves quickly through the channel network, but
slowly through the matrix. This means that the residence time of the groundwater in
Fig. 11.5 Contour map of water table heads and groundwater flow paths (black lines) in the
groundwater basin that drains to Gorin Mill Spring, Kentucky. The streams in the southern part of
the area (not shown) flow across impure limestones and then sink on reaching purer limestones.
Consequently, there is no surface drainage in the northern two-thirds of the drainage basin
(compiled from Quinlan and Ray 1989; Quinlan and Ewers 1989; and Ray 1997)
the channels and fractures is likely to be substantially less than the matrix water.
Water discharging from the aquifer will be a blend of all these waters and so will
have a mixed age. The implication is that age dating using environmental tracers
such as tritium, He/H, or CFCs will give much older ages than age dating using
tracers that are introduced to the channel network and sampled at a spring in a
Fig.11.6 Hydraulic conductivity as a function of testing scale (after Worthington 2009)
natural-gradient test or at a well in a pumping test. There have been a number of

case studies where spring water has been dated using both environmental tracers
and introduced tracers. The introduced tracers gave average groundwater ages that
were about two orders of magnitude less than the environmental tracers (Worthington
2007). For instance, 3H/3He dating gave a groundwater residence time of 39years
for the discharge at Wakulla Springs (Florida), assuming that the aquifer behaves as
a porous medium (Katz 2001). However, subsequent tracing using fluorescent dyes
showed that the travel times are of only days to weeks over distances of some 10km
between sinking streams and Wakulla Springs (Loper et al. 2005). The dye tests
demonstrated rapid flow along channels whereas the 3H/3He dating gave an average
residence time value that includes the much slower flow through the matrix of the
rock. Consequently, the two tracing methods yield complementary information
about transport characteristics in these aquifers.
Groundwater velocities through the channel networks can be estimated using
Darcys law, using channel/fracture porosity as the effective porosity (Fig.11.2).
However, direct measurement using introduced tracers has been widely used and
is highly recommended where any questions of contaminant transport are being
addressed. Tracer test results can also be used to estimate channel apertures (Fig.11.7).
It is notable that channel apertures as small as 1mm will give groundwater veloci-
ties of tens or even hundreds of meters per day. Such velocities are usually much
greater than estimates derived from assumptions that an aquifer behaves as an
equivalent porous medium.
Fig.11.7 Groundwater
velocity along a circular
channel, calculated
from Poiseuilles Law
11.4Water Supply Issues
Carbonate rocks outcrop over large areas globally and their high permeability ensures
that their use for water supplies is widespread. However, the high permeability has a
number of adverse consequences. One is that contamination can move quickly through
these aquifers; this will be discussed in Sect.11.5. A second consequence of the high
permeability is that infiltration is high, often resulting in an absence of stream flow
on the surface. The high permeability also results in low hydraulic gradients and in
mountainous areas, this results in thick unsaturated zones. The lack of surface flow and
thick unsaturated zones together mean that it is expensive to access groundwater
since deeper wells are required, and the water has to be pumped to a higher relative
level. Therefore, communities often rely on springs for their water supplies.
Groundwater divides in carbonates may differ significantly from surface water
divides, especially where the unsaturated zone is thick. Administrative boundaries
often coincide with surface drainage divides, and aquifers that cross such boundaries
may create jurisdictional problems due to competing interests. In carbonate aquifer,
tracer tests are often used to define groundwater divides. A further consideration in
macrokarstic aquifers is that there is a low probability of a well intersecting the
major channels so that most wells have low yields. These conditions make drilling
wells in carbonate aquifers often more problematic than in simpler porous medium
aquifers. Examples from England and from Texas will be described below to illustrate
some of the problems associated with water supply from limestone aquifers.
11.4.1Limestone Aquifers in England
Contrasts in groundwater abstraction from the Carboniferous Limestone and the Chalk
in England exemplify the range of conditions that may occur. The Carboniferous
Limestone outcrops in hilly areas such as the Mendip Hills and the Peak District,
where the unsaturated zone is up to 200m thick. Surface flow is absent in the hilly
areas but there are streams and rivers in deep valleys that are incised down to the
water table. There are many sinking streams and discharge from the aquifer is
often from large springs (Atkinson 1977). The geometric mean transmissivity from
59 pumping tests in the Carboniferous Limestone is 22 m2/day and the standard
deviation of log transmissivity is 1.31 (Worthington and Ford 2009). The thick
unsaturated zone, low average transmissivity, and high standard deviation mean that
using wells to exploit the water supply is expensive and unpredictable. As a result,
there are few wells on the limestone that outcrop and water supplies are often drawn
instead from springs.
The Cretaceous Chalk outcrops in south-east England in a series of cuestas
(Downing etal. 1993). The unsaturated zone is often >50m thick in areas at higher
elevation. There are few major sinking streams and discharge from the Chalk is
predominantly from a large number of small springs at the margins of the Chalk
outcrop. There are many water-supply wells over the outcrop of the Chalk although
springs are also used. The Chalk provides more than half of groundwater abstraction
in all of England due to it being the predominant aquifer in the south-east coincident
with the highest population densities. The geometric mean transmissivity from
1,257 pumping tests is 440 m2/day and the standard deviation of log transmissivity
is 0.76. The high average transmissivity and low standard deviation are a result of
the microkarstic nature of the aquifer, with many small channels (Schrch and
Buckley 2002; Maurice etal. 2006). This also means that high-productivity wells
can be more reliably drilled in the microkarstic Chalk than in the macrokarstic
Carboniferous Limestone aquifers.
11.4.2Edwards Aquifer, Texas, U.S.A.
The Edwards Aquifer is a Cretaceous limestone aquifer located in a semi-arid area with
a growing population. It provides almost the whole water supply for San Antonio, a
city with a population of 1.7 million people. The aquifer is about 150m thick and dips
to the south-east at about 1. Rivers flowing from the north lose much of their recharge
to the aquifer when they cross its outcrop (Fig.11.8). To the south, the confined
aquifer extends to depths of more than 1,000m below the surface. The major natural
points of discharge from the aquifer are at Comal Springs and San Marcos Springs,
where mean flows are 8.2 and 5.0 m3/s, respectively. Pumping from wells accounts
for about half the total discharge from the aquifer (Hamilton etal. 2009).
Water flowing to Comal Springs comes from as far as 225km to the west. This
results in major inter-watershed transfers of groundwater from the Nueces and San
Antonio watersheds to Comal and San Marcos Springs, which are in the Guadalupe
watershed (Fig.11.8). This is a remarkable example of how groundwater divides
may differ from surface water divides.
Increases in pumping from the aquifer resulted in some of the springs becoming
intermittent and the viability of federally-listed endangered species in Comal and
Fig. 11.8 Inter-watershed transfer of groundwater in Texas. Riverbed losses in the Nueces
and San Antonio watersheds flow in the Edwards Aquifer to springs in the Guadalupe watershed
(modified from Hamilton etal. 2009)
San Marcos Springs was threatened. Following a lawsuit brought by the Sierra Club
in the 1990s against the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, the Edwards Aquifer
Authority was formed to manage the aquifer. A permit system is now in use to limit
withdrawals from the aquifer so that flows are maintained at the springs. In addition,
a critical period plan is in place to reduce aquifer withdrawals when the discharge
from Comal Springs or San Marcos Springs or the water levels in index wells in San
Antonio or Uvalde falls below trigger levels (www.edwardsaquifer.org).
11.5Contamination Issues
The presence of interconnected channels networks in carbonate aquifers means

that groundwater can move rapidly through them (Figs.11.3 and 11.4). It also means
that contamination can move equally rapidly through them. For instance, a study of
water quality was carried out in 1,174 wells in 16 major aquifers in the U.S.,
six of which were partly or wholly in carbonate rocks (Embrey and Runkle 2006).
Wells in carbonate rocks were more likely to be positive for total coliform bacteria,
for Escherichia coli, and for coliphage than wells in any other rock type. Given the
rapid die-offs of these bacteria in groundwater, this provides evidence of rapid flow
of surface waters from a source of contamination through the aquifer system to the
wells that were sampled.
Contaminant plumes in carbonates are substantially different from plumes in
porous medium aquifers because the contamination will spread quickly along the
channel network towards springs. At the same time, contaminant movement into
fractures and the matrix of the rock may be several orders of magnitudes slower.
Consequently, contaminant plumes in carbonate rocks are much more complicated
than the simple oval shapes that are found in homogeneous porous media. Examples
from Kentucky and Ontario will be described below to illustrate some of the problems
associated with contamination in carbonate aquifers.
11.5.1Gorin Mill Spring Groundwater Basin, Kentucky, U.S.A.
Detailed water table maps based on well data and using information from tracer
tests and cave maps have given many insights on how the flow in carbonate aquifers
is organized. The most comprehensive such map covers an area of more than
1,000km2 in Kentucky, and is based on more than 400 tracer tests and water levels
in 1,500 wells (Quinlan and Ray 1989). Figure 11.5 shows an excerpt from this
map. It depicts the 380km2 area that drains to Gorin Mill Spring, the largest spring
in Kentucky. To the east and west, there are similar, though smaller, groundwater
basins and these also drain to large springs on the Green River.
In the southern part of the Gorin Mill Spring catchment area, streams flow across
impure limestones and then sink on reaching purer limestones. Consequently, there
is no surface drainage in the northern two-thirds of the drainage basin. The flow
lines represent the inferred paths of tracer tests. These are located largely along
troughs in the water table, though in a few places it is possible to access under-
ground streams. The largest of these is at Hidden River Cave, a show cave in the
center of the city of Horse Cave. The tracer injections are at sinking streams, wells,
or cave streams. The low heads along the troughs result in flow converging on these
troughs, and all the tracer tests flowed to Gorin Mill Spring, a large perennial spring.
Tracer tests in high flow demonstrated that there are overflow conduits that allow
water to spill over into different parts of the basin. One of these conduits drains to
Wilkerson Bluehole, a large spring on the Green River 6km east of Goring Mill
Spring (Ray 1997). There are a number of intermittent springs that discharge some
of the flow from the basin during high-flow periods. Flow in the Gorin Mill Spring
basin converges on large conduits that have diameters of 510m. These form what
is essentially a tributary network of conduits feeding one main spring, though with
some distributary conduits.
Until 1912, the town of Horse Cave obtained its water from Hidden River
Cave, which is located in the center of the town. Subsequently, municipal water
was obtained from wells, and more recently from a spring 26 km away. Waste
disposal from residences and industry was by means of septic tanks or directly
into wells or dolines. Hidden River Cave was a show cave from 1916 to 1943,
when it was forced to close due to pollution. In 1964, a sewage treatment plant
went into operation. However, the plant was not capable of adequately purifying
the incoming waste stream. This included wastes from a creamery and from a
metal-plating plant. The contamination of Hidden River Cave continued and for
many years the stench from the polluted water was noticeable through much of
the cente of the town. In 1989, a new regional sewage treatment system went
into operation and this effectively ended the half century of gross contamination of
the aquifer.
Quinlan and Rowe (1977) sampled 23 wells between the sewage treatment plant
and the Green River and also a number of springs close to the river. Effluent from
the sewage treatment plant in Horse Cave had elevated concentrations of chromium,
copper, nickel, and zinc, with chromium concentrations that at times exceeded
10mg/L. Gorin Mill Spring and the nearby intermittent springs were all positive for
these metals, but the 23 wells between the sewage treatment plant and Green River
were all found to be negative. Tracer testing convincingly demonstrated why the
apparently down-gradient wells situated in between the source and the springs were
negative; this showed that flow from the sewage treatment plant was to several
springs, but not to any of the 23 wells (Fig.11.5). Flow in the aquifer converges
on the major conduits, which provide pathways with very high permeability
through the aquifer and thus occupy troughs where hydraulic gradients are very low.
The springs represent the terminal points for the conduits where the groundwater
discharges to the surface.
The groundwater studies carried out in this area of Kentucky demonstrate a
number of ways in which carbonate aquifers differ from porous medium aquifers.
Springs can be effective monitoring points since they may discharge the water
recharge over considerable surface areas. Conversely, wells that are apparently
down-gradient and even situated very close to a facility may not provide reliable
monitoring points unless they can be shown by tracer testing to be on the flow
path from that facility. Flow in most of the aquifer is convergent to conduits, but
distributaries may be found close to the output point.
It is a common practice in North America to place monitoring wells down-gradient
from a contaminated site and to sample them at fixed intervals such as monthly or
quarterly. Such a monitoring program is unlikely to provide adequate sampling of
contaminant transport where there are substantial conduits as the down-gradient
conduit is most unlikely to be intercepted by a randomly-placed well. Furthermore,
the rapid flow in conduits means that water quality sampling can be extremely variable
in the short term, especially following major recharge events. Quinlan (1990)
recommended that springs or wells that have been shown by tracer testing to
drain the facility should be monitored, and that there should be frequent sampling
through major runoff events. The advent of inexpensive submersible data loggers
that measure head, temperature, and electrical conductivity has made this task of
monitoring during major events much easier.
11.5.2Bacterial Contamination at Walkerton, Ontario, Canada
In May 2000, about 2,300 people became ill and seven people died following
bacterial contamination of the municipal water supply at Walkerton. Following
groundwater and other investigations, a public inquiry, the Walkerton Inquiry,
was held to determine the reasons why the water supply became contaminated
(OConnor 2002). It was found that the pathogenic bacteria were derived from cow
manure. Such bacteria have rapid die-off in groundwater, implying that the travel
time from the surface source to the wells was probably only days or less.
At the inquiry, two conceptual models of flow through the aquifer were pre-
sented. The first conceptual model was the one most commonly employed by hydro-
geologists, that the aquifer behaves as an equivalent porous medium and that the
effective porosity of the aquifer was similar to the total porosity of the aquifer,
which in this case was about 5% (Golder 2000). This model also implicitly assumed
that any productive horizons found in boreholes were isolated and did not form part
of a high-permeability fracture/channel network. Modeling using MODFLOW
showed that the 30-day capture zone at Well 7, the most productive municipal well,
would extend about 150m from the well (Fig.11.1).
A second conceptual model assumed that the aquifer had a network of dissolu-
tional channels. In this case, the relevant effective porosity for the transport of
pathogenic bacteria through the aquifer would be closer to 0.1%. This porosity is
known as the kinematic porosity (Worthington and Ford 2009). This estimate was
based first on the cross-sections of the productive channels and fractures intersected
in the wells. In Wells 5, 6, and 7, the number of horizons with measurable flow
varied between one and nine and the sum of the cross-sections of these channels and
fractures was estimated to be less than 0.1% of the cross-section of the boreholes
(Fig 11.1). This indicated that the kinematic porosity of the aquifer would be
<0.1%, assuming that the channels formed an interconnected network in the aquifer.
The kinematic porosity estimate was also based on experience from many tracer
tests (Fig.11.3). If the kinematic porosity in the aquifer at Walkerton was as low as
0.1%, then groundwater velocities would be 50 times faster than with the first
conceptual model and would likely exceed 100m/day (Worthington 2001).
A post-audit was carried out in October 2001, after the hearings of the Walkerton
Inquiry had ended. Tracers were introduced into Wells 6 and 9 and both travelled
rapidly to Well 7 (Fig.11.9). This demonstrated that the kinematic porosity of
the aquifer was very low (<0.1%) and showed that the channels encountered in the
boreholes formed part of an interconnected network, as is expected from theory (see
Sect.11.2 above). Calculations showed that the hydraulic apertures of the channels
between injection wells and Well 7 were at least 3mm (Worthington etal. 2002).
The tracer testing at Walkerton showed the importance of directly measuring
travel times and how uncalibrated estimates based on porous medium assumptions
may be extremely poor. The problems with such estimates were noted by Freeze and
Cherry (1979, p. 427), who stated velocity estimates based on the use of these
parameters [hydraulic conductivity, hydraulic gradient, and porosity] in Darcy-based
Fig.11.9 Predicted 150m diameter 30-day travel time zone to Well 7 at Walkerton, assuming an
effective porosity of 0.05, and results from the post-audit introduced tracer tests that measured
travel times from Well 6 and Well 9 respectively (from Worthington etal. 2002)
equations have large inherent uncertainties that generally cannot be avoided.

The Walkerton Tragedy demonstrates how carbonate aquifers may be susceptible to
bacterial contamination because of the presence of interconnected channel networks
with concomitant rapid groundwater velocities.
11.6Conclusions
Carbonate aquifers are common globally and are widely utilized due to their high
permeability. Advances in recent decades in understanding dissolution kinetics have
facilitated the numerical modeling of dissolutional enhancement of permeability.
This has shown how the dissolution results in an interconnected network of channels
that not only results in high permeability but also in rapid groundwater velocities.
In mountainous areas, the high permeability results in a lack of surface water and
thick unsaturated zones, so utilization of groundwater is commonly from low-
elevation springs. Groundwater divides may not coincide with surface-water divides,
sometimes resulting in jurisdictional issues over exploitation of the groundwater.
Contamination from point sources travels down-gradient through channel networks
to springs, so that springs are useful monitoring locations. Monitoring using
wells is challenging as much of the contamination may travel along major channels
and bypass wells. Contaminant movement into fractures and the matrix of the rock
may be several orders of magnitudes slower than movement through the channels.
Consequently, contaminant plumes are much more complicated than the simple
oval shapes that are found in homogeneous porous media. The rapid groundwater
velocities in the channel network also make carbonate aquifers more susceptible to
bacterial contamination than other aquifer types.
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natural calcium carbonate minerals to their dissolution kinetics in aqueous H2O-CO2 solutions.
Geochim Cosmochim Acta 63:9891002
Embrey SS, Runkle DL (2006) Microbial quality of the nations ground-water resources, 19932004.
Scientific Investigations Report 20065290, 34 p
Ford DC, Williams PW (2007) Karst hydrogeology and geomorphology. Wiley, Chichester, 562 p
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Golder Associates (2000) Report on hydrogeological assessment, bacteriological impacts,
Walkerton town wells, Municipality of Brockton, County of Bruce, Ontario, 50p. plus figures,
tables and appendices. Walkerton Inquiry, Exhibit259
Hamilton JM, Johnson S, Esquilan R etal. (2009) Hydrogeologic data report for 2008. Edwards
Aquifer Authority, San Antonio, report 0902
Katz BG (2001) A multitracer approach for assessing the susceptibility of groundwater
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014011, 167176
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(Rapport sur ltat actuel des connaissances dans le domaine des charactres physiques des
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Union Geol Sci, Series B, no.3, pp 5367
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aquifers using a coupled continuum pipe flow model. Water Resour Res 39(3):1057.
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sensitivity to tides. Eos 86(39):353357
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Chalk. J Hydrol 330:6370
Morin RH, Hess AE, Paillet FL (1988) Determining the distribution of hydraulic conductivity in a
fractured limestone aquifer by simultaneous injection and geophysical logging. Ground Water
26(5):587595
Morse JW, Arvidson RS (2002) The dissolution kinetics of major sedimentary carbonate minerals.
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issues. Ontario Ministry of the Attorney General, Toronto, 188 p
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Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, pp 275304
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White EL (eds) Karst hydrology: concepts from the Mammoth Cave area. Van Nostrand
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University of Kentucky Water Resources Research Institute, Research Report #101, 93p
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capacity. In: Beck BF, Stephenson JB (eds.) The engineering geology and hydrogeology of
karst terranes. AA Balkema, Rotterdam, pp 6976
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Reston
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Karst Stud 69(1):94102
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Hydrogeologists, Niagara Falls, Ontario, pp 10811086
Chapter 12
Management of Karst Groundwater
Resources
Michel Bakalowicz
Abstract Karst aquifers are especially difficult to exploit, manage, and protect
because of the extreme variability of their hydraulic properties which are almost
impossible to determine at a local scale. Moreover, their functioning may be influ-
enced by non-linearities and threshold effects. Considering long-term aquifer
exploitation, karst system complexity does not allow for easy behavioral modeling,
such as using the classical isochrone method for determining a protection zone.
However, because karst aquifers may offer great storage capacity and high local
hydraulic conductivity, high flow rates can be pumped from single sites, allowing
for effective management of an aquifer. After outlining the main characteristics of
karst aquifers, the management of their groundwater is examined from both quan-
tity and quality viewpoints in order to highlight benefits and problems with this
resource. Finally, some new avenues of research are proposed.
12.1Introduction
Over the centuries, groundwater resources have not been well managed, regardless
of whether or not they were karst aquifers. Since the end of the second millennium
BCE, karst groundwater withdrawals were made at springs by means of water works
and aqueducts as shown by archaeological remains in the Middle East (Bakalowicz
et al. 2002). Some examples cited by archaeologists show that groundwater was
also exploited from natural pits or from percolation in shallow caves.
Generally, the base flow of a spring is used for a towns water supply; however,
when that resource becomes insufficient for the community, a new spring must be
tapped. The development of the water supply of the city of Montpellier, France, is a
M. Bakalowicz (*)
HydroSciences, Universit Montpellier 2, cc MSE, 34095, Montpellier Cedex 5, France

264 M. Bakalowicz
good example of this exploitation of karst groundwater in Mediterranean regions.

During the eighteenth century, when the towns wells yielded poor quality water,
St-Clement Spring was captured and Henri Pitot built a 14-km long aqueduct
(Aigrefeuille 1877) from the spring to the town. Initially, a flow rate of 25L/s was
captured but with the growing population, the aqueduct was extended during the
nineteenth century to collect outflows from the Lez Spring, one of the most impor-
tant karst springs in South of France. The total flow rate of the aqueduct was first
doubled to 50L/s, and then increased to 125L/s in 1882, and to 250L/s in 1899.
The lowest natural base flow rate is approximately 350L/s, hence not all the outflow
is being captured.
For a long time, wells in karst areas were unusual because of the difficulty
drilling in limestone which yielded low success rates. However, in areas where the
epikarst is well developed and possesses shallow water storage, these waters
arewithin easy reach of wells, and have been used since antiquity, for example,
the limestone mountain in the dead cities of north-western Syria (Abdulkarim
etal. 2003). The same extraction system was later developed in the karst plateaus
of southern France. These examples correspond to what Collin (2004) calls the
gathering economy.
Water capture from karst aquifers changed with new drilling and pumping tech-
niques, making groundwater easily accessible at depth. These techniques were only
systematically used in karst since the 1950s, when the water needs considerably
increased in western countries due to growing populations and related increased
consumption, and the high water demand for agriculture. In addition, the blossom-
ing tourist industry infrastructure demanded more water, especially in Mediterranean
regions where often karst aquifers offered the only permanent water resource.
Initially, groundwater was exploited without a management plan, and usually
without any knowledge of the functioning of the exploited aquifer. Frequently, an
absence of competent management had (has) two serious consequences:
A lowering of the water table, resulting in a seasonal, even permanent drying of
wells, springs, and rivers, as observed in Southern Spain (Pulido Bosch et al.
1989) and in the Poitou Charente Region in France (de Grissac etal. 1996) ;
Diffusing pollution of groundwater mainly from agricultural activity or domestic
waste water, or occasional salt water intrusion, which in some cases lead to the
abandonment of the water resource.
This is what Collin (2004) terms mining exploitation, i.e., a non-managed
exploitation as it was practiced in Spain (Pulido Bosch etal. 1989). Managing karst
groundwater should be sustainable and one approach is integrated water resource
management (IWRM). Exploitation and protection are parts of an efficient IWRM
in karst areas. Because of the distinct characteristics of karst aquifers, their delinea-
tion and boundary conditions require specific methodology, which is very different
from that usually implemented in alluvium and fissured aquifers. If the correct
methodology is not used, the consequences may be disastrous. Examples of drastic
groundwater lowering, salt water intrusion, or heavy pollution are well documented
(Pulido Bosch etal. 1989).
12 Management of Karst Groundwater Resources 265
Aquifers contained with karstified bedrock are known to be problematic because

of the considerable heterogeneity of its physical properties. For that reason, karst
groundwater as a resource was not targeted while other more simple, predictable,
porous, and fissured aquifers were developed and intensely exploited. The push for
new water resources has lead to exploitation of karst groundwater, and the conse-
quent need to improve knowledge about their functioning in order to benefit from
them. Finally, there has been a movement to propose management approaches for
optimizing the exploitation sustainably, and for managing the recharge area of the
water resource to prevent or mitigate its pollution. This last aspect of karst aquifer
management will be examined, incorporating both quality and quantity approaches
which are in fact often related to each other. However, a short synthesis of karst
aquifer properties will be introduced as a useful reference for the better understanding
of karst groundwater management.
12.2Main Characteristics of Karst Aquifers and Problems
The functional model of karst systems, shown in Fig.12.1, is now well accepted by
hydrogeologists (Bakalowicz 2005). The recharge area is the first component of a
karst system (KS) to be considered. It may include both karst and non-karstic por-
tions (non-carbonate formations), such as where river system is drained by swallow
holes close to an impermeable karst contact. When a KS includes a non-karstified
rock, it is considered binary, recharged by both allogenic and autogenic recharge.
When it is only karstified formations, it is a unary KS, recharged only by autogenic
inputs. Allogenic recharge generally has concentrated inputs and supplies the rapid,
concentrated flow inside the karst aquifer through wide conduits. This flow is an
important source of pollutions and sediment to springs.
The karst aquifer itself is recharged through two very different modes: (1) A
dispersed, diffuse-type infiltration, through cracks and narrow joints, which mainly
occurs as a two-phase slow flow at the bottom of the epikarst; (2) A concentrated
infiltration, which produces rapid flow through wide openings in the epikarst.
The epikarst is a vital component of karst aquifer because it forms the inter-
face between the aquifer, soil, plant cover, and human activities, and is a key to
distributing infiltrating waters (Bakalowicz 2004). It plays a major role in the
development of conduits by determining whether solution processes are either
close to the surface or at depth. It retains and mitigates pollution, particularly
diffuse events, and delays recharge to the phreatic zone and consequently the
recession of spring discharge. For these reasons, epikarst is considered a major
cornerstone by methods assessing the vulnerability of karst aquifers (Doerfliger
etal. 1999; Zwahlen 2005).
The main practical consequences of the complexity of flow in karst aquifers are the:
Exploitation of the resource. Drilling a well for water utilization using a pumping
station can be risky due to the very high heterogeneity of bedrock permeability,
266 M. Bakalowicz
Fig.12.1 The synthesis of the functioning of karst systems. Functions are written in italic, major
components in bold
especially as the effects of pumping can impact wells located at several kilometres
away without impacting closer ones.
Protection of the resource. The determination of protection zones for wells often
considers the whole recharge area as vulnerable, which imposes severe con-
straints on landuse for a large area surrounding the well. Moreover, the recharge
area is often only estimated, and its limits are not well delineated, while the
protection measures may appear inadequate.
The uniqueness of karst systems compared to other aquifers consists of the
development of different, separated hydrologic components:
Those draining the aquifer (conduits and open joints organized in a drainage
system or karst network), where groundwater flows quickly, between 50 and
several hundred meters per hour, as shown by tracing tests;
Fig.12.2 Jura-type (a) and Vaucluse-type (b) karst aquifers. The cross sections show the conduit
system with respect to the relative spring elevation represented by the dashed line and the develop-
ment of potential storage below the spring level (from Marsaud (1997a))
Those storing groundwater (porous matrix, or matrix blocks (Kiraly 1998), and
karst cavities, the annex-to-drain systems (ADS) (Mangin 1994) which have
poor hydraulic connections with the conduit system, allowing exchanges between
them and the conduits, dependent on water head conditions and head losses.
Because storage and drainage are separate, it is especially important to know
their respective part in the comprehensive functioning of karst systems and to be
able to locate well sites while taking these two components into consideration.
Moreover, knowledge of the position of the conduit system is absolutely essential.
Marsaud (1997a) considers two organization types in karst aquifers (Fig.12.2):
Jura-type systems, where the conduits develop in the epiphreatic zone, i.e., in the
zone of seasonal variation of the groundwater table. Flow in the main conduits,
at least in some parts, may be surface-free flow. Water withdrawals from such
karst systems by pumping at the spring or the well in the main conduit are con-
trolled by the natural lowest discharge occurring during the low stage season;
theexploitation flow rate cannot exceed the natural discharge of the conduit. The
water reserves potentially developed around or below the conduits cannot be
exploited by pumping.
Vaucluse-type systems, where the conduits develop at depth in the phreatic zone.
The flow in the conduits always occurs under confined conditions, where there is
a permanent connection of the storage components through the conduit systems.
Pumping in a conduit or in a storage area allows a significant drawdown con-
trolled by the water head in the conduit. The extraction flow rate may be much
higher than the natural flow at the spring by withdrawing water from storage due
to the conduit connections pulling water from other storage sites.
268 M. Bakalowicz
12.3Quantity Management of Karst Groundwater Resource
Due to the complexity and the variety of karst aquifers, the management plan of the
groundwater resource has to be created on a case-by-case basis. No uniform road
map, considering all the possible situations, exists for defining such a development
and management plan. In the following sections, some guidelines will be outlined.
12.3.1Active Management
Spring discharge is most often highly variable, due to seasonal changes in recharge.
The ratio between minimum and maximum daily flow commonly varies from 1:4 to
1:100. In some cases, ratios occur up to 1:10,000 (Marsaud 1997a), which means
that the base flow is too low to satisfy the water demand of a sizeable community.
While the seasonally variable resource of a river may be regulated by resorting to
artificial storage in dam reservoirs, the natural groundwater storage of a karst aqui-
fer may be used for regulating the total withdrawals during base flow stage. Pumping
aims at emptying more storage space, which will be recharged during the next rainy
season. The best site for pumping is generally close to the main spring, directly in
the main conduit, with the condition that its vertical development allows a signifi-
cant drawdown, i.e., a Vaucluse-type conduit which drains up the whole phreatic
zone, or at least a large part.
To do so requires knowledge of the aquifer resource, its seasonal variability, and
storage capacity (dynamic storage in natural conditions), but also requires monitoring
all withdrawals. Therefore, groundwater resources can be managed in the same way as
a bank account; inputs and outputs are permanently monitored. Groundwater storage
(savings) is used for regulating the total discharge, spring flow, and withdrawals. If
storage is large enough, the theoretical total permanent withdrawal could be the mean
annual discharge of the spring. In fact, European regulations require permanent flow in
rivers fed by springs, the so-called saved discharge, so that part of the pumped
groundwater must be discharged into the river bed downstream from the spring.
12.3.2Evaluation of Resource and Reserves
Depending on the storage capacity value and on the length of duration of the season
without recharge, it is possible to calculate the discharge which can be extracted
from the reserves in addition to the natural discharge. Mangin (1974) proposed a
method for evaluating the renewable storage of karst aquifers from the analysis of
the spring hydrograph (Bakalowicz 2005; Ford and Williams 1989). Below is the
example of the spring hydrograph of Fontaine de Vaucluse, France, for the 1997
hydrological year (Fig.12.3).
Fig.12.3 Spring hydrograph of Fontaine de Vaucluse for the 1997 hydrological year
The characteristics of the recession of Vaucluse spring for the 1997 hydrological
year (Fig.12.3) are given in Table12.1. Of importance are the characteristics of the
phreatic zone, where most of the exploitable groundwater is stored. The dynamic
storage, given by integrating the base flow hydrograph, according to Maillets for-
mula, is the volume of reserves in the phreatic zone which flows at the beginning of
the base flow stage; it is an approach of calculating the lowest actual volume stored
in the phreatic zone.
Drainage of the phreatic zone is quite fast (a=0.0065 day1) due to the highly karsti-
fied nature of the reservoir. The dynamic storage is important, with 359 million m3,
of which 226 million m3 remains stored at the end of infiltration, which can be con-
sidered the beginning of the base flow stage. These 226 million m3 of groundwater
form the renewable storage which can be considered for extraction in the active
management of the resource.
From the hydrodynamic characteristics of the infiltration and phreatic zones,
Mangin proposed a classification method of karst aquifers, recently discussed and
modified by El-Hakim and Bakalowicz (2007). The classification (Fig.12.4) con-
siders two indices, one related to the infiltration i, the infiltration delay between
0 and 1, and the second, k, related to the phreatic storage. The higher the i index, the
slower the recharge flow to groundwater.
The k index, named regulating power (Mangin 1994), is the mean residence
time, calculated by dividing the highest observed dynamic storage (m3) by the
mean annual transit volume in m 3/year (El-Hakim and Bakalowicz 2007).
Most classical karst systems show that their regulating power is less than 1year.
270 M. Bakalowicz
Table 12.1 Main characteristics of the recession of Vaucluse spring

h ydrograph during the 1997 hydrological year. They were calculated
according to Mangins method (Ford and Williams 1989)
Discharge at t0 (23 Jan 1997) 73 m3/s
Discharge at end of recession (6 Nov 1997) 6.9 m3/s
a (low stage coefficient) 0.0065 day1
epsilon (coefficient of infiltration heterogeneity) 0.06 day1
Discharge of the phreatic zone at time t=0 27 m3/s
ti (infiltration duration) 70days
Q0 (Q max at time t=0, the beginning of the flood) 73 m3/s
q0 (infiltration discharge at t=0) 46 m3/s
eta (mean infiltration velocity) 0.0143 day1
i (infiltration delay) 0.87
Nash criterion (quality of the simulation) 97.71
Dynamic storage 359 million m3
Remaining dynamic storage at ti 226 million m3
Volume of infiltration 71 million m3
Fig.12.4 Classification of karst systems from the recession analysis, accounting for karst systems
with very large dynamic storage, corresponding to very long residence times (El-Hakim and
Bakalowicz 2007)
The classification considers five domains, named 15 (Fig.12.4), with the follow-
ing characteristics:
1. k<0.5 and i>0.5: The domain of complex karst systems, very extensive and
made up of several sub-systems;
2. k<0.5 and 0.25<i < 0.5: Systems where karst conduits are more developed in
their upper regions than those closer to the spring, and characterized by a delayed
recharge because of either non-karstic terrains, snow, or sediment cover;
3. k<0.1 and 0<i<0.25: Intensely karstified systems in both the infiltration and
phreatic zones, with a well developed conduit system directly connected to
the spring;
4. 0.1<k < 0.5 and 0.1<i < 0.25: Systems with a well karstified infiltration zone
and an extensive conduit network ending in a flooded phreatic zone;
5. k>1 and i>0 (in fact i should be>0.5): Systems with a deep phreatic zone, partly
or totally confined underneath impermeable sediments, and largely karstified
during previous karstification phases. These karst systems named non-functional
karst systems (13) which possess a large storage capacity due to a complex
drainage structure partly or totally flooded are responsible for very long, multi-
year, or secular residence times. However, the paleo-conduit networks existing in
their phreatic zone remain partly functional.
From the exploitation and management viewpoint, the most useful aquifers are
those of domains 1 and 5, with k values exceeding 0.1. Aquifers of karst systems
classified in domain 2 may have limited utility, but only if the storage capacity is
large enough to allow the regulation of the exploitation flow rate.
12.3.3Modeling Aquifer Functioning for Managing

the Resource
There have been many attempts to model the functioning of karst aquifers and confer-
ences were specifically dedicated to this important issue (Palmer etal. 1999; Ford and
Williams 1989). In managing karst groundwater resources, it is essential to predict the
evolution of the spring flow and storage depending of rainfall and outflow. Modeling
is then a necessary tool for predicting water levels and spring flow rate. However,
when compared to porous and fractured aquifers, karst aquifers present a complexity
which makes them difficult to model, such as the huge heterogeneity of the hydraulic
characteristics, non-linearities and threshold effects, and the location of the conduit
system. In a recent paper presenting a model for simulating the spring hydrograph of
Fontaine de Vaucluse and predicting them by modeling (Fleury etal. 2007a), different
types of models were presented in a short and very useful analysis.
Two types of models were used:
1. Physical or mathematical models, where heterogeneity may be taken into account
by introducing several levels of porosity or permeability, such as in dual porosity
models, and sometimes conduits. These models need huge amounts of data and
are too complicated to be used for managing groundwater resources. Moreover,
distributed models like MODFLOW are not adapted to simulate karst aquifer
functioning because spatial heterogeneity is so large that it is impossible to obtain
the necessary data.
2. Lumped or rainfall runoff models, which consider that the aquifer functions as
a set of reservoirs, whose characteristics are either obtained from spring hydro-
graph analysis.
All lumped models are particularly well suited to simulate spring hydrographs
from rainfall, for instance at a daily time scale. Black-box or grey-box models,
272 M. Bakalowicz
based on deconvolution or a simple or even complex transfer function, use either the
time series analysis as proposed by Box and Jenkins (Mangin 1984) or neural
networks. Among all the lumped models, the reservoir models are especially inter-
esting because they give a rough representation of the aquifer whose behavior is
broken up into several parts identified with its main components. However, they can
be used only on the condition that the input function and the system functioning
itself are stationary. This is true if the rainfall time series is not concerned with a
drastic climate change, or if the system was not subject to physical changes, e.g.,
plugging or deplugging of conduits, high rate pumping. A reservoir model was
developed using the Vensim simulator in order to simulate spring hydrographs of
some French karst springs, such as Fontaine de Vaucluse (Fleury etal. 2007a) and
the Lez Spring (Fleury etal. 2009) on a daily time series for several years.
12.3.4Different Types of Approaches for Capturing

Groundwater
Karst groundwater may be exploited generally from sites not located in the conduit
system. Possible sites are represented on a schematic diagram of karst system
(Fig.12.5). Pumping directly in the spring (site 1, Fig.12.5) is possible if the spring
is largely open and if the conduit is of the Vaucluse type, in order to lower as much
as possible, the water table to draw down the reserve.
When the aquifer is of Vaucluse type, it may be more effective to pump from a
well intersecting the drain at a depth lower than that of the spring (site 2, Fig.12.5).
Fig. 12.5 Schematic representation of karst system (modified from 12) with the four different
positions of pumping sites. 1 pumping directly in the spring. 2 pumping in (one of) the main
conduit(s). 3 pumping in an annex-to-drain system (ADS). 4 pumping in a matrix block
The main difficulty is to locate the conduit from the surface. Geophysical methods
are generally ineffective at revealing conduits or voids at depths more than 30m
(Al-Fares etal. 2002). When the conduit is accessible, it can be located by means of
magnetic positioning, with a magnet and a proton magnetometer. This method was
used for positioning boreholes intersecting a conduit at depths up to 300m below
the surface (see the case study). Pumping rates may be very high, limited by the
highest possible drawdown.
When the well reaches an ADS (site 3, Fig.12.5), usually by chance, the extraction
efficiency is maximal in a Vaucluse-type aquifer, because the main conduit provides
hydraulic continuity between all storage sites within the phreatic zone because it is
located within confined conditions. However, in Jura-type aquifers, there is little
hydraulic continuity between conduits; the ADS reached by the well acts as a local
reservoir where storage is only supplemented when water levels are higher in the
adjacent conduit. Then, the pumping rate may be temporarily higher than the natural
flow in the conduit, because the natural flow is augmented by the volume withdrawn
from the ADS. However, the volume of ADS, which is a small part of the dynamic
storage of the whole aquifer, cannot be evaluated by means other than long-duration
pumping tests (several weeks or even months (Marsaud 1997b)).
When the well does not reach a conduit or an ADS, statistically the most common
situation (site 4, Fig.12.5), the scenario does not favor a high pumping rate. Generally,
the resource cannot be exploited from such sites. However, in some cases, especially
in aquifers with a shallow water table, karst features are well developed in the phreatic
zone so that the wells may intersect many enlarged joints which allow viable pumping
rates. Under such situations, well fields may be developed, allowing the extraction of
significant water quantities, comparable to those of alluvium aquifers. At Wadi Jilo,
South Lebanon, a field of five wells in karstified upper cretaceous limestone are
pumped at approximately 4hm3/year, i.e., 100m3/h for each well, suggesting rela-
tively high hydraulic conductivity for the local aquifer (Mroueh 1997).
12.3.5The Question of Interpreting Pumping Tests
Despite the fact that the assumptions behind the application of different models
used to analyze pumping test data are not pertinent to karst aquifers (Al-Fares etal.
2002), most hydrogeologists still calculate hydraulic conductivity and storability.
Those results can only be considered as general estimates, whose accuracy remains
generally unknown. Moreover, these tests are often conducted over only a few days,
which is too short a time to assess the effects of drawdown in a poorly transmissive
medium. These results tend to be more indicative of conditions in the immediate
vicinity of the well or around the conduit, if intersected by the well. From some
recent tests undertaken in France by BRGM (Ladouche etal. 2006), it appears that
several weeks or, better still, a few months of pumping at a rate in the same order of
magnitude as the spring is the most informative method. For the moment, no numer-
ical method of interpretation has been developed for interpreting pumping test in
karst aquifers under high pumping rates over long periods.
274 M. Bakalowicz
12.3.6Underground Dams
In highly developed karst aquifers, especially in binary KS, conduits drain most
of water during a rainy season. Consequently, the storage may be trivial while the
resource may be important, but great seasonal variation makes it unusable. Chinese
engineers created underground reservoirs by damming conduits, either partially
or totally (Bakalowicz etal. 1993). They observed that it is more efficient to build
the dam inside the large conduit, not at the outlet itself because leakages occur in
the shallow zone, where joints are mechanically open by the decompression
occurring on the valley sides within the first 10m below the ground surface. In
South China, at Muzhu Dong, a dam completely sealing a conduit (Fig. 12.6)
allowing storage of more than 3 million m3 is used during the dry season for irri-
gation and water supply.
Milanovic (2000) provides several interesting examples of underground dams
partially or completely sealing karst conduits in China. In order to avoid overpressure
behind the dam, overflows are developed by enlarging fractures or pumping stations
may pump directly into the flooded conduit from a natural pit. Some of these dams
are also developed for producing electricity via an underground waterfall.
Fig.12.6 Underground
damin Muzhu Dong Cave,
Guizhou Province, China
12.3.7Enhanced Recharge and Proactive Management
Managed Aquifer Recharge (MAR) is an emerging sustainable technique that to

date has been successful in community, economic, and political spheres and is
expected to solve many water resource supply and management problems, espe-
cially in the semi-arid and arid regions. Where karst aquifers are highly sensitive to
overexploitation and seawater intrusion (Fleury etal. 2007b), the use of MAR could
be helpful for augmenting storage in the aquifer by injecting excess water from
local rivers during the rainy season, the result of which may even improve the qual-
ity of groundwater. MAR techniques (Dillon 2005) may present interesting possi-
bilities for karst aquifers which offer exploitable groundwater resources, especially
those in Mediterranean areas (Margat 2008). However, the technique has only been
used in Australia (Vanderzalm etal. 2009), and there are a few similar pilot projects
conducted in the USA and elsewhere.
The main difficulty in applying MAR, which is being presently explored (Daher
2010; Bakalowicz etal. 2008), is the selection of an appropriate site and method of
injection. The direct injection through wells is probably not the best approach
because, according to what was previously shown from pumping tests, if the injec-
tion is done directly into a conduit, water will be quickly flow away and will not be
stored. It seems that the best method could be to inject water in the infiltration zone,
in areas where it will not quickly reach the phreatic zone. When this method is
refined, it will allow for more proactive management of karst aquifers.
12.3.8Non-conventional Resources and Karst Aquifers
In order to satisfy the increasing demand for water, the search continues for new
sources. When all known natural resources are already exploited, non-conventional
resources are then considered by stakeholders. Desalinated water, treated water
(Parizek 2007), and submarine groundwater discharge (SGD) are the three main non-
conventional resources, in addition to reducing leakage and water conservation.
Some desalination plants in Spain (Pulido Bosch et al. 2007) prefer to pump
brackish groundwater from coastal aquifers rather than sea water. Some pumping
sites use groundwater from karst aquifers. However, with increasing costs of energy
for desalination, an alternative may be to directly capture the fresh water of SGD
from karst submarine springs (KSS). The frequent occurrence of KSSs along the
Mediterranean coast has been well known since antiquity. However, only recently
have they been considered as a potential, non-conventional resource that may sat-
isfy increasing water needs. Several studies reported that KSSs along the
Mediterranean coast may discharge several million to billion m3 per year (Khawlie
etal. 2000; Ayoub etal. 2002). However, the methods of those evaluations did not
seem reliable and more detailed studies were undertaken in order to measure or at
least evaluate the SGD from Mediterranean KSSs and to determine their origin and
the reason for their particular abundance in the Mediterranean basin.
276 M. Bakalowicz
Recent investigations (Fleury 2005; Arfib etal. 2006; Cavalera etal. 2006; El-Hajj
2008; Al Charideh 2007) show that the flow rate of fresh water from KSSs had been
greatly exaggerated due to the inappropriate methods and often these springs dis-
charge brackish water during base flow. Moreover, Fleury (2005) in France, Fleury
etal. (2008) in Spain, and El-Hajj (2008) in Lebanon, have shown that slight modifi-
cations in the natural as well as artificial conditions of discharge at the spring may
contribute to uncontrolled intrusion of sea water. In addition, pumping at an on-shore
well, even at a low rate, may stimulate sea water inflow into open conduits far inland
from the coast. The reversal of flow at a permanent submarine spring was caused by
an onshore pumping test at Chekka Spring in Lebanon (El-Hajj 2008).
As a consequence, coastal karst aquifers appear as particularly sensitive to every
human action; therefore, their utilization must be undertaken with great caution.
Detailed knowledge of their functioning, seasonal behavior, and relationships with
sea water is the prerequisite to any management plan. It is necessary to reconstruct
the recent evolution of the regional geology with the objective to determine the
effects of the changes of the sea level. The dire need for this knowledge is shown in
the Messinian crisis of salinity in the Mediterranean Basin (Rouchy etal. 2006).
The Fleury (2005), Fleury etal. (2007b), and El-Hajj (2008) studies focused on
the possibility of capturing fresh water from KSS. Where SGD occurs offshore
directly from a limestone formation, KSSs work generally in the same way as an
onshore spring. Their discharge is highly seasonal, and overflow springs may work
during floods, when the water head increases in the conduit system (Rouchy etal.
2006; Fleury etal. 2007b). However, the submarine overflow springs appear deeper
than the main springs, while other overflow springs may also occur onshore. The
evaluation of their discharge by different methods shows that earlier estimates were
10 or 20 times the actual values, which thereby reduced their economic significance.
Moreover, the very important seasonal change in hydraulic head in the conduits and
the occurrence of conduits open to the sea at different depths would create condi-
tions favorable to natural sea water intrusion, potentially far inland. The situation
may worsen if a pumping well is installed directly in a major drain. Because the sea
water intrusion and the resulting mixing change considerably with hydrological
conditions, the SGD water presents a wide range of salinity from 0% during floods
to consisting of >60% sea water. Generally, such values suggest that KSSs cannot
be considered as a future alternate non-conventional resource in coastal zones,
despite the claim that their discharge might be considerable.
12.3.9A Case Study: Lez Spring, France
Detailed studies using appropriate methodology and permanent monitoring can

allow the sustainable use of karst groundwater. The best example is from Lez Spring,
which was bought by the city of Montpellier, in Southern France. This spring was
tapped during the nineteenth century to supply Montpellier and its suburbs by way
of a 16km long aqueduct. Until the 1960s, only natural base flow, around 300L/s,
was withdrawn. In 1969, a pumping station installed in the spring itself extracted
Fig.12.7 Cross section of the Lez spring, with the main conduit, the pumping station and the
upper and lower groundwater levels (source: Bakalowicz (2006))
~600L/s, with a drawdown of 8m. The pumps could not be placed deeper because
of the shape of the conduit.
With increasing population and corresponding water demand, two conflicting
projects arose during the 1970s. The first proposal was to supply Montpellier area
with water from the Rhne River, which was already partly utilized for irrigation via
a canal. However, the water was polluted by chemicals and hydrocarbons from the
industrial zones of the city of Lyon, and needed special treatment to allow its use.
The second project supported by several hydrogeological studies and proposed by
Avias (1995), showed that the Lez Spring Aquifer was not recharged by concentrated
infiltration from the main rivers and its storage capacity is large enough to allow a
pumping rate ~1,500L/s. These two projects involved different technical and eco-
nomic approaches. After a long dispute, augmenting the citys water supply using the
aquifer was the proposal finally chosen by the municipality. Thirty years of extrac-
tion without overuse shows that the chosen solution and the management method
worked perfectly thanks to accurate knowledge of the aquifer characteristics.
Since 1980, four wells were installed 500m upstream of the spring, crossing the
main conduit 75m below the spring level, i.e., at 10m below sea level. The extrac-
tion flow rate is on an average 1,300L/s (41 million m3/year), with a maximum of
1,500L/s, while the mean inter-annual flow rate is around 2,250L/s, with a range of
40 and 90 million m3/year (19812003). The new pumping station and the condi-
tions of withdrawal were designed after detailed studies (Avias 1995; Bakalowicz
2006), have been controlled and modeled (Fleury etal. 2009) and are strictly defined
by regulations. Thanks to the monitoring network, no overexploitation and pollution
has occurred. Figure12.7 shows a cross section of the spring area, with the pumping
station and the upper and lower groundwater levels.
Lez Spring is neither the first nor the most important pumping site exploiting a
karst aquifer with increases seasonally in withdrawals. Many Mediterranean cities
use karst groundwater resources for their water needs. Damascus, probably the larg-
est city to do so, uses two large karst aquifers (Kattan 1997). The main spring at
278 M. Bakalowicz
Figeh is pumped at a rate ~3.5 m3/s. However, increasing demand and the erratic
recharge in a semi-arid environment make its exploitation a difficult challenge.
However, there are two approaches for the use and management of regional water
resources that are in direct opposition to one another. The exploitation of surface waters
requires building reservoirs for regulating their natural flow and canals for transferring
water. However, when groundwater is available, especially from a karst aquifer, it may
also an important flow, often does not require canals due to its pre-existing conduit
system (particularly when close to the spring), can have potentially huge reserves, and
allows the natural control of withdrawals temporarily larger than the natural flow.
12.4Quality Management of Karst Groundwater Resource
In porous and fissured aquifers, which when considered at an appropriate scale,

can be delineated into homogeneous, protection zones using isochrones, i.e., lines
corresponding to equal transit time to the spring or well captured for water supply.
According to national or regional regulations, the 40-day or 50-day isochrone rep-
resents the upper limit of the protection zone. It is considered that a residence time
of 4050days is sufficient for eliminating all pathogenic bacteria and to control the
arrival of pollutants.
In karst, the presence of surface features, well connected to conduits and zones
of preferential flow up to several tens of kilometres in length, would oblige the con-
sideration of the whole recharge area, comprising even the non-karst regions. Until
recently, such an approach led stakeholders to an impasse and scientists to look for
a more appropriate method (Doerfliger etal. 1999; Zwahlen 2005). The issue is that
many karst systems are large, from several tens or hundreds of km2, hence it is
impossible to impose strict conditions in terms of planning and control of human
activities in such an area.
A final issue is how to determine the vulnerability of a karst system. This chapter
will not give a detailed description of the different methods proposed by the European
Action COST 620 (Petelet-Giraud et al. 2000) and subsequent individual karst
research efforts. They are somewhat identical in their approach, so briefly presented
here is the RISKE method (Petelet-Giraud etal. 2000) which was developed follow-
ing the EPIK method (Doerfliger etal. 1999); because EPIK requires too many data,
and is impossible or too expensive to collect for large karst systems.
Vulnerability mapping methods are inspired by the DRASTIC method (Aller
etal. 1987). DRASTIC was developed by the US Environment Protection Agency
for assessing the intrinsic vulnerability of groundwater to pollution. It is based on
numerical counting of parameters considered for vulnerability mapping (depth to
water table, net recharge, aquifer media, soil media, topography, impact of the
vadose zone media, and hydraulic conductivity). Instead of these parameters, some
of which are not important in karst, the RISKE method has five criteria:
Reservoir rock (R),
Infiltration potential (I), only function of the terrain slope,
Fig. 12.8 Vulnerability map of Cent-Fonts and Fontanilles karst systems north of Montpellier.
Areas in red are the most vulnerable to pollution while those in light blue are the least vulnerable
(from Petelet-Giraud etal. 2000)
Soil (S), often grouped together with the epikarst (E), and
Development and behavior of karst (K).
Some of the criteria are obtained directly from existing documents: Geological
map for R, topographical map for I, soil map for S. The epikarst E is mapped from
field observations and a karst database. The karst behavior is determined for the whole
system from literature and field observations. A synthetic map is finally built by
allocating at each mesh or points of the grid a value of vulnerability calculated by:
V = a*R + b*I + c*S+ d*K + e*E
V is the vulnerability in the considered mesh, and a, b, c, d, and e are coefficients

of the considered criteria R, I, S, K, and E. These coefficients are rated according to
the importance of each criterion, and must be tested for each study site. The experi-
ence shows that epikarst together with soil is certainly the most important criterion
in mitigating pollution, either diffuse or concentrated. The final map describing the
vulnerability of groundwater resource is one component to be considered during the
process of creating resource protection zones. Figure12.8 presents an example of
vulnerability map using the RISKE method on two karst systems north of Montpellier,
France (Petelet-Giraud etal. 2000). Areas in red and pink are the most vulnerable
so that particular protection measures must be taken in order to protect the ground-
water resource in those locales.
280 M. Bakalowicz
12.5Conclusions
On a practical level, karst aquifers often provide an important groundwater resource.

They can be highly productive, with rapid discharge through conduits and large
cavities, though these are difficult, if not impossible, to locate from the surface. The
complex evolution of karst due to changes in base level, particularly in Mediterranean
regions, may give them a large storage capacity which is the key for long term with-
drawals at high pumping rates, if combined with well informed regulation.
Methods now exist for karst systems that are very different to those used for
porous aquifers, allowing the exploitation, management, and protection of karst
water resources. Examples show that the exploitation must be based on the analysis
of aquifer functioning and monitoring in the vicinity of the spring. However, the
exchange of experiences comparable to what was done in Europe for the protection
of karst resources is absolutely necessary for improving the methods and adapting
the regulations to this complex medium, that is karst.
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Chapter 13
Management of Groundwater Species
in Karst Environments
William F. Humphreys
Abstract Carbonate karst is characterized by subterranean drainage and contains

the most biodiverse groundwater faunas globally. These faunas, which include a
suite of higher taxa largely restricted to karst subterranean waters, comprise species
that characteristically are narrow range endemics. They typically possess a suite of
adaptations to subterranean life that render them especially vulnerable to anthropo-
genic disturbance. Most such faunas depend on imported energy, largely in the form
of dissolved organic carbon, or on chemoautotrophic energy in particular circum-
stances. Karst is especially vulnerable to surface inputs at both local and broad
scales owing to the absence of, or thin soil cover, and by the presence of open con-
duits that can transport materials such as sediments, pollutants, or nutrients to the
deep subterranean waters without amelioration. Management actions such as sus-
taining water supply, control of pollution and nutrification, regulating resource
extraction, catchment surface management to sustain recharge and prevent siltation,
and control of human access may need to be applied at very different scales, rang-
ing from a small cave, or extending to an entire catchment which may comprise
extensive areas outside the karst itself.
13.1Introduction
Karst is characterized by the predominance of subterranean drainage, the fauna of

which this chapter is concerned. Karst is renowned for hosting obligate subterra-
nean species (stygobionts) and the first such species described was the Olm, Proteus
anguinus Laurenti, 1768, a blind, depigmented, salamander inhabiting cave streams
W.F. Humphreys (*)

Western Australian Museum, 49 Kew Street, Welshpool, WA, 6106, Australia

284 W.F. Humphreys
in the classical Kras (karst) area of Slovenia, believed in mediaeval times to be the
dragon larvae. Stygobionts often comprise ancient relictual lineages isolated under-
ground millions of years ago, but this is not always the case. So, the evolution of
subterranean life is a continuing process and the movement of fauna or the flow of
genes between surface and subterranean populations needs to be maintained.
Consequently, the thresholds to the subterranean world, including springs, caves,
and sinkholes, are important elements in the management of groundwater fauna in
karst. For the purpose of this chapter, I group all underground waters inhabited by
fauna within the term groundwater although drips, pools, underground rivers, and
streams within caves are not typically referred to as groundwater.
The last two decades have seen the recognition of groundwater as a significant
source of biodiversity (Danielopol etal. 2000) that warrants protection both in its
own right (Danielopol 1998) and also for the provision of environmental services of
direct bearing on human well being (Boulton etal. 2008). The karst areas of the
world support the most diverse assemblages of subterranean aquatic species (var.
stygofauna, stygiofauna) and this chapter raises issues pertinent to their manage-
ment and conservation.
Groundwater ecosystems have been recognized as dynamic systems comparable in
complexity to surface ecosystems (Rouch 1977; Gibert et al. 1994), although they
lack primary production. Although within cave species richness (a-diversity) is not
especially great (Culver and Sket 2000), the great change in species composition
between systems/karst areas (b-diversity) results in a high species richness in larger
regions (g-diversity). In some areas, the species richness of groundwater fauna exceeds
that in surface waters, an increased knowledge that has arisen through both greater
research effort and as a result of molecular analyses showing that there are many cryp-
tic species in groundwater (Bradford et al. 2010). Consequently, previously wide-
spread species are recognized to comprise an array of species each more circumscribed
geographically, that is endemic to quite small areas (Proudlove and Wood 2003; Page
etal. 2008; Trontelj etal. 2009; Zakek etal. 2009). Elsewhere, it has arisen as a result
of research in areas previously considered lacking in groundwater fauna, such as in
Australia where more than 750 species of groundwater fauna were reported within
about a decade (Humphreys 2008). The Balkan Peninsula is the longest most thor-
oughly researched karst region with more than 650 stygobiont species (plus 975
species of troglofauna; Sket etal. 2004) and Slovenia has the highest density of stygo-
bionts with 114 species (Culver etal. 2004). Whereas six European countries (Belgium,
France, Italy, Portugal, Slovenia, Spain) combined harbor 1059 stygobiont species
(Michel etal. 2009), only 269 species of stygobiont are known from the 48 contiguous
states of USA (Culver etal. 2003), with no more than 80 species in any karst region.
Strategies for conservation of cave fauna on a regional basis, beyond the scope of this
chapter, are addressed elsewhere (Culver etal. 2001; Ferreira etal. 2007; Gibert and
Culver 2009; Malard etal. 2009; Michel etal. 2009).
The management of groundwater species in karst environments typically invokes
images of cave streams and pools, and sometimes springs, but it requires consider-
ation of a far wider range of subterranean habitats to encompass the entire karst
ecosystem (Rouch 1977), and at a much larger scale, the extent of which may extend
13 Management of Groundwater Species in Karst Environments 285
far beyond the karst system itself. The nature of karst, its past and present climatic,
altitudinal, geomorphic, cultural, and developmental contexts vary widely both
within and between biogeographic regions and nations. Consequently, it is not
appropriate here to prescribe management practices but rather to raise some general
principles and issues pertinent to the karst manager when contemplating the man-
agement of groundwater fauna in their particular circumstance and what needs to be
considered and what questions need positing of researchers. Thus, it is not intended
to provide a comprehensive coverage of the management issues, rather, to provide a
guide to the issues of which managers needs to be aware and to provide pointers to
where the information may be found or what direction research may need to take to
address the management issues.
The management of each karst basin faces a unique set of circumstances for
which it is not possible to be generally prescriptive. Humphreys (2002) identified
three needs for groundwater fauna a place to live, food, and oxygen in order to
focus attention on essential general elements of groundwater ecology without pre-
scription. He further developed a string of issues that were known to impact ground-
water fauna generally, or that may be expected so to do by extrapolation from
surface waters or general ecological principles (Humphreys 2009).
The European PASCALIS project, comprising the karst rich nations of Belgium,
France, Italy, Portugal, Slovenia, and Spain, is the first international attempt to
assess groundwater fauna with a view to optimizing conservation planning (Michel
etal. 2009). The general issue of conservation of subterranean fauna at a regional,
national, and global scale is not covered here but is addressed in Culver and Pipan
(2009) with leads to the pertinent literature.
To provide background to the conservation of karst aquatic fauna, there are many
books and manuals dealing with the details of karst and water management at vari-
ous levels of detail. Exemplar texts are, by topic: caves (biology Culver and Pipan
2009; entity Gillieson 1996); encyclopaedias (caves Culver and White 2005; caves
and karst Gunn 2004; biospeleology, Juberthie and Decu 1994, 2000, 2001); fauna
(Botosaneanu 1986); groundwater biology (Gibert etal. 1994; Griebler etal. 2001);
hydrogeology (Ford and Williams 2007); mapping (Culver etal. 2001); protection
and management (Watson 1997; Tercafs 2001; Jones etal. 2003); subterranean eco-
systems (Wilkens et al. 2000; Culver and Pipan 2009); dedicated journal issues
(Humphreys 1993b; Humphreys and Harvey 2001; Austin etal. 2008; Gibert and
Culver 2009); dedicated journals (Subterranean Biology, formerly Mmoires de
Biospologie parts of International Journal of Speleology); and publications of the
Karst Waters Institute, USA.
13.2The Nature of Groundwater Fauna
Subterranean aquatic fauna comprise elements dependent to differing degrees on

groundwater. They include stygobionts (var. stygobites) that are obligatorily depen-
dent on groundwater throughout their life cycle, stygophiles that spend only part
286 W.F. Humphreys
of their life cycle in groundwater, and stygoxens that opportunistically inhabit

subterranean waters (Gibert etal. 1994). These degrees of dependence are reflected
in the extent of their adaptation to subterranean life, being most marked in stygo-
bites that characteristically lack visual and body pigments and so appear white and
eyeless, are commonly translucent, and often vermiform permitting passage through
small voids. They also exhibit behavioral adaptations that compensate, amongst
others, for lack of vision (review: Langecker 2000; Parzefall 2000), and physiologi-
cal adaptations such as low metabolic rate to compensate for the scarcity of food
(review: Coineau 2000; Langecker 2000). Subterranean species typically have no
resting life stage, exhibit a K-selected or A(adversity)-selected life history strategies
and respond to environmental scarcity with delayed maturation, delayed reproduc-
tion, and lowered fertility (sensu Greenslade 1983; Southwood 1988). For example,
tiny Bathynellacea (Antrobathynella stammeri and Bathynella sp.) may produce,
but a single egg and take 9months to mature (Coineau 2001; Giere 2009: 99).
Stygobionts typically occupy a very small geographic extent and are numerically
rare, both factors that increase their vulnerability to extinction through stochastic
environmental and population events, and genetic inbreeding. In the USA, 44% of
stygobionts were limited to a single county (Culver etal. 2000), while in Western
Australia, groundwater calcrete formations each harbor an endemic fauna, rich in
diving beetles and crustaceans (Humphreys 2008). Aspects of rarity are discussed
by Rabinowitz etal. (1986) and developed in the context of subterranean animals,
together with population estimations, by Culver and Pipan (2009).
These attributes of groundwater animals have various management implications.
The differing degree of dependence on groundwater means that some part of the
fauna may require connection with the water surface even the air above, to complete
the life cycle and that this connectivity is a prerequisite to maintain the faunal
assemblage. For example, stygobiont diving beetles (Dytiscidae) breath at the water
surface while stygobiont crustaceans in the same system respire within the water; so
the crustaceans, but not beetles, could potentially disperse through subterranean
water lacking contact with the air. Conversely, stygobiont species, typically long-
lived and lacking resting stages, are dependent on the permanent presence of
groundwater. Attributes such as low metabolic rate that adapt stygiobionts to the
low food environment make them susceptible to competitive displacement by surface
species if subterranean food energy is increased through pollution.
Stygobionts overwhelmingly comprise crustaceans belonging to many higher
taxa, including those with broad ecological and geographical distributions (such as
Copepoda, Ostracoda, Amphipoda, Isopoda, and Decapoda) (Fig.13.1), and those
with narrow ecological and geographical affinities, entirely or largely restricted in
their distribution to subterranean waters (such as Bathynellacea, Remipedia,
Thermosbaenacea, and Spelaeogriphacea) (Botosaneanu 1987). Many other higher
taxa are represented amongst stygiofauna, including vertebrates (fishes, amphibians),
meiofauna, hydroids, sponges, flatworms, nematodes, segmented worms, snails,
mites, and beetles. Although this chapter focuses largely on visible fauna, there is a
plethora of smaller meiofauna (Giere 2009) barely studied in groundwater sediments,
and microbiota (Bacteria, Archaea) (Chapelle 2001; Griebler and Lueders 2009).
Fig. 13.1 Examples of stygobiontic animals. (a) Eleotrid cave fish Milyeringa veritas and
synbranchid eel, Ophisternon candidum, from Cape Range, Western Australia; (b) thermosbaen-
acean Halosbaena tulki from anchialine system, Cape Range, Western Australia; (c) Allocrangonyx
pellucidus from Oklahoma, USA; (d) isopod Monolistra (Monolistra) monstruosa Sket from
western Bosnia and Herzegovina. (a) and (b) are associated with an anchialine ecosystem. Photo
credits: (a and b) Douglas Elford, Western Australian Museum; (c) courtesy of John Holsinger;
(d) Boris Sket
Subterranean habitats can be very old and groundwater fauna may survive under
extreme conditions and in isolated subterranean habitats through geological eras
(Longley 1986; Wilson 2008) and consequently through major changes in climate
and geological context (Humphreys 2000b, 2008). It used to be thought that stygo-
bites were largely a phenomenon in karst terrains in temperate regions; however,
over the last two decades, it has been recognized that stygobites occur widely, both
in terms of geology and climate. Speciose stygal communities occur in the tropics
(Deharveng and Bedos 2000; Humphreys 2008) but are largely absent in areas
closer to the poles. However, stygobites occur below the Pleistocene ice sheet in
Iceland inhabiting water-kept liquid by geothermal heat (Bjarni et al. 2007).
Groundwater fauna occurs in aquifers formed within a wide variety of substrates,
such as fractured rock, alluvial gravels, sandstone, and lava (Humphreys 2008), but
it is most widespread and prolific in karst systems. Groundwater fauna is known
from fresh, marine, and inland hypersaline waters (Humphreys etal. 2009), from
thermal springs (Monod 1924), and from beneath the ice sheets (see above). It is
known from both unconfined and confined aquifers artesian systems to depths of
288 W.F. Humphreys
up to 1km in Morocco (Essafi etal. 1998) and widely in systems dependent on

non-tradition energy sources (Engel 2005), such as chemotrophic systems in
Edwards Aquifer, USA (Longley 1992), Movile Cave, Romania (Sarbu 2000),
Frasassi Cave, Italy (Sarbu etal. 2000), Ayyalon Cave, Israel (Por 2007), and the
anchialine system in Mayan Blue Cenote, Mexico (Pohlman etal. 2000). Accordingly,
most undisturbed saturated karst systems outside the polar regions are expected to
support groundwater fauna.
Stygal species often represent ancient phylogenetic and geographical relictual
lineages (review: Humphreys 2000) that have been isolated underground for many
millions of years (e.g., Leys et al. 2003; Wilson 2008). However, under certain
conditions, a lineage may independently invade the subterranean realm on numer-
ous occasions, such as with the development of regional aridity (Leys etal. 2003;
Cooper et al. 2008). Other stygal species are recent invaders with close surface
relatives, or species that still have both surface and subterranean populations, both
amongst vertebrates (Strecker etal. 2003, 2004) and invertebrates (Carlini etal.
2009). Thus, colonization of the subterranean realm is a continuing process and so
it is not just those species markedly adapted to subterranean life, which often attract
most attention, but also putative colonizers that deserve protection, together with
the gateway to and from the subterranean realm, be it a resurgence or sink. There
are hints, also, of subterranean lineages recolonizing the surface (Prendini etal.
2010; Kornicker etal. 2010).
Connectivity is a primary process influencing ecosystem function and the distri-
bution, abundance and persistence of all biota (Lindenmayer etal. 2008). Surface
and underground streams may both provide avenues of connectivity within a karst
basin (Verovnik etal. 2004; Carlini etal. 2009) and so need to be considered as a
whole in karst management, as in other systems. Conversely, cave populations
inhabiting subsurface basins may be quite disconnected from spring resurgences
because individuals of a species may be too large to traverse interstitial channels in
phreatic sediments and porous rock where conduits confining the cave stream pass
below the water table (Ford and Williams 2007), as was noted for Gammarus minus
(Carlini etal. 2009) and Niphargus virei (Malard etal. 1997). Even meiofauna, such
as Parabathynellidae, may be unable to traverse fine phreatic sediments between
calcrete aquifer islands in a desert landscape (Guzik etal. 2008). In contrast, at
karst outcrop areas, the spring ecotone may not modify the population structure of
the drifting population and consequently sampling at springs proved to be an effec-
tive way to study the population dynamics of the amphipod Niphargus virei within
the aquifer (Malard etal. 1997). It is widely recognized that vegetation provides the
organic carbon that forms the basis of subterranean food webs but its role in con-
nectivity is often overlooked. Roots may penetrate karst to a depth of at least 50m
(Gillieson 1996). Roots transport organic matter directly to the groundwater, both
by growth and by the movement of sap and so provide a direct connection between
the photosynthetic tissue and groundwater. Secondly, roots provide connection
between groundwater and plant transpiration and this affects groundwater levels.
One consequence is that tree plantations may lower groundwater levels and threaten
cave invertebrate faunas (Jasinska and Knott 2000).
The degree of local endemism in karst subterranean fauna is unparalleled. Most

stygal species are considered to occur over short distances, few more than 200km
and many very much less (e.g., Leys etal. 2003; Finston etal. 2007, 2009; Cooper
etal. 2008; Page etal. 2008; Eberhard etal. 2009; Trontelj etal. 2009), commonly
restricted to single caves (Iliffe and Bishop 2007). This constraint may be further
strengthened as many cryptic taxa are being found further restricting the range of a
given putative species (Page etal. 2008; Trontelj etal. 2009). Short range endemism
makes the persistence of a species vulnerable to local scale impacts, such as quarry-
ing, draining, or impoundments. Similarly, they may be vulnerable to loss through
hybridization or by competitive exclusion by mixing of faunas through flooding by
impoundments, or tunnelling to manage water supply or as a bypass for engineering
and mining projects (Humphreys 2008).
The total species richness in subterranean water is difficult to determine because,
as is generally the case (May 1976), most species are rare. The task of evaluating the
diversity is compounded by limited access to an environment that, unlike the deep
ocean, does not yield readily to technological solutions. Despite intense sampling,
subterranean systems typically yield additional species for prolonged periods and
species accumulation curves analyzed using various algorithms are used to estimate
total species richness of a system, examples of which are found for the PASCALIS
project (Dole-Olivier et al. 2009). Additional species are still being found in
Vjetrenica (Bosnia & Hetzegovina) and Mammoth (USA) caves after 150years of
sampling (Lui and Sket 2003). An exception to this is sampling at a very small
spatial scale, by which means Pipan and Culver (2007a) were able readily to sample
a full complement of species of copepods from epikarst drip water.
13.3Scale
Scale affects most aspects of karst management, such as practicality of manage-

ment, susceptibility to disturbance, temporal lags in hydrology, dispersal and vicari-
ance of fauna, and intrinsic stability. Karst groundwater fauna are dependent on
subterranean water-filled voids that may vary in scale through several orders of
magnitude (Boulton 2001), from the spaces between particles in alluvia to massive
caves and conduits in some karsts such as the longest known underground river, the
180km long Ox Bel Ha cave system that links 130 cenotes (QRSS 2009) on the
Yucatn Peninsula, Mexico. In addition, groundwater fauna occurs extensively in
the smaller voids of carbonate deposits, even in the absence of overt karstification at
the surface (Humphreys 2001a). Within these systems, the physicochemical attri-
butes of karst groundwater also vary, from the redox gradients around sediment
particles through finely structured vertical gradients in anchialine waters (Seymour
etal. 2007), to the wide range of temporal and spatial scales enshrined in aquifer
flowpaths (Morgan 1993). Groundwater residence time is a significant factor in the
hydrogeochemical evolution of groundwater, the properties of which are important
to aquifer ecology. For example, changed flow affects the flux of organic carbon in
290 W.F. Humphreys
Table13.1 Karst recharge (After Smart and Worthington 2004a: 396)

Recharge Autogenic Allogenic
Origin of water On karst Outside karst
Chemical concentration Enriched Dilute
Flow Steady Variable
Sediment transport No Carried
groundwater that has a significant influence on the physicochemical variables such

as pH and redox (Eh) (Prez del Villar etal. 2004).
Although most karst fauna is collected in caves, most fauna probably occurs in the
much more extensive void space in the leads and fissures far too small for people to
enter. One approach to examine this has been to filter the entire drainage from a karst
system (Rouch 1977, 1986) but it could be tested by having a cavernous area with
many boreholes to enable sampling of both means of access within the same karst.
However, multiple bores are rarely present in areas with accessible caves. Culver etal.
(2009) surmounted this by sampling from individual cave drips (11,000m) effec-
tively obtaining point source diversity of the epikarst fauna. They demonstrated that
frequency of occurrence of stygobiont copepods at these very small scales could pre-
dict occurrence of stygobiont species at one to two orders of magnitude of larger
scales and argued that this supported dispersal at these scales. Conversely, Shabarova
and Pernthaler (2010) sampled three cave pools, between 722 and 913m below the
entrance of Brenschacht cave, Switzerland, and showed very high microbial diversity
but minimal overlap, the pools sharing only one of 150 taxa (OTUs). They suggested
that this may partly be the result of habitat filtering by different hydrochemical proper-
ties but largely due to hydrological properties with vadose pools serving as static col-
lector of microbial diversity, while epiphreatic pools served as ephemeral habitat
during the passage of bacteria between terrestrial habitats and rivers or estuaries.
The source of recharge water, whether from within (autogenic) or from outside
(allogenic) the karst basin, has a great influence on the natural properties of the
water (Table 13.1) and on the potential for influx of contaminants and nutrients.
Allogenic karst may require that landscape-scale management has, of necessity, to
extend upstream into non-karst landscape to provide adequately for the protection
of the karst aquatic fauna.
The genetic variation in populations of stygobionts may vary widely in spatial
scale. Guzik etal. (2009) demonstrated significant genetic structuring within popu-
lations of three sympatric species of subterranean diving beetles (Dytiscidae) within
3.5 km2 of a superficial karst in Western Australia. This study indicated that the
three sister species had different population histories with episodes of population
expansion, various degrees of spatial heterogeneity in the distribution of genetic
variation, isolation by distance and coalescence. Conversely, in anchialine karst and
pseudokarst such as lava, genetic structuring may be strong between adjacent areas
in the same region (Cape Range Australia, Page etal. 2008; Hawaii, Santos 2006),
or negligible within and between islands throughout the Hawaiian archipelago
(Russ et al. 2010). Spatial scale has temporal scale consequences in karst.
Forexample, groundwater ages with distance along its flowpath and so has different
properties, typically being more nearly carbonate saturated with time (distance) and
depleted of oxygen by microbial and eukaryote respiration, while excretion changes
the chemical and redox conditions. The degree of change will depend in part on the
duration of the biological and geochemical impacts (Humphreys 2008), and by the
buffering effect reducing the temporal variation in flow rate.
13.4Nature of Karst and Karst Hydrogeology
A succinct authoritative account of karst hydrogeology is provided by White (2005),

and a fuller account by Ford and Williams (2007).
The development, structure, and hydraulic properties of karst affect the suitabil-
ity of karst for groundwater fauna and the range of habitats available. Karst is char-
acterized by the presence of a water-filled network of fractures in carbonate rocks
(limestones, dolostones, and metacarbonates) but that part of the karst pertinent to
groundwater ecology is not necessarily obvious. As water infiltrates to groundwater
(saturated zone), it traverses many different pathways with varying velocities and so
there are varying degrees of storage in the vadose (unsaturated) zone (Fig.13.2).
This epikarst is the site of significant biodiversity containing short range endemics,
Fig.13.2 Schematic section of karst showing how the subterranean voids are variously intercon-
nected both internally and externally facilitating or impeding the movement of energy, materials,
and organisms. Other subterranean habitats have similar attributes working at different temporal
and spatial scales but largely lacking open conduit flow (From Eberhard and Humphreys 2003,
reproduced with permission from University of New South Wales Press and S.M. Eberhard)
292 W.F. Humphreys
especially of micro-crustaceans (Culver et al. 2009; Pipan and Culver 2007a, b;

Pipan et al. 2006). Conversely, conduits are known from a depth of more than
1,000 m and deep aquifers may contain rich (Edwards Aquifer, Texas; Longley
1992) or sparse stygobiont faunas (Plaine de Fs, Morocco; Essafi etal. 1998).
Although most karst hydrology has been developed from studies in caves and
resurgences, there are many areas (e.g., buried karst) where only bores (wells) can
provide access for both hydrogeological (Smart and Worthington 2004a) and bio-
logical sampling (Humphreys 2001a; Allford etal. 2008). In karst, boreholes typi-
cally intercept a few small conduits (<1 cm) that represent fractures that have
been greatly enlarged by solution and which can be further enlarged if a bore is
used for water extraction (Smart and Worthington 2004b). Poorly maintained or
poorly constructed bores can become routes for contamination of the groundwater
due to downward leakage of surface water, or upward leakage of groundwater
from deeper aquifers, along the wall of the bore. While this can clearly have
implications for subterranean fauna, both by mixing separate faunas and changing
water quality, bore construction protocols are typically a regulatory issue that the
karst manager needs to ensure that they are compliant throughout the catchment
of the karst.
It is the dissolution of bedrock (karstification) that results in carbonate rocks
becoming productive aquifers (Smart and Worthington 2004a), as well as suitable
habitat for a range of stygiofauna with different lifestyles. However, matrix poros-
ity is commonly two orders of magnitude greater than fracture and channel porosity
(Smart and Worthington 2004a) and, although the small voids of the matrix make
it unimportant as living space for groundwater fauna, the matrix porosity may sup-
port stable autochthonous microbial endokarst communities (Farnleitner et al.
2005) thereby affecting water quality. Conversely, seasonality/variation in water
level due to temporal effects is important as it allows the deposition of sediments/
clays, which are prime sites for biogeochemical activity, and organic carbon which
is the basis of food on which stygiofauna ultimately rely (general account:
Humphreys 2009). Hydraulic conductivity increases by 101102 times from matrix
to fracture, and from fracture to conduit domains (Worthington 1999). In conse-
quence, the draining of karst following periodic recharge may occur in distinct
phases as the different karst domains and pondings unload their water (Fig.13.3)
and this has consequences for the fauna. For example, sampling the fauna flushed
from a spring draining an entire karst enabled understanding of the different
domains within the karst. The rapid transit of water through open conduits (Mangin
1975) carried with it a groundwater fauna distinct from that found in the long resi-
dence time water of the karst matrix (Rouch 1977, 1986), an example whereby
stygobionts can also be a tool to understand and monitor attributes of karstic
groundwater (Malard etal. 1994; Humphreys 2009; Bonacci etal. 2009). However,
recent work has suggested that these distinct phases of drainage may be due to the
draining of ponded water behind constrictions in conduits (Eisenlohr etal. 1997;
Covington etal. 2009).
The lack of light in subterranean waters means that primary production is lacking
(the truncated ecosystem of Gibert and Deharveng 2002) and so energy input is
Fig.13.3 Hydrographs showing asynchronous changes in physico-chemical parameters in Stemler

Cave, St Clair County, Illinois, over a period of 10 days through a major flood event (1719
January) (From Taylor and Webb 2000a)
generally imported (allochthonous) from the surface. Consequently, depth below

the surface and lateral distance from inflow are issues of importance because they
are related to the coupling of the groundwater physicochemical and biotic variables
with the surface environment, both in terms of flux and temporal lags. For example,
organic carbon flux decreases with depth below the soil surface and with distance
along the groundwater flow path (review: Humphreys 2009). The duration of flow
within an aquifer affects the chemical composition of the water (e.g., carbonate
saturation), and is inversely related to the dissolved oxygen and organic carbon
concentration that are utilized by the microbiota and fauna (cf Humphreys 2009).
Thus, pertinent information on fauna management may be found in the hydrogeo-
chemistry of karst aquifers, informing on the degree of connectivity of its different
parts, the heterogeneity of the aquifer matrix, anisotropy the time course of
recharge and discharge events, and the chemical evolution of the groundwater.
13.5Where Groundwater Fauna Occur in Karst
Understanding of the integration of biological and hydrological processes in karst,

sometimes termed ecohydrology, is at an early stage, but Bonacci etal. (2009) pro-
vide background discussion and a framework for progress, a subject that overlaps
with hydrogeoecology, an emerging discipline that encompasses all groundwater
(Hancock and Boulton 2009). Karst aquatic biodiversity is partitioned between a
294 W.F. Humphreys
number of different major habitats that may need to be managed separately. The
cave streams and lakes, that are the dominant feature in many caves and the focus of
most work on karst stygiofauna, may contain only a fraction of the fauna, both in
terms of numbers of species and numbers of individuals. Most of the void space in
karst is of dimensions far too small to access by people and in these areas, probably
most of the fauna live variously termed crevicular or mesocavernous voids (Fier
and Zagmajster 2009) , but there are also rarer elements such as gour (rimstone)
pools, permanent sheet flow down vertical walls (cave hygropetric, Sket 2004),
meiofauna within sediments (Giere 2009) within the karst, and drips from epikarst,
and others (Culver and Pipan 2009). They have been variously sampled by hand
collecting, netting resurgences, boreholes or epikarst, or by baiting to attract such
fauna to larger voids (sampling methods, Camacho 1992).
Although diverse stygal communities do occur in some deep confined aquifers,
stygobites are most abundant and speciose in shallow unconfined aquifers. Gibert
(1986) studied the entire 10.5 km2 Dorvan-Cleyzieu karst drainage basin in the Jura
Mountains, eastern France from where water drains primarily through the Grotte du
Pissoir. She determined the evapotranspiration, runoff, and infiltration to derive the
hydrological budget for the entire karst. Most carbon infiltrating the epikarst as dis-
solved organic carbon (DOC) rather than particulate carbon (POC), a result that is
in accord with the later work of Simon etal. (2007). Although large numbers of
animals enter karst from the surface (Rouch 1991), or via the epikarst (Pipan 2005),
and carbon also enters the karst water as drift in cave streams, their combined total
is small compared with DOC. Despite the great insights such a study provides on
the functioning of the karst system, this study is still unique. This demonstrates
the importance of connectivity (Lindenmayer et al. 2008) with the surface, and
elsewhere, as a prime issue in karst management.
13.6Threats to Karst Groundwater Fauna
Small scale endemism places stygobionts at risk through stochastic processes (Sket
1999) and from single land use changes. It is difficult to assess the degree of threat
to groundwater fauna generally because in most places there is, or has been until
recently, a lack of information on subterranean systems. Lack of information is
highlighted in Australia where at least 750 species of groundwater fauna were found
mostly in the 10years to 2008, and largely in areas where no stygiofauna had previ-
ously been recorded (Humphreys 2008). There are, nonetheless, records of species
loss and it is certain that local populations of invertebrates, fishes, and salamanders
have been extirpated and some species probably lost (Veni 1987; Elliott 1993, 1994).
Since some species are endemic to a single cave or a small cluster of caves, and
many caves have been disturbed, filled, quarried, mined, submerged, drained, or
polluted (Table 13.2), it is probable that some species have disappeared recently
without our knowledge (Lewis 1996). Culver and Pipan (2009:10.4) provide many
examples of threats to subterranean faunas in general (Fig.13.4).
Table13.2 Human activity threats to karst groundwater habitats (Partly after Jones etal. 2003:
Table5; Notenboom 2001; Humphreys 2003, Humphreys 2009)
Surface activities Range of effects on groundwater
Construction and earth moving Sedimentation, increased storm runoff, flooding, petroleum
spills. Compaction of superficial karst changing drainage
pathways
Logging Increased storm runoff, soil loss and sedimentation, slash
and debris inputs
Agriculture Water extraction for irrigation lowers water table; increased
nutrient and bacterial loads, increased storm runoff and
sediment load, diffuse and point source pollution by
agricultural chemicals (fertiliser, pesticides, persistent
metabolic products), sinkhole dumping
Factory farming Demand for water; disposal of waste products, especially
NOx; eutrophication of waterways
Urban and industrial activities General decline in quality of recharge water (nutrients,
(exacerbated by tourism) heavy metals, organic chemicals), change in amount of
recharge, water level and periodicity of flow; septic
system failure; over pumping gives water drawdown and
decline in spring discharge; sewage; domestic, transport
and industrial waste (heavy metals, hydrocarbons, salts);
polluting leachates from landfill, and illegal or irregular
dumping
Tourist development Water level decline, salt water intrusion, sewage discharge
to marine groundwater and its circulation, increased cave
visits
Cave visitation Sediment disturbance and compaction, trampling fauna,
removal of fauna, change in microclimate
Quarrying and mineral Mobilisation of fine material leads to occlusion of voids and
extraction smothering of surfaces. Removal of matrix below the
water table results in open pits converting groundwater
tosurface water; short circuiting hydrogeochemical
evolution using bypass circuits. Alters groundwater
levelsand changes flow paths, changes physicochemical
conditions, pollution with mining spoil (including
clogging of voids), pollution by metals and
petrochemicalproducts
Water extraction Lowers water table, changes flow vectors, alters physico-
chemical conditions, saltwater intrusion, mixing of
chemically stratified water, mixing of different aquifers
Water infiltration Pollutants, nutrient enrichment, sediments
Artificial injection for storage Change water level, physicochemical conditions and
of water, waste, thermal hydraulic gradients; contaminants and void occlusion
capacity, other products
(both liquid and gas)
Oil and gas drilling Contamination by lost drilling fluids and by hydrocarbons
from spills or leaks from well casings, storage tanks or
from pipelines, petroleum and salt contamination by
disposal of produced water
Greenhouse climate drivers Water recharge, discharge, erosion cycle, residence time,
(gases, vapours, particulates) hydrogeochemical evolution, temperature
Fig.13.4 Schematic diagram of a karst system (1), with an enlargement (2) of a section of a
subterranean stream (18), depicting some routes of connectivity that may be managed to protect and
or restore invertebrate communities. A stream flows onto the karst (3) from non-limestone region
(allogenic) and descends underground at a sinkhole (4) forming a subterranean stream of river (5)
which leaves the karst system via a vauclusian spring (6). The characteristics of the allogenic water
is determined by the geology and land use in the catchment (7), and this is modified by passage
through the karst and allogenic recharge (9) that together determine suitability for subsequent users,
including human (8). Nutrients and pollutants in rain (9) and from arable and pastoral cropping
(10) percolate to the groundwater through the thin soil cover typical of karst, or more directly from septic
systems and sewage injection (11). Plantations increase evapotranspiration by intercepting rainfall
and draw water from shallow groundwater (12). Deep roots may penetrate up to 50m depth drawing
on water, and providing carbon to the subterranean fauna by root growth and sap flow (13), some-
time forming mats at the water surface providing habitat (19). The underground river conduit (5) passes
below and above the regional water table (14) which is freshwater but overlies a saline layer (green).
The saline layer is up-coning through the Ghyben-Herzberg effect in the downstream regions as a
result of overdrawing of water from the aquifer (15), or as a result of seawater intrusion from the
coast (not depicted). Upward and downward meanders in the river conduit serve as traps for high
density (16) and low density non-aqueous phase liquids (17) that can consequently accumulate
within the karst system from both allogenic and autogenic sources and smother sediments and
conduit walls, and the organisms, including biofilm. Within a small part of the karst (18) enlarged
(2) the underground river (5) flows through a conduit cut through the matrix of the limestone (24) which
forms the majority of the water storage capacity of the karst and which connects with the conduit
through fractures (23) which also provide access for roots (13). The sediments and gravel banks
(22), both below the water and periodically flooded, provide habitat for fauna and substrate for
biofilms, and may be destabilised through trampling by people. Some fauna is specialised to inhabit
sheet water flows on walls, (20) or amongst the floor speleothems (cave formations). Dripping sta-
lactites (21) provide effective sampling sites for epikarst fauna, and stalagmites growth using palae-
oclimate methods provides information on the history of the cave and local climate, sometimes into
deep history. For geochemical aspects refer to Fig.3 in Humphreys (2009)
Poulson (1968) attributed the present rarity of the cave fish Amblyopsis spelaea
in the Mammoth Cave System to silting and flooding associated with deforestation,
forest fires, and water engineering projects. Groundwater fauna are largely threat-
ened by changes in water level (Longley 1992; Rouch etal. 1993) and water quality,
the removal of matrix (Humphreys 2009), and sedimentation smothering surfaces
(Eberhard 1999; Hamilton-Smith and Eberhard 2000), and clogging voids although
the activity of stygobionts may counteract this (Nogaro etal. 2006).
13.6.1Pollution
There are many texts dealing with the issue of karst contamination (e.g., introductory
Schindel etal. 2004; major text Fetter 2001; dispersed Boyer 2004; point source
Schindel and Hoyt 2004; remediation Schindel etal. 2004; protection Drew and
Dunne 2004; karst contamination in a USA Elliott 2000; nitrates Katz 2005;
chlorinated solvents Wolfe and Haugh 2001).
Pollution is the contamination of groundwater with substances not naturally
present or changing the concentration of substances naturally present outside the
natural range which may be harmful to life. Subterranean waters are typically poor
in organic energy and subterranean fauna generally have low metabolic rates and
other physiological adaptation to this low energy environment (Coineau 2000). An
increase in energy input into the groundwater as a result of pollution (Fig.13.5)
may permit the successful invasion of surface forms into a previously oligotrophic
environment (Notenboom etal. 1994; Malard etal. 1994).
While surface waters are more readily ameliorated by photodegradation and by
the high oxic conditions, once pollutants enter groundwater, remediation is rarely
practicable, typically very difficult and often impossible. Thus, the focus needs to
be on prevention of contamination, and this is especially the case in karst environ-
ments that are highly vulnerable to pollution from both solid and liquid sources.
This arises because karst typically lacks deep soil and from the rapid water flow
through a conduit network, produced by karstification, that enables rapid transport
of contaminants to the water table with little natural remediation (Ray 2005). In
many cases, a diffuse network of conduits, such as those of the Dinaric Karst, makes
tracking and prediction of pollution difficult (Sket 2005).
Acid mine drainage can become a pervasive issue for karst management. For
example, the Rand goldfields on South Africa are overlain by compartmentalized
dolomitic karst that was partly, but widely, drained to enable mining. For over a
century, mine workings have penetrated the karst, including the continental drain-
age divide. When mines are depleted and pumping stops, sulfide rich water rises to
the surface, is oxidized, and the resulting acid water, rich in uranium, decant to both
sides of the continental drainage, divides and adversely affects both groundwater
and surface water quality (Winde 2006).
As outlined by Webb etal. (1994), contaminants in solution, such as salts, acids,
and endocrine mimics, will largely follow the dynamics of the water movement and
the impact on the fauna will be determined by their physical and chemical properties.
298 W.F. Humphreys
Fig. 13.5 Artificial exposure of groundwater ecosystems in groundwater calcrete bodies in

Australia. (a), Road quarry with sinkhole development, an unusual feature in calcrete (Mt Padbury
Station, WA); (b), Road quarry used for cattle watering, Lake Way Station, WA; c, specially con-
structed stock (cattle) watering point (Napperby Station, NT) (Photo: W.F. Humphreys). Such
opening eliminate stygal habitat by making lakes of groundwater, increase nitrification of ground-
water, and increases salinity by enhanced evaporation
Hydrophobic pollutants, especially non-aqueous phase liquids (NAPLs), are a

particular concern as they are transported relatively rapidly within the aquifer,
depending on groundwater velocity and conduit morphology, where they may
smother matrix surfaces, including biofilm. Dense NAPLs sink to the bottom and
smother surfaces, mix with the benthos and are incorporated in sediments, whereas
low density NAPLs rise to the water surface preventing gaseous exchange and
may accumulate in elevated parts of conduits. Consequently, both phases may
lead to persistent pollution from a single point source pollution event (Schindel
and Hoyt 2004).
Webb etal. (1994) provide a clear exposition of contaminant issues in Illinois in
respect of groundwater fauna. Lewis etal. (1983) and Lewis (1996) reconstruct
the processes that led to the elimination, as a result of sewage and heavy metal
pollution, and the restoration of the subterranean fauna of Hidden River (Horse)
Cave, Kentucky, which included Typhlichthys cavefish, Orconectes crayfish, and
Caecidotea isopods. In this case, following rehabilitation, the fauna repopulated the
cave from relatively unpolluted, upstream tributaries. Such dramatic examples
should not mask awareness that even sublethal concentrations of insecticides in
water may provide significant environmental stress, as indicated by fluctuating

asymmetry on larval development (Chang etal. 2009) and behavioral abnormalities
(Sandahl etal. 2004).
Toxicological studies of groundwater fauna are problematic as many stygobionts
are naturally rare and are difficult to maintain in the laboratory. This has prompted
the use of proxies in an attempt to address this problem (Hose 2005), but not with-
out dissent (Humphreys 2007; Hose 2007). Meiofauna population densities are
substantially greater than the mesofauna that is typically used in studies and offer
potential to allow statistically robust toxicological experiments on groundwater
species. However, as with other faunal categories, meiofaunal elements are dif-
ferentially affected by pollutants, for example, atrazine was lethal to about 70%
of several species of harpacticoid copepods but barely affected nematodes
(Bejarano etal. 2005).
Special mention should be made of anchialine systems near coastal groundwa-
ter affected by marine tides but lacking surface connection with the sea, typically
markedly stratified with freshwater overlying seawater not least because they are
home to a remarkable diversity of higher taxa, especially crustaceans (Fig.13.1),
globally confined to this ecosystem and considered to be tethyan in distribution
(Sket 1996). The most spectacular systems are in the karst platforms of the Bahamas
Banks (Daenekas etal. 2009), and on the Yucatn peninsula, Mexico (Iliffe 1993;
Iliffe and Bishop 2007) where a ring of cenotes surrounds the Chicxulub meteorite
impact site that arguably caused the end Cretaceous mass extinction intercon-
nected by caves including the Ox Bel Ha system (180km). Although they may be
extreme environments (Sket 1986; Humphreys 2001b), anchialine systems are con-
sidered especially vulnerable to pollution (Iliffe etal. 1984), those in Quintana Roo
being polluted by sewage disposal by injection into the seawater underlying the
freshwater layer (Beddows 2004).
13.7Anthropogenic Changes to Water Regime
Although karst aquifers are a major source of water for human use, little is known
about the impacts of water abstraction on ecosystems within aquifers (Rouch etal.
1993), especially deep aquifers (Longley 1992). Rouch et al. (1993) conducted a
high discharge pumping test in a sinkhole to investigate its effect on the movement
of stygiofauna out of the saturated zone of the Baget karst (Arige, France). The
water in the sinkhole was lowered by 21m on three occasions over 4days, and as a
result, the micro-crustacean drift (mainly harpacticoid copepods) from the karst
increased and the site had not recovered after 1year. The diverse groundwater fauna
of the Edwards Aquifer, Texas, which includes both vertebrate and invertebrate
stygobites with both marine and freshwater affinities, is under threat from over-
extraction of water which remove almost all of the natural recharge. The adverse
effects are caused by loss of spring flow, dewatering of parts of the karst, and saltwater
intrusion (Longley 1992). The Texas blind salamander, Typhlomolge rathbuni, inhabits
300 W.F. Humphreys
the artesian part of the aquifer and is threatened by over-pumping (Elliott 2000). The
use of Valdina Farms Sinkhole, Texas, as a recharge well for the Edwards Underground
Water District appears to have extirpated the only known population of the salaman-
der, Eurycea troglodytes, which is now probably extinct (Elliott 2000).
Owing to growing human demand on water resources, to enhance water storage,
natural or treated waters are increasingly being used to artificially recharge aqui-
fers but the effects on subterranean fauna are seldom studied. While this may seem
a slight insult compared to industrial waste disposal, the impacts may be substan-
tial. Injection in a sinkhole of 12,000 m3 day1 of treated wastewater water had
marked effects on the occurrence of stygobiont species in fractured limestone in
Nard (southern Italy). In the Castro subregion alone, seven stygobionts, eight
stygophile, and eight stygoxene species were not collected after the injection of
reclaimed water started in 1991. However, the response differed between species
and some omnivores, such as the stygobiont mysid Spelaeomysis bottazzii, were
favored (Masciopinto etal. 2006).
Floods, and other large scale disturbances, can be important drivers of ecosystem
and landscape processes (Lindenmayer etal. 2008). Increases in water level may
also affect karst systems, the most overt being impoundments which may change
the hydrodynamics and sediment transport within the karst as well as changing the
water levels. Impoundments are commonly on the surface, but there is an increasing
promotion and use of subterranean impoundments (Mengxiong 1987; Milanovi
2004a) to utilize the storage capacity of karst areas while preserving surface utility
and, important in hotter and arid climates, where the water is not lot by evaporation.
Impoundments can have negative effect on both surface and subsurface water
regimes. The plugging of river beds and ponors with cement to allow impound-
ments endangered the Olm, Proteus anguinus, by blocking connections between
karst channels and surface, and it was also at rick by flushing during reservoir oper-
ations (Milanovi 2004b).
Mammoth Cave, Kentucky, at 591km, the worlds longest cave system, has been
well documented ecologically. The Green River, which naturally back-flooded the
cave, was dammed in 1906 resulting in higher than natural flooding of the cave.
Further impoundments in the 1970s reduced flood height but extended the period of
flooding. These changes have had wide ranging ecological consequences with docu-
mented changes to Palaemonias ganteri (Kentucky blind shrimp), the cavefish
Amblysoma spelaea, the crayfish Orconectes pellucidus, and two species of
Caecidotea isopods, probably as a result of siltation, rather than the increase in
toxins or organic enrichment (Poulson 1996). This detailed study may have more
general implications because global climate change models on some aquifer sys-
tems predict changes in the amount of rainfall and in the seasonality of floods and
low water (Scibek etal. 2008).
Changes, such as urbanization, that increase the magnitude or intensity of flood
peaks in cave streams, may increase scouring of sediments. Wicks et al. (2010)
found that the critically endangered pink planarian, Macrocotyla glandulosa, in
Devils Icebox cave system, Missouri, occurred mainly in areas where numerical
simulation of flow indicated stable sediment not prone to scouring.
13.8Cave Visitors
Globally, caves and hot springs within caves, cenotes, and anchialine passages are
visited by people for research, recreation, medical, spiritual needs, and mass tourism.
Although they impact on a minor part of karst systems, they can have detrimental
impacts on stygiofauna and each would require impact specific management. For
example, the mass tourism in Waitomo Caves is renowned for the spectacular light
display of the New Zealand Glowworm (Pugsley 1984; Broadley and Stringer
2002), and metal pollution from coins in the tourist section of the La Corona lava
tube, Lanzarote, Canary Islands (Iliffe and Bishop 2007). The Yucatn is also a
major centre for cave diving tourism and marine fish follow divers lights into the
caves and eat the anchialine fauna. This can be prevented by the simple expedient of
divers turning off their lights while entering the cave from the sea.
Sediment banks are important locations of fauna in cave waters as they are areas
of deposition and therefore of concentrations of organic matter which nourishes the
biofilm (Dickson 1979) on which the fauna depend. Cavers following stream pas-
sages through caves may trample sediment banks, destabilize them, mix the contents,
and disrupt the fauna. Caving protocols may reduce such impacts generally, and
route marking and/or closures to entry of significant passages may protect them.
13.9Inventory
A major impediment to protection and management of subterranean fauna is lack of

knowledge of their current status, even of their presence see the above example of
Western Australia, a highly mineraliferous region, where a rich subterranean fauna
occurred unknown until recently exacerbated in some regions by a culture, now
largely past, of secrecy amongst speleologists. However, in some places, this may
be replaced by consultants who may retain information to protect some perceived
advantage. A prime requirement for the management and conservation of cave fauna
and the ecosystems in which they occur is an inventory to permit mapping of the
distribution of the fauna in space and time to determine the species richness and
assessment of their ecological status and vulnerability (Schneider and Culver 2004).
This argument, generally applicable, is especially pertinent to karst subterranean
aquatic systems which have exceptionally demanding requirements owing to diffi-
culties of access, the hydrogeological complexities of the karst milieu, the perceived
high level of vulnerability of the fauna (Box13.1), and the exceptional degree of
species endemism.
Inventory can occur at many levels of detail largely reflecting the financial and
human resources available; a detailed study is shown in Fig.13.6 and Box13.2 in
relation to the habitat of an endangered species. While major resources for long-
term inventory of fauna may be available to inform the management of karst aquatic
fauna in affluent and karst aware jurisdictions, this is a minority position. Even in
302 W.F. Humphreys
Box13.1 Case Study: Coastal Stygiofauna of Cape Range, Australia

Cape Range comprises a low limestone range (to 330 m) in Western
Australia forming a peninsula that projects northward about 100km into
the Indian Ocean. When there was still little knowledge of the stygiofauna
it contained the only two species of cave fish in Australia and two sym-
patric species of atyid shrimps and before the anchialine nature of the
groundwater was recognized, in order to inform large scale development
planning, it was necessary, rapidly, to develop elementary understanding of
the groundwater ecosystem on the surrounding coastal plain did the fauna
extend throughout the peninsula in a freshwater lens, or was it restricted to
a linear peripheral system around the coastal plain? The approach adopted
was to sample the few known sites for fauna and conduct an allozyme
study, the results of which pointed to a strong disjunction across the penin-
sula but a linear system extending along the coastal plain, including spe-
cies level variation (Humphreys and Adams 1991; Adams and Humphreys
1993), a finding that has since been extended and confirmed in a DNA
study (Page etal. 2008).
300
250
200
150
100 Isopoda
G. troglophilus
Oligochaeta
50 G. acherondytes
C. forbesi
0 B. brachycaudus
Apr May Undetermined Amphipoda
Jun Jul
Aug Sep Other
Oct Nov Dec
Jan Feb
Mar
Fig. 13.6 Average number of animals per m2 (N=7 samples/month/cave) for all taxa in cave
stream substrate of Fogelpole Cave, Monroe County, Illinois. The four identified Amphipoda are
Gammarus troglophilus, G. acherondytes, Crangonyx forbesi and Bactrurus brachycaudus (From
Taylor and Webb 2000b, with permission)
Box13.2 Endangered Species Illinois Cave Amphipod

Venarsky et al. (2007) undertook a study, using non-lethal methods, of the
U.S. Federally listed Illinois Cave Amphipod, Gammarus acherondytes and
were able to demonstrate that basic life history information obtained via non-
lethal sampling in Reverse Stream Cave, Illinois, U.S.A, could provide man-
agers with the information required to develop conservation strategies for
endangered species. They recommended to reduce cave visitation during the
major phases of recruitment to aid recovery of the population and suggested
the establishment of a laboratory population for reintroduction.
industrial countries, the sampling for inventory work is often largely the province of
capable amateur speleologists, with professionals involved only for specialist iden-
tification, and taxonomic and systematic development. In many, perhaps most, parts
of the world, inventory, if at all, is elementary and the province of intermittent ama-
teur and perhaps professional speleological expeditions is often associated with
institutes devoted to taxonomy and systematics.
Nonetheless, there are useful guidelines to follow whatever level of inventory is
possible for a given karst. This may range from a one-off collection establishing a
minimum species occurrence baseline, through to the routine monitoring of the dis-
tribution and abundance of the cave fauna that will permit the detection of subtle
changes in conditions and allow for the possibility of remedial action in the face of
adversity. Hence, a basic requirement of management is to have an inventory of
spatial information on the fauna and, as a minimum, to record what is where, when, in
what, how and by whom were the data gathered. Each category can be expanded as
human and financial resources and knowledge improvement (Table13.3). A specimen
progressively becomes a formally described species located in a phylogeny and
placed in an historical biogeographic context. The aquatic habitat can later be
expanded to include the hydrological and physicochemical properties of the water
and its variation. An individuals field notes may progressively develop to become a
compilation of multivariate data through time in a GIS system. But it is the mini-
mum level of data that provides an essential baseline against which to start to make
management assessment. This is often lacking for specific areas and even across
major regions before profound changes to the landscape were made, for example in
Australia (Hamilton-Smith and Eberhard 2000) and North America (Elliott 2000:
685). There are few areas of the world where subterranean fauna are a specific
requirement for environmental impact assessments; Western Australia is one among
them (EPA 2003). Although US research infers for management that groundwater
quality is best protected by protecting the ecosystem (Job and Simons 1994), only
in Switzerland has the maintenance of functioning aquifer ecosystems enshrined in
ordinance (GSchV 1998).
Generally, most species cannot be identified from field photographs and so speci-
men collection, and arrangement for their long term preservation, storage, and data
304
Table13.3 What, where, when, in what and by whom guide to inventory information acquisition to guide management from basic essential background
information progressively to more sophisticated understanding of distribution and variability of fauna
Level of information Basic Adequate Good Extended
What (unknown fauna) Specimens labelled Named species identified by Morphological and molecular Phylogeny and historical
with data in this competent authority material deposited in biogeographic context
column and permanently managed developed
deposited in collection
collection
(collection method)
What (known fauna) Individual identified to Number of individuals Life history data: developmental Behavioural observations
species by and reproductive stage and
competent observer dynamics, sex
Where Geographical location Location in cave, etc., habitat Coordinates with grid and 3-D GIS
and situation (flowing water, in sediment, gour method details (e.g., UTM
pool, ) zone ## using GPS on
grid##)
When Date Time Cross reference to previous
samples
In what Medium Physical parameters velocity, depth, Basic chemical water quality Natural and induced
specific conductance, pH, Eh, variability,
DO, temperature contaminants
By whom Name of collector of Supplementary data deposition
specimen or data
W.F. Humphreys
base, is an essential corollary of inventory work. The long term storage, particularly
of the type material from which new species have been described, is best handled by
institutions maintained to manage and research fauna collections, typically state
museums voucher material to aid local identification can be maintained at the
laboratories involved with research in a particular karst region. Although sparsely
utilized, taxonomic expertise is essential in all ecological studies (Bortolus 2008),
but is especially important where high b-diversity results from the very short range
endemism characteristic of subterranean fauna. Once the fauna of a particular cave
or karst is well characterized, then conservation strategies can be supported by non-
lethal life history sampling (Venarsky etal. 2007).
Data derived from karst fauna management are essentially field data ultimately
derived from all scales of biological organization, spanning orders of magnitude of
temporal and spatial scale, and which is very heterogeneous in format and content.
The protocols established for the Resource Discovery Initiative for Field Station
(RDIFS) in the USA (Brunt and Michener 2009) provide a valuable framework on
which to establish both a karst specific data collection and management, and the
means of intergenerational and between karst region sharing of research and train-
ing and management information to better monitor their own responsibility and to
establish a broad research base on which to undertake the management of karst
aquatic fauna. RDIFS is focused on enabling cross jurisdictional exchange of data
by promoting consistent terminology, standard field methods, and quality assurance
and control of data.
13.10Management in Faunistic Ignorance
Although the subterranean biodiversity warrants protection in its own right and this
is best achieved by the application of ecology to cave and karst management
(Whitten 2009), the protection of the quality and quantity of human water supply
provides the strongest avenue indirectly to aid the protection of stygiofauna. Real
protection of karst waters depends on protection of the entire catchment and so, as
mentioned above, landscape management may need to extend beyond the jurisdic-
tion of the karst manager (Jones etal. 2003: 36). At its most basic, but rarely possible,
the area and the catchment can be maintained in its original, unaltered state.
However, global fallout of anthropogenic products negates pristine areas especially
as even sub-lethal concentrations involved may induce developmental (Chang etal.
2009) and behavioral abnormalities (Sandahl etal. 2004). Boulton (2009) consid-
ered that the biggest challenge as aquatic conservationists is to increase (and sustain)
public and political awareness of the importance of groundwaters and GDEs, how
they are threatened, and the need for applied research on groundwater processes and
response functions to help managers assess groundwater resource use. At the local
level, effective engagement by the karst manager with those responsible for water
quality for human consumption is advocated, as they often have authority over
the water and are better resourced for effective action if they are persuaded of the
306 W.F. Humphreys
synergy between water quality and aquatic ecosystems. Such linkage could be
explored between the studies of Masciopinto etal. (2006) and Masciopinto etal.
(2007) of the Salento peninsula, southern Italy.
13.11Education and Protection
Danielopol and Pospisil (2004) emphasized reasons for protection of groundwater

fauna that are useful in educational programs for the protection of karst, including
scientific, moral, and practical economic arguments to protect groundwater organ-
isms and prevent deterioration of the environment. Management of karst groundwa-
ter can be implemented only if the occupiers of the land, both within the karst and
the upstream catchment, and visitors, are made aware of the properties of karst
systems that make their groundwater fauna particularly vulnerable to anthropogenic
disturbance. In consequence, any management of stygiofauna will, of necessity, be
part of an integrated and sustained educational effort of comprehensive karst man-
agement, a topic that is extensively developed elsewhere (Watson etal. 1997; Tercafs
2001). A major emphasis on education is crucial if we are to effectively implement
changes in land-use practices associated with urbanization and agricultural activi-
ties in ..... [southwestern Illinois], and changes that help sustain the aquatic cave
community will also improve the quality of life for ..... residents in this karst area
(Taylor and Webb 2000a). The value of cave species to the public, often, is consid-
ered low, but cave species have potential scientific, practical, and educational value.
For example, they may serve as indicator species in karst areas as a natural alarm
for regulators and public health agencies to groundwater contamination, and they
may provide ecosystem services by contributing to maintaining groundwater qual-
ity or aquifer porosity. Interestingly, a survey showed that visitors were willing to
pay an increased entry fee (ca. 30%) to Yanchep National Park, Western Australia,
to support a recovery plan for a root mat ecosystem containing a cryptic fauna
threatened by groundwater drawdown (Perriam etal. 2008).
There is a substantial literature on the legislative approach to species and com-
munity protection, that includes subterranean fauna, in many countries (e.g., Elliott
2000; Hamilton-Smith and Eberhard 2000; Juberthie 2000) and this is reflective of
the increased consideration for groundwater protection to maintain biodiversity
(Danielopol etal. 2004). Although groundwater fauna are included in various inter-
national treaties and conventions, aquifer ecosystems, generally, are specifically
protected at a national scale only in Switzerland by the Water Protection Ordinance
that defines both water quality standards and ecological goals, groundwater bio-
cenosis [ecosystem] should be in a natural state adapted to the habitat and charac-
teristics of water that is not or only slightly polluted (GSchV 1998).
Awareness of the vulnerability of species and communities may be raised by inclu-
sion of sites in listing of threatened fauna at local, national, and international levels,
such as a Ramsar site (Beltram 2004) or Redbook listing (IUCN 2008). The listing of
species under national endangered species legislation typically requires a level of
scientific knowledge that is unavailable for rare subterranean species (but see Box13.2).
Where possible, despite the rather haphazard and arbitrary listing processes, listed
species may protect associated unlisted species by proxy (Elliott 1990), particularly
pertinent to karst groundwaters that often contain short range endemic species.
13.12Some Management Actions
Alteration of land use practice is probably one of the principle factors affecting
subterranean waters in karst because changes to or removal of vegetation changes
water quality and flow regimes. The increased water yield exacerbates flooding in
caves, while the more rapid run-off from cleared land increases peak discharge to
cave streams and so previously permanent streams may become periodic. Four short
examples of management actions on stygiofauna are given here, all from Australia.
(1) In south-western Australia, root mats develop in water table caves and they and
the associated fungi are grazed by a rich stygiofauna (Jasinska and Knott 2000),
and these root mat communities are listed under both Western Australian and
Australian Commonwealth fauna protection legislation. Groundwater levels
are declining, at Yanchep, north of Perth, as a result of excessive water extrac-
tion from the Gnangara Mound aquifer (Perriam et al. 2008), and, at Jewel
Cave, Augusta, from unknown causes, hypothesized to be due to reduced rain-
fall infiltration as a result of increased understorey growth in the karri forest
resulting from a change in fire frequency (Eberhard 2004). Stranded root mats
and associated invertebrate communities are dying and, considerable efforts
have been made to maintain artificially from bores the water supply at Yanchep,
but with poor success, owing to iron rich water (Venn 2008).
(2) The operations of a limestone quarry at Ida Bay, Tasmania, caused adverse
impacts on aquatic cave fauna as a result of sedimentation, eutrophication, and
toxins that resulted in the extinction of fauna in Chesterman Cave (Eberhard
1995). In Exit Cave, the sedimentation restricted the distribution of hydrobiid
snails, and while the quarry was operational, snail abundance was significantly
lower in sediment affected streams than in control streams. A rehabilitation
program was initiated after closure of the quarry to prevent further environmen-
tal degradation by restoring natural in-flow regimes and limiting further influx
of sediment. Subsequently, snail populations were similar in control and sedi-
ment affected sites (Eberhard 1999).
(3) Barrow Island comprises a low limestone anticline on the shallow North West
Shelf, Australia, and was declared an A-class reserve in 1910, the highest level
of conservation protection in Western Australia. Since 1961, it has been a pro-
duction oilfield requiring disposal of ever increasing volumes of oil contami-
nated produced water. From 19681979 and 19871994, produced water was
discharged nto superficial karst to B Block caves and F Block caves respec-
tively. In 1996 alone, this amounted to 2.3 106 m3 of hypersaline water (4045g
L1 TDS) disposed with an residual oil content of 1002,000ppm (Wapet 1996),
308 W.F. Humphreys
Fig.13.7 Stylized molecular

phylogenetic relationship
within Troglocaris W Slovenia
anophthalmus (Decapoda:
Atyidae) based on nuclear
gene ITS2 rooted on T.
bosnica showing the major
clades indicating the presence Adriatic
of cryptic species within T. Istria
anophthalmus (After Zakek
etal. 2009: Fig.2)
So a
E-
E-Slovenia
E-
Troglocaris
that is between 230 and 4,600 m3 of oil. Neither the anchialine nature of the
ecosystem (Humphreys 2001b), nor the existence of a high conservation value
groundwater fauna were recognized until the 1990s (Humphreys 1993b) and
now known to include endemic species of crustaceans and fish. Although dis-
posal of produced water in the superficial karst was subsequently stopped, in
favor of disposal to deeper geological formations, the lack of pre-impact surveys
of subterranean fauna precludes complete assessment of any impact of oil field
operations on the original stygiofauna of this A-class reserve.
(4) Cryptic species generally are increasingly being exposed with the aid of molec-
ular methods (Bickford etal. 2007; Bradford etal. 2009). It is commonly found
that isolated populations of stygiofauna (Fig. 13.7), especially amongst the
various amphipod families, show deep phylogenetic divergences based on DNA
although they cannot easily be separated using morphological criteria (Finston
etal. 2004, 2007; Cooper etal. 2007). The discovery of stygobiont fauna in a
groundwater calcrete deposit near a new iron ore mine, Ore Body 23, at
Newman, Western Australia, resulted in delay in commissioning of the mine. The
initial diversity assessment was made on stygiobiont paramelitid amphipods a
group that has proven to be intractable to morphological study (Cooper etal.
2007) which indicated 14 species of amphipod were present (Bradbury 2000),
making it a global hotspot for amphipods. Molecular analysis was eventually
commissioned which suggested a much lower diversity of amphipods (Finston
and Johnson 2004; Finston etal. 2004), although the local endemism of other
stygobiontic taxa was ultimately found (Karanovic 2006; Finston etal. 2007;
Reeves et al. 2007). Subterranean fauna was previously unknown from this
region, but it was later recognized to contain a globally significant subterranean
biodiversity (Humphreys 2008); procedures introduced to ensure subterranean
fauna were included in the environmental assessment process (EPA 2003), and
a broad scale regional assessment of the stygiofauna was undertaken by the
fauna authority (Eberhard etal. 2009; Karanovic 2006, 2007).
13.13Conclusions
There are about 126,000 described freshwater animal species representing 9.5% of
the total number of animal species recognized globally. As surface freshwaters cover
only about 0.01% of the total surface of the globe, freshwater ecosystems support a
disproportionately large fraction of the worlds total biodiversity (Balian etal. 2008b)
that is disproportionately threatened (37% of freshwater fish species are threatened;
IUCN 2009). Despite increased awareness of inland waters in many regions and
innumerable restoration projects, the biodiversity and biological resources of inland
waters face a major crisis related to water resource integrity that is linked with the
essential ecosystem services provided by aquatic ecosystems (Balian etal. 2008a).
Freshwater systems are being destroyed at an increasing rate as a result of extraction
of water for domestic use, for industry and irrigation, by draining and infilling, and
by gross contamination by industrial and agrochemical pollutants and salination.
Constrained in distribution by its milieu, freshwater fauna globally is consequently
under immense pressure. While these influences are apparent in surface waters, they
are well hidden in groundwater which comprises 97% of all liquid freshwater
resources on earth (LVolich 1974) and about 25% of the worlds population is sup-
plied largely or entirely by karst waters (Ford and Williams 2007).
Knowledge of the biodiversity within all types of groundwater is rapidly increas-
ing and untangling the ecosystem services it provides has commenced (Boulton
etal. 2008; Hancock and Boulton 2009); but the task is challenging and new chal-
lenges emerge, such as climate change. Karst systems provide the more dynamic
and accessible groundwater systems but also those most readily contaminated and
through which contaminants can most rapidly spread. Maintenance of the biodiver-
sity within karst waters is the default option in the absence of empirical evidence of
what constitutes key components of these simplified ecosystems.
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Part IV
Management of Karst Regions
as Integrated Units
Chapter 14
National Karst Research Institutes:
Their Roles in Cave and Karst Management
George Veni
Abstract This chapter defines national cave and karst research institute as an
organization created to conduct, facilitate, and promote state-of-the-art cave and
karst research, education, and management, and recognized nationally as a leading
authority on such matters. Twelve institutes from nine countries were identified;
one institute is inactive. Most were created as governmental programs, often affili-
ated with a university, while the rest are non-profit, for-profit, or hybrid (combining
at least two of the other three organizational structures). Each structure inherently
lends itself to different levels of authority and engagement in cave and karst
management issues.
The role of national institutes in cave and karst management is a subset within
each of the institutes basic purposes: Research, education and publication, inde-
pendent advice and arbitration, data archiving, funding generation and granting, and
collaboration facilitation. To date, most institutes have focused their efforts on theo-
retical research, archiving of data, and production of publications, and not on applied
management issues. While activity in karst management is generally increasing, it
is conducted mostly by the younger institutes and includes greater education efforts,
funding, and advisory service. Because of widely different circumstances in each
institutes origin, administration, age, and national laws and culture, generalizations
are difficult but some trends are proposed for the next few decades:
Karst institutes will increasingly develop hybrid organizational structures.
Karst institutes will predominantly focus on karst management issues.
Technical and public education will become prominent karst institute programs.
Karst institutes will increase their support of digital open access karst libraries
and the creation of virtual karst research tools.
G. Veni (*)
National Cave and Karst Research Institute, 1400 Commerce Drive,
Carlsbad, NM 88220, USA

322 G. Veni
Karst institute funding will increase through diversification of services and

perceived increase in value.
Karst institutes will formally link for greater effectiveness and better use of
limited resources.
14.1Introduction
Until the middle to late twentieth century, relatively little research occurred in caves
and karst areas, even though about 2025% of the worlds land area is underlain by
soluble rock (Ford and Williams 2007). In many areas, caves were considered curi-
osities rather than sites of serious scientific inquiry that could yield valuable infor-
mation beyond archeological or paleontological data. This attitude changed as cities
expanded into surrounding karst areas, and people discovered their understanding
of these complex natural resources was inadequate for effective management.
Cave and karst research institutes grew from the desire to better understand these
areas and their contents. Some early institutes grew from the research interests of a
motivated individual (e.g., Emil Racovitas fascination with cave biology leading
to the Romanian institute) or from the discovery of an important research site
(e.g., development of the Karst Research Institute in Slovenia within the karst
type area). Although most did not emerge in response to the needs of natural
resource management, all were developed with the common purpose of consolidat-
ing knowledge, information, talents, and funds to facilitate research.
The purpose of this chapter is to describe the types of national cave and karst
research institutes, the advantages and limitations of their structures, the roles they
play in cave and karst management, and what changes they are likely to see in the
future. While regional institutes and related organizations exist, they will not be
addressed in this chapter except to distinguish them from national institutes. Much
of the information on national institutes applies to them when scaled to their local
level or specific function.
This chapter is the first report to comprehensively discuss national karst research
institutes. Little information is directly available on this subject. Much of this infor-
mation was gathered through personal experience with most of the institutes. Many
aspects of the institutes histories, programs, and administrative details have not been
published, except through ephemeral brochures, leaflets, and Web site postings.
14.2Types of Institutes
Cave exploration and research is a passion for certain people. Caves high vulnera-
bility to environmental impacts often directs their passion into education and man-
agement. Caves and karst also serve as the focus for many businesses, most notably
14 National Karst Research Institutes: Their Roles in Cave and Karst Management 323
tourism, but also, especially in the past 30years, for environmental management
consulting. Cavers (cave explorers) serve as the foundation for research, education,
management, and commercial efforts. Their discoveries and maps lead the way for
others to follow, and most cave and karst professionals build their careers on the
inspirational foundation of their own caving experiences.
This wide range of interests, purposes, and specialization makes cave-focused
organizations among the most diverse types in the world. The Union Internationale de
Splologie (UIS) is typical of many such organizations down to the local level. It has
the dual purpose of representing those who are interested in exploration and the recre-
ational aspects of caves, as well as those fixed on the sciences and non-recreational
issues. Its commissions include groups focused on Archeology and Paleontology,
Atlas of Karst Regions, Cave Mineralogy, Cave Rescue, Education, Glacial,
Firn, and Ice Caves, Karst Hydrogeology and Speleogenesis, Microbiology and
Geomicrobiology, and Speleothem Protection and Conservation, among numerous
other topics (UIS 2010). Many cave-interest organizations function separately from
the UIS and focus exclusively on these or other specific subjects. Are they cave and
karst research institutes?
Merriam-Webster (2010) defines institute as an elementary principle recog-
nized as authoritative; an organization for the promotion of a cause; an educational
institution and especially one devoted to technical fields. Probably, all of the UIS
commissions and similar-interest organizations qualify as promoting a cause. All
are devoted to the technical field of cave and karst science, often specializing in a
sub-discipline, but few offer educational programs. The definition of institute also
requires recognition of authority, which is difficult to quantify; all organizations are
seen as authoritative at some level and by certain groups. This is complicated by the
fact that, while the situation is improving, outside of the cave and karst community,
relatively few cave and karst organizations are known to the general public, main-
stream science, education, and management groups, or governmental agencies.
Fewer still are accepted as authoritative.
This chapter defines national cave and karst research institute as an organiza-
tion created to conduct, facilitate, and promote state-of-the art cave and karst
research, education, and management, and recognized nationally as a leading
authority on such matters. Institutes which have not fully met those requirements
are included in this chapter if they are working to fulfill them. Organizations that use
institute as part of their name but do not fit the definition are not.
Table 14.1 summarizes basic information about all known national cave and
karst research institutes as defined above. Table14.2 summarizes their goals and
programs. The information, including discussion in the following sections, was col-
lected through a questionnaire, and supplemented by the institutes Web sites and
publications, and interviews with their staffs. Web site addresses are included in the
list of references at the end of this chapter (except for the Cuban Speleological
Society which does not currently have a Web site). The sections that immediately
follow examine the different types of institutes and their functions in greater detail,
with an emphasis on karst management.
324
Table 14.1 Leading international karst institutes. [Center for Cave and Karst Studies (2010); Emil Racovita Institute of Speleology (2010); Hoffman
Environmental Research Institute (2010); Institute of Karst Geology (2010); Instituto do Carste (2010); Karst Research Institute (2010); Karst Waters Institute
(2010); National Cave and Karst Research Institute (2010a); Swiss Institute of Speleology and Karstology (2010); Ukrainian Institute of Speleology and
Karstology (2010); Veni G (1985)]
Institute Year created Country Type Staff Funding source(s)
Cuban Speleological Society (CSS) 1940 Cuba Governmental n/a Government
Emil Racovita Institute of Speleology 1920 Romania Governmental 40 fulltime, variable part-time, Government, grants, contracts
(ERIS) and students
Hoffman Environmental Research 1999/1979 USA Hybrid 7 fulltime, 38 part-time, University, grants, contracts
Institute/Center for Cave and Karst 6 students
Studies
Institute of Karst Geology (IKG) 1976 China Governmental 153 Government
Instituto do Carste (IC) 2007 Brazil For-Profit 1 fulltime, 18 variable Private donations, event fees
International Research Center on Karst 2008 China Governmental n/a Government
(IRCK)
Italian Institute of Speleology (IIS) 1926 Italy Governmental 3 Government
Karst Research Institute (KRI) 1947 Slovenia Governmental 25 Government
Karst Waters Institute (KWI) 1991 USA Non-Profit 15 (all volunteers) Grants, contracts, event fees,
private donations
National Cave and Karst Research 1998 USA Hybrid 6 fulltime, 2 part-time, Government, grants, contracts,
Institute (NCKRI) variable students and event fees, private
volunteers donations
Swiss Institute of Speleology and 2000 Switzerland For-Profit 11 fulltime, variable students Contracts, grants, membership
Karstology (SISK) and volunteers fees
Ukrainian Institute of Speleology and 2006 Ukraine Governmental 4 fulltime, 7 part-time Government grants, university
Karstology (UISK)
G. Veni
Table14.2 The purposes and programs of the international karst research institutes. [Center for Cave and Karst Studies (2010); Emil Racovita Institute of
Speleology (2010); Hoffman Environmental Research Institute (2010); Institute of Karst Geology (2010); Instituto do Carste (2010); Karst Research Institute
(2010); Karst Waters Institute (2010); National Cave and Karst Research Institute (2010a); Swiss Institute of Speleology and Karstology (2010); Ukrainian
Institute of Speleology and Karstology (2010); Veni G (1985)]
Institute Purpose Programs
Cuban Speleological Initially, to conduct cave and karst research in Cuba Research programs were absorbed into other governmental departments.
Society Now it serves primarily to train and organize cavers and host related
conferences
Emil Racovita Conduct interdisciplinary research on physical and Romanian karst science: geology, mineralogy, hydrogeology, and karst
Institute of biological components of the karst environment and hydrochemistry; taxonomy, morphology, ecology and zoogeography
Speleology related fields to provide a better understanding of karst of edaphic and subterranean fauna; use relative and absolute dating to
processes to assess best practices for their preservation reconstruct paleoclimate and paleoenvironmental conditions based on
and conservation; provide scientific consulting for cave a variety of cave and karst deposits; karst water properties, establish-
and karst management; coordinate the national cave ing mechanisms for transfer of chemical contaminants using
inventory; publish karst books and journals; promote geochemical and radio-nuclear methods; conferences; scientific
educational activities advisors to caving organizations and for cave management; and
publications; formal education through coursework at undergraduate
and graduate levels
Hoffman To be a leader in basic and applied research that aims to Research in hydrogeology, geomorphology, geochemistry, climate
Environmental better understand landscape/atmosphere/water/human change, and water resource issues; formal education through
Research interactions, primarily through post-doctoral, graduate, coursework and field studies programs; karst resource inventory,
Institute/Center and undergraduate study programs and associated management, and training; water resource development through
for Cave and research in the environmental discipline training; training in air quality monitoring and research in carbon
Karst Studies sequestration technologies; support of international communication
and efforts in karst science and conservation through leadership and
active participation
Institute of Karst Undertake basic and applied karst geological research to Major research subjects include basic karst studies, rehabilitation of
Geology establish foundational, strategic, and forward-looking desertification, development of karst water resources, geological
14 National Karst Research Institutes: Their Roles in Cave and Karst Management
karst theory and work hazards prevention, construction of a national Chinese karst geology
database, development of a karst geology information service, and
international exchange and cooperation
(continued)
325
326

Instituto do Carste To conduct and support karst research and sustainable Groundwater and biological research; management and restoration of
usage of karst resources karst environments; support for young cave scientists; annual invited
distinguished scholar-led workshops; public education presentations;
organize speleological events; publications
International Understand karst systems at a world scale, and develop Research on environmental problems of karst, such as water, soil,
Research Center science and technology for sustainable development mineral, and tourism resources, especially those related to world
on Karst in karst regions heritage qualities, as well as rock desertification, water quality,
surface collapse, and flood disasters. Cooperative karst research;
international karst technical consultation; karst scientific exchange;
training in karst
Italian Institute of Organize national register of Italian caves and speleologi- Publications; research in speleogenesis, karst mineralogy and hydrogeol-
Speleology cal library, and support cave and karst research ogy; data collection and archiving; formal education
Karst Research Develop interdisciplinary basic research covering the Postgraduate program in karst; publish a cave and karst journal and
Institute majority of the most important topics (karst geomor- numerous books; library development; water resources and protection
phology, groundwater, speleogenesis, biology, ecology, (road and rail construction, cave and karst data collection, consulta-
and history of karst science); planning for landscape tion and management for tourism); multidisciplinary research on karst
protection; post-graduate study program; organize hydrology and ecology; laboratory analysis; computer modeling;
annual international karst seminar; administrative international collaborations
location for UIS; publish karst books and journal;
develop a leading karst library
Karst Waters Improve the fundamental understanding of karst water Specialty conferences, usually focused on a specific topic and multidisci-
Institute systems through sound scientific research and the plinary in nature; publication of karst research; support graduate level
education of professionals and the public research in hydrogeology, geology, geochemistry, biology, and
microbiology; workshops to provide training for professionals
working in karst areas; inventories of cave and karst resources;
introducing the general public to the importance of karst research;
award to recognize major researchers
G. Veni
National Cave and Further the science of speleology; centralize and standard- Research in cave and karst hydrogeology, geophysics, geomicrobiology,
Karst Research ize speleological information; foster interdisciplinary geochemistry, management and land use, and extraterrestrial
Institute cooperation in cave and karst research programs; speleology. Undergraduate to doctoral student programs in the above
promote public education; promote national and research topics. Formal, informal, and non-formal public education
international cooperation in protecting the environment program through conferences, presentations, workshops, and field
for the benefit of cave and karst landforms; and instruction. Two scientific book series and one childrens book series
promote and develop environmentally sound and
sustainable resource management practices
Swiss Institute of Develop and maintain the Swiss speleological archives; Research in the sustainable management of karst waters, including the
Speleology and encourage and participate in karst research; educate the development of an underground laboratory, and the effect of climate
Karstology public to promote respect for karst environments; change; cave climatology, including ice caves; paleoclimatic
establish links with university departments to promote reconstruction; speleogenesis. Applied research in the development
academic karst education and research; become the of an underground positioning system, improving the prediction of
source for assistance, information, and guidance in karst occurrences for civil engineering work, and 3D underground
Swiss cave and karst management; improve the Swiss modeling. Consulting in cleaning polluted karst sites, procedures for
publics view of and respect for caves and cave science karst conservation, evaluating cultural value of caves and karst, and
urban and natural area development of karst. Teaching programs,
conferences, and excursions for schools and the public. Production of
instructional materials for teachers. Publication of scientific books
and literature, as well as informational books and materials for the
general public
Ukrainian Institute Develop, promote and coordinate scientific interdisciplin- Research in karst hydrogeology, geomorphology, geospeleology,
of Speleology ary research in caves and karst; conduct and promote speleogenesis, high mountain karst, gypsum karst, environmental
and Karstology fundamental, pilot and applied research on priority problems in karst, cave survey, cartography and visualization, and
topics of caves and karst; develop scientific collabora- cave management, including studies at two karst field stations; Ph.D.
tions in cave and karst science; serve as a repository for program in karst/cave studies; database development (including
cave inventory, documentation, and information on-line): cave and karst bibliography, regional karst GIS, cave
relevant to caves and karst; provide scientific guidance registers, hydrochemistry, and cave archeology; publication series
14 National Karst Research Institutes: Their Roles in Cave and Karst Management
in issues of protection and use of cave and karst

resources; promote and conduct cave and karst
educational programs, particularly on post-graduate
and Ph.D. levels; raise public awareness of knowledge
327
about caves and karst and their vulnerability

328 G. Veni
14.2.1Governmental Karst Research Institutes
Governmental national karst research institutes are those created by national

governmental decree. As such, they officially represent those nations on matters
involving caves and karst. Some governmentally created institutes have varying
levels of authority to manage caves and karst, or to review and approve activities in
caves and karst areas. Even when the institutes have no formal management author-
ity or review capacity, as true governmental organizations, they can access sites and
information that are not available to other institutes. Additionally, their opinion and
approval, if not required, carries greater influence.
More than half of the national karst research institutes described in Tables14.1
and 14.2 are governmental: Cuban Speleological Society (CSS), Emil Racovita
Institute of Speleology (ERIS), Institute of Karst Geology (IKG), International
Research Center on Karst (IRCK), Italian Institute of Speleology (IIS), Karst
Research Institute (KRI), and Ukrainian Institute of Speleology and Karstology
(UISK). They include the oldest institutes and in general have the largest number of
employees and highest levels of funding. While this sounds like a highly favorable
situation, it may be limited by cultural and economic factors. For example, institutes
in countries with weak economies generally have funds to hire numerous people,
but little money to invest in equipment, travel, and research projects.
Governmental support can change, strengthening or weakening an institute. CSS
was created as the center for cave research in Cuba. However, by the mid-1960s, its
research scope was transferred to governmental agencies within the Cuban Academy
of Sciences. It no longer functions as an institute as defined in this chapter but is
included for its historical role; CSS now mainly serves to train cavers, conduct spe-
leological conferences, and through them, support karst research programs (Fig.14.1).
In contrast, IKG grew and consolidated much of the national cave and karst research in
China, which led to expansion and the creation of its Karst Dynamics Laboratory in
1997 (Karst Dynamics 2010), and establishing the IRCK in 2008 (IRCK 2010).
Karst protection and management was not a mandate in the creation of the older
institutes, although it is a component of all of the institutes programs. Some have
updated their original mandates. Prior to the 1970s, karst management was not
widely recognized as a necessity or even a topic for study or action. It is still a sec-
ondary field of research for most of these institutes, attracting the most attention in
China (IKG and IRCK) and Slovenia (KRI).
14.2.2Non-Profit Karst Research Institutes
Non-profit national karst research institutes are privately created. They may or may
not have a paid staff and all funds they receive are directed into the institute to con-
duct programs, buy necessary supplies, and pay fair staff wages. Surplus funds do
not accrue to the institutes staff or board, the body that governs most non-profit
organizations, but are distributed to support the institutes goals.
Fig.14.1 The Cuban Speleological Societys Escuela Nacional de Espeleologia offers dormitory,
classroom, and research space to train cavers in safe caving, rescue, mapping, and other techniques
on site and in nearby Caverna de Santo Tomas
Only one of the listed national karst research institutes is a non-profit organization:
Karst Waters Institute (KWI). It has no paid staff but a dedicated group of volunteers
who serve on its board and assist with its functions. KWI is best known for producing
an excellent series of conferences and associated proceedings. While it has a broader
scope, other activities are limited by available funding and personnel. KWI is focused
on basic research, and so its experience is not directly pertinent to the karst manage-
ment theme here. Still, the experience of KWI and other non-profit cave and karst
organizations has much to teach about the roles of non-profits in karst management.
Non-profits lack immediate recognition as actual authorities and must earn respect
through action, such as providing information, conducting research, hosting confer-
ences, and offering grants and scholarships. The presence of one or more regionally
or nationally recognized karst experts on their board or staff also builds prestige.
Once these organizations become recognized authorities, their representatives might
serve on committees and advisory groups created by regulatory authorities to offer
consul on management issues.
Non-profit institutes, by definition as privately created, have no authority to
manage caves and karst beyond those they may own. As of 2009, 25 non-profit
organizations in the U.S. acquire and protect caves and karst areas; some were cre-
ated for that specific purpose (Wilson and Cousineau 2009). In most of the other
330 G. Veni
countries containing karst research institutes, the ownership of caves and all
underground resources is limited to the governments.
In the U.S., major non-profit cave-interest organizations date to the founding of
the National Speleological Society in 1941, but it was not until the 1980s when
several began to form with the primary purpose of cave and karst conservation.
Most rely on volunteer staff. Some organizations are not focused on karst, and with
a wider base of support, they have the means to hire employees and protect caves
through both specific and broad action. For example, The Nature Conservancy is the
largest private cave owner in the U.S. with 113 preserves protecting cave ecosys-
tems in 1999 (Foster 1999; Wilson and Cousineau 2009). Fewer non-profit cave
protection organizations exist outside the U.S., but those in Europe began to work
together in 2008 as the European Cave Protection Commission (ECPC) in an attempt
to more effectively meet their goals (Grebe etal. 2009).
The success of non-profit institutes is tied directly tied to the availability of funds
and staff. The most successful raise funds aggressively and often hire experts to
serve in key staff positions. Consequently, they experience smaller decreases in
funding and their staffs provide their programs continuity and historical memory,
which suffers when volunteers are less available. However, even under ideal
circumstances, the lack of actual authority may defeat their efforts. Lacking notable
funding and paid staff, the ECPC failed in its admirable initial efforts to establish a
written declaration for cave protection by the Parliament of the European Union
(Christiane Grebe 2010, personal communication).
14.2.3For-Profit Karst Research Institutes
For-profit national karst research institutes are privately created. They have a paid
full- or part-time staff and may hire part-time contractors. All funds are directed to
conduct programs, buy necessary supplies, and pay wages, but they function as
businesses where surplus funds may wholly or partially accrue to the institutes
staff, board, or owners in addition to supporting the institutes goals. Theoretically,
ownership can take any form, from sole proprietorship, to partnerships, to incorpo-
rated boards, or stockholders.
Two of the listed national karst research institutes are for-profit organizations:
Instituto do Carste (IC) and the Swiss Institute of Speleology and Karstology
(SISK). IC chose the for-profit status by design, while SISK chose it from necessity.
IC is the second youngest karst research institute. It was formed in response to
bureaucratic conditions that stymied efforts to create an institute within a university,
along with a concurrent increase in the availability of grants and public funds for the
creation of an independent research organization. SISK began with broad goals and
attempted to gain public funding through government programs, but as those funds
proved inadequate, it diversified its sources of income through consulting work,
sales, and other for-profit activities.
IC has one staff member and several people who work and assist as needed. SISK
is an older organization and employs 11 people full-time and several part-time.
Although IC and SISK operate for profit, their broader vision and purpose, which
qualifies them as true karst research institutes, attracts students, professionals, and
cavers to volunteer their services to support the institutes overall goals.
From around 1980, the need for cave and karst expertise for environmental man-
agement has steadily increased, as demonstrated by the proliferation of cave and
karst management, conferences and consultants. The field is lucrative, especially in
areas with few cave and karst experts and where regulators and land developers
recognize and appreciate such expertise. This creates opportunities for karst research
institutes to conduct necessary investigations while generating funds to support
their broader and more-difficult-to fund programs.
As with non-profit organizations, for-profits may lack immediate recognition as
actual authorities and must earn respect through their research, unless at least one of
the principle investigators is a regionally or nationally recognized cave and karst
expert. However, for-profit institutes must also overcome the perception that their
actions and views are biased toward making a profit. For-profit institutes may inter-
act more frequently with regulators than other institute types. Assuming no conflicts
of interest, their representatives could be more quickly recognized as authorities
toserve sooner and on more karst management committees and advisory groups
created by regulatory authorities.
Measuring the success of for-profit institutes is partly a matter of which standard
is used. If success is determined by profit alone, an institute could potentially make
enough money to pay employees and grow the institute. However, they may not
have enough money to support their broader programs, which may not be finan-
cially self-sustainable through their own activities but are important to understand-
ing and managing karst. The rich scientific publication record of the SISK and the
developing programs of IC demonstrate that both organizations are channeling
profits into their broader mandates.
14.2.4Hybrid Karst Research Institutes
Hybrid national karst research institutes are created and/or sustained through means
that define at least two of the above three institute types. They usually begin as one
type of institute, but then change to encompass major traits of a different type of
organization. Two of the listed national karst research institutes are hybrid organiza-
tions: Hoffman Environment Research Institute (HERI) and the National Cave and
Karst Research Institute (NCKRI) of the U.S.A.
HERI was created in 1999 and includes the Center for Cave and Karst Studies
(CCKS), which originated 20years earlier. Both are research institutes at Western
Kentucky University, U.S.A. CCKS began as a government institute, funded through
a state university. Many university institutes apply for grants and external funds, and
could in themselves qualify as yet another institute category, but the CCKS soon
expanded beyond such grants and functioned effectively as a non-profit business. It
established numerous consulting contracts for environmental management research
and established a commercial dye tracing laboratory. Funds from these projects paid
332 G. Veni
non-student staff and numerous students who worked part-time and occasionally
used project results in undergraduate and graduate theses. Since HERIs acquisition
of CCKS and some shifts in the institutes goals, the number of consulting projects
has deliberately declined while the laboratory and student assistants are still active.
NCKRI was created in 1998 by the U.S. Congress as an institute within the U.S.
National Park Service (NPS). Its mandates were defined by Congress, and it was
funded by a partnership between the federal government, represented by NPS, the
State of New Mexico, represented by the New Mexico Institute of Mining and
Technology (New Mexico Tech or NMT), and the City of Carlsbad, which constructed
NCKRIs headquarters. In 2006, the partners decided to reorganize NCKRI into a
non-profit for greater flexibility in achieving its mandates than was possible through
the NPS. NCKRI currently maintains its governmental obligations and funding, with
the funds administered by NMT, yet is a federally registered non-profit corporation.
Hybrids are the most recent type of karst research institute and may prove the
most effective, based on the short periods that HERI and NCKRI have existed. Their
hybrid format gives them greater administrative and financial agility in gaining
funds and building effective partnerships. HERI is based on government/university
funding and support, while supplementing its programs through consultations, lab
fees, and grants. NCKRI is similarly situated, and soon plans to diversity its income
sources through bookstore sales, workshops, rental of meeting space, and research
equipment, as well as through consultations and grants. This diversification allows
each institute to more easily overcome situations where a source of income may be
temporarily decreased or permanently lost. Both hybrid karst institutes possess
small but growing numbers of employees. HERIs staff is supplemented by students
while NCKRIs is supplemented by volunteers.
The strength of a hybrid institutes organizational diversity also includes its abil-
ity to work with other organizations and be readily recognized as an authority.
NCKRIs creation by the U.S. government provides nearly automatic recognition
and access to government leaders, agencies, regulators, and membership on relevant
committees. However, its non-profit status gives NCKRI greater administrative
freedom and the ability to work with organizations and qualify for projects and
funds that are restricted to non-profits and/or non-governmental organizations.
HERIs history and goals are more focused on karst management than NCKRIs,
and have resulted in HERI working throughout the U.S. and several countries on mul-
tiple projects and issues. NCKRI plans to hire a director for its Applied Science
Program; until then, its efforts on karst management are opportunistic. Neither organi-
zation plans to develop a cave acquisition program as part of its management efforts.
14.3Roles in Karst Management
Table14.2 shows that karst research institutes have similar purposes, generally to
support, facilitate, and conduct cave and karst research, education, and management
efforts through their own strengths and collaborations with other organizations, and
the collection, analysis, and publication of information. While specific interests differ,
cave and karst management has become an increasingly important priority for the
institutes, in part due to societal needs, but also because of increasing funding avail-
able for such work. The following sections review the primary functions of karst
institutes relative to their efforts in the protection and management of caves and
karst areas.
14.3.1Research
The most active institutes in cave and karst management research to date are HERI,
IKG, KRI, and SISK. All focus their work primarily within their own countries,
except for HERI which works internationally, especially in China, in addition to the
U.S.; IRCK and NCKRIs fledgling research programs are intended to be large and
international. Most of an institutes research is focused locally, so the range of man-
agement issues it studies is usually based on local topics. But common trends in
their research are described below as three phases in conducting environmental
management investigations.
The first phase begins with issues of great urgency. An institute will typically
first evaluate and/or solve a groundwater contamination, flooding, or land stability
problem (Fig. 14.2). This work fell especially to the institutes before consulting
hydrogeologists and engineers with karst expertise were broadly available, and it is
still the case in regions which lack such consultants. Examples of such research
abound: Crawford and Groves (1995) for HERI/CCKS, Yang etal. (1999) for IKG,
Kogovek and Petri (2007) for KRI, and Wenger (2008) for SISK. Such studies
may establish the authority and value of an institute, and thus be critical to assuring
its long-term financial security.
The second phase of investigations involves long-term rather than immediate man-
agement problems. Water supply availability and regional land use research is com-
mon. Desertification due to soil erosion, even under humid conditions, is a major
concern for karst in China (e.g., Shan 2006). Some of these studies overlap with stu-
dent thesis and dissertation research, often requiring similar levels of data collection
and analysis, and are conducted occasionally by students supported by the institutes
(e.g., Petri 2000). The third phase of karst management investigations involves long-
range planning, with SISK and its partners making the most notable contributions in
developing karst aquifer vulnerability assessment methods (e.g., Perrin etal. 2004).
Most karst research institutes do not list archeological, biological, paleontologi-
cal, or tourism studies within their mandates or programs. Whether by design, rec-
ognized urgency, or availability of funding, all of the institutes have focused on
geological and hydrogeological research. ERIS and KRI have the broadest research
programs and include studies in other disciplines, but little has been produced spe-
cifically on the conservation and management of the rich non-geological resources
often found in karst and caves. Archeological and paleontological studies have
mostly been descriptive (e.g., Horek etal. 2007) and not protective or prescriptive.
334 G. Veni
Fig.14.2 CCKS/HERI was called to consult on the sinkhole collapse that swallowed part of a
street in Bowling Green, Kentucky, USA
The same holds true for many biological studies. Most ecosystem studies by IKG
address surface communities (e.g., Zeng et al. 2007) and not true karst endogenous
species. The majority of karst research institute reports on the management of true
cave fauna examine biodiversity as a foundation for conservation (e.g. Moldovan
etal. 2005). They have done little to date on the recovery of listed threatened and
endangered karst species or White Nose Syndrome, the condition that began rapidly
spreading through North America in 2006, devastating bat populations.
Karst research institutes frequently use show caves for research. Studies occur
within and beyond the tourist areas. Most examine some fundamental issue of cave
science, but few investigate how to best minimize the potential impacts of tourism
(e.g., Racovita 1999). While IKG has probably conducted the most studies of all
institutes on the impact of tourism on caves (e.g., Zhang and Zhu 2008), much
remains to be learned.
14.3.2Education and Publication
Most karst research institutes list education as one of their goals or at least as
among their programs. But what is education? Within the context of how it is
organized and conducted by the institutes, it can be defined within three broad
categories:
(1) Technical Education. Seminars, lectures, workshops, and classes for under-
graduate to professional level audiences interested in advanced, specialized
information necessary for professional jobs that involve caves and karst. These
programs provide formal credit for participation that may be applied to a degree
and/or to continuing education requirements for a job or a professional or
research license.
(2) Public Education. Lectures, workshops, classes, and entertaining events that
provide general, simplified or non-technical, cave and karst information for the
public. This includes presentations to pre-college students because of the tech-
nical level of the content. The purpose of public education is to elevate soci-
etys general awareness of caves and karst, including their importance and
vulnerability to human activities.
(3) Publications. Publications are not usually considered an education category but
an education tool. They are listed here as a category because they constitute an
important program of nearly all of the institutes. Publications are not limited
to printed books, journals, and newsletters, but include digitally produced
media that relay similar information, such as Web sites, videos, interactive
learning programs, and webinars. Publications reach out to people of all ages
and knowledge levels, and are not restricted to only the technical or public
education categories.
Half of the karst institutes include teaching as one of their mandates; ERIS does
not, a result of its early origin when institutes were typically located at universities
and their education component was assumed. Nearly all of these institutes are
within a university and/or directly supported by a university, and consequently,
they provide cave and karst educational support to the students in return. Romanias
Babes-Bolay University, which is affiliated with ERIS, and Slovenias University
of Nova Gorica, which is affiliated with KRI, are the only universities known to
provide degrees in karst science. HERI and NCKRI are the only other institutes
that offer specific university courses on cave and karst topics (several universities
around the world offer cave and karst courses, but are not affiliated with a national
karst research institute).
Nearly all institutes offer some form of technical education, as defined above.
Most are occasional seminars offered outside of the typical university curriculum.
Some are offered through affiliated universities. The longest-running and possibly
the earliest university program is the series of week-long annual summer field
courses offered through CCKS (HERI) since 1979 at Western Kentucky University.
The course titles, such as Cave Geology, Cave Ecology, etc., span the range of
major karst research topics, but karst resources management courses were not
offered until Management of Karst Aquifers in 2002. Similarly, KRIs week-long
International Karstological School focused on basic research topics since its start in
1993, until offering Sustainable Management of Natural and Environmental
Resources on Karst in 2006 (Fig.14.3).
336 G. Veni
Fig.14.3 Students of KRIs annual international karstological school examine a stream flowing
into a Slovenian cave
Most of the institutes provide public education through lectures, brochures, and
books with stunning photos that highlight the beauty of caves and karst landscapes.
Little specific information is available on these informal activities. From around
1990, karst management has increasingly become the focus of these efforts, espe-
cially in response to well publicized local karst problems. Public educations pri-
mary challenge is teaching people why they should care about the complicated,
unfamiliar, and poorly understood topic of how caves and karst function. It must
teach why caves and karst are important, while overcoming deeply held myths and
superstitions, all within a typically 530 min presentation. This is where karst
research institutes can excel, through programs honed to concisely yet effectively
provide that information. Such programs can extend through communities in many
ways as periodic reinforcement.
Only three institutes have defined education programs that make public educa-
tion a major priority: ERIS, SISK, and NCKRI. ERIS public education efforts are
focused through the Emil Racovita Speleological Museum in Cluj, Romania. While
a significant portion of the museum is dedicated Emil Racovita, it also includes
rooms with information on cave exploration equipment and techniques, cave and
speleothem restoration methods, the creation of ERIS, cave biology, and reasons
and means for protecting cave and karst environments. The museum also hosts a
weekly public lecture series on cave and karst topics.
SISK has a public lecture series and teaching program, but also sells a unique set
of cave and karst education tools for teachers within two compact, sturdy suitcases.
Materials in the first suitcase focus on the theory of cave and karst development, and
includes course notes, teachers guide, bibliography, list of relevant Web sites,
games, puzzles, photos, and rock samples for discussion, and a CD with two
PowerPoint presentations. The second suitcase contains equipment and instructions
for six experiments:
( 1) Limestone dissolution;
(2) Speleothem formation;
(3) Infiltration of water into karst aquifers;
(4) Karst groundwater networks and spring discharge;
(5) Transmission of pollutants in karst aquifers;
(6) Karst recharge areas.
NCKRIs Education Program is scheduled to begin in 2011. Cave and karst man-
agement is fully integrated, as reflected by the draft mission statement: NCKRIs
Educational Program works to increase the perception, awareness, and knowledge of
caves and karst to result in careful and responsible stewardship (NCKRI 2010b).
NCKRI has hired an Education Director who works to better include cave and karst
instruction at universities, as well as through the gamut of public education methods.
Key efforts of its Education Program are to add cave and karst knowledge into the
national education standards, and to work cooperatively or expand on existing teach-
the-teacher programs to more quickly and widely disseminate karst information.
Project Underground (1993) and the American Cave Conservation Association are
among the few organizations that offer cave and karst curricula to teachers, and NCKRI
is working with both to cooperate with and/or integrate those efforts (NCKRI 2010c).
14.3.3Independent Advisor and Arbiter
A poorly publicized and often private function of karst research institutes is to

provide expert advice and insight on questions involving caves and karst. This
service is based solely on the institutes existing experience and information and is
separate from the institutes research role, where they might conduct studies to
resolve an issue. The topics in these circumstances are almost always related to
cave and karst management and fall into one or more of three categories: Planning,
problem-solving, and dispute resolution.
Members of karst research institutes often serve on technical committees to assist
in creating research programs and management plans for caves and karst areas.
NCKRI (2010c) discusses its activities, including examples involving karst man-
agement and related planning:
The Executive Director sits on the Aquifer Science Advisory Panel of the
Edwards Aquifer Authority (a regional governmental agency in Texas, U.S.A.,
338 G. Veni
charged with the protection, study, and management of that major karst aquifer)
to review research and proposals by the agency and advise on improvements for
the agency to better meet its goals.
The Education Director works on a U.S. Forest Service (USFS) cave and karst
management plan writing committee; the plan is expected to become the USFS
national cave and karst management plan.
The Education Director serves on a committee of Carlsbad Municipal Schools;
the committee gained the City of Carlsbad recognition as one of the Top 100
Communities for Young People by the Americas Promise Alliance.
The Academic Program Director is a member of the NASA Advisory Council
Committee on Planetary Protection and the National Academy of Sciences
COMPLEX committee.
Most of the time, this type of assistance is informal, undocumented, and provided
through personal communications in response to specific questions.
Institutes also participate in problem-solving missions. The situations frequently
require urgent action, are often potentially or truly legally and/or politically sensi-
tive, and information on an institutes involvement is generally unpublished or not
published within the readily accessible literature. NCKRI (2010c) offers one exam-
ple as its Executive Director serves on a committee to evaluate the risk of a potential
catastrophic sinkhole collapse and to explore what can be done to prevent it.
Depending on the issue and urgency, and the time, funds, and information needed to
solve the problem, an institute may be the only or primary group contacted, or it
may be part of a committee.
Based on a literature review and personal communications, which cannot be cited
due to legal issues, it appears that karst institutes seldom function as arbiters of dis-
putes. The disputes commonly revolve around whether an action was sufficient to
protect a cave or karst resource, or if an individuals use of the resource impinges on
the rights of others. Governmental institutes are more likely to be involved in such
matters, as well as in planning and problem-solving. The specifically designated
roles of each governmental institute and the legal codes of their countries affect the
institutes positions as advisors, arbiters, and regulatory authorities.
14.3.4Data Archive
Every national karst research institute maintains a data archive of speleological

information, whether or not this is listed as a goal or program. Institutes function on
information; a data archive is not optional. However, some institutes expand and/or
focus on this task.
The IIS archive is a traditional library, possibly the worlds largest karst collec-
tion, with over 70,000 items catalogued. Creation and maintenance of the library
was one of original goals of the IIS. Like most traditional libraries, its materials
are primarily used by those who can physically access the location. Until the
creation of the Italian Speleological Society, the IIS library also contained the
database of Italian caves. Other institutes which currently host cave databases, or
work collaboratively with the organizations that do, include KRI, SISK, and UISK.
The problem with traditional libraries and paper-based archives is that karst
science is an intrinsically multidisciplinary field of study that is poorly indexed and
difficult to access. While there is a significant body of internationally useful litera-
ture, important works remain largely unknown or inaccessible. Some of the more
difficult-to-access documents include maps, databases, technical reports, graduate
theses and dissertations, images, video, and government publications. Also, karst-
related documents published in less-accessible languages are hard to retrieve or
find. Consequently, two of the newer institutes, while building their traditional
libraries, are also creating virtual cave and karst libraries for easy international use
and access.
Speleogenesis (www.speleogenesis.info) is the official Web site of the UIS
Commission on Karst Hydrogeology and Speleogenesis. While officially a UIS
activity and supported by many commission members, it is unofficially powered by
UISK and its Executive Director, Dr. Alexander Klimchouk, who chairs the com-
mission. The Speleogenesis site functions as an on-line journal but also provides
free on-line access to a cave and karst bibliographic search engine, theses and dis-
sertations, several journals, a glossary of terms, and an atlas of morphologies found
in caves. While some of the linked journals include papers on karst management,
Speleogenesis is focused on the theoretical aspects of cave origin and karst
hydrogeology.
NCKRI is also developing a virtual library, the Karst Information Portal (KIP)
(www.karstportal.org), with partners from the University of South Florida, University
of New Mexico, and UIS. Also supported by UISK and Speleogenesis, KIP was
created in 2007 and specifically designed to address the information access and
management problems presented by traditional libraries. It provides an open-access
global portal as an on-line gateway to karst information and services. About 5,600
documents on all cave/karst-related topics were available via KIP in mid-2010,
including theses, dissertations, databases, bibliographies, images, gray literature,
maps, and 39 journals from 11 countries. Considerable information is available on
cave and karst management. KIPs usage is increasing dramatically, with a projected
doubling in 2010 from 2009 (NCKRI 2010c).
14.3.5Funding Generator and Provider
In principle, national karst research institutes, as recognized authorities and pro-

ductive entities, should readily generate funds to build their research programs
and to support others. Unfortunately, that has not generally been the case. Institute
directors interviewed for this chapter were asked, What would you like your
institute to do that it is currently unable to do, and what is preventing your insti-
tute from meeting those goals? Their uniform hope was for additional funding
to better sustain and grow their programs.
340 G. Veni
Measuring the financial success of the institutes is difficult. They need to be

evaluated relative to their individual goals and circumstances. Fundamentally, they are
all successful since they sustain their current activities. HERI, KRI, KWI, and NCKRI
are discussed below as examples; they provide significant contrasts in measuring the
current success and likely growth as future funding generators and providers.
HERI is arguably the most financially successful institute. It may not have the
largest budget, but it employees several people, and continues to find funds to
expand its general and student research programs, locally and internationally. While
it hosts conferences and a summer field school that build cooperation and scientific
knowledge, the funds HERI generates are primarily directed inward to support
additional students and programs.
KRI is also clearly successful as evidenced by its large staff, diverse research pro-
gram, prolific publications program, periodic conferences, and annual International
Karstological School. Like HERI, its funding is primarily directed inward, as is neces-
sary for an organization to survive and flourish, but grants are also given internation-
ally for students to attend their annual school.
KWI does not have a staff or a regular income source, and possibly has one of the
smallest budgets, but it still stands as a successful funding generator and provider.
This institute hosts one of the worlds most successful and respected karst conference
series. High quality, scientifically valuable publications are produced through each
event. Additionally, while its income may be irregular, KWI has the financial stability
to provide an annual scholarship to support student thesis or dissertation research.
NCKRI receives more annual funding than most karst research institutes, but
currently lacks a grant program. During its early history, NCKRI sponsored three
visiting scholars, but its funds are presently directed inward to build its headquarters,
buy equipment, and hire additional staff. Its newest employee is an Advancement
Director, hired to help increase and diversify its funding sources. Once its critical
start-up construction, purchases, and hiring are completed, NCKRI plans to estab-
lish a grants program and find other ways of directing funds outward to support cave
and karst research.
14.3.6Collaboration
While the stature of the national karst research institutes has not yet generally
produced money for significant external funding of programs and projects, it is a
proven catalyst for collaboration to facilitate those activities. Institute collabora-
tions can be defined as four general categories: Volunteers, conferences, projects,
and agreements.
Volunteers. Most of the volunteers and vital partners for karst research institutes are
cavers and cave scientists, people whose life-long passion and dedication is to caves.
When karst institutes organize research or other projects, they are the first to assist.
Cavers and cave scientists are often the only ones with the abilities to reach remote
and difficult areas of caves to collect data, make observations, and install research
equipment. For example, caves and sinkholes are used worldwide as trash dumps,
threatening cave ecosystems and human drinking water supplies. Cavers especially
have the skills required to enter and clean those dangerous and disgusting sites.
From 2004 to 2009, SISK cleaned more than 100 of the most polluted cave and karst
sites in Switzerland. They provided the leadership and coordination, and cavers
supplied most of the muscle and skill.
Conferences. In recent years, fewer conferences have been planned by single orga-
nizations, especially if the organization is a karst research institute. The institutes
understand the value of collaboration and pooling resources. Other organizations
often become involved to connect with an event that is larger than their individual
ability to host. They gain prestige by association with the institute. Conversely,
when other organizations host a conference, they seek institute sponsorships, not
just for financial support, but for the validation that increases attendance and assis-
tance. For example, the UIS 15th International Congress of Speleology in 2009 is
widely considered North Americas most significant speleological conference. Part
of its high attendance and success resulted from its sponsorship by HERI, KWI, and
NCKRI, and the direct participation of the directors and staff from several other
institutes who coordinated sessions, symposia, and other functions.
Projects. Historically, collaborative projects among karst research institutes, as well as
with other organizations, were limited by politics and technology. As political barriers
fall and the Internet makes international communication easy and inexpensive, insti-
tutes work increasingly with other organizations. Uncommon, but gaining in frequency,
joint projects between institutes and other organizations focus on karst management.
The most significant collaborative environmental karst project initiated to date by a
karst research institute is the China Environmental Health Project (CEHP), organized
by HERI and supported by the U.S. Agency for International Development, two
Chinese universities, and other prominent organizations. The purpose of CEHP is to
develop and enhance the quality of public health in China by finding solutions to karst
water access and quality issues and coal-related air quality degradation. A key element
of the project is engaging and training Chinese scientists, students, local governments,
citizens, and Chinese environmental NGOs to meet and sustain the projects goals.
Agreements. While karst research institutes are increasingly seeking to collaborate
on conferences, projects, and other activities, formal cooperative agreements for
long-term collaboration are new. In 2010, NCKRI signed memoranda of under-
standing with ERIS, KRI, and UISK (NCKRI 2010c) to establish and formalize a
foundation for closer inter-institute cooperation, exchange of information, publica-
tions, students, and scholars, open access to conferences, workshops, etc., and to
cooperate in developing research, management, and educational projects, programs,
and conferences whenever practical. NCKRI has also begun developing a collabora-
tive memorandum with the U.S. Department of the Interior, which in turn would
facilitate developing partnerships and projects with the Departments bureaus (e.g.,
Bureau of Land Management, National Park Service, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
U.S. Geological Survey). On the other side of the world, IRCK was recently devel-
oped through an agreement between IKG and UNESCO (IRCK 2010).
342 G. Veni
14.4The Future of National Karst Research Institutes
Since the mid-1970s, the number of national cave and karst research institutes
has increased on a near-exponential trend (Fig.14.4). Except for CSS decline in
the mid-1960s, the institutes have demonstrated steady growth and important
accomplishments. As a group, their series of successful projects, publications,
conferences, and increasing influence in mainstream science and regulatory are-
nas, have served as impetus for the creation of new institutes. The prolific ease of
international communication through the Internet has concurrently served to
widely publicize the institutes successes and raise awareness of their value in
other countries.
Because caves and karst are important resources in dozens of countries, the
emergence of new national karst research institutes should continue for decades.
But what other trends and changes are likely to occur? The synthesis provided by
this chapter, and observations of related academic, scientific, social, and political
trends, suggest the following set of predictions for the next 2030years.
14.4.1Karst Institutes Will Increasingly Develop Hybrid

Organizational Structures
The success of two relatively new institutes (HERI and NCKRI), one of which is still
adjusting to its recent organizational change, may not constitute a reliable statistical
trend for concluding that hybrid karst research institutes will become more common
in the future. However, the short but highly productive record of these institutes is
hard to ignore. The flexibility to work easily with more groups, pursue more diverse
Fig.14.4 Changes in the number of national karst research institutes over time
sources of income, and create a broader array of programs to support cave and karst
research, education, and management is readily apparent. But the creation of such an
institute and its initial administration to assure its activities are legal, fiscally sound,
and effective is difficult. Once this hurdle is passed, a young institute will likely to
find itself partnered with a well-established governmental agency, university, corpo-
ration, or the other organization that will help propel the institute to attain its goals.
14.4.2Karst Institutes Will Predominantly Focus

on Karst Management Issues
When ERIS was established as the worlds first national karst research institute in
1920, the following terms were largely unknown: Carrying capacity, endangered
species, groundwater contamination, human-induced land subsidence, overdraw-
ing of aquifers, sustainable usage. Times have changed, and these and many other
terms are now commonly applied to describe the modern worlds environmental
management problems.
Karst aquifers are the most vulnerable to pollution, and karst regions pose a
complex set of ecosystem and engineering challenges unlike any seen in other ter-
rains. The appearance of multiple karst management conferences in the U.S.A. in
the 1980s resulted from management, not academic interests, as populations grew
into karst regions, degrading and depleting their karst resources, while accelerating
karst processes like sinkhole collapse.
But research into the theoretic aspects of cave and karst development will
continue. The topics have not been exhausted but have expanded from newer and far
more in-depth insights offered by modern technology. They are also important in
solving management problems, but problems require mandates and funding to fix.
National karst research institutes, as recognized authoritative bodies, should be
increasingly selected as the natural choices to receive money to address environ-
mental management problems in karst and conduct research to create or improve
policies for the prevention and remediation of karst-related problems.
14.4.3Technical and Public Education Will Become

Prominent Karst Institute Programs
As karst management problems increase, there should be an increased demand for

technical and general karst information. Most consultants and regulators who work in
karst areas receive little information on the subject during their formal education and
are either self-taught on the job or supplement their education by attending karst con-
ferences, workshops, and seminars. Karst research institutes will likely expand their
education programs to meet this growing need for information. First, they will likely
expand their ranges and frequency of technical education activities (e.g., conferences,
344 G. Veni
workshops, etc.). Next, they will probably introduce accurate cave and karst
information into formal school and university curricula at all levels. Similarly, the
institutes will probably expand their public education activities, in response to the
publics interest in recent karst-related problems and to develop a better public
awareness of karst to prevent some environmental problems in the future.
14.4.4Karst Institutes Will Increase Their Support of Digital

Open Access Karst Libraries and the Creation
of Virtual Karst Research Tools
Paper books and documents will long be collected and archived by karst research
institutes, but the institutes physical libraries of those materials will be used less
over time. Reports from the American Library Association (2010) and other sources
offer mixed statistics on library usage. Most sources report that book circulation has
increased in U.S. public libraries, apparently because nearly 100% of academic,
public, and school libraries in the U.S. are connected to the Internet for staff and
public use. Sixty-seven percent of U.S. libraries report they are the only provider of
free public access to computers and the Internet in their communities, and their
public computer and Wi-Fi use increased in 2009 by more than 70%. In contrast,
some academic libraries report dramatic declines in book circulation as more
research by students and teachers is conducted on-line.
As computers and on-line access become more available to general society, and as
more books and information become freely accessible on the Internet, book usage at
public libraries will probably decline as seen at academic libraries. For karst research
institutes to be effective in their education programs, they will need to provide abun-
dant, easy-to-access, accurate, and state-of-the-art information on the Internet for
public and technical use. KIP is designed to serve as a one-stop source for all cave
and karst information needs. While its use is rapidly growing, it is too early to say if
it will achieve its goal of becoming the primary international karst information
source. Additional documents are steadily added, but the development of research
tools has been slow and to date depends mostly on volunteer efforts. A planned
multi-language interface and search capability will increase its international use,
although target dates for their implementation have not yet been announced.
14.4.5Karst Institute Funding Will Increase Through

Diversification of Services and Perceived Increase
in Value
Historically, karst institutes have been funded mostly through grants and govern-
ment appropriations to conduct basic research. In the future, as institutes expand
their scope into karst management and become more publicly visible and valued,
Fig. 14.5 NCKRI conducts geophysical surveys to map subsurface karst hydrogeology and to
evaluate the potential for collapse or subsidence
funding opportunities should also expand. Karst institutes will increasingly be hired
to consult and advise on karst management issues. They may be called to develop
and sell specialized equipment or software, or rent existing equipment and the ser-
vices to operate it (Fig.14.5). Expanded educational programs will lead to increased
sales of books, videos, and other educational materials published by the institutes.
All of the institutes, especially non-profits, will be positioned to receive more fund-
ing from grants, bequests, fund-raising events, and general donations. As long as the
institutes continue to produce and share valuable results with existing and potential
sponsors and partners, funding should continue or increase.
14.4.6Karst Institutes Will Formally Link for Greater

Effectiveness and Better Use of Limited Resources
Strength in numbers is a long-held truism but it has only recently been imple-
mented among karst research institutes. Since 2000, a few collaborations and coop-
erative agreements have developed, and a comprehensive means of connecting all
karst institutes, national or not, has started to emerge. In 2006, Dr. Alexander
Klimchouk of UISK, led an international effort to create the International Cave and
346 G. Veni
Karst Research Institutions Network (ICKRIN). It was proposed as a collaboration

of cave and karst research institutes, working together to build a network that would
facilitate cooperation and partnership through the sharing of resources, results,
experiences, and opportunities. Essentially, ICKRIN would be an organization of
karst research organizations that would supplement, not compete, with any cave
exploration, management, education, or research groups (www.speleogenesis.info).
The proposal was discussed among some institute directors and at a few confer-
ences (e.g., Groves 2007), but limited time and resources among its principle orga-
nizers has limited its development.
In 2010, Dr. Tadej Slabe, Executive Director of KRI, began developing the
Karstological Academy (KA), and worked with Dr. Klimchouk and Dr. George
Veni, NCKRI Executive Director, on its mandate and structure. Tentatively, KA will
encompass the proposed function of ICKRIN, using resources already in place for
KA. It may be expanded in the future to include individual karst scientists, if this
course of action would not inadvertently weaken other organizations. No matter the
ultimate fate and form of ICKRIN and KA, national karst research institutes will
grow in number and prominence in the next few decades, along with a deeper
collaboration among them.
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Chapter 15
Using Public Policy to Affect Human Behavior
on Karst Landscapes in the United States
Erik Spencer Fleury
Abstract Karst systems are often extremely sensitive to the nature of human
activities taking place on the surface. Pollutants and contaminants can wash into
karst landforms and downward through sinkholes and fissures in the hard carbonate
bedrock, rapidly entering the aquifer below. Because so much of the worlds popu-
lation (some sources estimate as much as 25%) draws drinking water from karstic
aquifers, there is a significant incentive to understand and develop land use regula-
tions that work to prevent the inadvertent contamination of groundwater supplies in
karst landscapes. This chapter provides an overview of karst-related land use regu-
lation in the United States including commonly used techniques, geographic distri-
bution of different regulatory approaches, and factors that tend to influence the
regulation-writing process.
15.1Introduction
Hundreds of years ago, in western Ireland, the local population sought fuel for its
growing metal working industry. They found it in their abundant forests, but their
aggressive approach to deforestation had the unforeseen consequence of clogging
and eventually drying up the local aquifer. As a result, this once-productive
landscape quickly turned into a scarred and barren wasteland (Back 1983). During
the twentieth century, southwestern China underwent an intensive process of indus-
trialization. For decades, hundreds of factories there have produced noxious air
pollution which has been enough to strip most vegetation from the landscape;
here, too, rainwater was unable to seep into the aquifer and recharge it on a regular
basis. It soon suffered the same fate as the western Irish aquifer (Back 1983).
E.S. Fleury (*)

645 11th Avenue North, St. Petersburg, FL 33701, USA

350 E.S. Fleury
In the Yucatan Peninsula, Spanish explorers brought with them the technology to
extract groundwater from very deep wells. This made it easier to settle and tame
the lands further from the coast, which in turn attracted more and more new set-
tlers. Eventually, water-intensive agricultural practices developed into a key part of
the local economy. All this environmental stress over all these years was simply
too much for the landscape and as a result, by the early 1900s, the aquifer had
become a virtual sewer (Back 1983). In Allentown, Pennsylvania, in 1979, the
bottom of an industrial retention pond crumbled and gave way, dumping the ponds
contents directly into the local aquifer (Memon and Azmeh 2001). The same thing
happened at a golf course in Pinellas County, Florida, in 1988 (Tihansky 1999).
Both of these retention ponds were located directly above sinkholes; fortunately, in
both cases the actual damage to the aquifer was manageable.
While each of these events occurred in different eras and different parts of the
world, they share some common traits. Each resulted from inappropriate land use
practices in karst terrains, and each could probably have been mitigated or avoided
completely if the people living there had used a bit more foresight and care when
deciding how to use those lands. Of course, in medieval Ireland and eighteenth cen-
tury Mexico, nobody knew anything about karst landscapes or what could happen
when those landscapes are subjected to the stresses of human-driven change. Nor is
it likely that initially local people clearly understood the relationship between land
use practices and local environmental health. Still, these incidents provide a stark
lesson in the dangers of inappropriate land use practices in karst terrains and an
example of the seriousness of the environmental consequences. Unfortunately, these
are reoccurring problems. The goal of this chapter is to provide an overview of the
issues of human-karst interaction, some of the most commonly used regulatory
techniques involved in managing those issues, and the process that goes into devel-
oping those regulations. This is done with an eye toward developing a more stan-
dardized understanding of where karst land use regulations fit in the interaction
process between human systems and karst systems.
This chapter focuses primarily on karst regulations in the United States. Many of
the examples come from Florida and Pennsylvania. This is because both states have
significant karst formations and employ myriad techniques to address the issues of
human-karst interaction. It is hoped that this diversity provides the reader with a
broad understanding of both the common issues in karst regulation and the regulatory
toolbox planners and regulators have at their disposal.
15.2Issues of Human-Karst Interaction
Rarely are human societies able to avoid having an impact on the landscape they
occupy; this is even truer for societies in fragile environments like karst terrains.
Cities, towns, and agricultural enterprises located above or near karst systems often
alter the conditions necessary for equilibrium in those systems, generally through
15 Using Public Policy to Affect Human Behavior on Karst Landscapes 351
inducing cave degradation, groundwater contamination, and land subsidence. In

turn, these impacts often define how and to what extent humans can interact with the
karst landscapes they occupy.
The physical characteristics of karst landscapes render them extremely suscep-
tible to damage and degradation. The demands of sustaining human settlements on
karst are all but guaranteed to have some effect on these fragile landscapes. However,
whether out of carelessness or ignorance, humans have been abusing karst land-
scapes for centuries. In many cases, human societies have suffered serious conse-
quences as a result of the impacts of their own actions on the karst below them. It is
possible that these impacts may sometimes be unavoidable, but if it is possible to
avoid damaging the local karst system, what is the best way to go about it? Many
municipalities have taken an approach based in land use policy to protecting karst
and regulating development in its vicinity.
15.3Karst Land Use Regulation in the United States
The issues raised by human-karst interaction cut both ways: Human societies can
simultaneously threaten and be threatened by karst landscapes. One way to manage
this interaction and minimize the risks of subsidence, groundwater contamination,
and cave destruction is to regulate how construction, development, and settlement
can take place on karst terrains. In the United States, certain karst issues are often
addressed via a states administrative code (in many cases, the karst protections that
are provided in this way are more of an afterthought or byproduct, usually in the
course of setting rules for runoff management or dumping). But in many karstic
areas with human populations, there are no municipal codes or ordinances that man-
age how humans and karst systems interact. While policy-based solutions have been
successful in some locations for example, the wide-ranging policy controls in
place in Austin, Texas, are often cited as having had a major role in protecting the
Edwards Aquifer in others land use policies have been less effective in protecting
karst environments. In many cases, this failure is a result of lack of appropriate
policy tools, weak or nonexistent enforcement, vaguely defined goals, poor concep-
tion or execution, or one of the other standard traps that often bedevil policy-based
approaches. By their very nature, problems of human-karst interaction often require
solutions derived from more than one field; however, local regulatory bodies often
have more narrowly focused areas of responsibility that make taking an interdisci-
plinary approach difficult. Under those circumstances, organizations without any
actual regulatory power geological surveys, for example, or karst-related research
institutes can act as catalysts for policy-based solutions and as clearinghouses for
the data required to shape such solutions (Vineyard 1976). There is no reason to
assume that karst protection is inherently too complex an issue to benefit from a
policy-based approach. However, many existing karst protection regulations have
important flaws that hamper effectiveness.
352 E.S. Fleury
15.3.1Commonly Used Regulatory Tools
When policy protection for karst is implemented in the United States, it is often done
through the zoning and land development approval processes. Because of the potential
of flooding, surface and groundwater contamination, and sinkhole formation and col-
lapse, municipalities certainly have an interest in enacting karst-related regulation.
Differences in physical and social landscapes between individual cities and towns often
influence the choice of regulatory techniques employed in each municipality. However,
there are several regulatory techniques that are used with more frequency than others;
these include zoning codes, subdivision ordinances, stormwater management rules,
and setbacks. Comprehensive plans also frequently address karst-related issues, and
while they are a significant influence on land use decisions, they cannot by themselves
be considered an effective tool for managing development in karst landscapes.
15.3.1.1Zoning Ordinances
Generally speaking, zoning ordinances are implemented by both city and county
governments; however, the exact division of responsibility for zoning varies from
state to state. Zones that include areas where threats to local karst formations are
higher or where threats from the local karst formations are higher may be subject
to certain additional construction requirements that are intended to mitigate that
threat. These are often related to stormwater or surface water drainage and runoff,
or to implementing mandatory setbacks between human-built structures and karst
landforms, usually sinkholes. In some cases, zoning overlays are used; this approach
makes sense in cases where existing zoning laws would be difficult to change, or
where the karst system spans multiple zones.
15.3.1.2Subdivision Ordinances
Subdivision and land development ordinances (SALDOs) are commonly used to

regulate development in karst terrains. However, because it is often easier for devel-
opers to get a variance from a SALDO, they are usually weaker forms of protection
than zoning ordinances. In some places, the differences between subdivision ordi-
nances and zoning ordinances are not clear; for example, both may be incorporated
into a larger Land Development Code, particularly in smaller municipalities.
15.3.1.3Stormwater Management Ordinances
In a karst context, stormwater management ordinances often forbid directing or

piping surface runoff straight into sinkholes, and in some cases require a passive fil-
tering system (gravel, wild grasses, etc.) be placed around the perimeter of a sinkhole
near new construction or development. The popularity of stormwater management
as a tool for managing development on karst landscapes seems to be an approach

borne of practicality. Surface water is a source of contaminants and is simultane-
ously a contributing factor in sinkhole development; furthermore, the consequences
of poor or ineffective stormwater management practices are often highly visible,
making it easier to build a political consensus to do something about it than it is with
other karst-related regulatory tools.
15.3.1.4Setbacks
Setbacks are another widely used approach to karst protection and land use manage-
ment, though not as common as stormwater management. One advantage to the use of
setbacks is that they are easy to understand conceptually, and theoretically require only
a tape measure to enforce. However, they also make it more difficult for landowners to
develop parcels with karst features (which is often the intent of the regulations in the
first place). Because of this, setbacks often come under heavy political pressure from
developers or property owners who are seeking waivers or exemptions from setback
requirements. One major shortcoming of the setback tool is that they generally only
address sinkholes or, in some cases, springs. Contaminants can often find their way into
the aquifer along other pathways (Rubin 1992). In other words, while setbacks may be
effective in protecting human-built structures from subsidence dangers, they are not
sufficient for protecting entire karst systems from human impacts.
15.3.1.5Comprehensive Plans
Comprehensive plans are visible, high profile examples of local land use planning.
Often, the development of a comprehensive plan is a process that incorporates sig-
nificant community input and can take several years to complete. Comprehensive
plan recommendations and goals are usually not binding, which means they rarely
have the power of law. Because there is no power vested in comprehensive plans to
compel developers and landowners to act in any particular way, this chapter does
not address their role or impact.
15.4Policy-Based Approaches to Karst Protection
Karst-related land use regulations and ordinances have been used in the United
States since the mid-1980s (Richardson 2003). These ordinances often focus on a
single aspect of human-karst interaction, such as imposing strict controls on new
construction or management of groundwater inflow. At the same time, multi-
concerned karst ordinances that focus on the impacts of new development on
groundwater and the structural integrity of new buildings are becoming more
common. Examples can be found in Johnson City, Tennessee, where an interim
multi-concerned policy statement was adopted in 1994 (immediately following an
354 E.S. Fleury
extended period of excessive rainfall and flooding) (Reese etal. 1997) and in Austin,
Texas, where a combination of land use management techniques and engineering
controls are employed to protect the Edwards Aquifer from the consequences of
urbanization (Butler 1987). Karst regulations are not universal because governments
are often not given a sufficiently wide range of tools with which to manage karst.
The available tools are typically limited to the comprehensive plan, the zoning ordi-
nance, the subdivision ordinance, and the stormwater management ordinance.
However, since the general public is largely unaware of karst and the planning issues
that go with it, local governments are typically forced to handle karst issues in a
reactive, rather than proactive, manner (Richardson 2003).
As human populations grow, so too do the challenges of waste disposal. The pres-
ence of karst can make disposal operations more difficult because of the inherent
threat to groundwater quality. Requirements and regulations for handling the poten-
tial contamination of aquifers by landfills differ across the United States. For exam-
ple, states take different approaches to defining both karst areas only a handful
specifically mention karst, while the rest use vague definitions of unstable areas
and landfills. However, there are minimum standards imposed by the US Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA); for example, all landfills must have a groundwater moni-
toring system in place in the immediate vicinity of landfills. At the state level, Florida
regulations suggest a double liner for landfills but do not require one; Kentucky, on
the other hand, does require the use of such a design (Davis 1997). The benefit of this
approach is that regulations can be tailored to meet local needs; the drawback is that
local political culture is more likely to influence the process, and can potentially do
so in a way that is not consistent with karst protection.
Policy-based approaches face even greater challenges when they are designed for
implementation across multiple jurisdictions. The European Water Framework
Directive, published in 2000, served as the catalyst for efforts to develop an effec-
tive and consistent European approach to groundwater protection in karst areas. The
scientists working on this had the goal of integrating karst groundwater protection
into the land use planning process throughout Europe. However, such integration
had to be applicable to all karstic areas in Europe, which can vary greatly in terms
of geologic and political conditions. Because of the difficulties in achieving this,
they were forced to abandon the conceptual framework goal and instead attempt to
develop a more general, common European approach to karst waters that was less
comprehensive and less binding than they had originally intended (Zwahlen 2003).
15.5Influences on the Design and Implementation

of Karst-Related Land Use Regulations and Ordinances
Differences in karst regulations from one place to another are often the result of
differences in the regulatory process and regulation-writing experience between
those places. Each locality will face a different set of influences and inputs or
example, the level of stakeholder interest and input, or the physical characteristics
of the karst system itself into the regulation process. With so many variables at
work, uniformity is perhaps beyond hope.
The following discussion is limited to inputs that are either a significant factor in
the process of writing and developing these regulations, or seem to have an unex-
pectedly weak impact on the process. Precisely quantifying the significance of each
input to the system is almost certainly an impossible task; indeed, it is challenging
enough to simply identify each input. However, existing research does indicate that
some inputs generally seem to have greater impact on the regulatory process and
results than others. Some of the more interesting inputs from both groups are
described below.
Technical expertise: Input from non-elected professionals like geologists and hydrol-
ogists has been cited as being a critical factor in the development of karst-related land
use regulations (Fleury 2009). This is not surprising, as Sabatier and Jenkins-Smith
(1988) emphasized the importance of specialist knowledge (policy-oriented learn-
ing) in their Advocacy Coalition Framework of the policy process. The research
suggests that consulting technical experts has significant benefits (i.e., acquisition of
the theoretical and practical knowledge required to target and design effective karst-
related regulations) that are not accompanied by significant drawbacks (these profes-
sionals do not seem to be inclined to promote excessively restrictive regulations, even
as their influence over the process increases). But because of the generally intangible
nature of the benefits of technical expertise, its impact on the regulation writing and
implementation process is almost impossible to quantify. There do seem to be some
tangible results of higher levels of influence from non-elected professionals: Survey
results also show that the use of extra steps in the permitting process, of dumping and
waste disposal regulations, and of fertilizer and chemical application regulations is
more frequent in municipalities where non-elected professionals were more influen-
tial on the karst land use regulation process (Fleury 2009).
Enforcement authority: Without the ability to enforce karst protections, stakeholders
with an incentive (particularly, a financial incentive) to ignore regulations are very
likely to do exactly that. Outside of a protected area context, both the existing litera-
ture and interviews suggest that enforcement authority is a factor in karst land use
regulation in non-protected areas in the US (Fleury 2009). For example, a compre-
hensive plan that attempts to control growth in carbonate areas is not likely to be
effective if a zoning ordinance to implement and enforce the priorities of the compre-
hensive plan is absent (Day 1996; Jepson et al. 2002; Kueny and Day 2002).
Additionally, subdivision and land development ordinances with karst-related com-
ponents are easier to waive than zoning ordinances, and thus do not provide the same
level of protection or enforcement authority.
Nature and framing of the problem: The nature of the specific karst problem
quite naturally has a strong influence on the character of the land use regulations.
Addressing a groundwater contamination issue, for example, would require a
different (if partially overlapping) set of tools than addressing a land subsidence
problem. Results from the survey (Fleury 2009) suggest that developing and
implementing karst regulations is more likely to succeed if the underlying problem
356 E.S. Fleury
is highly visible, and if the proposed regulations can be readily connected to that
specific problem. But even when the problem is visible and urgent, regulation
can die on the vine if it is not properly framed. Contamination of groundwater
resources and structural damage from land subsidence seem to be effective ways to
frame the problem.
Stakeholder input: In this case, the term stakeholder is given a broad definition, and
includes both local residents and those with an economic interest in the location (i.e.,
the construction industry, or resource users). The influence of each group of stake-
holders varies widely. Fleury (2009) suggests that, for the most part, local residents do
not seem to have a major influence on the development and implementation of karst
regulations; the ones who do are generally the ones who are both well-informed and
most likely to be affected by such regulations. This group may not be representative
of the general population. In the study conducted by Fleury (2009), data collected
from follow-up interviews indicate that this can change with time, through public
education programs; one respondent argues that such education programs can help
preserve the regulation itself by mitigating any shifts in political priorities that occur
with changing administrations. For example, a new mayor may be more sympathetic
to the perspective of the construction industry than his/her predecessor. In that case, a
voting public with a well-developed understanding of karst and the need for its protec-
tion can act as an obstacle to weakening existing regulation.
Extent of the karst system: The size of the underlying karst system seems to play a
role in determining the form of the karst-centric land use regulations that are ulti-
mately implemented, but not on the restrictiveness of those regulations. According
to Fleury (2009), municipalities with more extensive karst systems were more likely
to employ mandatory setbacks/non-buildable areas and dumping/waste disposal
regulations than those with less extensive karst. Simultaneously, there is no strong
connection between the extent of a particular karst system and the strength of the
karst regulations that are ultimately implemented.
Keeping up with the neighbors, or the need for strategic behavior: It is appropri-
ate to take into consideration what neighboring municipalities have done with regard
to regulating development on karst terrains, but only to a point. Fleury (2009) found,
in follow-up interviews with planners and land use professionals, that the experi-
ences of other towns can be illuminating in identifying effective regulatory tech-
niques for preventing karst degradation and aquifer damage. One reason for this is
that towns in close proximity to each other are more likely to be subject to the same
external influences (geologic, economic, political, etc.). However, research suggests
that there is little reason to consider the mere existence of such regulations in neigh-
boring towns as a factor in deciding whether to implement regulations focused on
karst or not, as they seem to have no statistically detectable impact on indicators of
economic growth and health. Additionally, results from the survey confirm that this
lack of impact is generally understood by land use professionals to be the case. This
contradicts expectations rooted in economics and game theory, and may indicate
that karst regulations are generally not sweeping enough to have a widespread
impact on growth and development patterns.
Attitudes of planners and land use professionals: The attitudes of land use
professionals are critical in the process of crafting and implementing karst land use
regulations (Fleury 2009). Most generally feel that regulating development on karst
or near karst features is appropriate. Opinions diverge on the question of what will
happen as a result of any such implementation. Counties, cities, and towns in which
land use regulations do not address karst-related issues are more likely to employ
land use professionals who expect karst land use regulations to result in mostly
negative outcomes than are municipalities where such regulations can be found.
Planners and land use professionals must be convinced that benefits will accrue, or
the regulations are highly unlikely to get off the ground; this is almost certainly due
to their role as gatekeepers in the process.
15.6Regulatory Impacts on Urban Systems

and Human Settlements
There are two ways to assess the impacts of karst-related land use regulations. The
first is through direct assessment of physical changes to the karst system itself, via
water quality tests, or quantifiable measures of cave protection. The second is through
observation of more indirect measures these include settlement patterns, density,
and economic considerations, among others. These metrics can be indicative of the
ways in which local populations inhabit and use the landscape, which can change in
response to the influence of karst-related land use regulations. This section focuses
on these less direct methods of observing the impact of regulations in karst terrains.
Expectations and perceived outcomes: Survey results and follow-up interviews indi-
cate that the most commonly observed outcomes of implementing karst regulations
are a decline in damage from subsidence, and an improvement in groundwater quality.
However, Fleury (2009) demonstrated that these outcomes are expected to occur more
frequently than they are actually reported to occur. Whether this is due to inadequate
methods of regulation or something else is not yet known. Indeed, it is not even known
if these perceptions are in fact accurate. It is entirely possible, for example, that
groundwater quality improves far more frequently than survey respondents reported.
This suggests that expectations for the benefits of implementing karst-related land use
regulations may be too high, perhaps leading to an eventual consensus that the regula-
tory route is not adequate for managing development on karst, and that the benefits of
these regulations are not worth the time and effort of implementation.
Lawsuit prevention: According to survey results and follow-up interviews con-
ducted by Fleury (2009), karst-sensitive land use regulations seem to be an effec-
tive way to discourage lawsuits filed against the city or county. Typically, these
lawsuits arise from unanticipated land subsidence activity that significantly damages
property. In Lexington-Fayette County, Kentucky, for example, reducing lawsuits
filed against the county was an explicit goal of the development and implementation
of the countys sinkhole ordinance (the ordinance takes the form of a minimum
358 E.S. Fleury
setback/non-buildable area restriction); the ordinance has been successful in this

goal (Rebmann 2006, personal communication). The presence of such ordinances or
similar regulations may make it more difficult for potential plaintiffs to successfully
argue that any subsidence damage to structures built near a sinkhole is actually the
citys fault for negligently issuing a building permit for an unsafe area.
Economic growth and development: Higher housing costs and lost development
opportunities were both cited by several respondents in Fleury (2009) as expected
outcomes of implementing karst regulation. However, the same research indicates
that these outcomes are not often observed. Data from karstic areas in Pennsylvania
suggest that the implementation of karst regulations does not, in fact, have a statisti-
cally significant impact on median housing value within the community. As for lost
opportunities for development, these can be directly tied to karst regulations only
via anecdotal evidence at best (Fleury 2009).
Regulatory strength and restrictiveness: Most respondents to Fleurys 2009 survey
describe their local regulations as either not very restrictive or somewhat restric-
tive. There is some relationship between perceived restrictiveness and the increased
rates of implementation of many commonly applied regulatory tools (this relation-
ship does not apply to stormwater runoff regulations, which are almost universally
applied). However, whether or not regulatory restrictiveness has any tangible impact
on the urban system itself is an open question. Restrictiveness was shown to have no
impact on either median home values or on the number of residential construction
permits issued (Fleury 2009).
Form of regulations: Survey results suggest that stormwater runoff regulations are
the easiest type of karst-related land use regulation to push through local political
infrastructures. Follow-up interviews indicate that the reason for this is the straight-
forward nature of the problems they generally address, as well as the straightfor-
ward nature of the regulations themselves. Respondents seem to generally feel that,
if done properly, stormwater runoff and management ordinances can be effective
tools in karst land use regulation. They are extremely common, or the most com-
mon, in Pennsylvania local land use regulation (Fleury 2009).
While mandatory setbacks/non-buildable areas are based on a similarly straight-
forward idea, interviews suggest that it can be difficult to make these effective,
unless it is difficult for developers and landowners to get variances. In order for that
to occur, the body responsible for issuing variances must be sympathetic to the
goals of regulating land development and use in karst areas; it also must have the
ability to resist political pressure to grant variances in cases where a variance would
be inappropriate (Rebmann, 2006 personal communication).
Interviews with those in the professional planning community suggest that zon-
ing ordinances may often be too blunt a tool for karst-related land use regulation.
This is due to the oft-localized nature of karst landform development; regulations
intended to manage development near such landforms may not be appropriate for all
development in a given area. Instead, it may be best to simply require developers
working in a vulnerable area to hire a geologist for a site-specific analysis.
15.7Conclusions
Ultimately, the role of regulation in karst terrains is twofold: First, to protect

human-built structures from damage caused by some of the more hazardous aspects
of karst terrains, like sinkholes or flooding; and Second, to mitigate and prevent
damage to local karst systems and the resources (e.g., groundwater supplies or tour-
ist attractions) that they provide. There is no single, unified approach to the imple-
mentation of this type of regulation. The variety we see in the nature and structure
of karst-related regulations between towns cannot be completely explained by fac-
tors such as region, population, the extent of the local karst system, or the nature of
the specific karst-related issues. The patchwork, individualized nature of karst regu-
lations, and ordinances at the local level makes it difficult to generalize; what works
in one place might not in another. However, we can draw some useful conclusions
from the preceding pages. First is that less obtrusive karst regulation has the best
chance of implementation, particularly if a connection can be made to a separate,
more visible issue like stormwater runoff. This is because the low level of karst
knowledge in the general population makes it much harder to pass more specific,
restrictive karst-related regulations.
Second, karst regulations that are presented as protections for residents and their
homes and roads against karst landforms like sinkholes may fare better than regula-
tions that are framed as environmental protections. This is because, in the policy-
making arena, fear can be an effective motivator; certainly, the idea of losing ones
home to an unstoppable, expanding sinkhole would be a higher concern for most
people than the idea that an unseen ecosystem might suffer irreparable damage.
Regulations intended to address water quality issues can also be presented in this
way, as a means to protect residents from natures threats.
This is not intended to suggest that deception should be employed when seeking
to pass karst-related land use regulations. Instead, scientists, planners, and land use
professionals are urged to keep in mind that the general public often does not share
their understanding or concern regarding the threats posed by human activities to
local karst systems. We should, whenever possible, bear this in mind when seeking
to protect karst systems from human activities via the regulatory process.
References
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of groundwater quality and quantity. Wellingford, Oxfordshire, pp 181188
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Proceedings of the 6th multidisciplinary conference on sinkholes and the engineering and envi-
ronmental impacts of karst, Springfield, Missouri, 69 April 1997. A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam,
pp 433438.
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Day M (1996) Conservation of karst in Belize. J Cave Karst Stud 58(2):139144

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of East Kalimantan province, Indonesia. Nat Areas J 22(1):2842
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assessment. J Cave Karst Stud 64(3):165174
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karst terranes. A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, pp 265271
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ASCE, Reston, pp 492501
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Tenn., Dec. 1991), Proceedings. National Ground Water Association, Dublin, pp 769793
Sabatier PA, Jenkins-Smith HC (1988) The advocacy coalition framework: an assessment. In:
Sabatier P (ed.) Theories of the policy process. Westview, Boulder, pp 117166
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aquifers: scope, goals, results. European Commission for Science, Research and Development,
Luxembourg
Chapter 16
Karst and Sustainability
Robert Brinkmann and Sandra Jo Garren
Abstract The modern sustainability movement focuses on the maintenance of a

sound human society while sustaining healthy environments, sound economic sys-
tems, and social justice. Several major themes in this movement emerged in recent
years including the development of sustainability indices and benchmarking tools
that evaluate an individual or organizational environmental footprint. Such mea-
surements take into account a variety of factors including energy use, water con-
sumption, building practices, transportation, economic health, social variables, and
innovative practices to preserve and protect the environment and natural resources.
There are a number of ways that the study of karst landscapes intersects with sus-
tainability assessments. Karst should be considered when measuring the sustain-
ability of energy resources, water supply, building materials, agricultural and food
practices, land preservation and management, tourism, and greenhouse gas manage-
ment. Specifically, this chapter discusses how karst contributes to sustainability and
sustainable development and highlights instances where the current use of karst
landscapes may be unsustainable.
16.1Introduction
Sustainability is not a catchword for all things environmental. Instead, the modern
sustainability movement focuses on developing clear plans that quantitatively dem-
onstrate how humans can sustain a healthy society in a way that is environmentally,
economically, and socially sound. Karst landscapes integrally fit into sustainability
in a number of ways. They provide valuable ecosystem services, most notably by
R. Brinkmann (*) S. Jo Garren

Department of Geography, University of South Florida, 4202 E. Fowler Avenue, NES 107,
Tampa, FL 33620, USA
e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]

362 R. Brinkmann and S. Jo Kling
storing pristine water, providing local building materials, and mitigating climate
change. However, maintaining sustainable karst systems may be at risk due to
increased human development in these vulnerable regions.
The purpose of this chapter is to delve into sustainability issues that surround both
the sustainability of karst and the services provided by these landscapes. The chapter
is divided into two parts. The first part summarizes the roots of the modern sustain-
ability movement and reviews some important emerging themes within the field of
sustainability. The second part focuses on sustainability issues in karst terranes and
is discussed in terms of energy; building; water supply; agriculture and food; land
preservation, management and tourism; and greenhouse gas management.
16.2The Modern Sustainability Movement
The last several years has seen a resurgence of interest in the environmental move-
ment, particularly in the field of sustainability. The roots of this movement extend
back to the development of twentieth century environmentalism that started with the
publications of A Sand County Almanac (Leopold 1949), Silent Spring (Carson
1962), and other important contributions of the period. Such works led to wide-
spread questioning about the environmental impact of industrialization and modern
life. It is not surprising that much of the focus of the second half of the twentieth
century environmental movement involved the development of rules and regulations
as to how to manage pollution brought about by industrialization and how to protect
ecosystems. In the United States, important legislation, such as the Clean Air Act,
the Endangered Species Act, and the Clean Water Act, was passed (U.S. Congress
2002a, b, 2004). Many state and local governments also developed sound environ-
mental policies around the world (Portney and Stavins 2000). However, while
industrial nations developed practical policies, environmental issues that eluded
rule making and management remained.
One of the more important issues that emerged in recent years is environmental
equity and social justice (Shallcross and Robinson 2006). This issue can be exam-
ined at different scales within the context of small areas, such as environmental
justice within a city (Cole and Foster 2000) or within a global context that exam-
ines, for example, the impact of industrial western societies on resource-rich, but
undeveloped, nations (Roberts and Parks 2009). Such works have demonstrated that
while environmental regulations in some areas have made improvements in the
environment, issues of consumerism and development remain problems for society.
One of the most important documents to emerge from this discussion was the report,
Our Common Future, produced by the World Commission on Environmental
Development, known widely as the Brundtland Commission (United Nations World
Commission on Environment and Development 1987). The report detailed a variety
of emerging issues that hinder the long-term environmental health of the planet.
Specifically, the commission elucidated that sustainable development is a key to
economic and environmental health of regions and defined sustainable development
16 Karst and Sustainability 363
as development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the
ability of future generations to meet their own needs (United Nations World
Commission on Environment and Development 1987). The significance of the
Brundtland Commission report is that it clearly questioned the impact of individual
actions on the entire world, particularly on the worlds poor. It also suggested that
there are limits to technology, social organizations, and the environment in meeting
the needs of the future. While many developed countries made strides in cleaning up
pollution, the broader impact of their economic systems and consumer societies
were making a large impact on the world. In addition, the concept of globalization
within the context of environmental sustainability became more significant.
Around the same time as the publication of Our Common Future, there was agrow-
ing concern about the impact of greenhouse gases on our planet (Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change 1990). Unlike many pollutants that have local impacts,
greenhouse gases can impact the atmosphere of the entire earth (Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change 2007b). Therefore, due to growing international concerns,
the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was established by the United
Nations in 1988 to evaluate the risks associated with greenhouse gas emissions and
associated climate change. Since its founding, the IPCC published several reports that
summarize the state of climate change science and the expected impacts of global
warming on the planet (IPCC 1990, 1995, 2001, 2007a). There have been distinct
international policy impacts as a result of these reports, most notably the Kyoto
Protocol that requires signature countries to meet specified greenhouse gas reduction
targets that would achieve an overall global reduction of 5% greenhouse gas emis-
sions from 1990 levels by 2012 (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change 1992). The United States is the only major developed nation that has not rati-
fied the treaty.
While the Kyoto Protocol did impact greenhouse gas emissions, there is growing
concern that it did not go far enough in reducing greenhouse gas emissions, particu-
larly since one of the largest emitters, the United States, is not participating (United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change 2009). In addition, the mixed
results of the 2009 Copenhagen United Nations Climate Change Conference,
dubbed Hopenhagen by many hoping for an international agreement beyond 2012,
further clouded the ability of the worlds nations to adapt a comprehensive policy to
address global climate change (Heilprin 2009). Nevertheless, there is growing inter-
est in other ways of forging successful greenhouse gas policy, particularly among
local governments, nongovernmental agencies, and certain industries. However, the
nature of these approaches is much broader within the context of more holistic
sustainability goals.
It would be naive to trust that recent interest in comprehensive approaches to
sustainability emerging from the Brundtland Commissions report and the ratifica-
tion of the Kyoto Protocol would sufficiently address global climate change. There
is no doubt that the current economic crisis facilitated the public interest in adopting
sustainable practices (Betsill 2001). From 2008 to 2009, the global economy shrunk
by 0.8% and the United States economy shrunk by 2.5% (International Monetary
Fund 2010). Particularly hurt in the United States has been the real estate market
with many homes losing more than half their value, leaving borrowers upside down
on mortgages. Associated with this is the overall loss in jobs over the same period.
In the United States, over 4million jobs have been lost in 2009 alone and the nation
faces ~10% unemployment-- one of the largest unemployment rates in history (U.S.
Department of Labor 2010). At the same time, there is instability in many of the
worlds oil-energy-producing nations and concerns over the future of other basic
natural resources. Such a mix of economic volatility has influenced individuals in
ways not seen for generations. Much of the developed world has had to readjust
their consumerist approach for leaner times. Within this context, it made sense for
budget-minded individuals and organizations to embrace broad-based sustainability
measures in order to save money.
The belt-tightening comes at a time when many in the west are questioning their
relationship with the prevailing consumer economy (Esty and Winston 2006). There
are many examples of how individuals and organizations are exploring how to
reduce their impact on the environment by changing buying habits. Movements
such as community gardening, buy local campaigns, buy nothing day, and personal
downsizing highlight how many are changing behaviors (Hess 2009).
Yet, such approaches mean nothing if there is no measureable improvement in
the environment. Indeed, some green policies, practices, and programs have come
under critical analysis as either environmentally neutral or harmful to the environ-
ment (Naish 2008). Some organizations have been charged with greenwashing by
touting small environmental successes while continuing or expanding harmful prac-
tices (Vos 2009). Such examples demonstrate the need for clear accounting of envi-
ronmental benefits. In response to these concerns, a number of benchmarking tools
have been developed in recent years to assess environmental sustainability.
There are dozens of ways to measure environmental sustainability and no single
measurement tool is widely accepted at this point. Each is designed for a specific
purpose. For example, there are community-level tools that measure sustainability at
the local level, and there are other indicators that can compare different countries. In
addition, some tools take into account only quantifiable measures such as water con-
sumption. Others take a broader approach and may measure the types of policies that
are in place. It is worth reviewing several, different sustainability measurement tools
since they inform the ways in which karst systems can be analyzed through a sustain-
ability lens. The tools discussed below are not meant to be a comprehensive list, but
instead are meant to provide examples of very different approaches to measuring
sustainability.
One of the most widely recognized national-level scales is the Environmental
Performance Index (EPI) (Yale University and Columbia University 2010). The EPI
builds on sustainability targets proposed by the United Nations Millennium
Development Goals by providing clear quantitative metrics to compare the environ-
mental and ecosystem performance of national policies. The index is calculated
using a variety of measurements of environmental health and ecosystem vitality
including environmental burden of disease, water quality, air pollution, biodiversity
and habitat, productive natural resources, and climate change. In contrast to this
index are the Happy Planet Index developed by the New Economics Foundation
(New Economics Foundation 2010) and the Gross National Happiness Indices
developed by Bhutan (The Center for Bhutan Studies 2010). While the EPI is con-
cerned with national policies and outcomes, the happiness indices focus more on
life satisfaction, life expectancy, wellness, and ecological footprint. These indices
are in stark contrast to more traditional indices that rank countries by economic
output or gross domestic product.
At a more local scale, a number of approaches have been used to benchmark sus-
tainability measurements. One of the most widely known is the Leadership in Energy
and Environmental Design (LEED) certification program used to certify communities
and buildings as green. Started by the U.S. Green Building Council, LEED certifica-
tion has become internationally recognized as one of the most important third-party
benchmarking tools available to measure sustainability. While many are familiar with
LEED-certified buildings that use innovative approaches to reduce the ecological
footprint of a building, most are unfamiliar with the use of LEED in benchmarking
neighborhood development using a point system similar to that used for assessing
green buildings (U.S. Green Building Council 2010). In the neighborhood develop-
ment assessment tool, LEED uses a variety of categories to assess development, includ-
ing location and linkage, pattern and design, green infrastructure and building, and
innovation in the design process (U.S. Green Building Council 2010). Some variations
of the LEED system have been developed to fit unique settings. For example, the
Florida Green Building Coalition (FGBC) certifies residential and commercial devel-
opments similar to the LEED process, but modifies it for the local subtropical charac-
teristics of the region (Florida Green Building Coalition 2010). In addition, the FGBC
certifies green local governments and evaluates local government environmental prac-
tices, incentives and ordinances that promote green practices and educational activi-
ties. The FGBC index focuses on energy, water, air, land, and waste (Florida Green
Building Coalition 2009). Several communities in Florida have attained this designa-
tion and many more are seeking it (Upadhyay and Brinkmann 2010).
Interestingly, the U.S. Council of Mayors in 2005 adopted benchmarking goals to
address global climate change and reduce greenhouse gas emissions according to
Kyoto targets (U.S. Conference of Mayors 2010). To date, over 1,000 mayors repre-
senting close to a third of the U.S. population from cities in all 50 states have signed
this agreement and are currently reporting sustainability efforts, specifically in the
areas of greenhouse gas emissions. While there is still no clear U.S. federal policy on
greenhouse gas emissions, local governments are leading the way to try to assess
local emissions and finding ways to reduce them. In support of these local efforts,
several states have led the drive toward environmental sustainability and greenhouse
gas reduction, particularly California, Florida, and New York (Rabe 2010).
Several entities are also developing sustainability benchmarking tools. For exam-
ple, in the United States, the American College and University Presidents Climate
Commitment encourages universities to develop climate action plans that address
how best to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from their practices (American Colleges
and University 2010). Private organizations have also become involved with sustain-
ability benchmarking through a number of third- party benchmarking tools such as
that developed by the Sustainability Business Practices organization (International
Institute for Sustainable Development 2010) and Technology Business Research

(Technology Business Research 2010). Most of these tools focus on greenhouse gas
reductions but include analysis of waste streams, water consumption, transportation,
corporate policy, and other practices. Nevertheless, like all other sustainability bench-
marking procedures, these require a quantitative analysis of practices in order to
understand the overall impact of an organization on the environment. The analysis
includes collecting and assessing particular data on a number of variables.
16.3Sustainability and Karst
The above section details how the modern sustainability movement has become
significantly quantitative in recent years with benchmarking of activities that have
become the dominant exercise undertaken by organizations seeking to reduce their
impact on the environment. The benchmarking is used to compare and share data and
to provide a starting place for understanding how to improve sustainability perfor-
mance. Such efforts are primarily spreadsheet driven and allow comparison of many
variables among different organizations. These variables can be measured within the
broad categories of energy, water use and supply, building, and waste and recycling.
As discussed below, karst systems significantly impact the effectiveness of sustain-
ability efforts which makes sense since karst systems are intimately involved with
carbon and water cycles. From a review of the sustainability performance indicators
discussed in the previous section, the following sustainability categories pertain to
karst landscapes: energy; building; water supply; agriculture and food; land preserva-
tion, land management and tourism; and greenhouse gas management. However,
before turning to these topics, it must be noted that karst has distinct physical, social,
economic, and cultural aspects that make the landscape significant.
Karst systems contain a number of important physical features, such as caves,
springs, and sinkholes that make them important geologically and that set them
apart from other landscapes. They exist in a variety of interesting settings such as
islands or near-shore coastal plains, as well as in older continental interiors where
ancient seas once aided the development of carbonate rock. In some locations, their
beauty or uniqueness has brought tourists, such as in Gulong, China or Mammoth
Cave, Kentucky, USA, and in others, their droughty and hazardous nature makes
settlement challenging. Karst, like no other landscape, is uniquely vulnerable to
human impacts due to its underground and surface connectivity. It is for these reasons
that it is a suitable landscape to examine from a sustainability perspective.
16.3.1Energy and Karst
Much of the worlds significant carbon-based energy reserves are stored in karst sys-
tems. Whether it is the coalfields of the Appalachians or the plains of the Persian Gulf,
carbonate rocks are a significant component of the worlds energy resources. However,
extraction of coal, oil, and natural gas can be problematic due to the interconnected
nature of karst systems (Trice and C & C Reservoirs Ltd 2005). Specifically, in the
case of oil production, karst systems are notoriously leaky and make optimal oil
extraction difficult (Drew and Hotzl 1999). In addition, the extraction of such materi-
als can lead to pollution of associated aquifer systems. Some regions have developed
particular rules for how petroleum should be extracted in karst systems to preserve
natural resources (see for example: http://www.in.gov/nrc/2394.htm).
One of the tenets of the sustainability movement is to use local resources
whenever possible. This is difficult in the case of energy, since in many areas of the
world, energy resources are not present or developed. Thus, the world has devel-
oped an integrated network of energy distribution to service the needs of most
people on the planet who can afford energy resources. Oil extracted in sparsely
populated places, such as Saudi Arabia, can be transported to more densely popu-
lated regions like Japan and Germany (planning group for the workshop on trends
in oil supply and demand and the potential for peaking of conventional oil potential
2006). However, the economic, environmental, and social costs of transporting these
resources are not fully understood. It is clear that the world has a nonsustainable
approach to energy use and that there are social equity issues associated with the
production, transportation, and use of petroleum products.
One of the more interesting places to examine karst and energy is in the state of
Florida, USA. Known as the Sunshine State, Florida produces a limited amount of
energy and must rely on the import of energy reserves such as oil, coal, and natural
gas to fuel its economy. However, Florida has a significant amount of oil and natural
gas reserves offshore within sedimentary rock systems in the Gulf of Mexico.
Instead of using these local reserves, it imports thousands of trillions of BTU-
equivalents of fuel. The main reason for this is that the majority of the state does not
wish to develop a petroleum and natural gas industry due to the fears of hurting the
tourism industry. Venezuelan and Western Gulf of Mexico oil is cheap, plentiful,
and easy to access through one of several petroleum ports. Concerns over the impact
of offshore drilling off Floridas beautiful beaches caused Floridas political leaders
to ban offshore drilling for the last two decades. Indeed, the recent oil spill in the
Gulf of Mexico raises even more concerns over the future of energy production
within the region. Thus, while Florida could tap local energy resources, it chooses
instead to import oil in order to protect its shoreline and tourist economy. It must be
noted that Florida also imports significant amounts of coal from the Appalachian
region of the United States, where mountaintop removal is practiced to reach coal
reserves. This practice is highly criticized by environmental groups, which note the
devastating impact of removing a mountain from a landscape in order to access the
coal. Again, the complexity of the Florida energy situation demonstrates how pro-
tection of one resource, such as coastal systems, can deleteriously impact another
environment and lead to environmental and social injustices.
It also must be noted that concerns over emissions from power plants that burn
fossil fuels, particularly coal, led to the development of scrubbers that remove harm-
ful materials from the emissions prior to release in smokestacks (Ma et al. 2000).
These scrubbers utilize, in part, limestone in the cleaning system (Kaminski 2003).
Thus, limestone is an important agent in improving air quality near power plants.
16.3.2Building and Karst
The construction of green buildings and green communities is one of the most
important aspects of the modern sustainability movement. As previously discussed,
there are several certifying agencies that certify buildings as green. However, they
all use more or less the same criteria. For example, in the LEED building certifica-
tion process, buildings earn points for meeting some basic guidelines. These guide-
lines are divided into the following criteria: sustainable sites, water efficiency,
energy and atmosphere, indoor environmental quality, innovation and design, and
regional priority (U.S. Green Building Council 2008). Some of the more interesting
aspects of these rating systems from a karst perspective are the use of local building
materials, on-site renewable energy, storm water control, and site selection.
Certainly, karst areas have an abundance of local building materials. Whether it is
native limestone, marble, dolostone, or whether it is cement manufactured from this
rock, natural building materials in karst areas can be used in green building. It would
be inappropriate from a sustainability perspective to import granitic materials, for
instance, when limestone is available. However, it must be noted that using local
limestone can lead to new issues in sustainability (Bandyopadhyay and Shiva 1985).
For instance, natural groundwater systems can be disrupted and cave ecosystems
can be destroyed. Thus, using locally derived materials brings about local environ-
mental challenges that must be addressed (Gunn and Bailey 1992).
Locating a building so that subsurface voids can be used for geothermal cooling
or heating as an innovative renewable energy source can also earn points in the LEED
system. However, overuse of geothermal energy can disrupt natural underground
temperatures that could lead to changes in underground ecosystems. Little research
has been done on this topic in contrast to the abundant research that has been con-
ducted on geothermal heating (Kagal et al. 2007). Storm water management is a
unique problem in karst areas. While often storm water is not a serious issue in most
places due to rapid infiltration into the subsurface, special problems exist in some
locations. For instance, flooding can occur in poljes during high rainfall events
(Mijatovic 1988) and groundwater pollution is a serious issue in many parts of the
world due to nonpoint pollution infiltration (Goldscheider 2003). Nevertheless, storm
water can be routed to ponds or other areas to protect aquifers in karst areas.
16.3.3Water Supply and Karst
Karst regions store vast amounts of groundwater. Indeed, karst aquifers are among
the most productive in the world, with up to 25% of the worlds population obtaining
their water from karst sources (Brown and Open University 1989). Yet, surface water
supplies are often scant due to the quick percolation of rainwater through conduits
within karst landscapes. Therefore, there is both great supply and significant lack of
water within many karst regions. Soils and surfaces generally lack perennial water
supplies and groundwater is abundant but not always easy to access. In the karst
regions of Southern China, for instance, there is an abundance of rainfall, but most of
the water is transported to subterranean rivers (Guo etal. 2007) where it is suscepti-
ble to pollution from agricultural and industrial runoff. Groundwater reserves can
also be threatened by poor waste management and illegal dumping. In Apulia, Italy,
and other locations, caves and sinkholes are frequently used as places to dump trash,
which can lead to serious groundwater problems (Parise and Pascali 2003). Dumps
and landfills can also cause serious groundwater contamination (Zhu etal. 2005).
Saltwater intrusion is also a significant issue in many islands and coastal karst
areas. Along the Adriatic Sea, for example, saltwater intrusion is a serious issue that
impacts local water supplies (Bonacci and Roje-Bonacci 2000). Also, small islands,
such as the Bahamian archipelago, can lose local potable water supplies due to
overuse (Cant 1996). These small islands are particularly vulnerable during droughts
when small freshwater lenses are consumed and replaced by saltwater intruding
from the sea. In addition, subtle changes in natural rainfall can significantly impact
the long-term viability of these vulnerable aquifers (Jocson etal. 2002).
In continental settings, karst aquifers provide significant drinking water supplies
to large numbers of people. The ownership of karst waters can become contested,
especially due to the growing privatization of public water supplies (Trawick 2003;
Balch etal. 2005). In addition, the bottled water phenomenon is a relatively new
global trend whereby one can purchase a bottle of water at a price, not that dissimi-
lar to a similar quantity of gasoline. Bottled local spring water has regional chemical
variations (Misund etal. 1999) and can be considered as a consumer product since there
is little evidence that the subtle chemical variations are particularly better than tap
water. Nevertheless, the bottled water industry is a multi-million dollar industry that
takes a local commodity and markets it for external purchase. But, who owns the
water? The springs collect water from very large watersheds and discharge at a
point where it can be bottled, setting up the potential for conflict among stakehold-
ers within a basin (Hall 2009). Conflict can be compounded during dry seasons
when springs are still active but surface waters evaporate and regional water tables
decline. The karst springs ownership problem is part of a growing trend over the
conflict of privatized water systems globally. In recent years, many public water
agencies have privatized operations leading to concerns over water access and social
justice (Shiva 2002). There are dozens of important springs that are used for water
supplies around the world. Some of them have become impacted due to the use of
water as a commercial product (Boldt-Van Rooy 2003).
16.3.4Agriculture and Food and Karst
There is a new movement afoot for organic food, slow food, and locally grown food
(Cole 2008). This is in response to the issues associated with corporate agriculture,
genetically modified food (so-called frankenfood), and poor conditions for animals
in large holdings (Cole 2008). In some karst areas, large agricultural land holdings
are partly responsible for regional groundwater pollution, lowering of the regional
water table and even sinkhole collapses.
The issues associated with karst and agriculture evolved due to the generally
poor nature of karstic soils and the droughty nature of karst lands. Many of them
require extensive fertilization and an irrigation infrastructure to make them produc-
tive. One of the more interesting places to examine the long-term implications of
karst and agriculture is within the Yucatan peninsula of Mexico, where the Maya
developed an advanced system of agriculture in support of large communities.
However, the civilization was vulnerable to drought and overuse of the land due to
the poor nature of the soil (Santley etal. 1986). It is believed that the collapse of the
Mayan agricultural system, perhaps brought on by drought, was in part responsible
for the general decline of the Mayan culture (Hodell etal. 1995).
The impact of agriculture on land stability has received extensive attention
recently in Florida where huge volumes of water are sprayed on crops like strawber-
ries to protect them from freezing during particularly cold nights. The groundwater
withdrawals are massive and occur suddenly over short periods of time (Bengtsoon
1989). In some locations in Central Florida, this results in the formation of sink-
holes. In the late twentieth century, several notable sinkholes formed, leading to a
significant amount of property damage as a result of this pumping. In 2010, during
a prolonged cold snap, even more sinkholes formed, accounting for millions of dol-
lars worth of damage (Newman 2010). While agriculture is a significant portion of
Floridas economy, many are questioning whether protecting crops during the cold-
est days is worth the associated damage brought on by massive water withdrawals.
One of the more interesting developments in agriculture in recent years is the
growth in the biofuels industry. The expansion is largely driven by the desire to move
away from nonlocal fossil fuels. Brazil, which derives a significant amount of its
energy from sugarcane-based biofuels, is often seen as the model for biofuel produc-
tion. While many biofuel crops require some degree of fertilization and/or irrigation,
there is growing interest in using native plants that require little to no fertilization or
irrigation. This may prove to be a boon to karst lands where traditional agricultural
crops require greater tending than in areas with better soils and hydrologic regimes.
There is a strong focus in some karst regions, particularly in Jamaica and the Dominican
Republic, to learn from Brazils example and develop local energy from agricultural
products (Espinasa 2008). However, there is a growing concern over the development
of biofuels, particularly in Southeast Asia where there has been a loss of biodiversity
due to land conversion of tropical rainforest to biofuel crops (Danielsen etal. 2008).
Finally, it is worth remarking that karst systems are at great risk from overuse of
pesticides and herbicides due to the connectivity of the surface and subsurface envi-
ronments. Sustainable solutions in karst environments must include solid agricul-
tural management to reduce the risk of pollution. In addition, there should be a
focus on crops that do not require extensive fertilization or pesticides. In recent
years, sustainable agriculture, including organic agriculture, community gardens,
and community-sponsored agriculture, has grown in significance in karst regions
around the world. This trend has the potential to improve agricultural practices in
order to limit agricultural pollution.
16.3.5Land Preservation, Land Management

and Tourism and Karst
Land preservation of karst lands is another important aspect of the modern

sustainability movement. There are a variety of public and private organizations
involved in karst conservation that include a plethora of management options.
Perhaps the best known preservation efforts originate from federal, state, and local
governments. In Romania, for example, the Apuseni Nature Park consists of over
180,000 acres of land that contains a variety of caves and other karst landscape
features. Interestingly, the park was designed to not only preserve the karst land-
scape, but also to preserve Romanias rural villages and culture (Fleury 2009). Thus,
one can visit a well-preserved cave, such as Scarisoara Ice Cave or Bear Cave, while
also staying in a rural farm incorporated within the agrotourism plan of the park.
Jamaica too has large areas of karst lands under preserve called Cockpit Country
(John and Newman 2006). This land, which is managed by Jamaicas forest service
in partnership with local stakeholders, is home to some of the more unique karst
features in the Caribbean as well as unique ecosystems (Day 2009). This is in con-
trast with the approach taken in many other countries, particularly the United States,
where parks such as the 46,000-acre Carlsbad Caverns National Park, are natural
preserves without significant human settlement. The management plans for these
parks typically focus on the preservation of the natural resources of the park and the
visitors experiences. Similarly, the Philippines have set aside large areas of park-
land for preservation (Restificar etal. 2006).
Private organizations and individuals are also involved in cave preservation (Baus
2009; Bodenhamer 2009). For example, many cave clubs or grottos raise funds
topurchase lands to protect caves or preserve them for recreational or scientific
purposes. In addition, several nonprofit organizations, such as the Speleological
Federation of the European Union, actively raise funds for cave and karst lands
preservation. Many individuals and private companies are also involved in cave and
karst protection.
The management of caves and karst lands can be a contested issue. There are
many commercial caves with limited conservation efforts, and there are many others
with strict conservation rules and limitations on the number of visits to the cave
each day. Two well-known caves illustrate the dilemma facing cave managers. In
1940, a remarkable cave near Lascaux, France, was discovered by two young boys.
The caves contained amazing prehistoric cave art depicting a variety of animals and
actions. Once known, the cave was a public sensation and thousands visited each
year. However, the management of the cave became problematic, and the cave was
damaged due to the change of temperature, lighting, and input of microbes brought
by the circulating air and the many visitors (Bastian etal. 2010). Eventually, the
cave was closed to the public in order to protect the cave art. A replica, Lascaux II,
was constructed so that visitors could tour a facsimile of the cave near the original.
In contrast, Lechugilla Cave, in Carlsbad Caverns National Park, consists of
over 100miles of cave passages containing some of the most unique speleothems
ever discovered. The cave is publically owned and thus is part of the overall
management plan of the Carlsbad Caverns National Park. Early in its exploration in
the 1980s, the park determined that the uniqueness of the features required special
management separate from other caves in the park (National Park Service 2006).
Unlike Lascaux, the managers set distinct access restrictions, and it was never
opened to the public. Permission to enter is given only to experienced cavers with
special permits to conduct scientific and exploratory research (National Park Service
2006). Well-regarded and beautifully filmed documentaries are available to the pub-
lic that show the important cave features and the extent of the cave.
These two caves illustrate well-known efforts to preserve important cave and
karst resources while still providing opportunities to view the caves, albeit virtually.
In contrast, many privately owned caves with thousands of annual visitors have
measurable impacts ranging from algae or other microbial damage to speleothems.
Nevertheless, these caves often are important ways that the public learns about
caves and karst. Indeed, education on caves and karst within these public caves
provides support for the conservation of caves that are not open to the public.
It must be noted that many karst landscapes, including those around Lascaux
and Lechugilla, are important for local tourist economies and for archeological
significance (Crothers etal. 2007). Carlsbad National Park is in a desert landscape
relatively inhospitable for most economic activity, and the Dordogne region of
France is not within the major tourist trails of Europe. The presence of the karst
brings tourists and associated jobs to the region. Indeed, ecotourism of karst lands
and diving of springs and caves provides thousands of jobs worldwide and helps to
preserve karst systems and educate the general population about the environmental
significance of karst (Yan and Zhan 2002).
16.3.6Greenhouse Gas Management and Karst
As concerns have expanded about the impacts of climate change on our planet, the
scientific community has searched for ways to reduce greenhouse gases, remove
them from our atmosphere, and store them on our planet. In recent years, there has
been a great focus on developing inventories of greenhouse gas releases and storage
to estimate changes in the greenhouse gas cycle. These inventories can be aggre-
gated by region, organization or individual. For instance, many states, cities, and
universities have conducted greenhouse gas inventories (Selin and VanDeveer
2009), and there are many online sites where one can enter data to obtain ones
carbon footprint. These are the first step in developing plans to reduce greenhouse
gas emissions or sequester and store carbon in order to mitigate these emissions.
Clearly, karst landscapes, formed from carbonate rocks and their dissolution and
intimately involved with the carbon cycle, are critical to understanding greenhouse
gas management. There have been some innovative projects proposed to reduce the
impact of carbon emissions on our planet that involve karst systems. One of the
more promising areas that emerged from this effort is carbon storage within deep
aquifers in karst landscapes. To facilitate this, carbon dioxide is pumped deep within
the earth in a similar fashion to deep aquifer waste storage (Lee etal. 2010). While
research is continuing on this topic, and there are concerns about the impact of
pumping carbon dioxide into deep aquifers, there is no doubt that there is potential
for changing the dynamics about how we think about greenhouse gases and climate
change via deep carbon storage.
Another way of storing carbon is to encourage reef growth to create new lime-
stone. This has received significant attention because the development of artificial
reefs can store tons of carbon within shallow marine environments by creating new
limestone. However, there are problems with this approach. Many coastal areas are
polluted, limiting reef development (McKeown 2010). In addition, the emerging
problem of ocean acidification, whereby the ocean becomes more acidic with
increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide, is demonstrably limiting the production of
shell material in some areas of the world (Feely 2004). Thus, while artificial reef
development has potential, the natural oceanic carbon cycle is damaged because of
pollution and high levels of carbon dioxide in the environment.
It must be noted that many karst lands are among the most uninhabited in the
world. Thus, they store millions of tons of carbon in forests and grassland and can
be considered as carbon sinks. In other areas, karst lands have been damaged by
overdevelopment or inappropriate agricultural practices, which could lead to reveg-
etation projects to restore carbon in forest and grassland preserves within cap and
trade carbon credit programs. In many areas of the world, there are economic
benefits to landowners who enter their lands into carbon storage programs. These
opportunities bring funds to rural areas, enhance job opportunities, and promote
ecotourism.
Much of what we know about prehistoric climate change comes to us from the
study of speleothems in caves (Polk etal. 2007). While most are familiar with the
results of the analysis of ice cores and ocean sediment used to decipher past
climates, many are unfamiliar with the use of cave deposits. In fact, speleothem
records have been used around the world to accurately date climates within dis-
tinct geographic settings. Speleothems are analyzed to ascertain particular tem-
perature and moisture conditions. Because the speleothem layers can be dated,
the temperature and moisture variables can be charted with time to produce
detailed charts. Climate records using speleothems demonstrate that there is
remarkable climatic variability that studies using other techniques have not been
able to demonstrate.
16.4Discussion and Conclusions
Karst lands have tremendous potential to be part of the solutions to many of the
global environmental problems we face. The new sustainability movement, with
its focus on benchmarking and assessment, leads organizations into a new way of
thinking about resource use to preserve environmental, economic, and social
systems into the future. Within this context, there is great interest in karst lands
since they are so crucial to water and carbon cycles, and because they contain an
abundance of traditional energy sources and are emerging as major biofuel pro-
duction regions. In addition, many karst lands are considered poor for agricultural
uses and are under consideration for reforestation or have already been converted
into forest lands after the failure of agriculture in the nineteenth and twentieth
centuries (Hart 2010).
Efforts have already been underway to understand the implications of karst
regions from an environmental perspective. For example, van Beynen and Townsend
have examined how to classify the disturbance of karst lands by looking at a variety
of factors associated with environmental degradation of karst including pollution,
cave destruction, and development (van Beynen and Townsend 2005). The index
can be modified for sustainability measurements in a way that could allow regional
assessment of karst sustainability. Such a karst sustainability metric would be useful
for planning purposes.
One of the more troubling aspects about karst landscapes is the fact that many of
them are located in areas where poor environmental management in the past caused
modern sustainability problems and associated environmental justice issues. For
example, many Caribbean Islands have significant saltwater intrusion problems and
must import water by container ship for tourists while locals must harvest rainwater.
In these locations, there are many social justice issues that are compounded by the
nature of the modern globalized world.
Perhaps one of the more interesting ideas associated with karst and sustainability
is in the area of greenhouse gas management. Karst systems are intimately involved
with the global carbon cycle and therefore can be managed to enhance carbon stor-
age within sediments or rocks. In addition, the use of deep aquifers for storage of
carbon dioxide holds significant promise for reducing the impacts of greenhouse
gases within the atmosphere.
Regardless of the specific uses of karst lands as we proceed with sustainability
enterprises on our planet, there is no doubt that the role of carbonate rocks in the
global carbon cycle will be of interest to sustainability planners for many decades.
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Chapter 17
Human Disturbance of Karst Environments
Philip E. van Beynen and Kaya M. van Beynen
Abstract Karst environments have been impacted by human activity for thousands
of years, ever since people started living in caves for shelter, needing building sup-
plies and water. As human population has increased, so has its disturbance of the
karst landscape. Quarrying, pollution, groundwater extraction, construction, and
agriculture are the major culprits for disturbing both surface and subsurface karst.
Ecosystems in this type of environment have been shown to be quite vulnerable to
human activities. Methods to quantify this disturbance, such as the karst disturbance
index, have been created to help resource managers formulate approaches to reduce
this anthropogenic impact. In addition, models to measure karst vulnerability, in
particular karst aquifers, have grown in number over the last two decades. When
measuring human disturbance, it is important to consider matters of time and scale,
as both will influence how and what data is collected.
17.1Introduction
Humans have the capacity to disturb their environment in multiple ways in order to
provide food and shelter. Karst environments are particularly vulnerable to distur-
bance due to the nature of their very creation, the dissolution of the bedrock. This
removal of carbonate rocks allows the rapid flow and substantial decrease of ground-
water filtering, sinkhole formation, and potential decimation of fragile ecosystems
P.E. van Beynen (*)

4202 E. Fowler Avenue, Tampa, FL 33620, USA
K.M. van Beynen
Nelson Poynter Memorial Library, University of South Florida, St. Petersburg, FL, USA

380 P.E. van Beynen and K.M. van Beynen
in karst waters and caves. In this section, we provide some examples of human
disturbance from different karst regions of the world and describe the various means
of measuring, monitoring, and responding to these changes. To ensure rigorous
measurement and comparability across geographies, scientists need a common set
of tools to classify karst disturbance, collect data, and interpret results.
17.2Types of Disturbance
The many types of human disturbance of karst environments are shown in Fig.17.1
(Williams 1993). The most destructive practice for surface karst is large opencast
mining. Quarrying alters the hydrology of an area by reducing spring discharge
and drawing down the water table, which can produce sinkholes. Tailing ponds that
result from silver and lead mining, common in karst areas, can introduce toxic
chemicals to the local water supply if they leak or collapse. Even landscapers
inflect small-scale damage by removing limestone pavement (Goldie 1993). The
massive extent of environmental disturbance to karst landscapes is evident in the
example of Great Britain; with its abundant limestone quarries, a total of 124 met-
ric tons of rock were removed during 1987 alone (Gunn and Bailey 1993). Mining
operations are common in karst, particularly for the zinc, lead, and silver found in
carbonate rocks. Red Dog Mine, Alaska, is the worlds largest zinc mine with an
HUMAN EFFECTS IMPACTS

ACTIVITIES ON KARSTS
ADJACENT NON-KARST KARST
TERRAIN TERRAIN
Loss of biota Impoverished ecology

Deforestation
Reduced evapotranspiration
Increased runoff and erosion Soil degradation and erosion

Agriculture
Increased sediment discharge Sedimentation in caves
Urbanisation and Industry
Acid rain
Water quality deterioration
Quarrying and mining
Waste water discharge ECOSYSTEM
DEGRADATION
Tourism and recreation Landform destruction
Rock and mineral removal
Military activities Chemical wastes
Wear and tear

Water exploitation Soil collapse
Reduced allogenic recharge
- dams (upstream) Spring desiccation
- groundwater pumping Water table lowering Sea water intrusion
- dams (downstream) Inundation Drowned karst systems
Fig.17.1 Impacts of anthropogenic activities on karst environments (Reproduced with permission,

Williams 1993)
17 Human Disturbance of Karst Environments 381
ore body of 19.5 million metric tons (Williams 2000). The worlds largest opencast
limestone quarry is Calcite Quarry in Michigan, measuring 7km by 4km. Between
7 and 10 million tons of rock have been removed annually for the last 85years
(Micketti 2004).
Large-scale disturbance can also result from valley flooding caused by reser-
voir construction. The Three Gorges Dam construction in China flooded vast
areas of karst landscape, thereby inundating caves which contained religious
shrines that were thousands of years old, as well as flooding out any troglobite
species that may have existed in these caves. This massive inundation alters the
hydraulic regime of karst systems by saturating the vadose zone, and in extreme
cases, as in the Vajont Dam in Italy (Ford and Williams 1989), it can destabilize
slopes by increasing hydraulic pressure within the bedrock. Small-scale flood-
ing and pollution occurs when sinkholes are used for storm water drainage, a
common practice (Crawford 1984; White etal. 1984; Keith etal. 1997). Flooding
caused by rice production can also be detrimental for karst, as in the Philippines
(Urich 1993).
Sinkholes are often unwanted natural features and are often filled during urban-
ization either by purposely concreting over the sinkhole during urban development
or through illegal dumping of refuse, a common practice in both urban and rural
areas (Quinlan and Ewers 1985). Unfortunately, this infilling can lead to later sub-
sidence and damage to overlying structures (Sinclair etal. 1985). Parise etal. (2004)
stated that high levels of chromium were found in rivers in Albania, the source
being pollution dumped into sinkholes.
Caves are among the most highly identifiable features of karst environments;
they are also among the most disturbed (Donahue 1990; Silverwood 2000; Veni
etal. 2001). Human impacts can range from the wholesale destruction of caves due
to limestone quarries, unintentional impacts from paths and lighting in tourist caves
that can dry out speleothems, and vandalism of speleothems or their collection for
sale as unique commodities of the underworld. Huppert et al. (1993) provide a
detailed overview of this problem.
The decline of cave biodiversity is discussed by Roth (1993). Cave lights, lint
from clothes, artificial entrances, skin flakes, dust and spores, and even alteration of
water chemistry due to seeping sewage contribute to loss of diversity. Gunn etal.
(2000) documented the impacts of quarrying, agriculture, waste disposal, ground-
water removal, and tourism on the macro-invertebrate species of the Peak-Speedwell
Cave System, England. The caves of Tasmania, Australia, have been severally
impacted by forestry activities, leading to the decline of cave species numbers,
diversity, and individual species presence (Clarke 1999).
Deforestation caused by agriculture or urban expansion causes increased sedi-
mentation rates in caves, higher turbidity in waters, changes in nutrient levels of
seepage waters, and greater flooding of conduits (Harding and Ford 1993; James
1993; Sauro 1993; Wood etal. 2002). While deforestation is often seen as a cause
for desertification in karst, Xiong et al. (2009) are among the first to imply that
anthropogenic climate change has increased rocky desertification on surface karst in
Hunan Province, China. They state that higher temperatures and heavier rainfall are
the main contributors to creating desert-like conditions by increasing soil erosion.
Changes in the water quality and quantity above the caves can upset the delicate
ecosystems that exist within the caves (Gillieson 1996; Gunn etal. 2000). Human
agricultural and industrial practices can contaminate percolating karst water with
pesticides, herbicides, volatile organic compounds, and dense nonaqueous phase liq-
uids, such as trichloroethylenes (Loop and White 2001). These and other pollutants
not only affect the cave ecosystem (Drew 1996) but also contaminate the underlying
aquifers used for human consumption (Xie etal. 2002). The overuse of karst aquifers
through pumping of groundwater leads to sinkhole generation (Tihansky 1999),
desiccation of caves (Pugsley 1984; Baker and Genty 1998; Craven 1999), loss of
species (Boulton etal. 2003), and salt water intrusion (Arfib etal. 2000). Examples
of these human disturbances can be seen in Fig. 17.2.
Fig. 17.2 Examples of human disturbance of karst landscapes in Apulia, Italy. (a) Garbage
illegally dumped into a cave, potentially contaminating groundwater and killing cave biota;
(b)tires which were illegally dumped into a sinkhole; and (c) widespread landscape alteration
during quarrying operations (Permission from Mario Parise)
Fig.17.2 (continued)
Fig.17.2 (continued)
17.3Attempts to Reduce Disturbance
Disturbance of karst environments can be prevented through the passage of

legislation, preserving fragile areas, and creating severe penalties for disturbance.
Examples of legislation protecting karst areas are Sites of Special Scientific Interest
(SSSI), which falls under the British Wildlife and Countryside Act of 1981 (Gunn
and Hardwick 1996), and the Federal Cave Resources Protection Act of 1988 in the
United States (Huppert 1995). National Parks have been created in North America
to protect significant karst systems. Some of the most famous are Mammoth Cave,
Wind Cave, and Carlsbad Caverns National Parks (USA), and Nahanni National
Park (Canada). International recognition through UNESCO and the IUCN World
Commission on Protected Areas (Watson et al. 1997) helps preservation at such
sites as Ha Long Bay (Vietnam), the stone forests of Shilin (China) and the Aggtelek
Cave and Slovak Karst region (Hungry and Slovakia). In the Caribbean, Central
America, and Southeast Asia, protection of karst regions occurs through national
parks, national forests, nature reserves, and on private property (Day and Urich
2000; Kueny and Day 1998, 2002; Day 1996; Urich et al. 2001). However, this
protection is only as effective as its enforcement, which is often weak, especially in
developing countries. An example of this issue is given in De Waele and Follesa
(2004), who discussed the case of Lusaka, Zambia. There, unrestricted population
growth with its accompanied waste production and uncontrolled dumping had led to
severe pollution of the local karst aquifer, the main drinking water supply for the
city. No efforts were made to control this problem.
Best Management Practices (BMPs) for agricultural areas, outlined by Urich

(2002), can reduce the negative impacts of soil erosion in karst areas. These include
(1) planned grazing, which involves pasture rotation and allows vegetation to recover
and (2) livestock exclusion, which keeps animals away from sinkholes and cave
entrances so that their effluent is less likely to directly flow into the subterranean
realm. Veni (1999) suggested the development of environmental impact assessments
(EIAs) for karst areas, with special attention paid to surface and epikarst areas of
infiltration and the use of buffer zones around them. Veni also suggested limiting the
amount (15%) of impervious surfaces in a karst area to help reduce impacts on
water quality.
Parise and Suarez (2005) provide a case study of a show cave in Cuba that can be
seen as a model for low-impact tourism. Efforts have been made to limit both the
number of visitors through small group sizes and restricting access to certain pas-
sages in the cave. No fixed light system has been installed in the cave, and only
wooden ladders (natural products) are used throughout the cave.
17.4Methods of Determining Actual and Potential

Impact or Vulnerability
17.4.1Karst Disturbance Index
In 2005, van Beynen and Townsend outlined a new composite method for evaluat-
ing human impacts exclusively for karst landscapes (van Beynen and Townsend
2005). The Karst Disturbance Index (KDI) used an environmental index approach
with five categories: geomorphology, hydrology, atmosphere, biota, and cultural.
Indicators were selected to measure disturbance levels for specific subsets of the
environment, while efforts to protect karst were rated through several indicators
under the cultural category. In all, 30 general indicators, consisting of comparable
data that sensitively reflect the state of a karst environment, were selected to evalu-
ate the level of disturbance (Table17.1). As karst environments are characterized by
unique properties, more indicators can be added for specific locations if needed.
However, as a general guideline, indicator data has to be inexpensive to gather, easily
reproduced across time and space, and responsive to changes in condition. Data
sources for indicator assessment consisted of field surveys, information collected in
local municipalities, Geographic Information System (GIS) databases, topographic
maps, aerial photographs, websites, and personal interviews with local cavers and
state officials. In certain locales, an extensive speleological literature already exists
and should be the initial resource for collecting karst disturbance information. The
KDI was created to allow the measurement of disturbance in a format that was
comparable over time and place.
As with other environmental indices, indicators have to be scored, which is done
either quantitatively or qualitatively depending on the indicator. Scores from 0 to 3
Table17.1 The karst disturbance index as applied to west central Florida
Category Attribute Scale Indicator 3
Geomorphology Surface landforms Macro Quarrying/mining Large open cast mines
Macro/meso Human-induced hydrologic >34% of surface karst
change hydrology altered by
flooding or flood
suppression
Meso Stormwater drainage (% of total >66%
stormwater funneled into
sinkholes )
Meso Infilling (% of infilled caves >66%
and sinkholes)
Meso Dumping (% of sinkholes >66%
affected)
Soils Macro Erosion Severe
Micro Compaction due to livestock Widespread and high
or humans levels
Subsurface karst Micro Flooding (human-induced Permanent cave
flooding due to surface inundation
alteration)
Micro Decoration removal/vandalism Widespread destruction
Micro Mineral/sediment removal Most of material removed
Micro Floor sediment compaction/ Most of floor sediment/
destruction decorations affected
Atmosphere Air quality Macro Desiccation Widespread and high
levels
Micro Human-induced condensation Widespread and high
corrosion levels
Hydrology Water quality Meso Pesticides and herbicides >34% region covered by
(surface urban development
practices) and/or horticulture
and/or golf courses
Micro Industrial and petroleum spills >5 brownfields and/or >10
or dumping toxic spills
Water quality At all scales Concentration of harmful Concentrations harmful
(springs) chemical constituents in year round
springs
Water quantity Macro Changes in water table (decline >35
in meters)
Meso Leakage from underground 7+ gas stations within
petroleum storage tanks 10km2
Micro Changes in Cave Drip Waters Total cessation
Biota Vegetation At all Scales Vegetation removal (% of total) >66%
disturbance
Subsurface biota Micro Species richness (% decline) 5075
ground Micro Population density (% decline) 5075
water
Subsurface biota Micro Species richness (% decline) 5075
caves Micro Population density (% decline) 5075
Cultural Human artifacts At all scales Destruction/removal of historical >50
artifacts (% taken)
Stewardship At all scales Regulatory protection No regulation
of karst region At all scales Enforcement of regulations Widespread destruction,
no enforcement
At all scales Public education None, public hostility
Building Macro Building of roads Major highways
infrastructure Meso Building over karst features Large cities
Micro Construction within caves Major modification
2 1 0
Small working mines Small scale pavement removal None
3410% of surface karst hydrology <10% of surface karst hydrology No alteration
altered altered
3466% 134% None
3466% 134% None
3466% 134% None
High Moderate Natural rate

Widespread but low levels Few isolated concentrated areas None
Increased intermittent flooding Increased intermittent flooding Only natural flooding due to high
& >50% infilling & <50% infilling rainfall
~50% of speleothems removed Isolated spots of removal Pristine

~50% of cave floor affected Some isolated spots Pristine
~50% of floor sediment/decorations Small trail through cave Almost pristine, mostly rock
affected surface
Widespread but low levels Isolated and very low levels Pristine
Widespread but low levels Isolated and very low levels Pristine
3410% region covered by urban <10% region covered by urban No alteration

development and/or horticulture development and/or
and/or courses horticulture and/or golf
courses
5 brownfields and/or 510 toxic spills 4 brownfields and/or5 No spills and no brownfields
nontoxic spills
Concentrations harmful for short Concentration just above Pristine water
periods background levels
15 <5 Only natural variability
36 gas stations within 10km2 <3 gas stations within 10km2 No gasoline stations
Long dry spells (not seasonal) Slight reduction No change

3466% 134% 0
2049 119 0 or increasing


2049 119 0
A few weak regulations Statutes in place but w/loopholes Region fully protected
No policing, but little damage done Some infrequent enforcement Strong enforcement
None, public indifference Attempts through NGOs Well funded govt programs
Some two lane roads Some country lanes Minor trails
Towns Small settlements No development
Tourist cave Cave trail marked Pristine
are based on the degree of disturbance: the lower the score, the lesser the disturbance.
If an indicator is not applicable to a certain study area, it can be discarded. Total
disturbance can be measured by tallying individual indicator scores and dividing
this total by the highest possible score. A value between 0 and 1 will be obtained,
corresponding to a karst disturbance level: 0.00.19 (pristine), 0.200.39 (little dis-
turbance), 0.400.59 (disturbed), 0.600.79 (highly disturbed), and 0.801.0
(severely disturbed). The strength of the index approach is that karst scientists and
other stakeholders can transparently identify how and why each indicator is rated,
while the overall state of the karst environment is refined to an easily comparable
and comprehensible category for environmental managers and policy makers.
Thus far, KDI has been applied to Florida and Italy (Cal and Parise 2006; van
Beynen etal. 2007; De Waele 2009; North etal. 2009) and to Jamaica (see follow-
ing Chapter by Michael Day). Human impact for the Italian study area has occurred
for thousands of years compared to shorter time spans in Florida. Nevertheless, the
higher population density of Floridas western countries produced disturbance lev-
els of those reached in Italy. The most destructive practices in Southeast Italy karst
were quarrying, stone clearing, and garbage dumping into caves. In contrast,
Florida karst experienced infilling of sinkholes, soil compaction, water table
changes, and deforestation. For resource managers and policy makers, the main
reasons for applying the index were to: (1) establish a benchmark of human distur-
bance for a region that, with future applications of the KDI, would enable land
managers to determine whether the quality of the environment is improving or
declining and (2) to target limited remediation funds to the indicators that received
the highest disturbance scores.
17.4.2Other Methods to Measure Karst Disturbance
A more focused technique for determining human impacts on caves was developed
by Lavoie and Northup (2005), who identified bacteria introduced by humans trav-
eling through caves as a means of quantifying the level of human-cave interaction.
Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, and high temperature Baillus, introduced
by humans, are not naturally present in karst regions and can have substantial
impact on the subterranean environment. These bacteria are introduced to the envi-
ronment through human excrement found in camps, urine dumps, drinking water
sites, and along travel routes. These bacteria are brought into the cave from the
surface and will die if no more are introduced over time. However, it was not clear
whether the presence of these bacteria is harmful to the endemic cave biota in any
way, and as such, the quantities of bacteria simply gauge whether a cave is exposed
to human activities.
Previous efforts had tried to highlight disturbed karst areas, but these were based
more on which areas had the strongest advocates who could draw attention to their
region rather than an approach based on a systematic scientific method using data
looking at the whole karst environment. In particular, the Karst Waters Institute
previously published the top ten disturbed karst regions of the world, but these sites
were selected mostly on cave biota or surface disturbances, with little regard to
investigating the entire spectrum of human disturbance.
17.5Karst Groundwater Vulnerability
Karst aquifers are resources of growing importance throughout the world.

Approximately 25% of the worlds population gets its water from these aquifers,
particularly vast regions in Asia, the Mediterranean, and the United States (Ford and
Williams 2007). With an increased demand for water from growing populations,
these aquifers will experience more stress from withdrawals. The accompanying
urban and industrial expansion that eventuates from more people increases risk of
groundwater contamination from chemical spills, dumping, and landscaping. Karst
aquifers are particularly vulnerable to such risk because of the infiltration of water
through the epikarst or sinkholes, which often provide direct connections between
the surface and aquifer.
When defining karst aquifer vulnerability, it can be viewed as either intrinsic or
specific. Intrinsic vulnerability is governed by the physical characteristics of the karst
setting that influence the degree of vulnerability to the aquifer. These include soil
characteristics (infiltration rates and thickness), epikarst intensity, sinkhole density,
and hydraulic conductivity (characteristics of the karst plumbing). Consequently,
these physical parameters determine the potential for vulnerability, whereas specific
vulnerability adds the human element, taking the above parameters and adding lan-
duse, thereby incorporating actual anthropogenic threats (Leibundgut 1998). One of
the most concerted efforts to define karst groundwater vulnerability was undertaken
by the European Coordination Program, in which 16 countries took part in a 5-year
study (COST-Action 65 1995).
This vulnerability of all aquifers to groundwater contamination has been recon-
structed and led to the creation of groundwater vulnerability models (GVMs)
whose aim is to quantify an aquifers level of vulnerability to human-induced con-
tamination. Probably the most widely used is DRASTIC, a generic model that
incorporates various physical components of both aquifer and overlying substrate
(Aller etal. 1985). More recently, researchers in Europe have attempted to create
their own GVMs that include GOD (Foster 1987), AVI (van Stempvoort et al.
1993), EPIK (Doerfliger etal. 1999) and PI (Goldscheider etal. 2000). The Florida
Department of Environmental Protection (DEP) commissioned a new model
(FAVA) that measures vulnerability specific to the three aquifers in Florida (Arthur
etal. 2007). Most recently, Guo etal. (2007) adapted DRASTIC to create another
model (DRARCH) to assess for arsenic contamination for a Chinese aquifer. All of
these models have two common threads: they concentrate on the physical param-
eters of the hydrologeological setting of their region and are based on GIS.
EPIK (Doerfliger etal. 1999) is one of the more well-accepted GVMs specifi-
cally designed for karst aquifers and deserves elaboration. Four GIS-based layers of
Table17.2 Scoring of the layers for EPIK

Layer Characteristic Score
Epikarst (E) Highly developed 1
Moderately developed 2
Small or absent 3
Protective cover (P) 020cm soil 1
20100cm 2
100200cm 3
>200cm 4
Infiltration conditions (I) Perennial or temporarily losing streams 1
I1 with slope >10% cultivated and 25% meadows 2
I1 with slope >10% cultivated and 25% meadows 3
Rest of catchment 4
Karst network development (K) Well-developed karst network 1
Poorly developed karst 2
Springs emerging from porous terrain 3
epikarst (E), protective cover (P), infiltration conditions (I), and karst network
development (K) are used to measure vulnerability, with each layer being scored
accord to characteristic seen in Table17.2. EPIK is a point count system model and
its four attributes (layers) are weighted: Fp=a x Ei+b x Pj+g x Ik+d x Kl with
a=3, b=1, g=3, and d=2. The total score is termed aquifer protection (Fp), with
higher values equating to lower vulnerability as shown below:
Vulnerability areas Protection factor F

Very high F less than or equal to 19
High F between 2025
Moderate F higher than 25
Low Presence of P4
Ravbar and Goldscheider (2009) investigated four different intrinsic vulnerability

models for a karst catchment in Slovenia. These models included EPIK, PI, the
Simplified Method, and the Slovene Approach. The purpose of their study was to
delineate protection zones for the karst aquifer in this study region. Above, we have
already outlined EPIK, therefore, what follows is a brief overview of each of the
other methods. Goldscheider etal. (2000) developed PI, which incorporates protec-
tive layers above the saturated zone (P) and I stands for infiltration conditions.
The Simplified Method (Nguyet and Goldscheider 2006), as the name suggests,
simplifies the PI model by only measuring overlying layers and concentration of
flow. Finally, the Slovene Approach is the most sophisticated method of all the
models, incorporating nine parameters for measuring the karst unsaturated zone, six
for recharge conditions and three for the karst saturated zone, as well as including
measures of resource vulnerability and source vulnerability.
The application of these four models is shown in Fig.17.3, and while there are
certain similarities between the methods, some clear differences exist as well. Both
a b
Legend:
Podstenjek
Podstenjek springs
Podstenjek
springs springs stream
road
EMBIJE EMBIJE Vulnerability

Extreme
High
Medium
EPIK PI Low
c d
0 1 km
Podstenjek Podstenjek
springs springs
EMBIJE EMBIJE
Cartograpy:
Simplified Method Slovene Approach N, Ravbar.
Fig.17.3 Comparison of various vulnerability models as applied to a Slovene karst catchment

(Reproduced with permission, source: Ravbar and Goldscheider 2009)
EPIK and the Simplified Model show greater vulnerability compared to the other
two methods. Nguyet and Goldscheider (2006) suggest this is because of differ-
ences in how all the various models treat temporal hydrologic variations. These
authors validated each of the models using a multi-tracer dye test. The Slovene
Approach provided the most reliable results as derived from the validation test.
However, its greater number of parameters may also limit its adoption due to lack of
necessary input data and the limited resources of water resource agencies.
17.6Data, Time, and Scale
17.6.1Data Availability
One main challenge facing any researcher investigating karst disturbance is the lack
of data pertaining to human impact. Quantitative studies of biota of the surface and
subsurface karst are extremely limited though researchers around the world are
attempting to fill this void. It has been recognized that karst ecosystems are highly
vulnerable to human disturbance, yet these effects have received little study (Wood
etal. 2008). For example, Whitten (2009) found that, in China, very few environ-
mental assessments undertaken before construction projects in karst areas investi-
gate cave fauna. Consequently, it is unknown what effects such projects may have
or have had on cave fauna.
Four main obstacles have lead to this issue: public ignorance, too few biospel-
eologists, difficulty of collecting data, and the massive number of caves around the
world. Firstly, the general public, even those who live on limestone and get their
drinking water from karst aquifers, have little idea of the fragile ecosystems below
their feet and what effects dumping of trash, petrochemicals, and fertilizers have on
them. As Wood etal. (2002) state, out of sight, out of mind. Secondly, the total
number of scientists who study karst are not large compared to other disciplines,
and biospeleology is a subset of that small group. Consequently, relatively few biol-
ogists are trained or have interests in cave fauna, even though caves are considered
a biodiversity hotspot (Whitten 2009). This then limits the number of studies done
on karst biota, leading to a lack of knowledge of species assemblages. Another
obstacle is the subterranean environment itself, with many caves being small, diffi-
cult to enter and navigate. Surveys of the biota within these systems can be inaccu-
rate as often the cave organisms can venture places people cannot. Finally, the sheer
number of caves around the world, many with endemic species, makes comprehen-
sive datasets difficult.
Inaccurate or incomplete monitoring of human activities in karst environments
can also make measuring human disturbance problematic. For example, develop-
ers may face the dilemma of reporting a cave and potentially holding up their
construction projects or simply filling it without notifying the proper authorities.
In many places, builders are not even required to notify the infilling of sinkholes
or caves, thereby inhibiting land managers from gaining a comprehensive under-
standing of how the landscape has changed. Development on karst areas can con-
tinue with proper oversight to limit the disturbance. Solutions to encountering
caves could be creating setbacks to protect the cave catchment or by moving
roads and buildings. The lack of reporting of chemical spills or even purposeful
dumping is probably the most common problem in determining the true extent of
human disturbance of karst groundwater. Companies or individuals can face fines
for spills or costs of correct disposal and often illegal dumping is a cheaper solu-
tion. A major corporation in Tampa, Florida, dumped methylene chloride, trichlo-
roethene and lead into the karst groundwater for a decade before its activities were
discovered in the 1980s (Business Wire 2005). In the developed world, environ-
mental protection agencies have been created to prevent this from occurring, but
in the developing world, with their lack of resources, these agencies either do not
exist or are ineffective.
A fundamental shortcoming when determining possible disturbance is the lack of
knowledge about the physical parameters of the karst landscape itself. Examples of
this problem include definitive boundaries for karst, directions and velocity of water
flows, the areal extent and depth of karst aquifers and even the location of caves.
Accurate knowledge of these parameters helps determine if certain human activities
even have the potential for disturbance based on location or whether a particular
chemical spill has a major or minor effect on groundwater. For example, the extent
of the PCB spill site in Smithville, Ontario, was not determined until well after the
event due to the lack of knowledge of where and how quickly the contaminants
flowed through the landscape (Worthington 1999).
Data voids can also apply to records kept by municipalities with regard to activities
that create disturbance. These data voids could include the number and locations of
mining and logging operations or the infilling of sinkholes. Other governmental
information that may be lacking is the effectiveness of legislation for controlling
potential harmful pursuits or the results of public education efforts to curb distur-
bance. For example, in Belize, illegal logging is common in karst terrane, yet there
are no official records of where or how widespread this practice may be (Reeder,
2006 personal communication).
17.6.2Matters of Time and Scale
When investigating disturbance, one must consider both temporal and spatial matters.
Temporal matters involve how the quality of the environment has changed over time.
Questions to be considered are:
1 . What was the pristine state of the karst environment?
2. When did the disturbance start?
3. Can you clearly delineate between natural vs. anthropogenic change?
4. Has there been a steady degradation over time or has the situation improved?
5. Does the natural system recover over time or is it permanently altered?
The first question can be problematic as some regions of the world have been
disturbed for thousands of years, as in the case of Europe and Asia. In these situa-
tions, the environment can be so altered that it is impossible to determine what is
pristine. To complicate matters, people may want to preserve the altered environ-
ment, such as in the case of Mayan burial sites or cave structures (walls, pots,
shrines) in Central America. The third question can be difficult to answer, especially
pertaining to water levels in aquifers, erosion rates, percolation rates of seepage
waters into caves or changing cavern microclimates. One must recognize that all
natural systems undergo natural shifts in their state.
The matter of degradation raised in question four is significant because as Wood
etal. (2008) discovered, certain species recovered within 12months in a British cave
after an organic spill above the cavern, whereas other species did not. In fact, some
species were not affected at all, while other species appeared that were absent prior
to the event. Only investigations across a decade could reveal such changes (Wood
etal. 2002; Wood etal. 2008), which touches on the issue raised in question five.
Matters of scale come into consideration when trying to measure impacts rang-
ing from groundwater pollution to damage in individual caves. Scale was discussed
in detail in van Beynen and Townsend (2005) and North et al. (2009), with the
former incorporating it into the KDI and the latter suggesting scale may be used as
a weighting mechanism for scoring of disturbance indicators when applying the
KDI. However, they ultimately decided against this option as the interconnected-
ness of karst systems defeated the idea of one parameter being more important than
another. For example, as with the above example, groundwater pollution can be
deemed a macro-scale disturbance, while a loss of biodiversity in one small cave

may be deemed micro-scale. However, the pollution may have lead to the loss of the
cave biota, thereby highlighting the unity of scales in karst for certain parameters of
disturbance.
17.7Conclusions
The above discussion has highlighted how humans can affect karst systems and
methods designed to measure their disturbance and vulnerability. Determining
environmental disturbance and vulnerability provides necessary data for policy
decision makers and planners to allow them to make comparisons of the state of
their environment across time and space, and generate environmental quality esti-
mates (Esty etal. 2005; Ebert and Welsch 2004). We stress the need for such an
approach for karst settings. Systematic monitoring of karst environmental quality
is required to allow this approach to occur. An overarching question is: How can
people respond to this disturbance? There are models that have been created to
help resource managers deal with such matters at broad scales. For example, envi-
ronmental researchers and managers have created response models such as the
Pressure-State-Response (PSR) framework used by the OECD and the Driving
Force State Response (DFSR) used by the UN Commission in Sustainable
Development; however, these are for nations as a whole and do not consider speci-
ficity of landscape type. There are no response models that specifically target karst
environments: one approach that could be used.
One final point of consideration is how to best communicate this scientific infor-
mation about disturbance and vulnerability to land managers, the general public,
and decision makers to create informed land management decisions and adequately
protect, remediate, and conserve fragile karst environments. Such a matter is not
trivial and would require a concerned effort between interested parties to create
clear communication linkages to dessimate relevant information via press releases,
workshops, public hearings, and information sessions.
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Chapter 18
The Cockpit Country, Jamaica: Boundary
Issues in Assessing Disturbance and Using
a Karst Disturbance Index in Protected
Areas Planning
Michael Day, Alan Halfen, and Sean Chenoweth
Abstract The Cockpit Country is Jamaicas only remaining pristine karst area and is
perhaps the most significant karst landscape in the Caribbean. It may be a candidate for
UN World Heritage status but its boundaries are contentious. The Karst Disturbance
Index (KDI) is an important tool for karst conservation, providing an objective numeri-
cal measure of the extent to which karst landscapes have been disrupted by human
activities. Its application is, however, constrained by issues of boundary determination
and location, and the Cockpit Country exemplifies this phenomenon when different
boundaries are determined on geomorphic, historical, existing, and proposed manage-
ment criteria. Analysis of land use data from 1998, together with extensive field surveys,
reveals that the measure of the extent of human disturbance is closely related to the
positioning of the boundary, with the incremental inclusion of peripheral areas beyond
the core forest reserve resulting in a dramatic increase in the disturbance index. Not only
is this a methodological concern in using the KDI, but it also illustrates how the KDI
may be useful in planning and establishing potential protected area boundaries.
18.1Introduction
The Cockpit Country of Jamaica is the iconic type example of polygonal cockpit
karst, and it has been the subject of considerable academic and applied research. It
plays a significant role in the regional hydrology of Jamaicas north-central region,
M. Day (*)
Department of Geography, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, PO Box413, Milwaukee,
WI 53201, USA
A. Halfen
Department of Geography, University of Kansas, 1475 Jayhawk Blvd, Lawrence,
KS 66045-7613, USA
S. Chenoweth
Department of Geosciences, University of Louisiana, 324 Hanna Hall, Monroe, LA 71209, USA

400 M. Day et al.
and it has great biological significance, together with a deep cultural meaning to
Jamaica. Since 1950, it has been partially protected as a forest reserve, but it is
under increasing pressure from peripheral populations and from various unsustain-
able land use designs. Additionally, its integrity is challenged by the impacts of
anthropogenic climate change, which threaten significant changes in the geomor-
phological environment.
Mitigation of these various threats is central to future conservation of the Cockpit
Country, which is Jamaicas only remaining pristine karst area and perhaps the most
significant karst area in the Caribbean. It may also be a viable candidate for UN
World Heritage status if its future status can be guaranteed. This will not be without
difficulty, however, because the development of an appropriate management strat-
egy mandates careful consideration of both physical and human dimensions of the
Cockpit Country landscape, including social, political, and economic considerations
of the area that should be protected.
The precise extent of the Cockpit Country has never been definitively estab-
lished, which further renders efforts to conserve it difficult. Four alternative bound-
ary demarcations are currently available, encompassing an area between 228 and
1,142 km2. The most compact area is the existing forest reserve, whereas the most
extensive is that proposed by those favoring greater protection as a national park and
World Heritage site.
The KDI developed by Van Beynen and Townsend (2005) is an important weapon
in the arsenal of karst conservationists, since it provides an objective numerical
measure of the extent to which karst landscapes have been disrupted by human
activities. Its application is, however, constrained by issues of boundary determina-
tion and location, and the Cockpit Country exemplifies this phenomenon. Analysis
of land use data from 1998, together with extensive field surveys, reveals that the
measure of the extent of human disturbance is closely related to the positioning of
the boundary, with the incremental inclusion of peripheral areas resulting in a dra-
matic increase in the disturbance index. Not only is this a methodological concern
in using the KDI, but it also illustrates how the KDI may be useful in planning and
establishing potential protected area boundaries.
18.2The Cockpit Country Karst
18.2.1Physical Dimensions
The Cockpit Country is the type example of what Ford and Williams (2007)
describe as the egg-box style of humid tropical polygonal karst (Day and Chenoweth
2004). Centered on Trelawny Parish (Fig.18.1), the Cockpit Country covers about
600 km2, although its precise limits remain under discussion (Lyew-Ayee 2005). The
cockpits are steep-sided, more or less enclosed karst depressions, some over 100m
deep and 1km in diameter, surrounded by residual hills or ridges, and are so named
because they resemble the arenas formerly used for cock fighting (Sweeting 1958).
18 The Cockpit Country, Jamaica: Boundary Issues in Assessing Disturbance... 401
Fig.18.1 Location of the Cockpit Country (courtesy Windsor Research Centre)
The residual hills and ridges are serrated by elevated saddles, and many cockpits are
connected to one or more of their neighbors by a lower corridor (Chenoweth 2003;
Chenoweth and Day 2001). Some cockpits are elongated, reflecting structural influ-
ences or inheritance from abandoned surface drainage systems (Day 2002). The
residual hills are rarely conical or isolated; rather they are linked at their bases as
irregular ridge remnants, and it is the enclosed depressions, rather than the hills,
which are the focus of geomorphic activity (Day 1979).
Cockpit slopes and the surrounding hilltops and ridges are highly irregular, with
patchy clay soil cover. Slopes consist of combinations of vertical cliffs, inclined
bedrock surfaces, staircases, or talus accumulations (Aub 1969a, b). By contrast,
the depression bases often have a deep regolith cover, and some contain relict, debris-
choked vertical shafts (Smith etal. 1972). Internal drainage is centripetal, although
dominantly vertical (Day 1979). Regional drainage is largely autogenic and north-
ward, although there are allogenic inputs on the southern boundary (Versey 1972).
On the northern periphery, underground drainage emerges at a series of springs,
which supply rivers draining to the north coast (Day 1985).
The Cockpit Country is developed primarily in Eocene carbonates of the White
Limestone Formation, although some of the south is formed by older rocks of the
Yellow Limestone group. The White Limestones are generally extremely pure,
mechanically competent, and well bedded, with blocks of strata dipping towards the
402 M. Day et al.
NNW and separated by NW-SE and NE-SW trending faults (Barker and Miller
1995; Miller 1998). The oldest formation, the Troy-Claremont, is ~300m in thick-
ness and is generally unfossiliferous, recrystallized, and dolomitized, except where
the Claremont itself is a fossilferous biomicritic limestone. The Swanswick
Formation, in the northern part of the Cockpit Country is a rubbly, fossiliferous
biosparite up to 100 m in thickness. There continues to be uncertainty about the
origin of the bauxite deposits that occur in the vicinity of the Cockpit Country,
although the most plausible explanation is that they are derived from Miocene ben-
tonitic clays of volcanic origin (Comer 1974).
The Cockpit Country is important ecologically both nationally and in a Caribbean
context (World Wildlife Fund 2003). The vegetation includes a range from wet to
dry limestone forest in which there is considerably floristic diversity and an extraor-
dinary number of endemic species (Proctor 1986; Kelly etal. 1988; World Wildlife
Fund 2003). The fauna includes threatened bats, snakes, frogs, and all but one of
Jamaicas 28 endemic bird species (TNC 2003).
18.2.2Historical and Cultural Dimensions
The Cockpit Country has considerable national historical and cultural value in
Jamaica, particularly as a stronghold of Maroon resistance to British occupation
during the eighteenth century (Eyre 1980; Day 2004a). Maroon resistance repre-
sents an important aspect of Jamaican national consciousness, and in this sense, the
Cockpit Country, with its attendant military history, folklore, and vestigial place
names (Look Behind, Me No Sen, You No Come, Dont Come Back, Flagstaff, Gun
Hill), has a cultural significance which has not been adequately appreciated in the
context of potential conservation.
The Maroon Wars ended with the duplicitous Pond River Treaty of 1796, of
which the British took subsequent advantage to seize Maroon lands and transport
Maroon leaders and their followers (Black 1965; Robinson 1969). Treaties gave the
Maroons a degree of autonomy that they have maintained ever since, although
Maroon land claims have never been resolved satisfactorily, and they remain a
source of contention between the present-day Maroons and the Jamaican govern-
ment (Ward 1990). Uncertainty of land tenure remains an issue throughout the
Cockpit Country (Barker and Miller 1995).
18.3Anthropogenic Challenges
18.3.1Human Impacts
Both rational use and despoliation of the Cockpit Country have, to date, been lim-
ited by the restricted access, by the rugged terrane itself and by the lack of surface
water. During colonial times, slaves were permitted to grow crops in marginal areas
adjacent to plantations, and this legacy has persisted on the margins of the Cockpit
Country. In particular, the flatter areas on hilltops or within cockpits are used for the
cultivation of yams, with more extensive flat areas being used for bananas, selected
tree crops, and the grazing of livestock. Less accessible areas are used for marijuana
cultivation. Increasing conservation and management concerns include agricultural
encroachment, particularly around peripheral population centers such as Troy
(Miller 1998), tourism, species extinction or introduction, increasing utilization and
contamination of water resources, and urbanization and industrial activities, includ-
ing limestone quarrying and bauxite mining (Day 2007). The severity of these
impacts can best be reduced by appropriate land management and land use plan-
ning, including the effective maintenance of the Cockpit Country as a protected area
(Day 2004b, 2006, 2009).
The Cockpit Country is also threatened by predicted anthropogenic climatic
change, which will lead to increasing temperatures, decreasing precipitation totals,
and the increasing frequency of extreme events, such as droughts and hurricanes.
These will disrupt the karst hydrological cycle, resulting generally in increased
aridity and possible desertification, but interspersed with storm damage and flood-
ing, with concomitant impacts on geomorphic processes and ecology (Day and
Chenoweth 2009).
18.3.2Conservation Issues
Since 1950, much of the Cockpit Country has been designated as a 223 km2 forest
reserve, although there has been little enforcement of conservation directives. The
immediate vicinity has a population of some 10,000 people and is exploited for
bauxite mining and agriculture (Barker and Miller 1995). Less than 6% of Jamaican
forests remain intact, and deforestation rates nationally are among the worlds highest
(World Wildlife Fund 2003).
In the forest reserve, illegal logging, farming, hunting, and trapping for the pet
trade are particular problems (Miller 1998) and local deforestation has been esti-
mated at about 3% annually (Eyre 1989). Despite these threats, the area is recog-
nized as a critical area for plant diversity and endemism (Davis et al. 1997). As
such, the Cockpit Country has been proposed as a U.N. Natural World Heritage site
(Eyre 1995), and there are currently plans to inscribe it as a national park (Chenoweth
etal. 2001; Day 2004b).
Less than 550 km2 of Jamaicas 7,500 km2 karst lands, or about 7%, is conserved
within six protected areas (Kueny and Day 1998). The Cockpit Country is the largest
and most significant of these. In the Caribbean context, the Cockpit Country remains
perhaps the most significant karst landscape to be spared from exploitation and
degradation. Jamaicas Country Environmental Profile (Field and Troy 1987) iden-
tified considerable threats to national long-term ecological sustainability and pro-
moted the establishment of the Natural Resources Conservation Authority in 1991
and the initiation of the USAID Protected Area Resource Conservation (PARC) project
in 1990 to create a sustainable national protected areas system (McDonald 1996).
404 M. Day et al.
The proposed Cockpit Country National Park is one component of the PARK Project
and was recommended as a protected area by the Jamaica Conservation and
Development Trust in 1992 (JCDT 1992).
Preliminary funding for a Cockpit Country conservation project, potentially
involving establishment of a national park, was obtained by the Jamaican gov-
ernment from the World Bank in 1999, and this rekindled controversy over the
areas future status and use. Awareness of the need for conservation was also
elevated by a controversial government plan, now modified, to route a new high-
way (Highway 2000, from Kingston to Montego Bay) through the area. Opposition
to this project from environmental groups and the Maroon community resulted in
a proposed rerouting of the road around the Cockpit Country, but the issue of
potentially improved access remains contentious. Stakeholder reaction to the
national park proposals has been very mixed (Day 2004b, 2006). International
reaction has been generally positive and international NGOs such as the Nature
Conservancy have taken leading roles in advocacy and in developing conserva-
tion strategies (TNC 2003). National conservation organizations have been sup-
portive of the national park proposal, but the attitude of local residents has been
ambivalent, with support but also reluctance, suspicion, and opposition, the latter
from those involved in illicit activities (Day 2004b, 2006). There is uncertainty
about potential benefits and detriments and how these will impact local individu-
als and organizations.
Opposition derives primarily from business concerns, especially the logging,
quarrying, and bauxite mining industries, which object to the likely proscription of
their economic activities. Bauxite mining, associated largely with North American
conglomerates, is Jamaicas second largest industry, accounting for about 20% of
GNP. Major bauxite reserves are located within the Cockpit Country, but their
extraction is patently incompatible with the national parks conservation impera-
tives (National Environment and Planning Agency 2003). Competing claims for
economic development come from other commercial sectors that hope to benefit
from the park establishment. Finally, but crucially, the attitude of the national gov-
ernment appears equivocal, with various agencies voicing differing degrees of cau-
tion and support for the national park proposal. These agency alignments generally
reflect their areas of responsibility, e.g., the National Resources Conservation
Authority lists declaration of a Cockpit Country protected area in its Environmental
Strategy, while the Forestry Department endorses protection of existing forest
reserves in its 2001 Forest Policy (Forestry Department 2001).
18.4Boundary Definitions
The precise extent of the Cockpit Country has never been established definitively,
which makes its demarcation and its conservation that much more difficult.
Establishing and recognizing boundaries are critical elements in effective protected
area management (Chape etal. 2008; Hanna etal. 2008).
Fig.18.2 Cockpit Country boundaries (scale 1:600,000)
Four alternative Cockpit Country boundary demarcations are currently available

(Fig.18.2), each based on differing criteria, hatched in different times, and couched
in different frames of reference. Each has its rationale, but each also has its
limitations.
The existing forest reserve boundary dates to 1950 and is a colonial legacy
reflecting a long-term commitment to forest management for watershed protection
and sustained economic timber viability (JFD 2010). The forest reserve boundary is
the most conservative of the four, encompassing an area of 288 km2, but it is cur-
rently the only boundary associated with any level of land use regulations (Chenoweth
etal. 2001; Day 2004b, 2006). Its management is under the auspices of the Jamaica
Forestry Department, which legislates for conservation and sustainable manage-
ment of forests (JFD 2010), although enforcement of the regulations is sporadic
(Day 2004b, 2006).
The second boundary definition is a geomorphological one, which demarcates
the contiguous area of cockpit karst and distinguishes it from adjacent areas of
doline and tower karst. This boundary dates to the 1950s and is based on the regional
geomorphological work of Marjorie Sweeting (1958), who undertook some of the
first detailed studies of the cockpit karst. This boundary encompasses 415 km2 and
406 M. Day et al.
is the most rational from a strictly geomorphic perspective, since it essentially

excludes noncockpit karst. Although the precise location of the geomorphological
boundary has recently been challenged by Lyew-Ayee (2005), the general location
of his geomorphic boundary is broadly similar, extending somewhat to the north-
west and more to the southeast. The modified geomorphological boundary (Lyew-
Ayee, dated 2005 but not actually published until 2009) was not available to us
when this research was undertaken.
The third feasible boundary definition is essentially an historical one, dating
originally to the time of the Marroon Wars in the 1700s, when British colonial
military forces established a cordon sanitaire around the cockpit topography that
was occupied by rebellious combatants. This historical boundary was subse-
quently reinforced by the construction and maintenance of a so-called Ring
Road, which still persists essentially intact today. This Ring Road boundary
encompasses 618 km2.
The fourth and most recently proposed boundary was suggested in the early
2000s by conservation groups hoping to bring about a negotiated decision about the
future conservation status of the Cockpit Country, in particular its possible inscrip-
tion as a national park, with a view to future designation as a World Heritage site
(Day 2004b, 2006). This boundary, referred to here as the JET/CCSG boundary,
after the Jamaican Environmental Trust and the Cockpit Country Study Group, is
the most liberal, encompassing 1,142 km2.
18.5The Disturbance Index
A KDI was first proposed by Van Beynen and Townsend (2005) as an objective
numerical procedure for assessing human disruption of karst landscapes. The index
has subsequently been modified from its original format and has been tested and
employed in several regional studies (Calo and Parise 2006; Van Beynen etal. 2006;
North etal. 2008; De Waele 2009; Parise etal. 2009), although none of these studies
has explicitly examined the influence of boundary determinations and none of them
has focused on the potential use of the KDI in planning and establishing protected
area boundaries.
The index involves five primary disturbance indicators: geomorphic, atmo-
spheric, hydrologic, biotic, and cultural, under which were initially subsumed 31
subindicators (Van Beynen and Townsend 2005). Each subindicator has a possible
numerical range from 0 (no disturbance) to 3 (highly disturbed).
The KDI is computed by dividing the subindicator sum by the total sum possible,
and overall KDI scores are interpreted as follows:
0.00.19 Pristine
0.200.39 Little disturbed
0.400.59 Disturbed
0.600.79 Highly disturbed
0.801.0 Severely disturbed
A confidence level is determined by: nSI/LD/100, where nSI is the number of

subindicators and LD is the number of subindicators for which data is unavailable.
A confidence level of <0.1 is high, whereas one >0.4 is low.
18.6Testing the Disturbance Index in Relation

to Cockpit Country Boundaries
The KDI was tested in the Cockpit Country utilizing the four alternative boundaries
represented as shape files in ARCGIS. The primary data source was the 1:100,000
1998 land use database and map compiled by the Jamaica Forestry Department
(JFD 2009) (A 2007 land use database is forthcoming but is not yet available). The
land use map indicates land use types based on forest vegetation cover (JFD 2010),
and these provide an initial assessment of disturbance. For example, Closed Forest
(Code PF) represents pristine undisturbed forest, with other codes representing
greater degrees of human influence (JFD 2009).
The 1998 database and map were supplemented by literature review and by
extensive field surveys conducted by UW-Milwaukee personnel in 2003, 2005, and
2007. Literature review was conducted to identify prefieldwork cases and locations
of specific disturbances such as forest clearance, water contamination, air pollution
and construction, and to make general assessment of broad factors such as general
air quality and biological integrity. Field survey on foot and by vehicle was utilized
to ground-truth the overall land use/disturbance derived from the JFD database
and to gather supplemental data about features and activities that are not readily
apparent from the land use map. Land use categories identified in the initial data-
base were broadly confirmed qualitatively and were not modified, but specific dis-
turbances such as pits and quarries, evident soil erosion, livestock grazing, new
construction, and crop cultivation were quantified and incorporated relatively into
the subindicator enumeration. Field survey covered ~1% of the forest reserve, much
of which is essentially inaccessible, and perhaps 5% of the area within the geomor-
phological boundary, which is accessible by track and road. Approximately 50% of
obvious and passable roads within the Ring Road boundary were used, and about
20% of roads within the JET/CCSG boundary. As such, the determinations of the
subindicators and the resultant KDIs are based essentially on the JFD database, with
the field data being supplementary, incomplete, and relative.
Thirty-one subindicators were employed in the KDI assessment, with data lack-
ing only for five subindicators (decline in water table, subsurface cave and ground-
water declines in species richness and population density). The calculated disturbance
indices were as follows:
Forest Reserve Boundary: 0.13 (pristine)

Geomorphological Boundary: 0.24 (little disturbed)
Historical Ring Road Boundary: 0.44 (disturbed)
JET/CCSG Boundary: 0.61 (highly disturbed)
408 M. Day et al.
Fig.18.3 Disturbance within forest reserve boundary
The differing levels of disturbance are shown in Figs.18.318.6, which show

clearly the increasing incorporation of disturbed areas as the boundary is extended
outwards from the forest reserve. In the relative context of the KDI, pristine areas
are shown in dark green, little disturbed areas in light green and yellow, disturbed
areas in pink and red, highly disturbed areas in maroon and brown, and severely
disturbed areas in purple.
The computed confidence level was high, at 0.052, reflecting the combination of
a high-resolution satellite-based land use database together with supplementary
field surveys. The main factors accounting for KDI differences within the four
boundaries were quarrying/mining (02), mineral removal (13), forest fragmenta-
tion (13), introduction of exotic species (02), existence of regulatory protection
(13) and enforcement of regulations (13).
The resulting disturbance indices for the areas encompassed within the four dif-
ferent boundaries clearly were not only significantly different from a conservation
perspective, but also a regression between the areas within the different boundaries
and the level of at least moderate disturbance within those boundaries yields an R2
value of 0.9867 (Fig.18.7), emphasizing the critical role of the boundary selections.
Likewise, a chi-square analysis of the subindicator value frequency distribution
(Table18.1) results in a chi-squared value of 52.774 with 15 of freedom and an
extremely statistically significant two-tailed p value of less than 0.0001.
Fig.18.4 Disturbance within geomorphological boundary
Fig.18.5 Disturbance within ring road boundary

410 M. Day et al.
Fig.18.6 Disturbance within JET/CCSG proposed boundary
Fig. 18.7 Regression between selected Cockpit Country area and amount of at least moderate
disturbance
Table18.1 Frequency distribution of sub-indicator values

Selected boundary
Sub-indicator value frequency FR GB RR SG
0 16 10 5 4
1 15 13 15 10
2 0 6 7 10
3 0 2 4 7
18.7Conclusions
An agreed demarcation of the Cockpit Country is an essential precursor to its

effective management as a protected area and to its potential future status as a
national park and World Heritage site. Each of the four potential boundaries is based
on legitimate criteria, but each demarcates a differing area of landscape which has
been disturbed to differing degrees by human activity.
The existing forest reserve is essentially pristine and would be a strong candidate
for recognition as the core of the Cockpit Country. Similarly, the area within the
geomorphological boundary is little disturbed and certainly merits incorporation
within any proposed national park or other expanded category of protected area.
Incorporating the additional area within the Ring Road changes the KDI to dis-
turbed, reflecting increased human activities and potentially more resistance from
the local population to stricter land management policies. This additional area might
well function as a partial primary buffer zone around the core protected area,
although it is discontinuous. Finally, the JET/CCSG boundary incorporates highly
disturbed karst areas which might also act as an expanded buffer zone.
Planning for the future of the Cockpit Country has proceeded haphazardly, with
differing motivations and not a little controversy. Conservation and management are
clear imperatives, but there is also potential for local economic benefit from sustain-
able ecotourism. Application of this research on the levels of disturbance within
various potential boundaries would be a valuable tool in the planning process, and
the results are currently being disseminated to government agencies, local and inter-
national NGOs.
The influence of the boundary location upon the KDI calculation is not surprising,
and it echoes the role of boundary selection in influencing other statistical computa-
tions, such as that of nearest-neighbor statistics (Charlton 1976). Ideally, applica-
tion of the KDI should be constrained by testing of similarly sized areas with
similarly shaped boundaries, although this may be difficult in practice. Karst area
boundaries are naturally irregular, but imposition of boundaries arising from human
constructs, such as political boundaries, is equally problematic. In this study, the use
of variable boundaries has served to illuminate consideration of protected area con-
servation strategies, but boundary issues merit further consideration in continued
statistical studies of karst landscapes.
412 M. Day et al.
Acknowledgments Many thanks to the indomitable field research team members: Bill Reynolds,
Jeff Kueny, Ed Alt, Fatima Patel, Sean McMahon, Will Sharkey, Brendan White, Andrea Hall,
Laura (Goetz) Smith, Mason Bindl, Sam Theis, and Brendan Vierk, and to our invaluable local
guides Fenton Hippie Barrett, Hubert Pem-Pem Foster, and Ray Bailey. Thanks too to Ivor
Connelly, of the Jamaica Caves Organization for his hospitality, friendship, and assistance in
Jamaica, to Dave Barker and Dave Miller of UWI, Mona for their various assistance, and to Cindy
Walker for her statistical advice.
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Chapter 19
Expanding South Nahanni National Park,
Northwest Territories, Canada, to Include and
Manage Some Remarkable Sub-Arctic/Arctic
Karst Terranes
Derek Ford
Abstract South Nahanni National Park Reserve (Lat. 61N, Long. 1248W;
~4,700 km2) was created in 1972 to protect three great canyons and a major water-
fall from hydroelectric development. In 1978, it was one of the first natural sites to
be granted UNESCO World Heritage status, based substantially on the authors
geomorphic analyses. In the course of that work, extensive tracts of limestone karst
landforms, some of them unique, were explored up to 40km north of the Reserve
boundaries. Following agreements with the First Nations peoples of the region, in
2009, these were incorporated into an expanded park of ~32,000 km2 that now
includes most of the hydrologic basin of the South Nahanni plus the smaller Ram
River north of it.
The case to expand the national park outside of the topographic boundaries of the
South Nahanni basin was made in three steps: (1) a demonstration by fluorescent
dye tracing that the underground drainage to major karst springs in South Nahanni.
First Canyon extended far to the north of the topographic boundary, the catchment
being the southern half of a belt of unique karst terrain, and the northern half is
drained into the Ram River basin via a second group of major karst springs at the
northern extremity; (2) recognition that the headwaters of the Ram River contained
an ancient, intensely dissected, remnant karst terrane on an anticline that contrasts
sharply with (3) a downstream anticline in the same limestone that has little karst
development due to its more recent uplift, with stripping and exposure taking place
under permafrost conditions. In 2010, a number of hub-and-spoke and trekking
routes for walkers and backpackers were being proposed to display the karst.
Potential management problems for these developments included a possible zinc-
silver mine to the west that is accessed by a winter road across the karst belt and
accelerating melting of the permafrost in susceptible silts and shales that is creating
many new landslides in the karst basins.
D. Ford (*)
School of Geography and Earth Sciences, McMaster University, Hamilton,
L8S 4K1, ON, Canada

416 D. Ford
19.1Introduction
The Mackenzie Mountains are a chain of ranges extending between Lats. 60 and
67N, dividing the Pacific drainage (Yukon Territory) from that of the Mackenzie
River and Arctic Ocean (northwest territories). They are scarcely populated. Along
the spine, batholithic rocks of Cretaceous age are carved into typical alpine topog-
raphy the Ragged Ranges that rise to 2,800m above sea level (asl) or more.
During the ice ages, they supported extensive valley glaciers which coalesced to
form part of the Cordilleran Ice Sheet that covered most of the western moun-
tains of Canada and extended into the Northwestern United States. A few valley
glaciers and small icecaps remain today. To the east, the plutonic injections
deformed thick sequences of Paleozoic sedimentary rocks, creating fold and over-
thrust topographies with rivers flowing eastwards across them the Canyon
Ranges. Their western parts were invaded by the Cordilleran valley glaciers, while
the Laurentide Continental Ice Sheet was able to override the most easterly ranges.
In between, there is a never-glaciated corridor with magnificent river canyon land-
scapes. Limestone, dolomite, and gypsum are prominent amongst the sedimentary
rocks and there is salt at depth. As a result, karst phenomena are frequent, exhibit-
ing many different morphologic styles as consequences of their differing composi-
tion, lithology, geologic structure and glacial or periglacial history. This account
focuses on the most spectacular of the limestone landscapes, which are found in
the Southern Mackenzie Mountains between Lats. 61 and 62N, in the eastern
sector of the South Nahanni River basin and in the smaller Ram River basin to the
north of it (Fig.19.1).
The existence of magnificent river canyons and a great waterfall along the course
of the South Nahanni River was well known to the Dene aboriginal people of the
region. The DehCho (Big River) clans, who today have their center 100km to the
east in Fort Simpson on the banks of the Mackenzie River, hunted in the eastern
mountain ranges where a subgroup, the Naha, dwelled semipermanently. Further
north, the Sahtu (Great Bear) clans established trade routes across the headwaters
into the Yukon Valley (Fig. 19.1). Exploration by Europeans began when the
Hudsons Bay Company established trading posts at Fort Simpson and on the Liard
River close to the mouth of the South Nahanni in the 1820s but was very limited
until the Klondike Gold Rush began further west in 1898. Some may have tried to
use the South Nahanni as a backdoor route to the Yukon gold fields while others set
off hoping to make new strikes within the river basin itself. The river canyons were
named as they were encountered when paddling or lining canoes upstream, so First
Canyon is the furthest downstream, Second and Third place in sequence above
the First, and an unofficial Fourth canyon terminates in the mighty Virginia Falls,
which are up to 100m in height and can only be passed by a long, steep portage.
Some minor showings of gold were made above the falls and followed up by two
prospectors who failed to return from wintering over in 19071908. The Royal
Canadian Mounted Police went up-river looking for them and found their two bod-
ies, less the heads, in a burned-down cabin just upstream of First Canyon. Another
19 Expanding South Nahanni National Park, Northwest Territories, Canada... 417
Fig.19.1 The hydrologic boundaries of the South Nahanni and Ram river basins, which are the
desired boundaries of the expanded South Nahanni National Park. In black line, the boundaries of
the South Nahanni River National Park Reserve established in 1972. Dashed line the boundary
between the DehCho First Nation territory to the east and the Sahtu First Nation claim to the west.
In red the topographic boundary between the S Nahanni and Ram river basins. The expansion of
the park to include the Ram River basin is the subject of this chapter. Map courtesy of the Canadian
Parks and Wilderness Society
prospector also died mysteriously there in 1915. This history gave rise to cheerful
place names (Deadmen Valley, Funeral Range, Headless Range, Somber Range)
which, with some tricky rapids in the canyons, created the legend of The Dangerous
River (Patterson 1966). It was beginning to attract sport canoeists and other adven-
ture tourists when, in 1967, there were engineering proposals to harness the hydro-
electric potential of the Falls and the canyons with a series of dams. Opposition
quickly mounted. The Prime Minister of Canada at the time, Pierre Elliot Trudeau
(a passionate canoeist), was shown the canyons and the Falls. In 1972, a South
Nahanni National Park Reserve was created to protect them from development. It
was extended to the Rabbitkettle Hotsprings further upstream (two spectacular
travertine mounds formed at the junction between the sedimentary rocks and the
plutonic rocks injected into them), to part of the Flat River where there was richer
boreal forest and to some attractive sand blow out features downstream towards
Nahanni Butte, the nearest permanent settlement. It is seen in Fig. 19.1 that the
Reserve that was created for these reasons is a strip of varying width along the
rivers, enclosed by an arbitrary set of landlines. It totals about 4,700 km2 in area.
418 D. Ford
In 1970, a party of Quebec adventurers parachuted into the Moose Ponds at the
head of the South Nahanni and came down it in inflatable rubber rafts. Towards the
mouth of the First Canyon, they noticed some cave entrances high in limestone cliffs
and explored a few of them. Parks Canada funded the party to return for more detailed
investigations the following summer and asked me, as a professional cave scientist, to
evaluate their discoveries. My group from McMaster University arrived on the day
that two of the Quebec party made the most significant find, Grotte Valerie (see below),
and together we explored and mapped it in the following days. I had studied geologi-
cal maps and air photographs before going in and noted that the limestone extended
far to the north of the topographic watershed of the Nahanni tributaries here, into the
Ram River basin. When leaving the area, I was able to direct the small aircraft to fly
over this at low altitude and thus got a first view of some of the most spectacular karst
topography that is known in any arctic or sub-arctic location. Intensive investigations
followed in the next few years; I studied the general geology and geomorphology of
the Reserve (Ford 1973, 1974a, b, 1991; Harmon etal. 1977), a body of work that
provided the core documents for the successful nomination of the Reserve as one of
the first three UNESCO World Heritage natural sites to be recognized: Ph.D. candi-
date, George Brook, investigated the karst to the north (Brook 1976; Brook and Ford
1978, 1980), and Jacques Schroeder of the Quebec group undertook detailed research
in the First Canyon caves (Schroeder 1977, 1979). During those years, I, several times,
wrote to Parks Canada and senior political persons urging that all of the karst lands
should be protected. Later, many other interested parties asked that the entire South
Nahanni drainage basin be included in an expanded South Nahanni National Park/
World Heritage property (CPAWS 2001). I worked to add the Ram River basin to such
expansion in order to protect the karst. In June 2009, the Government of Canada pro-
mulgated the expansion east of the Sahtu settlement line, less some set-asides for
potential mineral extraction west of the karst; a decision on the Sahtu lands is pending.
The purpose of this chapter is to outline the sequence of steps in the Ram River karst
campaign, the tourist developments being proposed now that it has been successful
and the hazards that remain.
19.2The Geologic and Physiographic Settings
In South Nahanni National Park, the Cretaceous batholithic rocks of the Ragged
Range (Fig.19.1) are composed of massive and very resistant quartz monzonite, a
variety of granite. It supports the highest and most rugged mountains in the region,
which display the full suite of alpine glacial landforms such as cirques with precipi-
tous headwalls, U-shaped valleys with sharp trimlines and fresh recessional moraines
of the Little Ice Age. The intrusion deformed a thickness of more than 6 km of
marine clastic and carbonate sedimentary rocks of Paleozoic age. The effect can be
likened to dropping a stone into a pond, creating ripples spreading outwards in
the present context, spreading eastwards down the courses of the regional rivers.
Strata close to the intrusion were highly deformed by a combination of folding,
Fig.19.2 Left. The Rabbitkettle Hotsprings Mounds in the upper S. Nahanni valley. These are hot
springs precipitates of calcite (travertine), deposited at the junction between Paleozoic carbonate
sedimentary rocks and an igneous intrusion of Cretaceous age. These are the largest constructional
karst landforms in Canada. Tourist access to the mounds is restricted to one trail and footwear must
be removed on the travertine mounds themselves. Right. The Gate in the Third Canyon, South
Nahanni River, viewed from the upstream side. This is a river capture through the neck of a hairpin
meander incised 250 m into limestones. It was probably initiated as an underground (karst)
capture
overthrusting and local and regional block faulting. Subsequent erosion has removed
all Upper Paleozoic rocks there. The Lower Paleozoic strata are mostly mechani-
cally weak formations of shales or relatively thin-bedded sandstones and carbon-
ates; as a consequence, the mountain ranges are lower, rounded and more intensely
dissected. One pair of landforms stand out, the Rabbitkettle Hotsprings Mounds, at
the juncture with the pluton (Fig.19.2). These beautiful features are the largest con-
structional karst landforms known in Canada, precipitates of calcite travertine in
rising sequences of rimstone dams (Ford 1974a). The more prominent wedding
cake North Mound is 75 m in diameter. The waters have constant temperatures
between 21.5C and 22.0C in a region where the mean annual air temperature is
around 8C. Total hardness is 475550mg/l; Brown and Wright (1979) estimated
that ~200mg/l of this load was precipitated as the emerging waters degassed and
flowed across North Mound.
An exception to the generally weak character of the Lower Paleozoic sedimentary
rocks is the Sunblood Formation (Middle Ordovician). Its lower 200+ m consists of
resistant limestones and dolomites. Virginia Falls, a receding waterfall like Niagara
Falls, is developed in them. This formation is emplaced by block faulting further
420 D. Ford
Fig.19.3 Sketch diagram to show the location and principal topographic and geologic structural
features of the South Nahanni karst lands. The denser pattern represents greater densities of karst
landforms; see the text for details
downstream also, in the Third Canyon, where a deeply incised hairpin meander has
been cut off across the neck, creating The Gate, a famous feature on the canoe trip
(Fig.19.2). The cut-off is ~300 m in length and probably originated as an under-
ground karst capture of South Nahanni River (Ford 1974a).
To the east of the Third Canyon, the Upper Paleozoic rocks are predominant and
karst development becomes regional in its scale. The principal karst stratum is the
Nahanni Formation (Middle Devonian), 180220m of thick-to-massive, regularly
bedded, platformal limestones. They are chemically pure and mechanically resis-
tant, very like the well-known karstic limestones of the Yorkshire Dales in England
and the Burren in Ireland in their characteristics. They are overlain by mechanically
weak shales and limestone shales that are readily stripped off. The underlying facies
are more complex. Broadly, underneath the First Canyon and Ram Plateau anticlines
(Fig.19.3), there are medium-thick bedded, mechanically strong, and cliff-forming
dolomites >1,000 m in total thickness. They display a few scattered dolines and
other karst forms at the surface and may channel groundwater flow in solution con-
duits. In contrast, underneath the Tower anticline, there is a facies transition, the
upper dolomites being replaced by much weaker shales and calcareous shales that
together function as an aquitard.
As Fig. 19.3 suggests, the structural features are bold and simple. The three
anticlines have broad, symmetrical, domal forms with gentle stratal dips except for
occasional oversteepening on their eastern flanks. They rise to 1,8002,000m asl.
Ram Plateau retains a cover of the Nahanni limestone, which passes beneath overly-
ing shales north of the Ram River canyon. The Tower anticline is gutted, with lime-
stone remnants only on the eastern flanks and scattered along the crest. The limestone
is removed from the crest of the First Canyon anticline, exposing the dolomites
there, but it is widely retained on both flanks. On the east flank, it dips below the
shale cover, creating a karst barr (impounded karst) situation. The lowest point in
the impoundment occurs where the South Nahanni River crosses it at the mouth of
First Canyon; here, Kraus Hotsprings, some H2S-rich discharges at ~35C, mark the
discharge of a deep but small groundwater flow component beneath the domes.
It is most important to appreciate that these structures have been active during
Neotectonic times. The epicenter of the strongest earthquake experienced anywhere
in continental Canada during the past 50years (Richter 6.9) was at shallow depth just
to the east of the Ram anticlinal trend and 40km further north (Hyndman etal. 2005);
it triggered a major landslide in the limestone there. As consequences of this con-
tinuing activity, the trunk rivers have carved antecedent, meandering canyons 300
1,000m in depth across the updomings in their paths and the tributary Prairie Creek
cut a comparably deep canyon along the strike in the flank of the First Canyon anti-
cline (Fig.19.3; Ford 1991).
At its greatest extent, the Laurentide Icesheet buried Ram Plateau and the Sundog
Syncline and extended up to elevations of ~1,400m asl on the eastern flanks of the
First Canyon and Tower anticlines (Ford 1974a; Brook 1976). Land to the west was
not glaciated. In the last glaciation, ice advanced up the Syncline to a terminus south
of the northern springs marked in Fig.19.3, impounding proglacial Lake Sundog
at ~900m asl to the north of it. Deposition of ~80m of lacustrine silts buried much
of the preexisting karst. The Lake drained abruptly at some time after 40 ka BP
(based on a 14C date of tree wood in the silts A. Duk-Rodkin, personal communi-
cation, 2006): it cut a broad spillway through the silts and into the top of the karst
beneath it.
Today, karst features extend from 240 m asl (the springs in First Canyon,
Fig.19.3) to ~1,900m asl on the crest of the First Canyon dome. The climate is
sub-arctic to arctic. Mean annual temperatures range from 3C, on the low ground,
to 10C or below, on the crests. Treeline (Northern Boreal Forest) is at ~1,200m
asl. Permafrost is widespread but discontinuous below that elevation and technically
continuous above it. Annual precipitation ranges 400800mm or more across the
elevations, about half of it falling as snow. Summer rains can be intensive when
systems from the Northeast Pacific and the Beaufort Sea (Arctic Ocean) clash
(Brook and Ford 1980). There is some evidence to suggest that the frequency and
422 D. Ford
intensity of these storms are increasing as a consequence of the greater summer melt
of sea ice over the Beaufort Sea; this is suggested by a great increase of landslides
over permafrost on lacustrine silts and steep shale slopes in the region.
19.3The Relict Caves of First Canyon
More than 200 relict karst solution caves (i.e., caves drained of their formative
waters) have been found in the region but unfortunately most are sealed off by
ground ice or frozen silts within a few meters of their entrances. The lengthiest open
systems are preserved along the North (updip) wall of First Canyon, near its mouth
and within the 1972 National Park Reserve boundaries. Their form is of under-
ground dendritic drainage from the former sink points of streams flowing from a
shale cover that is now largely or entirely removed. Flow was downdip into the
River at and just below the contemporary water tables. A first example, Grotte
Valerie, has 1 km of passages now stranded in cliffs 450 m above the River
(Fig.19.4). It has partial fillings of silts and winnowings of an older till cemented
by calcite. South facing, in summer, cold air drains from a low exit, drawing warm
air in to replace it via an entry that is 40m higher. This creates (1) a warm entrance
cave (+6 to +1C), where summer warmth has thawed permafrost and there is
active deposition of small speleothems today; this supplies moist air to (2) a cool
exit cave that is covered with hoar frost because the wall rock temperatures remain
below 0C; and both behind and below there is (3) a permafrost cave or glacire
which is a cold trap receiving only winter air dry and dusty, without speleothems
or ice and preserving the remains of 80 or more mountain sheep. It is the type
example for cave climatic zonation in cold regions (see Ford and Williams (2007,
2948) for details).
Nearby, Grotte Mickey has more than 3km of galleries at several different levels
between 250 and 330m above the river. This multi-level, multi-phase pattern points
to extended development that kept pace with the entrenchment of First Canyon for
some time (Schroeder 1977, 1979).
An important feature of these caves and some in the Labyrinth (discussed below)
is the occurrence of large, highly ornamented, stalagmites, columns, and flowstones
of calcite. They are no longer growing (modern growth is limited to very small
deposits), and most are weathered or partly eroded by invading streams or shattered
by freezing. They are indicative of much warmer conditions in the past, which
(allowing for cave truncation by cliff recession since) extended much further into
cave interiors than today. There is an abundance of uranium in the cover shales
which, re-precipitated in the calcite, has made the speleothems particularly suitable
for U series dating. This region saw much of the pioneer dating work as a conse-
quence (Harmon etal. 1977). The large majority of samples proved to be >350ka
in age (the limit of the dating method using 1970s alpha spectrometric technology),
although they were <1.25Ma. The first application of U series speleothem dating to
a geomorphic problem was by the author, who showed that the mean rate of South
Fig. 19.4 Scenes from Grotte Mickey and Grotte Valrie in the First Canyon, South Nahanni
River, Northwest Territories. These are relict stream caves now raised high above the River in the
canyon walls. Upper centre glaciolacustrine silts on the floor of a large stream cave passage.
Upper right modern speleothem deposition in the warm sector of Grotte Valrie. The stalactites
and stalagmites are typically small. Their bright red coloration is due to contained organics. Lower
left above the figure is a typical relict stalagmite and flowstone of the warm period >400ka BP;
only stalagmites of ice grow in this gallery today. Lower centre and right ice stalagmites and
hoarfrost in the cool sector, Grotte Valerie. The base of the hoarfrost in the centre frame marks the
surface of a lake of very cold air that is trapped behind the ice dam; it is renewed only by winter
inflow (Photos by Derek Ford and Jacques Schroeder)
Nahanni River entrenchment below Grotte Valerie could not be more 0.8m/ka and
that there had been possibly as much as 350m of uplift on the First Canyon anticli-
nal axis since 1.5Ma BP (Ford 1973).
19.4Making the Case to Include All of the Nahanni

Limestone Karst in an Expanded National Park
By political happenstance, the northern boundary of the 1972 Reserve was an arbi-
trary landline drawn only 23km north of Grotte Valerie and Grotte Mickey and
cutting across Lafferty Canyon, an important north bank tributary of South Nahanni
River. The topographic division between the South Nahanni basin and the apparent
drainage basin immediately north of it (a tributary to the minor Tetcela River) lies
along the ridge crest north of Lafferty Canyon, as shown in Fig.19.5. There is a
424 D. Ford
Fig.19.5 Map showing the straightline courses of successful dye traces in the main belt of karst
lands between First Canyon, South Nahanni River, and the Bubbling Springs which drain to
Ram River
major belt of karst terrane, (limestone pavements, labyrinths of solution corridors

and bogaz, large sinkholes, small poljes, sinking lakes) extending for 40km between
the First Canyon and the southern end of Ram Plateau, however, and it has been
recognized since 1972 that this captures all water flow except for some very minor
surface overflows that can occur during the melt season or extreme summer rains
(Brook and Ford 1980).
19.4.1Step 1 Establishing the Principal Karst

Groundwater Basins
The major karst belt drains to just two sets of springs. In the south, the White
Spray spring discharges at 240m asl in First Canyon, from the foot of dolomite
cliffs that are stratigraphically ~580m below the base of the Nahanni limestone.
Most of the discharge is into the riverbed where its contribution to the flow cannot
be gauged separately; it must be considerable, however, because it keeps this stretch
of the River free of ice throughout the winter, a unique feature. White Spray itself
is a summer overflow spring that jets from the cliffs a few meters above the River
and has an estimated discharge of ~2.5 m3/s. These springs must drain much of the
First Canyon (Nahanni Plateau) dome and its karst, including Canal Canyon (30km
in length, up to 1,000m in depth) which drains underground where it is blocked by
a terminal moraine at its mouth. Dye traces from there (Fig.19.5) and from Death
Lake further north proved underground flow of 21+ km at mean rates >3,500m/day
on a hydraulic gradient of 0.03. Although no enterable caves have been found in
them yet, the dolomites can thus rapidly develop integrated systems of underground
solutional conduits.
At the north end, Bubbling Springs (700m asl) rise where the stratigraphic top
of the limestone dips under impermeable cover shales in Sundog Syncline. They
drain perhaps the northern one-third of the belt, with discharges >10 m3/s during
wet summer spells. Bubbling Springs are a major southern tributary to Ram River.
19.4.1.1The Nahanni Labyrinth
Between Canal Canyon and Bubbling Springs, the Nahanni Labyrinth is developed
in the limestone. It is the largest example of karstic labyrinth morphology reported
in the Northern Hemisphere (Fig. 19.6). The outstanding landforms are dissolu-
tional corridors (streets) that follow major vertical fractures created by the dom-
ing (Brook 1976; Brook and Ford 1978). Individual corridors are 30100m deep,
15100m wide and up to 6km in length. For a distance of 13km, they intersect one
another to form a natural labyrinth. The walls recede from frost shattering, causing
some parallel corridors to amalgamate into broader closed depressions, like squares
in a pattern of city streets; the greatest measures 800400m. Isolated towers are
preserved within them. Floor profiles of corridors and squares are highly irregular,
with local streams sinking into depressions between talus accumulations or into
bedrock shafts. In the labyrinth and elsewhere on the limestone are large, vertical-
walled sinkholes and smaller, elliptical solutional shafts such as the Cenote Col
group shown in Fig.19.6. Many trap the water of successive melt seasons, its depth
increasing slowly until pressure bursts an ice plug below and the feature drains with
catastrophic rapidity. Raven Lake, an unusually large doline within a corridor, is
300m in length and 150m deep; under flood conditions, waters rise >75m in it, at
rates of 3 m/day or more. Enterable caves are few and filled by ice or silt short
426 D. Ford
Fig.19.6 Left. Air photo showing the northern half of the Labyrinth at the bottom. Arrow indi-
cates the principal spring of Bubbling Springs. There are three small polje landforms between the
springs and the Labyrinth. On the left Mosquito Lake, with large collapse and suffosion sinkholes
to the south of it. On the right, a terrace of glaciolacustrine silts conceals the limestone. It has many
further suffosion sinkholes. The true width of this frame is ~9km. Upper right Cenote Col, a
tight cluster of limestone shafts and sinkholes in the Labyrinth. Individual shafts are up to 40m in
depth, some water-filled, some not. On either side of the col are deeper sinkholes up to 500m in
length. This photograph was taken on the flight out from the authors first visit to Nahanni in 1971.
Lower right Raven Lake, a seasonally inundated sinkhole at the northern end of the Labyrinth.
It is ~150m in depth, with ~50m of standing water in this scene (Photos by Derek Ford)
d istances inside. Relict stalagmites >350ka in age have been recovered from two of
them (Brook 1976).
At the north end of the labyrinth, the shale cover and glacio-lacustrine silts
encroach to reduce the limestone outcrop to a narrow spillway with three small
(<2.5 km2) but fully formed poljes developed in it. Their sinking streams have been
dye-traced to Bubbling Springs. There are many collapse and suffosion dolines in
the shale and silts terraces, extending as far as 5km away on the flanks: this points
to the existence of a mixture of maturely developed open and covered karst that is
now partially clogged by the proglacial injecta. Although all is drained by a mature
karst groundwater system that existed before the last glacial invasion and formation
of Glacial Lake Sundog, the extent to which the karst landforms exposed today were
modified by scablands jkulhaup processes during their re-excavation remains
undetermined.
The location of the divide between groundwater flow southwards to White Spray
and northwards to Bubbling Springs lies somewhere in the Labyrinth Karst. Possibly,
it has a seasonal component, with base flow draining south down the higher hydraulic
gradient, but some of the summer surcharge spilling over to the north. Given this
uncertainty and the morphological continuity of this remarkable karst, Parks Canada
readily accepted the proposition that this karst belt should be included in an expan-
sion of South Nahanni National Park Reserve.
19.4.2Step 2 Incorporating the Headwaters of Ram

River in the Expansion
The Ram River headwaters drain Tower Anticline and Syncline and the northern
end of the Nahanni (First Canyon) Anticline (Fig.19.3). The two anticlines were
upraised and stripped of their shale cover at broadly the same time, probably later
Miocene and the Pliocene. The Nahanni limestone has also been largely removed
from Tower Anticline because, as noted, the strong, karstifiable dolomites beneath
it at First Canyon are replaced here by a weak, largely impermeable, limestone-
shale formation. In both the sector that was glaciated and further west in the never-
glaciated zone, Tower Anticline first developed an extensive plateau epikarst with
limestone pavement and small dolines, but this was then almost entirely destroyed
by undercutting as flashflood canyons enlarged and cut back in the underlying
shales. Figure19.7 shows three scenes in this relict karst; it is best preserved at the
eastern end (upper scene), where stripping of the protective shale cover above the
limestones was more recent.
In the Tower Syncline, the shale cover is also removed, but little karst has devel-
oped on the limestones. It is believed that this is because their exposure took place
largely or entirely after permafrost became established in the region (possibly late
Pliocene), prohibiting the development of efficient epikarst drainage. The same
constraint applied to the more dramatic Ram Plateau, discussed below.
In contrast to the simple form on the Tower Anticline, the limestone on the
northeastern flank of the Nahanni Anticline has been deformed by local folding
and overthrusting. Along two coalescent ridges, dissolution and periglacial shatter
and solifuction processes have produced a visually striking series of ridgeline tors,
The Castellated Karst, with morphologies reflecting the differing amounts of
deformation (Fig.19.8). There is nothing similar elsewhere on the Nahanni lime-
stones, reinforcing the case for including this area in the park expansion.
19.4.3Step 3 Incorporating Ram Canyon and the Ram

Plateau in the Expansion
Ram Plateau offers magnificent landscapes, including some that are distinctly
different from those seen on the Nahanni and Tower domes. Ram River has cut a
deep, antecedent canyon across its dome but, unlike the South Nahanni canyons, it
428 D. Ford
Fig.19.7 Three scenes on the Tower Anticline. Upper looking down into the Sundog Syncline
across glaciated pavement with dolines on the well preserved southeastern end of the anticline.
Lower left relict pavement at the gutted crest of the anticline. Lower right a final remnant of the
karst at the western end (Photos by Derek Ford)
exhibits a meandering form only in the middle (earliest exposed) sector. Upstream
and downstream the canyon is straight (Fig.19.9), suggesting that it was not being
entrenched before the onset of periglacial conditions had added considerable bed-
load that halted the meandering (Ford 1991). During the last glaciation, the canyon
was blocked by ice from the east, while its western entry became infilled by Glacial
Lake Sundog silts. After glacier recession, the River was diverted northwards and
re-entered the old canyon partway, where it carved the young and spectacular
Scimitar Canyon (Fig.19.9). South of Ram Canyon itself, the Plateau is deeply
dissected by consequent canyons that cut through the Nahanni limestone into resis-
tant dolomite strata below. Karst landforms (sinkholes, bogaz) are seen only on the
earliest exposed surfaces or where some shale cover is retained to provide local
stream flow onto the limestone contacts.
On both Ram Plateau and in the Tower Syncline, the cover shales have been
largely stripped off of the Nahanni limestone, and high hydraulic gradients for
Fig.19.8 The Iron Age Fortress, a mesa-like tor in the Castellated Karst, buttressed by solifluc-
tion ramparts. For contrast, the pyramidal tor in background right is in near-vertically dipping beds
in the same limestone (Photo by Derek Ford)
groundwater flow have been created in it by entrenchment of consequent canyons.

Yet, there is little development of karst landforms when compared to First Canyon,
Nahanni Plateau and the Labyrinth because, as also suggested by the straight form
of most of the course of antecedent Ram Canyon, permafrost set in before the essen-
tial groundwater solutional channels could be established. The result has been the
creation of dissected limestone landscapes of pleasing regularity and symmetry on
both the antiform and the synform, as illustrated in Fig.19.10. Ram Plateau, thus,
was readily accepted to complete the expansion of the Park on the Nahanni
limestone.
19.5Display and Management of the Karst Lands
The South Nahanni and Ram karst lands are true wilderness country, uninhabited
and almost entirely undeveloped. There are no permanent buildings of any kind
except three or four small registration booths for canoeists. A winter road was con-
structed across the northern end of the main karst belt in 1979 to service an incipient
zinc and silver mine on Prairie Creek but the operation was abandoned and the road
is currently untrafficable, although permission has been given for it to be reopened.
430 D. Ford
Fig. 19.9 Upper left the central sector of Ram River Canyon, Ram Anticline, exhibiting the
same incised meander form as the South Nahanni River canyons. Upper right the downstream
end of Ram River Canyon is straight, suggesting incision after the onset of periglacial conditions
in the emerging anticline. Lower Scimitar Canyon, the glacial diversion channel that is the very
spectacular head of the modern Ram River course through the anticline. Note the many fresh land-
slides in the limestone-shale slopes overlooking the sharp incision of the canyon itself (Photos by
Derek Ford)
The foremost management question in the Nahanni karst thus is deciding on how it
can be displayed while maintaining the wilderness state.
The karst is rich in plants and animals. Around the hot springs and sheltered
places in the valleys, the boreal forest is exceptionally lush for these latitudes. There
is a great variety of woodland flowers, including orchid species that are rare else-
where. There is a diverse alpine flora on the tundra. Moose, wolves, and woodland
caribou live in the forests, the latter also enjoying the open park-like country found
on the lower karst and occasionally moving up to the tundra to escape mosquitoes.
Black bears and grizzly bears live chiefly in the forest but forage widely above it in
search of berries. The steeper areas of the canyons and the open tundra plateaus
above them are home to mountain sheep and goats, which winter up there where
high winds will keep the browse free of snow. There are many species of birds,
chiefly migrants.
Fig.19.10 Upper the Nahanni Limestone formation, stripped of its limestone-shale cover and
dissected by consequent canyons at the head of the Tower Syncline. Lower the same situation is
seen on the southern half of the Ram Plateau anticline (Photos by Steve Worthington and Paul
Sanborn)
Before the coming of Europeans, the Dene people traveled extensively on foot
throughout this country in addition to using South Nahanni River as a principal travel
corridor. Prairie Creek itself is named for a large natural prairie/open forest in the
headwaters that served as a winter base because it is rich in game. Downstream, the
Prairie Creek canyon becomes very difficult to tread on, and so parties crossed
the eastern divide into the southern headwaters of Ram River instead and from
thence through the karst en route to the Liard and the Mackenzie Rivers for trading
and social business. They have left little trace from, probably, some centuries of
such use. We have noted only a couple of remnants of animal traps, with metal parts,
cached in cave entrances.
432 D. Ford
For visitors from elsewhere in the world seeking wilderness experience today,
the karst country offers hill walking and trekking possibilities of outstanding quality.
At and above treeline, the footing is nearly always firm and reliable, on rock or loes-
sic soils with thin grass, moss, or lichen cover. Below the treeline, because of the
edaphic stresses created by karst drainage, there are large areas of open, park-like
grasslands so that the patches of denser forest on the limestones can usually be
avoided. Lengthy, though discontinuous, game trails are common in the forests,
canyons, and on the plateaus. There are beautiful vistas everywhere. In June, July,
and early August, it does not become truly dark at night. Autumn begins in late
August on the high plateaus. All of the terrane is covered by 1:50,000 topographic
maps of good quality and there is adequate satellite coverage for route finding with
a handheld GPS device.
19.6The Potential for Hub-and-Spoke Walking

and Backpack Trekking
The author has proposed the set of potential walking and trekking developments
shown in Fig.19.11 (Ford 2010). Two types of expeditions are suggested, either a
hub-and-spoke central camp offering a variety of daily walks out and back or a
backpack trek between a given starting point and a finish, with overnight (or longer)
camping stops en route.
Access poses a major constraint for both types of visit. Helicopters can place a
camp almost anywhere but are relatively expensive and have limited payloads. The
karst is about 1h flying time from the nearest base, Fort Simpson. Floatplanes are
significantly cheaper but they can be landed at only three places: (1) Mosquito Lake,
from which point excellent camping in the First Polje can be easily reached. This is
a good hub for the exploration of the northern half of the main karst belt, including
the exciting Labyrinth; (2) Death Lake, a hub for the central karst, plus the finest of
the limestone pavements and Canal Canyon and (3) The South Nahanni River at
Kraus Hot Springs, hub for the cave-rich area of First Canyon and southern karst on
the plateau above it. The Hot Springs can also be serviced by power boats chartered
from Nahanni Butte. In the Summer of 2010, the outfitter, Canadian River
Expeditions (www.nahanni.com) operated a successful helicopter-serviced hub-
and-spoke camp on the top of Ram Plateau, south of Ram Canyon. The walking and
vistas are outstanding, while sheltered camping can be found in a small patch of
karst a few hundred meters south of the highest ground. The author had a hydrologi-
cal survey camp in the center of Ram Canyon in the later 1970s that served as a
hub-and-spoke base for a range of field studies. It too could be serviced only by
helicopter. Other attractive hub-and-spoke camps with helicopter-only access
include the Eastern Tower Dome (valley of 22 caves) and the Castellated Karst, for
cavers and for those who enjoy very high hill walking respectively, and Canal
Canyon, where the alluvial floor supports rich wetland and forest habitats of
particular interest to botanists and ecologists.
Fig.19.11 Important sites in the Nahanni karst lands, showing the authors suggestions for
the location of hub camps and the general outline of a trekking route from Ram Canyon to
Kraus Hot Springs in First Canyon. T the southeast end of Tower Anticline and a possible
Valley of 22 Caves hub; CK the Castellated Karst; SL Sundog Lake, Sundog Syncline;
HC authors hydrology camp in Ram Canyon. See the text for further details. Inset a back-
packer prepares to leave the tundra and descend into the boreal forest at the southern end of
Ram Plateau, 20 August 2008. The Fall colours are already in full splendour in the tundra
(Photo by Stefan Doerr)
Between Ram Plateau and First Canyon, longer or shorter backpacking treks in
the karst will offer magnificent challenges and wilderness experience, ones in which
the difficulties of bush-bashing through dense forest can be largely, though not
entirely, avoided. The location of hubs and potential trekking routes are set out in
Fig.19.11. A full trek from the bottom of Ram Canyon to Kraus Hotsprings will
involve 180200km or more of walking. The author has traversed most of this in
separate segments on and off over the years, but it has never been undertaken as a
single thorough trip (in either direction) to his knowledge. Several parties have used
the Mosquito Lake floatplane landing to start a trek to First Canyon, allowing
1014days: this is enough time in good weather for several side excursions with
day pack only. One party has trekked from a helicopter landing on Ram Plateau to
a pick-up point just short of First Canyon, spending 10days of rather poor weather
on the trip. There are good spots for lightweight overnight camping everywhere.
434 D. Ford
At present, it is Parks Canadas opinion that such walking and backpacking will
not have significant negative environmental impacts in the karst. The historic land
use by the Dene supports this view. Regulation is therefore simple and not restric-
tive. All intending walkers must submit their plans for approval at the park head-
quarters in Fort Simpson, a sensible precaution. Wood fires are permitted (with
care) except at times when there is strong fire hazard. Metal fire boxes must be used
in hub camps. It is Parks policy that all camping solid waste must be carried out.
Athub camps, there may be a requirement that all human solid waste be taken out
also. Walkers should be properly equipped with maps, a GPS device and a satellite
telephone. Most will choose to carry bear spray and bear bangers as well. Firearms
are prohibited in all national parks in Canada.
A large majority of the known caves are quite short, simple, and robust in mor-
phology and will not be severely impacted by occasional human visitors. Grotte
Valerie, Grotte Mickey, and a few others in First Canyon are more complex and
fragile, in need of protection and thus currently gated; over time, it is proposed to
develop a modest visitor program with Parks guides for them. All caves should be
left undisturbed during the lambing season because the entrances are widely used as
safe birthing spots and nurseries by the mountain sheep.
19.7Hazards in the Karst Lands
Prairie Creek Mine (Canadian Zinc Corporation) is a mixed vein and stratiform
zinc/lead/pyrite sulfide deposit in dolomite strata in the upper Prairie Creek canyon,
west of Ram River (Fig.19.11). There is subsidiary silver, antimony, and other trace
metals of economic interest. The deposit also contains unusually high concentra-
tions of mercury which must be removed, and the ore concentrated, on site before
shipping out. Transport of concentrate out and of fuel and other supplies in must be
by haulage on the winter road for any chance of economic success. As noted, a first
attempt to develop the prospect at the end of the 1970s quickly failed, and the site
was abandoned for many years.
The winter road extends from Nahanni Butte to the mine site. It crosses the main
karst belt between the first and second of the three poljes in the northern quarter,
descending silt and shale terraces from Mosquito Lake onto the limestone and then
climbing out west again to traverse further glacial silt terraces. There are more than
50 suffosion sinkholes in silt or shale along or close to its route. It is certain that any
spillage of hazardous substances along this sector of the road must enter the karst
aquifer draining to Bubbling Springs unless it can be cleaned up entirely at the sur-
face. There have been no studies of the aquatic fauna in the aquifer; if such fauna
exist, past precedent suggests that they will include new species.
Prairie Creek Mine is not yet developed. A more obvious and immediate hazard
in the karst, as it is in many other places in arctic and sub-arctic Canada, is the
accelerating melting of permafrost to produce sinkholes, rotational slumps, land-
slides, and debris flows, some of them with catastrophic rapidity. In areas of karstic
Fig.19.12 A very recent landslide into the head of the Second Polje (inundated) in the Nahanni
main karst belt. The slide is caused by the melting of permafrozen silt in a glaciolacustrine terrace
overlying the karst. It has already filled a smaller limestone sink in the lower centre of the frame.
There are further, smaller slides from silt and shale slopes to the right. The photograph was taken
from a passing helicopter on 15 September 2009 (Courtesy of Parks Canada)
drainage in the Nahanni and Ram basins, the author noted the occurrence of at least
40 new slides between finishing spells of work there in 1978 and returning in
20062010. Most of them probably occurred since around 1990 because they
are still active. Melting is taking place chiefly in the glacial lake silts because these
are particularly frost susceptible. But it is also apparent on steep slopes of the
shale bedrocks above the Nahanni limestone, as is seen in Fig.19.10. The greatest
slide, by volume, occurred during or shortly after heavy rains in the Summer of
2009, when the edge of a silt terrace overlooking the second polje collapsed and
many thousands of tonnes of melting silt blocks and slurry engulfed the approaches
to the polje and then entered it (Fig.19.12). There was subsidiary sliding on the
underlying shale slopes. The author inspected the site at the beginning of July
2010, when it was seen that all the headward parts of the slide remained unstable
and will likely fail again in future heavy rains. The winter road passes close to this
slide and is threatened. There have also been other slides near it in the vicinity of
Mosquito Lake. Continuous turbidity in one of the largest springs of the Bubbling
Springs group is attributed to melting slurry entering the aquifer from some fur-
ther, unknown site on the southwest flank of Ram Plateau. The melting is caused
436 D. Ford
primarily by regional warming that appears to be taking place at a rapid pace across
Northern Canada (Ford et al. 2010). As noted above, it is probably abetted by
increases in the magnitude and frequency of severe summer rain storms due to the
increase in the seasonally ice-free surface on the Beaufort Sea.
19.8Conclusions
The case for the inclusion of the Ram River basin within an expanded South Nahanni
National Park was argued primarily on the basis of the variety and continuity of the
karst terranes that extend across both basins, and their global significance as the
most complex limestone karst topography yet reported from any part of the arctic or
sub-arctic regions. The magnificence of the Ram Plateau and Tower Anticlines and
their canyons was a strong supporting factor. The inclusion was signed into law in
June 2009. The first steps to publicize, display, and manage the karst lands while
maintaining their integrity as a true natural wilderness are being made currently.
Global warming is impacting the karst by melting permafrost, which induces land-
slides and slumps. Possible development of a zinc/silver mine on Prairie Creek, a
north bank tributary immediately west of the Ram basin, threatens to pollute the
South Nahanni River itself and its access road poses hazards to the northern half of
the main karst aquifer.
Acknowledgements The authors debt here is primarily to his students and other companions in
the field in the beautiful but remote South Nahanni country. Over the years many officers of Parks
Canada have given valuable advice, technical and financial support for the work in the karst lands,
and have always backed the case for their inclusion in the expanded national park, as have the
people of the DehCho First Nation. The Canadian Parks and Wilderness Society helped the cause
of all of the expansion with its vigorous campaigning.
References
Brook GA (1976) Karst terrains of the South Nahanni area, Mackenzie Mountains, N.W.T. PhD
thesis, McMaster University. 627 p
Brook GA, Ford DC (1978) The nature of labyrinth karst and its implications for climaspecific
models of tower karst. Nature 275(5260):493496
Brook GA, Ford DC (1980) Hydrology of the Nahanni Karst, northern Canada, and the importance
of extreme summer storms. J Hydrol 46:103121
Brown MC, Wright D (1979) The geography of rabbitkettle hotsprings, S. Nahanni National Park
Reserve, NWT. Unpublished report to Parks Canada. 177 p
Canadian Parks and Wilderness Society (2001) Greater ecosystem key to protecting Nahannis
future. Ottawa. 24 p
Ford DC (1973) Development of the canyons of the south Nahanni River, N.W.T. Can J Earth Sci
10(3):366378
Ford DC (1974a) Geomorphology of South Nahanni National Park, N.W.T., Contract 72-32B,
Parks Canada, 186 p, 7 map plates
Ford DC (1974b) Evidences of multiple glaciation in South Nahanni National Park, Mackenzie
mountains, N.W.T. Can J Earth Sci 13(10):14331445
Ford DC (1991) Antecedent canyons of the South Nahanni River. Can Geogr 35(4):426431
Ford DC (2010) Notes and suggestions for the development of walks and backpack treks in the
karst areas of the expanded South Nahanni National Park. Report to Parks Canada, 16 p
Ford DC, Williams PW (2007) Karst hydrogeology and geomorphology, vol xiii. Wiley, Chichester,
563 p
Ford JD, Keskitalo ECH, Smith T etal (2010) Case study and analogue methodologies in climate
change vulnerability research. Clim Chang 1:374392
Harmon RS, Ford DC, Schwarcz HP (1977) Interglacial chronology of the Rocky and Mackenzie
mountains based upon 230/Th234 U dating of calcite speleothems. Can J Earth Sci
14(11):25432552
Hyndman RD, Flck P, Mazzotti S et al (2005) Current tectonics of the northern Canadian
Cordillera. Can J Earth Sci 42:11171136
Patterson RM (1966) The dangerous river. Grays Publishing, Sidney, 272 p
Schroeder J (1977) Les formes de glaces des grottes de la Nahanni, T.N.-O. Can J Earth Sci
14(5):11791185
Schroeder J (1979) Le dveloppement des grottes dans la rgion du Premier Canyon de la rivire
Nahanni Sud, T.N.-O. University of Ottawa, PhD thesis, 265 p
Chapter 20
Protection of Karst Landscapes
in the Developing World: Lessons
from Central America, the Caribbean,
and Southeast Asia
Michael Day
Abstract Protection of karst landscapes in the developing world faces significant

physical and human obstacles. Recognition of karst is not always straightforward, in
part because there is much topographic and environmental heterogeneity. Protection
of karst is often indirect in that the karst is protected because of its biological
diversity, resources, anthropological significance, or aesthetic appeal. Although the
designation of protected karst areas has been recognized as imperative, much of the
karst is under increasing anthropogenic pressure. National efforts are highly variable,
and there is little regional integration. Different karst styles are represented unevenly
in protected areas, with emphases on spectacular forms, upland areas, and coasts.
Protected area legislation is often inadequate and enforcement is constrained by
conflicting priorities. Local populations can play important roles, particularly in
boundary determinations. Protected karst areas need to be integrated into regional
land use management, but the status of many protected karst areas is volatile.
20.1Introduction
Approximately half of global karst landscapes are located in the developing

world, where they play a critical part in water conservation and the maintenance of
biodiversity and important but diverse roles in human activities such as forestry, water
supply, agriculture, and tourism (Day 1993, 2007a, 2009). Similarly, the developing
world contains some of the most significant protected karst areas, including many
national parks, nature reserves, and UN World Heritage sites. At the same time,
many of these karst landscapes have been the subject of only cursory scientific
M. Day (*)
Department of Geography, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee,
P.O. Box413, Milwaukee, WI 53201, USA

440 M. Day
research, and few of them have received the holistic scientific investigation that
they warrant. In this respect, their conservation is all the more important, and
their management needs to take into account both their unique ecology and their
disparate cultural settings. Here, the protected karst areas of Central America, the
Caribbean, and Southeast Asia are examined to provide broader lessons about
karst conservation and management in the developing world, where ecological and
human sustainability are increasingly challenged by human population growth and
anthropogenic environmental impacts (Day 2009, and 2010).
20.2Central America, the Caribbean, and Southeast Asia
Central America, the Caribbean, and Southeast Asia are among the premier karst
regions of the world with a combined carbonate rock area, excluding China, of
over 750,000 km2 (Day and Urich 2000; Kueny and Day 1998, 2002). In 1997, the
IUCN World Commission on Protected Areas (WCPA) recognized karst landscapes
as significant target areas for protection (Watson etal. 1997), and at about the
same time, regional concerns about protecting the environment and establishing
protected areas began to gain support in the developing world through both govern-
ment and nongovernment efforts. The World Conservation Monitoring Centre
(WCMC) has compiled a worldwide database of protected areas (WCMC 2010),
but it does not specifically identify protected karst areas in its database. This report
is an assessment of karst protection in the developing world, building on prior
regional studies.
Information about the regional karst in Central America, the Caribbean, and
Southeast Asia is available from numerous and diverse sources, including geolo
gical maps, atlases, and previous research (Day and Urich 2000; Kueny and Day
1998, 2002). Although much of the regional karst is striking and well documented,
some exhibit more subtle karst characteristics and are relatively poorly known.
To ensure consistency, it is assumed here that all expanses of carbonate rocks
indicated in geological sources do in fact represent karst landscapes, an assumption
that appears justified by several decades of personal experience (Day 2000).
Reliable information about protected areas is more difficult to acquire, particu-
larly given the wide array of protected area legislation, variations in terminology
and size, and the difficulties of verification. The primary source of information is
the United Nations (UN) List of Protected Areas maintained and updated by the
WCMC (WCMC 2010). This is supplemented by information for separate regions
and individual countries, such as that contained in Thorsell (1985a), WCMC (1992),
and Hopkins (1995). Information about additional protected areas, which do not
conform to UN recognition criteria, can be obtained from individual government
sources and other studies. A protected area is a clearly defined geographical space,
recognised, dedicated and managed, through legal or other effective means, to
achieve the long term conservation of nature with associated ecosystem services
and cultural values. (WCMC 2010). However, in light of varying protected areas
20 Protection of Karst Landscapes in the Developing World 441
criteria and terminology regionally and nationally throughout the developing world,
a protected area is defined here as any unit of land, regardless of size or legal status,
which is managed with primary concern for conservation. As such, protected areas
incorporate national, state and private parks, and forests, wildlife, forest, and arche-
ological reserves.
20.3Karst in Central America, the Caribbean,

and Southeast Asia
Carbonate rocks in Central America and the Caribbean are relatively young, rang-
ing from Quaternary to Jurassic in age (0200 ma BP). Some Southeast Asian car-
bonates are within the same age range, but others are as old as the Cambrian (500
ma BP). In these tropical settings, dissolution has produced karst landscapes
including dry valleys, dolines, cockpits, poljes, towers, pinnacles, and extensive
cave systems. The karst lands are extremely heterogeneous with respect to geo-
logic and geomorphic factors, and climate, soils, biota, and human histories are
also variable, leading to a wide range of specific karst environments. The most
impressive karst is developed in the older, uplifted, fractured, and crystalline
limestones of Southeast Asia, the Central American mainland, and the Greater
Antilles. Reflecting the broader geologic histories of the regions, some carbonates
are covered by volcanic ash, some are brecciated and others have been exten-
sively folded and faulted. Karst elevations range from sea level up to 4,000m;
some are mountainous, others planar; some are hydrologically isolated, while
others receive allogenic drainage from adjacent nonkarst terranes. The karst
landscapes have been and still are influenced by regional tectonic, eustatic, and
climatic changes (Day 1993; Day and Urich 2000).
In general, the tropical humid climate results in very efficient and rapid karsti-
fication, and virtually all regional carbonate rocks have been affected by karst
processes and/or have developed karst landforms (Day 2000). Soils are extremely
variable, but generally tend to be clay rich, heavily leached, patchy, and thin, except
in depression and valley bases, where they are thicker. Steep slopes may have no
soil cover except in joints and solutional pockets. Differences in climate, vegetation,
age, and relief account for major differences in regional karst soil types, and many
soils have been altered by human agricultural practices. The natural karst land
vegetation varies from xerophytic scrub to dry and wet tropical broadleaf forest,
including both deciduous and evergreen trees, although much of the original forest
has been cleared, with only fragments remaining in remote karst areas. Wet/dry
seasonality is an important aspect of many of the karst ecosystems. Central America,
the Caribbean, and Southeast Asia also support diverse wildlife assemblages and
specifics of the regional karst land ecologies warrant additional studies. Biological
significance is a major factor in designation of protected areas within the karst
(Vermuelen and Whitten 1999; Wong etal. 2001; Schilthuizen etal. 2005; Clements
etal. 2008; Struebig etal. 2009).
442 M. Day
90 80 70 60
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Fig.20.1 Karst areas in Central America and the Caribbean
Human impact on the karst has been long term and severe, in particular through
forest clearance, settlement, species introduction, hunting and gathering, agriculture,
the pet trade, degradation of water resources, and industrial activities, including
mining and quarrying (Day 1993; Vermuelen and Whitten 1999; Wong etal. 2001;
Hobbs 2004). Important archeological sites, both surface and subterranean, are
significant facets of many of the karst lands, and indigenous populations are locally
significant. Contemporary threats to the karst include quarrying, urbanization,
agricultural expansion, logging, and unsustainable tourism (Day 2007b and 2010,
Molerio Leon and Parise 2009; Parise 2010).
The most extensive Central American karst, excluding the Yucatan, is in
Guatemala and Belize, where cockpit, tower and other karst, developed in Cretaceous
and Tertiary carbonates, extends over nearly 20,000 km2 (Fig.20.1). Honduras has
three major karst areas covering ~10,000 km2, and there are also significant karst
areas in Nicaragua and throughout Costa Rica (Troester et al. 1987). There are
several small karst areas in Panama, and one small area in El Salvador (Day 2007a).
The greatest extent of karst in the Caribbean is on the islands of the Greater Antilles
(Cuba, Hispaniola, Jamaica, and Puerto Rico) with a total karst area of ~115,000 km2
(Fig.20.1). The Islands of the Bahamas, the Lesser Antilles, Trinidad, Tobago, and
the Netherlands Antilles contain an additional 13,000 km2 of karst (Day 1993;
Tarhule-Lips 2004).
Karst is widespread throughout Southeast Asia, with significant contiguous
karst areas of over 5,000 km2 occurring on the Asian mainland and New Guinea,
and smaller patches, typically no more than 2,0003,000 km2 occurring on the
carbonate islands of the Sunda and Sahul platforms and adjacent to the regions
INDIA
CHINA
Consolidated Carbonate
HONG KONG
Sediments
MYANMAR
Active Younger Arcs
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Fig.20.2 Karst areas in Southeast Asia
volcanic island arcs (Day and Urich 2000; Gillieson 2005) (Fig. 20.2). There is
considerable karst in Burma (Tin and Si Si 2004) and Thailand (Gillieson 2005),
with other significant areas in Laos (Kiernan 2009), Vietnam (Tuyet etal. 2004),
Cambodia, and peninsular Malaysia (Gillieson 2005).
20.4Protection of Developing Karst Landscapes
With a total land area of nearly 6million km2 and a population approaching 800mil-
lion people, human pressures on the karst in Central America, the Caribbean, and
Southeast Asia are severe, although most nations now recognize the importance of
resource protection for environmental, economic, and social reasons. Protected
areas are critical tools for long-term conservation of nature with associated ecosys-
tem services and cultural values (WCMC 2010).
The importance of karst landscape protection was highlighted in 1997 by the
International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN)
Working Group on Cave and Karst Protection (Watson et al. 1997). Significant
rationales for the protection of karst landscapes include the following:
As habitats for endangered species of flora and fauna
As areas possessing rare minerals and/or unique landscape features
As important historic and prehistoric areas with cultural importance
444 M. Day
As important areas for scientific study across a variety of disciplines

As religious and spiritual areas
As areas of specialized agriculture and industry
As important areas to the understanding of regional hydrology
As recreation and tourism areas with important economic and aesthetic value
Many different protected area designations and definitions have been implemented
because protected area systems vary from one country to another depending upon
the countries needs and priorities, laws regarding natural areas and resources, and
financial and institutional support. The WCMC database includes many regional
sites which do not qualify for inclusion in the UN List because of size constraints.
The 1,000 ha minimum area requirement is particularly relevant to small countries,
including many in the developing world, where landscapes are of restricted expanse.
Protected areas legislation throughout the developing world is highly variable
as a result of the multiplicity of sovereign nations, government agencies, and
nongovernment organizations (NGOs). IUCN/WCPA has organized regional com-
missions and regional bodies such as the Association of Southeast Asian Nations
(ASEAN) Environment Program and the Caribbean Conservation Association Act
as regional arbiters of conservation strategies, but individual countries levels of
participation in regional programs are highly variable. International treaties, such as
the UN Convention for the Protection of World Natural and Cultural Heritage, have
been adopted throughout Central America, the Caribbean, and Southeast Asia, and the
UNESCO Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Program has been adopted by all except
Laos. Regional summaries for Central America, the Caribbean, and Southeast Asia
are available in Guerrero and Sguerra (2009), WCPA (2007), and McNeely (1994);
individual country information is provided by IUCN (1982) and WCPA (2010).
In some Asian countries, protection of wildlife has a long tradition, associated
particularly with Buddhist religious sites (Collins etal. 1991). Elsewhere, throughout
the developing world, many countries inherited colonial legislation that restricted
certain activities in designated areas, especially forest reserves, although this was
largely intended to protect economic rather than environmental interests, particularly
those in timber production and mining. Most protected areas legislation is of
more recent, postindependence vintage, with the majority of countries adopting
late twentieth century constitutional provision for the designation of protected
areas. Throughout Central America, the Caribbean, and Southeast Asia significant
karst landscapes are variously encompassed within national parks (e.g., Tikal in
Guatemala, Viales in Cuba, Gunung Mulu in Malaysia, and Phangnga in Thailand),
forest reserves (e.g., the Chiquibul Reserve in Belize, Rio Abajo in Puerto Rico, and
the Ulu Muda and Gunung Jerai Forest Reserves in Malaysia), wildlife reserves,
refuges and sanctuaries (e.g., Santo Tomas Wildlife Refuge in Cuba and the
Phu Luang Wildlife Sanctuary in Thailand) and other designated protected areas
(e.g., Gran Parque Sierra Maestra in Cuba and the Danum Valley Conservation Area
in Malaysia). Karst lands are present in at least 14 UNESCO World Heritage
Sites, including Viales, Alejandro de Humboldt, Tikal, Darien, La Amistad, Sian
Kaan, Lorentz, Gunung Mulu, and Halong Bay (Williams 2008), several of which
are also MAB Reserves. Much of the Guatemalan Peten karst is incorporated in the
Maya Biosphere Reserve.
The pattern of protected areas legislation throughout the developing world is
highly uneven, with levels of protection reflecting population, economic, and political
pressures. In Central America and the Caribbean, there is significant legislation
protecting karst areas in the Yucatan, Belize, Costa Rica, the Dominican Republic,
and Cuba, but protective legislation is minimal elsewhere. Intermediate situations
pertain, for example, in Honduras, Guatemala, Jamaica, Trinidad, and Puerto Rico
(Kueny and Day 1998, 2002). In Southeast Asia, there is significant legislation pro-
tecting karst areas in Thailand, Vietnam, Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines,
but, by contrast, effective protective legislation is minimal in Burma, Cambodia
and Laos (Day, and Urich 2000). Regionally, there is considerable scope for the
continued development and implementation of effective protected areas legislation,
management policy and enforcement (Margules and Pressey 2000).
Although the regional summaries for Central America (Kueny and Day 2002),
the Caribbean (Kueny and Day 1998) and Southeast Asia (Day and Urich 2000)
have not yet been updated, they themselves made clear the volatility of the situation,
and significant changes have occurred both in individual countries and in broader
regions. In Central America, for example, there have been important developments
in Belize, where the status of several important protected karst areas has changed,
where NGO involvement has increased and where there have been illicit incursions
into several national parks and reserves. In Jamaica, there continues to be debate
and uncertainty about both the present and future status and extent of the Cockpit
Country reserve (Day 2004, 2006; Lyew-Ayee 2005). In Southeast Asia, NGOs
have been lobbying for new karst protected areas: Fauna & Flora International in
Vietnam, The Nature Conservancy in East Kalimantan, Indonesia, and the Malaysian
Karst Society in Malaysia. Malaysia has also established its first Geopark on
Langkawi Island, which includes large areas of karst, and new nature reserves in
karst in Sarawak at Bau and Gunung Kapor. Gunung Buda is under consideration
for designation as a national park and the Sarawak state government has established
a Karst Management Unit within the Parks and Wildlife Division of the Forest
Department (Sarawak Forest Department 2010).
In Central America and the Caribbean, about 33% of the regional land area, a
total of 285,000 km2, is karst landscape. Karst-protected areas totals for individual
countries and the region as a whole are shown in Table 20.1. In the Caribbean,
there are 166 protected karst areas, collectively encompassing 46,357 km2, ~16% of
the entire regional karst total. The greatest number of protected karst areas in the
Caribbean (62) and the largest total area of protected karst (11,500 km2) are in
Cuba, where ~16% of the total karst is protected. Comparatively, the Dominican
Republic affords protection to a lesser area of karst (4,600 km2) but the four pro-
tected karst areas represent 18.4% of the total karst area. Of the other Caribbean
countries, only the Bahamas and Puerto Rico afford protection to ten or more
karst areas and only the Bahamas protects 10% or more of its total karst landscape
(Table20.1). Karst-protected areas in the remaining Caribbean countries are small,
both in terms of absolute area and proportion of the total.
446 M. Day
Table20.1 Protected karst areas in Central America and the Caribbean

Country Karst area (km2) Protected karst area % Karst protected No. of areas
Anguilla 90 <10 <1 5
Antigua/Barbuda 120 <10 4 3
Bahamas 11,500 1,432 12 10
Barbados 370 <10 3 6
Cayman Is. 200 <10 5 7
Cuba 70,000 11,500 16 62
Dominican Rep. 25,000 4,600 18 4
Guadeloupe 580 <10 0 0
Haiti 10,000 60 1 2
Jamaica 7,500 539 7 6
Neth. Antilles 800 60 5 3
Puerto Rico 2,500 150 4 10
Trinidad/Tobago 750 60 1 7
Belize 5,000 3,400 68 18
Costa Rica 2,000 68 3 5
El Salvador 300 0 0 0
Guatemala 15,000 1,517 10 7
Honduras 10,000 3,500 35 7
Nicaragua 5,000 0 0 0
Panama 2,000 80 4 1
Total 285,000 46,357 166
Source: Kueny and Day 1998, 2002
In Central America, the greatest number of karst-protected areas (18) is in Belize,

where 68% of the karst is protected, with the largest total area of protected karst
(19,351 km2) in the Mexican Yucatan states, where ~18% of the total karst is
protected. Honduras affords protection to seven karst areas, representing 35% of its
total karst. By contrast, in Guatemala, the seven protected karst areas represent only
10% of the national karst total. Karst protected areas in Costa Rica and Panama are
comparatively small, both in area and proportion, and El Salvador and Nicaragua
have yet to designate any karst areas as protected. Costa Rica and Panama both have
extensive national-protected areas systems, but they include only relatively small
areas of karst.
Almost 10% of the Southeast Asian land area, a total of about 458,000 km2, is
karst. Karst-protected area totals for individual Southeast Asian countries and the
region as a whole are shown in Table20.2. Regionally, there are 154 karst-protected
areas, collectively encompassing 51,150 km2, ~12% of the entire regional karst
total. The greatest number of karst-protected areas (44) and the largest total area
of protected karst (22,000 km2) are in Indonesia, where ~15% of the total karst
is protected. Comparatively, Malaysia affords protection to a lesser area of karst
(8,000 km2) but the 28 karst-protected areas represent 45% of the total karst area.
Of other countries, Thailand affords protection to 41 karst areas, representing 25%
of the total karst, and the Philippines protect 29% of their total karst landscape
(Table20.2). Karst-protected areas in Burma, Laos, and Vietnam are comparatively
Table20.2 Protected karst areas in Southeast Asia

Country Karst area (km2) Protected karst area % Karst protected No. of areas
Burma 80,000 650 1 2
Cambodia 20,000 0 0 0
Indonesia 145,000 22,000 15 44
Laos 30,000 3,000 10 10
Malaysia 18,000 8,000 45 28
PNG 50,000 0 0 0
Philippines 35,000 10,000 29 14
Thailand 20,000 5,000 25 41
Vietnam 60,000 4,000 7 15
Total 458,000 53,150 154
Source: Day and Urich 2000
small, both in terms of absolute area and proportion of the total; Cambodia and Papua
New Guinea have yet to designate any karst areas as protected, although differences
in land tenure systems, especially in the latter, mean that effective protection may be
provided through private land ownership rather than through government agencies.
These situations, although specific to the karst, also reflect overall designations
of terrestrial-protected areas according to the UN and the WCMC (Table 20.3).
Note that the UN/WCMC data are constrained by criteria of size and legal status,
meaning that protected areas totals in Tables20.1, 20.2, and 20.3 reflect different
data sets and are not directly comparable. In Southeast Asia, for example, there is
also a relationship, although not always straightforward, between conservation of
forest resources and designation of protected areas within the karst. MacKinnon and
MacKinnon (1986) identify Forest on Limestone as a distinct vegetation category,
assessing the areas and percentages protected by country as follows: Thailand, 200
km2, 100%; the Philippines, 20 km2, 11.1%; Malaysia, 240 km2, 9.7%; Indonesia,
3,700 km2, 3.3%; Vietnam, 210 km2, 2.1%; and Laos, 0 km2, 0%. More broadly,
overall regional-protected area percentages and those for protected karst show similar
magnitudes and trends, as follows: Caribbean overall 11.7% (14% karst), Central
America 24.8% (18%), and Southeast Asia 14.8% (12%) (IUCN 2003; Day and
Urich 2000; Kueny and Day 1998, 2002).
20.5Significant Protected Karst Areas
In the Caribbean and Central America, the 16% of the karst that is afforded protected
area status includes some individual karst areas that are extensive and significant in
terms of scientific, cultural, and recreational criteria. Most of the 166 karst-protected
areas are so designated because of their specific biological, archeological, or
recreational significance, and few are recognized on the basis of geomorphic
criteria. Indeed, it is unclear whether it is even recognized that some protected areas
contain karst.
448 M. Day
Table20.3 National terrestrial protected areas summary statistics

Country Protected area (km2) No. of areas protected % protected
Anguilla 10 6 11
Antigua/Barbuda 45 12 10
Bahamas 1,549 43 11
Barbados 1 7 2
Cayman Is. 153 33 58
Cuba 20,829 71 19
Dominican Rep. 13,850 59 29
Guadeloupe 299 21 18
Haiti 73 8 <1
Jamaica 2,297 71 21
Neth. Antilles 63 11 8
Puerto Rico 603 50 7
Trinidad/Tobago 1,796 64 35
Belize 10,227 99 45
Costa Rica 15,846 165 31
El Salvador 281 77 1
Guatemala 35,641 163 33
Honduras 23,531 77 21
Nicaragua 22,007 74 17
Panama 21,205 53 28
Burma 45,024 49 7
Cambodia 43,399 30 24
Indonesia 299,925 469 16
Laos 37,545 25 16
Malaysia 66,972 684 20
PNG 44,882 67 10
Philippines 51,461 204 17
Thailand 104,452 206 20
Vietnam 18,621 116 6
Source: WCMC 2008
In Central America, the Yucatan Peninsula is the largest karst area and has the
most protected karst (Table20.1 and Fig.20.1). The largest single protected area is
the 7,232 km2 Calakmul Biological Reserve in Campeche, which adjoins the Maya
Biosphere Reserve in Guatemala. The states of Quintana Roo and Yucatan each
contain at least three karst-protected areas (Kueny and Day 2002).
Belize has the highest level of karst protection in Central America (Day 1996),
including the Chiquibul National Park, which encompasses 1,865 km2 in the
Western Cayo District. The park contains the Caracol Archeological Reserve, as
well as portions of the Chiquibul Cave System, the longest known cave system
in Central America (Miller 2000). The Rio Bravo Conservation and Management
Area (1,010 km2) in the Orange Walk District is managed by the Program for Belize,
an NGO. Other significant karst-protected areas include forest reserves, nature
reserves, and smaller national parks (Day 1996). Guatemala has 1,517 km2 of
protected karst contained in seven protected areas. The Rio Chiquibul-Montanas
Mayas Biosphere Reserve (619 km2) is the largest contiguous karst-protected area in
Guatemala and adjoins the Vaca Forest Reserve in Belize. Rio Chiquibul-Montanas
Mayas is part of the Maya Biosphere Reserve (18,449 km2), the largest protected
area in Guatemala, established in 1990 and located in the Department of Peten. The
Reserve contains many important archeological sites, including Tikal National Park,
but it remains under great pressure from unauthorized agricultural clearance.
Proposed agreements between Belize, Guatemala, and Mexico are designed to protect
the border areas between the three countries. An international-protected area in the
Gran Petn would include Calakmul, Rio Bravo, Chiquibul, and Chiquibul-Montanas
Mayas (WCMC 1992; Kueny and Day 2002).
The largest karst-protected area in Honduras covers 2,400 km2 within the Patuca
National Park and Tawahka Anthropological Reserve, in the Cordillera Entre Rios
and the Montanas de Colon in Southeastern Honduras. Patuca National Park
contains ~1,600 km2 of karst and Tawahka Anthropological Reserve ~800 km2 of
karst. Other karst-protected areas are Sierra de Agalta National Park, Pico Pijol,
Cerro Azul Copan, and Santa Barbara National Parks, and the Cuevas de Taulabe
National Monument. Costa Rica has ~2,000 km2 of karst landscape distributed in
small areas throughout the country (Mora 1992). The largest karst-protected area is
the Isla del Coco National Park in the Pacific Ocean off the Peninsula de Nicoya. On
the Peninsula de Nicoya, karst is protected within the Barra Honda National Park
and the three relatively small karst-protected areas of Cabo Blanco Nature Reserve,
Ostional National Park, and Curu National Park.
In the Caribbean, the inherent characteristics of karst landscapes are recognized
most explicitly in Cuba, where several protected areas, totaling over 500 km2, are
designated as specific karst reserves. Karst in Cuba is deemed important historically,
culturally, economically, hydrologically, and aesthetically, and its conservation is
emphasized (Nuez Jimenez 1984; Tyc 2004). It is not coincidental that Cuba has
the highest rates of karst-protected area designation in the Caribbean (Table20.1).
Some 225 km2 of protected karst is in the classic tower karst area in the province of
Pinar del Rio, and the tower karst near Viales is recognized for its scenic beauty.
The karst of the Gran Parque Sierra Maestra is designated an Integrated Management
Area incorporating both inviolable reserves and development areas.
Hispaniola contains the second largest area of karst in the Caribbean, with 13%
incorporated into six designated protected areas. The Massif del, a Hotte karst
aquifer in Haiti, is protected because of its importance to the water supply of
Port au Prince (WCMC 1992); otherwise, less than 1% of Haitis karst is afforded
protection. Los Haitises National Park is the largest karst-protected area in the
Dominican Republic, covering over 1,500 km2. It is in part protected for its karstic
formations but is under extreme pressure from rural populations clearing forests for
farming and grazing land (Brothers 1997). Karst is also protected in Jaragua National
Park, Sierra Bahoruco, and Del Este National Park.
The ten karst-protected areas in Puerto Rico encompass just 150 km2 of land
including the Mona Island Nature Reserve (56 km2). The UN List of Protected Areas
does not include some 100 km2 of karst in seven state forests that are included in the
total in Table20.1. The largest of these is the Rio Abajo State Forest with ~40 km2
450 M. Day
of karst south of Arecibo. Other karst-protected areas are relatively small and also not
included in the UN List. Less than 5% of the Puerto Rican karst is afforded pro-
tected area status, but there are plans to expand this significantly (Lugo etal. 2001).
Urbanization is a particular threat, but local conservation efforts are increasingly
effective (Mujica-Ortiz and Day 2001).
The six karst-protected areas in Jamaica also encompass surprisingly limited
areas, containing 539 km2, just 7% of the total karst. The World-renowned Cockpit
Country (223 km2), designated as a Forest Reserve in 1950, has long been under
consideration as a national park, and has been mooted as a World Heritage site
(Eyre 1995; Chenoweth etal. 2001; Day 2004, 2006). Conservation efforts at
the local, national, and international level are increasing, but the area is under
pressure from encroaching agricultural activities (Miller 1998) and is threatened by
bauxite mining. Karst is also incorporated within the Blue Mountains-John Crow
Mountains National Park (419 km2) and within several small forest reserves.
Most of the ten karst-protected areas in the Bahamas are at or below sea level
and incorporate underwater cave systems, notably that within Lucayan National
Park on Grand Bahama. The largest karst-protected areas are Inagua National Park
(743 km2), Exuma Land and Sea National Park (455 km2) and Abaco National Park
(205 km2). In total, some 12% of the karst is designated as protected areas, many of
which have been established for the protection of marine bird colonies.
Elsewhere in the Caribbean, karst-protected areas are few in number (22),
restricted in area (totaling ~160 km2) and account for less than 7% of the remaining
karst landscape. In Northern Trinidad, seven karst areas are incorporated into forest
reserves, totaling about 60 km2 (Day and Chenoweth 2004). Notable karst is present
in the St. David, Matura and Valencia Forest Reserves. On the smaller islands,
restricted karst areas are included in small parks, gardens, and cave reserves.
Although only 12% of Southeast Asias karst landscape is afforded protected
area status, this total includes some individual karst areas that are extensive and
significant in terms of scientific, cultural, and recreational criteria. While the majority
of the 154 karst-protected areas are so designated because of their specific biological,
archeological, or recreational significance, a few are recognized on the basis of
stricter geomorphic criteria, acknowledging the intrinsic value of karst landscapes
themselves.
Indonesia, by far the largest country in the region, with a land area of nearly 2m
km2, protects the largest number of karst areas (44) and the largest area of karst
(22,000 km2), although only 15% of the total karst area. Much of the protected karst
is in Irian Jaya, for example, in the Lorentz National Park and in the Misool Selatan
and Pulau Waigeo Nature Reserves. Relatively little karst is protected in Java,
Kalimantan, and Sumatra, but there are numerous small karst-protected areas in the
Moluccas and the Lesser Sunda Islands. Many more protected areas are proposed
(Collins etal. 1991; MacKinnon 1997).
Karst is protected within 21 of Thailands national parks, with notably large areas
in Erawan, Kaeng Krachan, Khao Lunag, Khao Sok, Khao Yai, and Sai Yok. Three
National Marine Parks - Tarutao, Phi Phi-Hat Nopparat Thara, and Koh Surin also
encompass extensive karst. The Ao Phangnga National Park includes impressive
marine tower karst (Uhlig 1994). Karst is also protected within the Thungyai-Huai
Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuaries, which constitute a UN World Natural Heritage
Site and represent the largest conservation area in mainland Southeast Asia, covering
some 6,000 km2. Numerous caves are also conserved as archeological, religious,
and tourist sites (Dunkley 1995; Vermeulen and Whitten 1999).
The intrinsic and diverse value of karst landscapes is recognized particularly in
Malaysia, where ~8,000 km2 is protected in national parks, forest reserves, wildlife
reserves and sanctuaries, and other conservation areas. It is not coincidental that
Malaysia has the greatest proportion of protected karst in Southeast Asia (Table20.2).
Caves and karst are important culturally, economically, and aesthetically, and more
than a dozen important caves are conserved for archeological, religious, and tourism
purposes, including the caves in the Niah and Mulu National Parks. Langkawi
Geopark, Malaysias first UNESCO Geopark, established in 2007, includes over
400 km2 of karst.
Vietnams first national park, Cuc Phuong, was established in 1962 and a national
system of protected areas has been established since 1980. Seven of Vietnams
nine national parks, including Cuc Phuong, encompass karst landscape, and karst
constitutes about 65% of the total national park area. Additionally, karst covers
about 30% of Vietnams nature reserves (Chuyen 1995). Some 100 km2 of karst is
protected in Cat Ba National Park, which is within the Halong Bay UNESCO World
Heritage Site, encompassing some 1,500 km2 of drowned tower karst. Many caves
are protected as natural heritage sites, for example, caves in Ben En National Park
and in Con Dao National Park, for the conservation of the Cave Swift, Colocalia
francina, whose nests are highly priced as the primary ingredient of birds nest soup
(Day and Mueller 2004). Karst is also protected in Phong Nha Nature Reserve, in
the Son Tra Protected Area and in Bach Ma, Ba Vi, and Ba Be National Parks. Even
so, accepting Dos (1998) estimate of the total karst landscape (60,000 km2),
Vietnam affords protected area status to less than 10% of its karst.
Burma (Myanmar) contains the second largest area (80,000 km2) of karst in
Southeast Asia, but less than 1% is incorporated into two designated protected areas,
the Shwe u Daung, and Shwesettaw Game Reserves and in the vicinity of Pindaya
Cave. Some 3,000 km2 of karst are conserved in the protected areas of Laos, notably
in the Khammoune National Park, the Hin Namno Karst Reserve and the Xe
Bang Fai and Vang Vieng Nature Reserves. Numerous caves are protected, at
least nominally, but only about 10% of the total karst in Laos is afforded protection.
Although Papua New Guinea has no integrated protected areas system, three sites
have been nominated for World Heritage status (Williams 2008).
The situation in the Philippines is in some respects the most confusing, both
because the legal basis for protected areas is complex and because administrative
responsibility is vested in a multitude of management units (Restificar etal. 2006).
Fifty five percent of the Philippines is Public Land (Kummer 1992), but its con-
servation status is often questionable. It is even unclear exactly how many national
parks exist or what their precise boundaries are (WCMC 1992). Significant karst
is protected within the Puerto Princessa (formerly St. Paul Subterranean River)
National Park on Palawan, within the Central Cebu National Park and in Rajah
452 M. Day
Sikatuna National Park in Bohol. On the last named island, much of the Chocolate
Hills is protected as a Natural Monument (Urich etal. 2001). Quaternary coastal
limestones are conserved within the Tubbataha Reefs National Marine Park. In 1992,
the Philippines adopted a Strategic Environmental Plan for Palawan, A compre-
hensive framework for the sustainable development of Palawan compatible with
protecting and enhancing the natural resources and endangered environment of the
province(Government of the Philippines 1992, p.4). In total, about 29% of
the Philippines karst is designated as protected areas.
20.6Lessons About Karst Protection in the Developing World
Overall, 16% of Central America and the Caribbeans karst landscape is afforded at
least nominal protection under the auspices of protected area status. The 166 karst-
protected areas total 46,357 km2, with the majority in the Central American isthmus
and the islands of the Greater Antilles. There are extensive karst-protected areas in
the Yucatan, Belize, Honduras, Cuba, and the Dominican Republic, with lesser
areas elsewhere. With the exceptions of Nicaragua, El Salvador, and Guadeloupe,
every regional territory has designated at least some karst landscape as protected
area, but in countries such as Guatemala and Jamaica, the proportion of protected
karst is low, and in the smaller Central American countries and Caribbean islands,
both the total area of karst and the proportion protected are minimal.
Similarly, a modest 12% of Southeast Asias karst landscape is designated as
protected areas. The 154 karst-protected areas total about 51,000 km2, with the largest
area, 22,000 km2 (52%), in Indonesia. There are also extensive karst-protected areas
in Malaysia, the Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam, and small areas in Burma and
Laos. Cambodia and Papua New Guinea have yet to designate any karst landscapes
as protected areas. Overall, the total area of karst and the proportion designated as
protected areas are minimal.
In the broader conservation context, the karst-protected area percentage for
Central America, the Caribbean, and Southeast Asia slightly exceeds the figure of
1012% that is sometimes suggested as the near-term land area protection target
for nations and ecosystems (Noss 1996). The relevance of such low numerical
targets is, however, questionable (Soule and Sanjayan 1998) and the regional situa-
tions mask considerable internal variation, some of which gives rise to concerns.
Much karst is poorly recognized at the national level and many sites of scientific
importance have not been included in protected areas because their significance has
not been brought to the attention of the governments concerned (Williams 2008).
Also, although the focus here is on the karst itself, it is important not to lose sight of
the holistic scenario of protected areas, of which karst is but a part (Day 2009).
Regional-protected area percentages (with karst-protected percentages for com-
parison) are as follows: Caribbean 11.7% (14% karst), Central America 24.8%
(18%), Southeast Asia 14.8% (12%) (IUCN 2003; Day and Urich 2000; Kueny and
Day 1998, 2002).
Much of the karst is protected because of its biodiversity, its natural resources,
and its cultural and archeological significance, often without explicit recognition of
its distinctive geomorphology and hydrology (Thorsell 1985a, b; Vermeulen and
Whitten 1999; Wong etal. 2001; Clements etal. 2006). One exception to this is in
Cuba, where the scientific merit of karst lands is a central focus of government and
education (Parise and Valdes Suarez 2005). A similar situation pertains in Southeast
Asia, where only in Gunung Mulu, in Sarawak, is karst science stressed. Governments
have an important role to play in karst protection, although other entities and factors
are also involved. The high levels of karst protection in Cuba are a direct reflection
of government priorities, and in Belize, they reflect a national focus on ecotourism
and a national commitment to protected area establishment. Another important
factor is Belizes low population density, which stands in marked contrast to that of
other developing countries. Although detailed analysis of the factors influencing the
differing levels of karst land protection has not yet been undertaken, population
pressure would appear to be an important factor.
One concern is that little consideration has been given nationally or regionally to
the protection of different or representative karst types, and much of the protected
karst is in interior, upland locations, such as the Vaca Plateau in Belize, the Cockpit
Country of Jamaica, Lorentz National Park in Indonesia and Cuc Phuong in Vietnam,
which in part reflects the relative isolation of those areas. Polygonal or cockpit karst
appears to be quite well represented in protected areas, but doline and dry valley karst
is less well represented and lowland karst, including poljes and tower karst areas,
which is a target for agriculture, industry, and urban growth, is underrepresented in
protected areas. Even where such karst is incorporated into protected areas, such as
in HaLong Bay, there remain serious conflicts between competing interests, such as
urban development, mining, shipping, and tourism (Lloyd and Morgan 2008).
An international survey of karst World Heritage sites (Williams 2008) reveals similar
gaps in geographical and environmental coverage, with the Southern Hemisphere
poorly represented, especially in South America, Africa, Australasia, and the South
Pacific, and North, Central, and South Asia and the Middle East underrepresented
in the Northern Hemisphere. Environmentally, there is relatively poor representation
of arid, semiarid, and periglacial environments. IUCN recommends that these gaps
be filled, but the global socio-political scale is not, however, easily reconciled with
national, and local priorities, which are themselves highly contested.
So far, there has been little international cooperation between developing coun-
tries in the designation of trans-boundary karst-protected areas. This is increasingly
necessary for World Heritage designation because humid tropical karst is already
well represented (Williams 2008) but its precursors include stable and friendly
governments, effective national legislation and precise identification of suitable
sites. The proposed international-protected area in the Gran Petn would encompass
extensive karst in Mexico, Guatemala, and Belize, and there are possibilities
elsewhere in Central America in Darien (Panama and Colombia) and La Amistad
(Costa Rica and Panama). In mainland Southeast Asia, there is considerable
trans-border potential, although in the insular Caribbean and Southeast Asia the
possibilities are more limited: across the borders between Haiti and the Dominican
454 M. Day
Republic and between Indonesia and Malaysia in Borneo. There is increasing

emphasis on protection of marine karst, for example on the Belize Barrier Reef
and in Thailand and the Philippines, and there is considerable scope for integration
of marine and terrestrial karst-protected areas. The potential for regional karst
designation, for example in the Caribbean or Southeast Asia, appears remote,
especially with the pending second phase of the South China Karst World Heritage
nomination (Williams 2008).
Much protective legislation in the developing world is inadequate, and enforcement
is often constrained by inadequate knowledge, economic and personnel conditions
and because of conflicting priorities (McNeeley and Miller 1984; Thomas and
Middleton 2003; Hockings etal. 2006). Inadequacies arise at policy, planning, and
management levels, and there is often inadequate coordination between agencies
and individuals, even in countries with integrated protected areas networks, such as
Belize. Contemporary threats include forest clearance, agricultural incursion, urban
expansion and development, quarrying and mining, water contamination, invasive
species, and the looting of archeological materials. Management and policing of
karst-protected areas in the developing world is of variable effectiveness and, in
some instances, is nonexistent. Some of the largest and most significant reserves are
the most vulnerable. More detailed field surveys of the extent of karst lands and
protected areas in individual countries are warranted, particularly if the effectiveness
of protection on paper is to be ascertained. This is particularly true in Nicaragua,
Honduras, Burma, and Laos, where there is considerable uncertainty about both the
extent of the national karst and the status of the protected areas.
Local populations can be effective custodians of protected karst, particularly
where they derive incomes from sustainable use of the karst, but they need to be
encouraged and empowered (Urich etal. 2001; Gardner 2009). Local communities
and NGOs have been particularly effective in influencing government protection in
Belize and Costa Rica, and their efforts are being replicated elsewhere, e.g., in
Jamaica, Puerto Rico, Indonesia, and the Philippines. Political instability in countries
such as Honduras, Nicaragua, Burma, Thailand, and the Philippines has not helped
the situation, and infringement on karst-protected areas remains acute in much of
Central America and Southeast Asia.
The establishment of effective boundaries and buffer zones is important, but this
is difficult in small island states particularly (Martin and Piatti 2009). Ecotourism
offers promise as a sustainable and educational land use, but mass tourism is clearly
incompatible with conservation of karst unless it is strictly controlled (Duval 2006).
Low-impact activities such as hiking, bird-watching, caving, and water-based recre-
ation are increasing in many developing karst areas, although they warrant monitoring
(Perez Jimenez etal. 2004; Parise and Valdes Suarez 2005).
The integrity of many karst-protected areas in the developing world is also a
cause for concern. Many karst-protected areas do not encompass the karst as a
whole, and their boundaries are poorly located with respect to karst hydrologic
watersheds, both surface and underground. Some of them are of inadequate sizes,
and others are already degraded or at risk of degradation in the near future. Many
karst areas are highly contested, with increasing pressure for mining and quarrying,
for example, which clearly are incompatible with the maintenance of protected areas.
There is a clear and growing need for consistent monitoring of existing protected
areas (Ward and Harrison 1985)
One other concern is the looming prospect of accelerated anthropogenic environ-
mental change. Much of the karst is inherently vulnerable, and predictions are that
anthropogenic climatic change will lead to increasing air and water temperatures,
rising sea levels and changing weather patterns, with changing precipitation totals
and the increasing frequency of extreme events, such as droughts and hurricanes
(Day and Chenoweth 2009). The effects of these will be magnified in the karst, where
water resources are limiting, and disruption of the karst hydrological cycle may lead
to increasing aridity and desertification, with impacts on geomorphic processes,
ecology, and potential land use. Increasing population and economic development
will exacerbate human impacts through clearing of remaining natural vegetation,
species extinction, or introduction, expanding agriculture, increasing utilization, and
contamination of water resources, tourism, urbanization, and industrial activities,
including quarrying and mining. Appropriate land management and land use plan-
ning, including the expansion and maintenance of protected areas, will play a
significant role in combating these impacts (Day and Chenoweth 2009).
Although this account represents only Central America, the Caribbean, and
Southeast Asia, these are significant portions of the developing world, containing
large areas of karst, high levels of biodiversity, large human populations, and increasing
numbers of protected areas. Accordingly, they are probably representative of the
situations elsewhere in developing karst areas, although there will, of course, be
regional and local variations. The protected areas situation in the developing world
is extremely volatile, with reserves being created and disestablished on a regular
basis. Even within the past decade the numbers, sizes, and status of many countries
karst-protected areas have changed, in some cases dramatically. The numbers pre-
sented here will almost certainly be outdated by the time of publication. The current
levels of protection may increase in terms of area, proportion, and efficacy, or they
may decrease as other pressures on natural resources increase. Protected areas in the
developing karst represent important resources and buffer against environmental
change but, despite considerable progress, the future remains uncertain.
Acknowledgements This work was funded in part by financial support from the Center for Latin
American and Caribbean Studies at the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee and from the
University of Waikato, New Zealand. I am grateful for the assistance of the staff of the American
Geographical Society Collection at the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, especially Patti Day.
Figure20.1 was prepared by the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee Cartographic and GIS Center
and Fig.20.2 by Max Oulton of the Department of Geography, University of Waikato.
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Chapter 21
Karst in UNESCO World Heritage Sites
Paul W. Williams
Abstract This chapter discusses the requirements that must be met and the processes
that must be followed before a natural area can be accepted as being worthy of World
Heritage status under the UNESCO World Heritage Convention. Particular attention
is paid to karst and cave sites. Various types of karst are defined and their existing
representation on the list of World Heritage properties is discussed. This review finds
43 sites to have internationally significant karst features, with 24 of these to have out-
standing universal value. But, it is also evident that numerous important karst areas do
not feature on the World Heritage List, especially in the Middle East and Central Asia.
Major gaps in coverage occur in arid, semiarid, and periglacial environments, and
evaporate karsts are not represented at all. With these gaps in coverage having been
identified, attention then turns to the process of application for World Heritage status
and the various requirements that must be met, including conditions of integrity, man-
agement, and the responsibility of the host state. However, in 2007, the World Heritage
Committee noted that karst systems (including caves) are already relatively well rep-
resented on the World Heritage List, and so there is increasingly limited scope for
recommending future karst nominations. It follows, therefore, that only the best of the
best are worthy of putting forward for consideration.
21.1Introduction
In 1972, member states of UNESCO adopted the Convention Concerning the

Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage. This is known as the World
Heritage Convention, and it was adopted to try to ensure the proper identification,
protection, and conservation of the worlds heritage. The Convention established
the World Heritage Committee and a World Heritage Fund and both have been
P.W. Williams (*)

School of Environment, University of Auckland, Auckland, PB 92019 1142, New Zealand

460 P.W. Williams
in operation since 1976. The World Heritage Committee has developed guidelines
concerning the implementation of the Convention, and these are revised from time
to time (UNESCO 2008). This was accomplished with the professional assistance
of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN), which was
founded in 1948 to encourage societies throughout the world to conserve the integ-
rity and diversity of nature and to ensure that any use of natural resources is equi-
table and ecologically sustainable. IUCN has a formal role as the Advisory Body to
the UNESCO World Heritage Committee and makes recommendations concerning
World Heritage nominations.
World Heritage is concerned with conserving the best that the planet has to offer.
It applies to both cultural and natural features, and the properties on the World
Heritage List can be seen on http://whc.unesco.org/pg.cfm?cid=31. However, this
chapter considers only natural heritage and, specifically, karst landscapes, which
occur mainly on carbonate rocks that cover about 15million km2 of the planet.
At a meeting of the World Heritage Committee in 2007, it was formally noted
that caves and karsts are well represented on the World Heritage List and that in the
interests of maintaining credibility of the List there is increasingly limited scope for
recommending further karst (including cave) nominations. Therefore, it is impor-
tant to assess carefully the potential for nomination of new cave/karst sites by iden-
tifying significant gaps in existing coverage. This chapter will examine that issue
and also consider management concerns relevant to the success of any future nomi-
nations. It draws on previous publications by Hamilton-Smith (2006) and Williams
(2008, 2009).
21.2Karst Landscapes
From the point of view of the World Heritage Convention, where does karst start
and end? The landscape takes its name from a stony limestone region known as
Kras (later Germanicized to Karst) across the border region of Slovenia and Italy
(Gams 1991; Kranjc 2001). This was the place where karst was first scientifically
studied and so is referred to as the classical karst. But in reality, it is part of a
much larger limestone region with a similar style of landscape, known as the Dinaric
Karst, that extends continuously southeast along the Adriatic coast to Montenegro
and beyond. It is the paramount karst of Europe and the type-site of many karst
features. Landforms in other parts of the world that are similar to those found in the
Dinaric Karst are by extension known as karst phenomena.
Karst is found on particularly soluble rocks, especially limestone, marble, and
dolomite (carbonate rocks), and is also developed on gypsum and rock salt (evapo-
rite rocks). Carbonate rocks outcrop across about 11% of the land area, but subsur-
face carbonate rocks involved in karst groundwater circulation considerably extend
the active karst realm to perhaps 14% of the ice-free continental area (Ford and
Williams 2007). Maps and statistics of areas of carbonate rock outcrops around the
world are available from http://www.sges.auckland.ac.nz/sges_research/karst.shtm
21 Karst in UNESCO World Heritage Sites 461
Karst is produced by rainwater dissolving rock, but other natural processes often
intervene, such as river erosion and glaciation, which modify the karst forms and
produce intermediate landscape styles such as fluviokarst, glaciokarst, etc. Most
caves form by dissolution by normal meteoric waters, although some are dissolved
by thermal waters enriched by CO2 and occasionally acidified by oxidized H2S.
These are known as hypogenic caves, and they are considered to be about 1015%
of known caves (Palmer 2007). Other caves form by dissolution at the interface of
fresh and salt water along the coast.
Quartzite fluviokarst is developed on quartzites, dense siliceous sandstones, and
conglomerates and occupies part of the continuum between karst and normal fluvial
landscapes. In thermal waters, the solubility of quartzose rocks approaches that of
carbonate rocks and so solutional caves may form, but this is not the case at normal
temperatures and pressures. In some quartzite terranes, caves develop along the
flanks of escarpments or gorges where deep fractures permit the ingress of water,
and hydraulic gradients are steep. But development of a permanently saturated zone
with water-filled caves and significant water storage (a typical characteristic of
active carbonate karst) is generally precluded. The landforms and drainage charac-
teristics of these siliceous rocks are therefore a style of fluviokarst, i.e., a landscape
and subterranean hydrology that develops within the aerated zone as a consequence
of the essential combined effects of dissolution, mechanical erosion, and transport
by running water.
Outstanding landscapes in quartzites or quartz sandstones and conglomerates
feature on the World Heritage List. These include Purnululu (Australia), Wulingyuan
(China), Meteora (Greece), and Canaima (Venezuela). In addition, there are sand-
stone landscapes with impressive meshes of joint corridors, canyons, and ruiniform
towers elsewhere, such as the Ruined City in Arnhemland, Australia and Danxia
in China. Wray (1997) provides a review.
Pseudokarst is made up of karst-like landforms produced by processes other than
dissolution or dissolution-induced subsidence and collapse. An example is vulca-
nokarst, which comprises tubular caves within lava flows. The roofs of such caves
often suffer mechanical collapse, which creates enclosed depressions and provides
access underground. An outstanding example on the World Heritage List is Jeju
Volcanic Island and Lava Tubes (Korea).
Glaciers also have sinking streams, caves, collapse depressions, and large springs,
but the karst-like features are produced by melting rather than dissolution, so the land-
scape is a glacial pseudokarst. Enclosed collapse depressions can be formed at the
surface when patches of permafrost melt, the pitted karst-like landscape being termed
thermokarst. This will become more prevalent with increased global warming.
From the standpoint of the World Heritage Convention, the paramount issue is
not the precise designation of the landscape being considered -whether it is karst,
fluviokarst, or pseudokarst- but its quality: whether or not it is a superlative natural
landscape and the best of its kind. The convention is concerned above all with con-
serving landscapes that can be considered as possessing outstanding universal value
to mankind in general: the best of the best. To achieve this, IUCN needs to be
informed of what is available to ensure coverage and protection of the best that the
462 P.W. Williams
planet has to offer. However, the nomination of suitable sites is not planned as a
whole; it is an ad hoc process driven by individual sovereign states (States Parties).
Consequently, the most outstanding sites are not necessarily the first to be brought
to the attention of IUCN, and many superb karsts languish without recognition of
their outstanding values and international significance. We are still discovering the
world of karsts and caves and are sometimes waiting for individual states to make
nominations, because it must come from the top with the highest-level political support
and not from grass-root scientists, who can only do their best to press the case.
Karsts around the world also have unusual biological values, because of the
interplay of surface and subsurface environments in the context of widely differing
biogeographical zones (Culver and Pipan 2009). Although the focus of this chapter
is on geodiversity, one must recognize that karsts often have outstanding biodiver-
sity above and below the ground with markedly different species assemblages in
different parts of the world. Endemicity and diversity are the rule, especially in
isolated karsts in the tropics (Clements etal. 2006). The case of East Asia, for exam-
ple, has been described by Vermeulen and Whitten (1999).
21.3World Heritage Coverage of Karst
Under the World Heritage Convention, sovereign states notify UNESCO if they are
considering making a nomination for specific areas within their territory. The prop-
erties so named are then placed on a Tentative List of potential World Heritage sites.
Once on the Tentative List, they then become eligible for later nomination for World
Heritage status. If after its nomination, a property is judged to have outstanding
universal value, then it has the potential to achieve World Heritage status provided
the other legal and administrative requirements are also met.
Karst properties, including caves, on the World Heritage List have been reviewed
by Williams (2008), who identified 43 sites with internationally significant karst
features (Fig.21.1), of which 24 were considered to have karsts of outstanding uni-
versal value. Many of these sites were nominated for their biodiversity values rather
than their karst, but as is the case in the Lorentz National Park of Indonesia, for
example, it also happens to contain karst of international significance.
In addition to sites inscribed on the World Heritage List, there are also 29 proper-
ties on the Tentative List with important karst values. Tentative List properties can be
seen on the World Heritage Center website http://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/.
There are also numerous important karsts that do not feature on either the World
Heritage or the Tentative Lists. For example, huge areas of karst occur in the Middle
East, but are seldom included in nominations because the States Parties concerned
have focused on cultural sites; the well-known Cockpit Country of Jamaica also
does not feature, just to illustrate another case.
World Heritage is concerned with outstanding universal value, which means that
the features of the site are so exceptional that they have a universal significance to all
of mankind, far surpassing their significance to the host country alone. We are dealing
21 Karst in UNESCO World Heritage Sites
Fig.21.1 The geographical distribution of World Heritage properties with outstanding karst values plotted on a world map depicting the distribution of carbon-
ate rocks, the principal host rock for karst. Solid color indicates that carbonates are relatively continuous; pale color depicts areas in which carbonates are
abundant but not continuous. Number 14 occurs 3 times and shows the location of sites in a serial property. For convenience four sites with fluviokarst in quartz
rocks (numbered 5, 12, 21, 43) are also plotted on this map (Modified from Williams and Ford 2006)
463
464 P.W. Williams
Fig.21.2 Karst towers in the Ha Long Bay World Heritage property, Vietnam. They have been
flooded by a combination of tectonic subsidence and post-glacial sea-level rise. The partially
drowned tower karst results in a landscape of hundreds of sheer-sided islands
with the premier rank of natural and cultural features on the planet such as the Grand
Canyon of the USA, the Pyramids of Egypt, and the karst of the Bay of Halong in
Vietnam (Fig21.2). World Heritage sites are simply the best of the best.
There is no reason why regions possessing sites of outstanding universal value
should be spread evenly across the world. Consequently, there is no reason to expect
a uniform coverage of World Heritage sites. This applies particularly to karst where
potential distribution is directed by the outcrop of karst rocks. Nevertheless, there
are large gaps in the geographical distribution of World Heritage karst sites that may
not be because there is no excellent karst in the regions concerned. It may simply be
because it has not been brought to the attention of IUCN. Some countries are more
proactive than others in nominating their sites, often for altruistic reasons but some-
times because of the lure of the dollar: World Heritage status is an important, widely
respected and marketable brand for international tourism.
As is evident from Fig.21.1, there are relatively few World Heritage karst sites in
the southern hemisphere, especially in South America, Africa, Australasia, and the
South Pacific and also in parts of the northern hemisphere, notably Eurasia and the
Middle East. But in addition to gaps in geographical coverage, there are also signifi-
cant gaps in natural environmental distribution. Thus, for example, karst World
Heritage sites are poorly represented in arid, semiarid, and periglacial environments.
There are numerous World Heritage properties with significant karst in humid
temperate and tropical regions, and many of the existing properties include out-
standing caves with rich and varied biota, superb speleothem decoration, and fossil-
rich cave sediment accumulations, and the hydrogeological conditions under which
they evolved encompasses a wide range of genetic conditions. Thus, there is little
scope for justifying inscription of new sites in those environments. Nevertheless, the
ad hoc process of nomination and inscription has led to a suboptimal representation
of karst values.
This is regrettably obvious when considering the Dinaric Karst of Europe, the
features and values of which are completely inadequately represented by three
moderate-to-small sites: Plitvice Lakes (Croatia), Durmitor National Park
(Montenegro), and Skocjan Caves (Slovenia). This is the region from which karst
derives its name: the region in which the ground-breaking research of Jovan Cviji
(Cviji 1893, 1901, 1918) was undertaken at the turn of the nineteenth and twen-
tieth centuries and which gave rise to modern karst science. What areas of the
Dinaric Alps would Cviji have selected to represent the natural heritage of the
Classical Karst?
Although karst is best developed on carbonate rocks, it is also found on other
highly soluble lithologies, notably gypsum and rocksalt. These evaporite lithologies
are highly soluble compared to limestone, and so significant landscapes in them
occur in drier parts of the world. This is particularly the case for rocksalt, which
yields distinctive and spectacular karst landscapes in the arid zone, notably in parts
of Iran (Bosak etal. 1999; Waltham 2007) where salt glaciers or namakiers are
the spectacular surface expression of salt domes as they are extruded by lithostatic
pressure and flow across the surface. There are 130 salt domes of 110km across in
the Southern Zagros mountains and the glaciers extruded from them can extend
to several kilometers. Karst features including caves are well developed where salt
glacier flow is not too active. A carefully selected group of sites that together dem-
onstrate the evolution of namakiers and their landforms could make an excellent
World Heritage nomination.
Gypsum is less soluble than rocksalt and underlies many karst landscapes in
areas that are relatively dry but not necessarily arid (Klimchouk etal. 1996). The
second longest cave in the world, Optimistychna (214km), in Ukraine, is devel-
oped in gypsum and a well-developed landscape of doline karst is found across
the surface above it. Yet, despite the scientific and scenic importance of many of
these sites, karsts on evaporite rocks are totally unrepresented on the World
Heritage List.
Other important karsts contribute to outstanding cultural landscapes, which are
the combined works of nature and man. The Hallstatt-Dachstein/Salzkammergut
Cultural Landscape in Austria provides a good example already inscribed on the
World Heritage List. Meriting further investigation in this context are Les Cevennes
et les Grands Causses (France), the Burren (Ireland), and some sites in China that
could be included in the second part of the South China Karst serial nomination.
The Classical Karst (Slovenia) is of this type and could also contribute to a transna-
tional serial karst nomination.
466 P.W. Williams
21.4Filling the Gaps
From the above discussion, one can conclude that the highest priorities for completion
of a comprehensive range of World Heritage karst sites (including caves) are: (a) to
cover more adequately the karst type region of Europe, (b) to fill gaps in cold, arid,
and tropical oceanic regions and (c) to nominate evaporite karsts.
Several properties on the Tentative List appear to have the potential to fill some
of the gaps noted. These include: Band-E-Amir (Afghanistan), Canyon du Rio
Peruau (Brazil), and Gewihaba (Botswana). The Lijiang River Scenic Zone (China)
and Velebit Mountain (Croatia) might best be presented as parts of serial nomi-
nations within their respective regions (a serial nomination comprises a series of
physically separate sites that are related through the unique contribution that each
makes in conveying the outstanding universal value of the property as a whole;
like chapters in a book that contribute essential parts of the full story).
21.5Proposing an Area for World Heritage
Nominations of sites for inscription on the World Heritage List are made to UNESCO
by the government of the country concerned (the State Party). This is because the
highest level of guarantee and commitment is required for the safeguarding of World
Heritage properties. The process is represented schematically in Fig.21.3. So those
who consider that they have identified an area of outstanding universal value worthy
of World Heritage status must make a case through formal channels in their country
and request their government to send a nomination proposal to UNESCO.
Sometimes the importance of a karst area is first recognized by scientists and
cavers on an expedition in a foreign country, and the local people and authorities
may be unaware of the considerable heritage value of the property within their
territory. In cases where the features of an area are of outstanding importance to
geoscience and are accessible and comprehensible by civil society (and not just of a
specialized scientific value), then such sites could merit inclusion on the Tentative
List of the country concerned, as a precursor to nomination and consideration for
World Heritage. Alerting the government about the significance of such sites is
best done using formal channels provided by government departments and scien-
tific associations, such as the local academy of science or through the services of
international scientific unions (such as the International Geological Union, the
International Association of Geomorphologists, the International Association of
Hydrogeologists, the International Union of Speleology, and the International Union
of Biological Sciences). These are the best sources of objective authoritative scien-
tific information on such sites, and these unions are well placed to judge impartially
the importance of their scientific values compared to other properties on the World
Heritage List and Tentative List. These unions have international standing and so
Fig.21.3 Steps in the

process of proposing and
assessing a property for
world heritage inscription
their opinions and support will be taken seriously by government authorities. They
can also open formal channels of communication.
International scientific unions should therefore be encouraged to convey well-
documented advice on potential Tentative List sites to the IUCN who, after evalua-
tion of the case and the documentation, would convey the advice to the appropriate
State Party for further consideration and possible implementation. International sci-
entific unions would be expected to communicate fully with appropriate national
scientific organizations prior to submitting their proposal to the IUCN.
21.6Requirements for Natural World Heritage Inscription
Advice on what is required for a successful nomination is offered in the publication

by Badman etal. (2008), Natural World Heritage Nominations: A Resource Manual
for Practitioners.
World Heritage sites must possess outstanding universal value, i.e., have a sig-
nificance that extends far beyond the confines of the country in which the property
is located, being of importance to the whole of mankind. The landscape features
concerned must, by comparison with other similar sites, have significance at least
equal to the worlds best. For a potential World Heritage site to be deemed of out-
standing universal value, it must meet UNESCOs conditions of integrity, which is
a measure of the wholeness and intactness of the natural heritage and its attributes,
468 P.W. Williams
and it must also have an adequate protection and management system to ensure its
safeguarding, including formal legal protection.
World Heritage sites must be accessible to the public: accessible both in terms of
physical access and in terms of mental accessibility. People should be able to view,
comprehend, and appreciate the significance of the site, because successful long-
term conservation and management depends upon public understanding of its out-
standing universal value and upon on-going political support. Consequently, small
areas of specialized features, the significance of which is really only understood by
scientists or other specialists are not appropriate for World Heritage, even if they are
extremely rare, fragile, and scientifically important. To use two analogies from
physical and cultural landscapes, we want the whole mountain not just the rare
plants or endangered animals that it contains; we want the whole cathedral not just
its exquisite stained-glass windows. These special and perhaps unique phenomena
may well be eminently worthy of conservation, of course, but their safeguarding is
better achieved using another convention, such as Geoparks (UNESCO 2007) in the
case of geological features. Recognition of geological and geomorphological heri-
tage outside the World Heritage Convention is discussed by Dingwall etal. (2005).
We should also remember that the national park system in many countries provides
excellent management and robust legal protection; so, World Heritage status may
bring little or no enhancement to protection, only prestige.
World Heritage is an important brand with considerable international prestige
and importance for tourism. So, while we may have high altruistic ideals about
conservation for posterity, the principal motivation of some proponents for trying to
secure World Heritage status for a site is often economic and has little to do with
conservation for the sake of our children, letalone our grandchildren. Nevertheless,
we must be realistic, because in poorer countries, this may be the only way in which
investment in the management of an area and the securing of its legal protection can
be obtained. This is a kind of enlightened self-interest, and tourism can raise public
awareness of the importance of a site and thus can contribute to its protection, pro-
vided tourist activity is well managed and carried out in a sustainable manner.
A property nominated for inclusion in the Natural World Heritage List will be
considered to be of outstanding universal value if the World Heritage Committee
finds that it meets one or more of the following criteria, provided it also meets the
conditions of integrity (UNESCO 2008, Clauses 77 and 78):
(vii) To contain superlative natural phenomena or areas of exceptional natural
beauty and aesthetic importance
(viii) To be outstanding examples representing major stages of earths history, includ-
ing the record of life, significant on-going geological processes in the develop-
ment of landforms or significant geomorphic or physiographic features
(ix) To be outstanding examples representing significant on-going ecological and
biological processes in the evolution and development of terrestrial, freshwa-
ter, coastal, and marine ecosystems and communities of plants and animals
(x) To contain the most important and significant natural habitats for in-situ conser-
vation of biological diversity, including those containing threatened species of
outstanding universal value from the point of view of science or conservation
Many scientists recognize that in some karst areas biodiversity has been damaged
through a process of progressive devegetation and soil erosion, termed rocky deser-
tification, which turns a region into an ecological wasteland (see case studies by
Gams etal. 1993 and Yuan 1993). Thus, inscription will most likely only be consid-
ered in relation to criteria (vii) and (viii) above, although exceptionally criteria (ix)
and (x) may apply, especially underground.
21.7Conditions of Integrity
Paragraph 78 of the Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World

Heritage Convention (2008) requires that for a property to be deemed of outstand-
ing universal value it must meet the conditions of integrity and must have an adequate
protection and management system to ensure its safeguarding.
Integrity is defined in Paragraph 88 as a measure of the wholeness and intactness
of the natural heritage and its attributes. However, it is appreciated (Clause 90) by the
World Heritage Committee that no area is totally pristine, that activities of traditional
societies often occur in natural areas, and that these activities may be consistent with
the outstanding universal value of the area where they are ecologically sustainable.
The level of integrity is also an important consideration, because World Heritage
is concerned with best that planet Earth has to offer. Thus, inscribed properties are
expected to meet the highest international standards.
An area nominated for Natural World Heritage may have many superb features
and values, but are the conditions of integrity met? That judgment requires an
assessment of the following:
(a) The wholeness and quality of the natural heritage and its attributes. In the
nominated area, are the features above and below ground the best examples
available? Does the range of features fully represent the karst of the region as a
whole? Are the karst attributes so exceptional as to transcend national boundar-
ies in their significance and be worthy of being designated as of outstanding
universal value? Do they stand up readily to international comparison and could
they be described as the the best of the best?
(b) The intactness of the natural heritage and its attributes. To what extent has
the property suffered from the adverse effects of human development or
neglect, and does the impact now render the property unable to meet the con-
dition of integrity? Is there on-going environmental rehabilitation that will
lead to effective repair of any damage? Does on-going human activity in the
area or in the region around it threaten the long-term sustainability of the
natural ecosystem?
(c) The adequacy of the size of the property. Is the size of the nominated area
sufficient to ensure that on-going natural processes will continue uninterrupted,
so that the regions significant features and values will be maintained for the
foreseeable future? Is there a sufficient buffer zone that might absorb the
impacts of human activities in the surrounding region?
470 P.W. Williams
(d) The prospect of maintaining integrity into the future. Is the World Heritage area
optimally delimited for management? Are the boundaries appropriate for effec-
tive protection of the important karst features of the area: both surface and
underground; both physical and biological? Is the area adequately protected by
effective legislation?
The boundaries of nominated properties require very careful consideration. In
any given country, sites may involve areas of different legal status National Parks,
Geoparks, MAB sites, etc. and the already defined boundaries of these properties
may be used as boundaries of core zones in areas nominated for World Heritage
inscription. However, nature does not recognize administrative boundaries, and
sometimes areas of equal quality to the proposed core zone extend beyond it. Where
possible boundaries should follow natural watersheds (including groundwater
divides), because that will facilitate catchment management, especially through the
control of water quality in recharge zones and the maintenance of high-quality habi-
tat for subterranean species. The largest area practicable should be demarcated to
ensure living space for endangered species above and below ground. If necessary,
legal boundaries should be adjusted to ensure high-level legal status and protection
of the core World Heritage area. This will help obviate future problems and thus
facilitate effective environmental management.
21.8Management Requirements and Structure
This is an important issue for successful World Heritage nomination, because a

property will only be inscribed on the World Heritage List if there is assurance that
it can be safeguarded appropriately both by formal legislation and by adequate man-
agement. For a property to be deemed of outstanding universal value, it not only
must meet UNESCOs conditions of integrity but also must have an adequate pro-
tection and management system to ensure its safeguarding (UNESCO 2008).
The purpose of management of a World Heritage property is to ensure the protec-
tion of its outstanding universal value for the benefit of the present generation, and its
transmission unimpaired to future generations (Thomas and Middleton 2003, p. 65).
World Heritage status often brings considerable tourist pressure that may threaten the
integrity of the site, but with good planning and appropriate practices, tourism in
protected areas can be managed sustainably, as explained by Eagles etal. (2002).
21.9Responsibility of the State Party
The inscription of a property on the World Heritage List implies that the State Party
will carry the ultimate responsibility for management of the site to the highest level
of international conservation practice. It also has responsibility for honoring and
implementing any transboundary agreements.
Management of World Heritage properties requires clear unambiguous authority.

This does not necessarily sit readily with established interests that may operate at
national, provincial (state) and local levels and may involve planning and environ-
mental agencies sometimes with competing and conflicting interests and sensitivi-
ties. Thus, when the World Heritage property is first nominated for inscription, the
State Party should already have made it clear where final responsibilities will rest.
21.10Management Structure
Within any given country, three interlinked levels of administration are usually
required (Williams 2008):
Policy level: One overarching national authority ultimately responsible for all World
Heritage properties with policy-making power that operates within the laws of the coun-
try and requires international standards to be applied even-handedly to all properties.
Planning level: a governing body charged with the implementation of national poli-
cies applying to all World Heritage sites in the country. It approves management plans
for policy implementation at individual property level and delegates authority to indi-
vidual site managers for their implementation. This body ensures that national poli-
cies and standards are applied to all World Heritage sites in the country, this being
particularly important in the case of serial nomination sites in different provinces.
Management level: site managers of individual World Heritage properties are
responsible for implementing management plans approved by the governing body
and should have a role in the development of the plan. Effective implementation to
appropriate standards requires strong leadership with clear authority and responsi-
bility, as well as support from the governing body. Park management committees
must include representatives of the local people who should also have a significant
role in the development of the plan.
A review of options for effective management of protected areas, including
assessing management effectiveness and guaranteeing protection, has been under-
taken by Thomas and Middleton (2003) and Hockings etal. (2006). Specific guide-
lines for karst and cave protection are provided by Watson etal. (1997). Management
planning starts with the present situation and asks: where are we now? It then pro-
ceeds to consider a vision for the area: where do we want to be? Management
involves a sequential process of planning, implementation, and outcome, at each
step there being a process of evaluation. The management cycle is perpetually
implemented with a view always to making improvements and getting closer to an
ideal outcome. Figure21.4 illustrates this process.
A management plan should consider such topics as: documentation of the
present situation concerning principal values for conservation, land use, visitors
and legislation; documentation of the scientific and aesthetic values of the World
Heritage area, threats to them and actions necessary to preserve them; strategic
directions for the next 10 or 20years; monitoring reserve values and the efficacy
472 P.W. Williams
Fig.21.4 The management cycle proposed by the World Commission on Protected Areas. This
illustrates a framework for assessing management effectiveness of protected areas (From Hockings
etal. 2006). The cycle starts by reviewing the present context (where are we now?) and then con-
siders management objectives (where do we want to be? and how are we going to get there?). The
inputs refer to what is needed in terms of staff, assets, and budget; and the management process
asks: how do we go about achieving our aims? The delivery stage identifies outputs (what did we
do or provide?) and then reviews outcomes (what did we achieve? For example, were the outstand-
ing universal values of the site protected?)
of management practices; visitor services, facilities, and visitor management;

communicating reserve values via interpretation and education; new proposals
and their impact assessment; staff management and development; and measuring
progress towards attaining goals.
21.11Management Issues in Karst
The management of karst in general is discussed in such publications as Watson

etal. (1997), Vermeulen and Whitten (1999), and Ford and Williams (2007). The
focus here is narrower: on karst in and around World Heritage properties. Issues
in the maintenance of integrity and adequate management of values in World

Heritage karst areas are discussed in the context of the Asia-Pacific region in
Wong etal. (2001).
When compared to other landscape styles and ecosystems, Williams (2008)
pointed out that karst has a number of unusual characteristics that must be taken into
account if management is to be appropriate and effective:
1. Karst is unusually complex because it comprises both surface and subterranean
features and values and integrates surface and subterranean processes, both bio-
logical and physical. Karst also has natural archives of its own history, because
paleokarst features and cave deposits record stages in the evolution of the karst
and of the environment and ecosystems around it.
2. Karst ecosystems are fragile because environmental conditions can be extreme.
They are usually calcareous (or highly saline in evaporite rocks), periodically
arid at the surface (because rainwater sinks quickly underground) and dark and
remote from food sources underground while subject to periodic flooding. The
subterranean ecosystem is particularly fragile being dependent mainly on energy
flows transmitted by water, the quality of which is critically important for
survival.
3. Karst integrity depends above all on hydrological conditions, because solar
energy input is moderated mainly through the hydrological cycle which powers
the karst system (by corroding rock, transporting organic detritus underground,
nutrients to plants, etc.) and integrates its various parts.
4. Most water passing through karst is introduced by sinking streams. Many of
these are derived from impervious catchments that lie beyond the boundary of
the karst area (these are termed allogenic streams, as opposed to autogenic
streams that are derived entirely from karst rocks). Consequently, conditions
upstream beyond the karst boundary can have a critical influence on the integrity
of the karst. Recharge zones are of critical importance and need to be identified
and managed. Fragile subterranean species are particularly at risk, and serious
damage can occur unwittingly because the major effects are underground and out
of sight.
5. Karst drainage areas are not easily delimited. The drainage basins and routes fol-
lowed by karst water are not obvious, because drainage paths are largely subter-
ranean. Large springs are a feature of karst, but groundwater basins do not
necessarily follow surface divides, and headwaters may be derived from sinking
surface streams located many kilometers away.
Runoff from upstream areas: It is not an overstatement to assert that water quality
management of allogenic streams draining into karst is the key issue of environmental
management in any karst area. It is critically important in Natural World Heritage
properties because so much is at stake. The deleterious effects of water pollution,
particularly underground, can be widespread and insidious. Its effects can also be long
lived and difficult to remove, because the residence time of polluted water under-
ground can be long and storage can occur in inaccessible places, not only below the
water table (in the phreatic zone), but also just below the surface (in the epikarst).
474 P.W. Williams
The transport of water-borne pollutants by an allogenic river sinking at Skocjan

Cave World Heritage property in Slovenia was once a very serious problem but has
been largely resolved. It is a potential problem requiring careful management at
Libo World Heritage property in the South China Karst because of agricultural and
urban land upstream. Only community education and involvement, agreement to
work together, and strict enforcement of standards will ensure the problem is kept
under control. Contaminated runoff from the land is affecting values in the Bay of
Halong World Heritage site in Vietnam and shipping lanes through the Bay pose a
continuing threat.
The difficulties confronting park managers in such areas are not to be underesti-
mated, because pollution frequently comes from areas over which they have no
direct jurisdiction. In terrestrial sites, the best way to deal with the problem is to
ensure in the first place that the nominated area boundary is manageable by follow-
ing the natural watershed. This leaves catchment supervision in the hands of park
management. However, sometimes, that is impractical because allogenic catch-
ments can be very large and may contain agricultural, urban, and industrial centers.
In such cases, effective partnerships have to be established with authorities respon-
sible for management of the upstream area with a view to reaching agreement on a
total catchment plan of the highest possible standard, effectively enforced and mon-
itored. The maintenance of high water quality is a common good that is in every-
ones interests. This also applies to sea waters, as in the Bay of Halong.
To reduce to acceptable levels the danger that uncontrolled allogenic runoff poses to
the ecosystems of World Heritage sites, it is absolutely essential to enforce strict and
effective water quality management in the catchments of streams and rivers flowing
into inscribed areas. No untreated waste water from cities, towns, and industries must
be permitted to enter waterways that ultimately drain into World Heritage properties.
High water quality standards must be set and regular monitoring must be undertaken,
both of dissolved materials and aquatic indicator species of water quality.
Monitoring stations should be established at input and output points in the karst
system, i.e., where rivers flow into inscribed areas and at springs, because spring
water integrates the effect of all contributing water sources in the catchment.
Monitoring plans should be public documents and results of monitoring should be
published annually.
A key tool for the management of karst areas: Because of the paramount importance
of catchment management in karst areas, the most important tool for the manager is
a hydrogeological map. It should cover the World Heritage property and any sur-
rounding areas that impinge upon it, especially allogenic catchments draining to the
karst. An excellent example of this is provided by the hydrogeological map of the
Mammoth Cave World Heritage area in the USA. It maps all sinking streams and
springs and shows proven paths (by water tracing and cave survey) followed by
underground water through the National Park. Cave plans are superimposed on the
map. Thus, if there is an accidental spillage of a pollutant inside or outside of the
park, then managers can see where the pollution is likely to go and plan appropriate
remedial action. Every World Heritage property with karst of outstanding universal
value should have a hydrogeological map of this kind.
Restoration of Impoverished Ecosystems: Another important issue that arises in

many karst sites is environmental rehabilitation, particularly restoration of natural
vegetation and improvement of faunal habitat. Improvements of this sort also restore
natural karst process conditions. Problems of biological restoration are not a major
issue when inscription is on the basis of World Heritage criteria (ix) and (x), which
are concerned with biodiversity, but may arise when inscription is on the basis of
criteria (vii) and (viii), which deal mainly with geodiversity (UNESCO 2008),
because outstanding physical landscapes may have suffered considerable human
impacts on their ecosystems with the result that environmental rehabilitation may
have become a high priority of management.
In the Dinaric Karst and the South China Karst, the worlds two most important
karst type areas, there have been thousands of years of human occupation. As popu-
lation pressure has increased, demand for natural resources has exceeded the capac-
ity of nature to renew itself, and so natural plant and animal systems have become
progressively degraded. Nevertheless, World Heritage sites may be nominated for
their geodiversity values, even when their biodiversity is damaged, provided the
impact on vegetation is not too severe and there is real prospect of significant envi-
ronmental restoration. Land should be retired from agriculture, and the recovery of
natural vegetation should be encouraged. The aim is to restore the core zone of the
World Heritage area to as natural a condition as possible: to restore the damage
inflicted in the past for the benefit of future generations.
In extreme cases, human impact has led to an induced ecological desert, the pro-
cess being called rocky desertification. Thousands of square kilometers are affected
in this way in both the Dinaric Karst and the karst of Southern China (Gams etal. 1993;
Yuan 1993). Impact of the severity that leads to advanced rocky desertification ren-
ders it impossible to find large areas with recoverable ecosystems, and the karst
process system is severely damaged. Consequently, the best that can be done is to
save what remains and actively encourage environmental rehabilitation.
Occasionally, rocky desertification has occurred naturally with progressive
biological adjustment as climatic zones shifted over geological time. Thus, karst
landscapes in the arid subtropics often show the legacy of development under more
humid conditions in the geological past. These are important sites, because they
contain a record of major stages in Earths history and may provide refugia of
ancient endemic species, especially in the groundwater system.
21.12Management of Caves
21.12.1Tourist Caves
Cave management within World Heritage locations must be to international standards

and should be a model for commercial tourist caves elsewhere. Special skill is required
to develop a tourist cave to the standards worthy of a World Heritage location.
476 P.W. Williams
A balance is required between the engineering required to facilitate access and the
minimization of engineering for the sake of access. In a World Heritage site, this
balance must err on the site of conservation: minimization of impact on natural
conditions must take precedence over engineering for mass public access. Further,
to maintain a cave in excellent condition, management is required not just of the
cave but also of the area above and around it.
The main environmental objectives of cave management should be to keep
temperature, humidity, and atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) conditions within
the natural range of variation, to minimize light available for photosynthesis, and
to maintain water quality and quantity. This will safeguard the subterranean eco-
system. Natural vegetation conditions must be maintained directly above and
around the cave to protect the quality of infiltrating water and the epikarst habitat
(i.e., no buildings or car parks should be located there). Tourist cave lighting
sources should be high efficiency lamps to minimize heat input into the cave
atmosphere and to minimize light wavelengths suitable for photosynthesis. The
duration and spectral quality of lighting should be such as to restrict the develop-
ment of plant and algal growth (lampenflora) around light sources. A green halo
around cave lights is a clear indicator of poor environmental management. In a
World Heritage site, it is more appropriate to reveal natural colors than to impose
artificial tints through colored lights.
Tourist caves are particularly susceptible to damage both during development,
when paths and lighting are installed, and during tourist operation. Decisions made
during the development of the cave and during its operation for tourism should
always try to ensure the maintenance of natural hydrological and ecological pro-
cesses and the preservation of cave values and natural resources. If significant varia-
tion to measured baseline conditions occurs after tourist visitation commences, then
maintenance of World Heritage values must take precedence over tourism, with
tourist traffic being modified to reduce human impact to acceptable minimal and
sustainable levels, even to the extent of closing the cave. A precedent for this is
found at Lascaux World Heritage site in France.
Tourist routes through the cave should be designed to have minimum impact on
delicate cave formations (speleothems) and on biological habitats within the cave.
Cave sediment floors should be protected by raised pathways to preserve their hab-
itat value, fossil record, and sediment history. Cave entrances may be important
archeological sites and so require special protection. Tourist guides should be
aware of these special features, should help protect them, and should explain to
visitors the significant features of the cave that led to its inscription on the World
Heritage List.
Materials used for tourist infrastructure (paths, etc.) should be nontoxic to biota
and largely removable, so that, if necessary, the cave can be returned almost
unspoiled to nature.
There is considerable international experience on tourist cave development, cave
conservation, management, ethics, and restoration of damage. A rich source of ideas
on these topics is available in Hildreth-Werker and Werker (2006).
21.12.2Wild Caves
Many natural (or wild) caves are found in World Heritage properties with abundant
karst. Park managers need to recognize that even the most experienced, careful, and
environmentally conscious cavers cause inadvertent damage underground, especially
in caves with abundant speleothem formations and fossil deposits. Thus, cave explo-
ration needs careful management. The most important principle here is to insist that
an experienced speleologist leads the group and that the party size is small, usually
not more than six, but this depends on the nature and size of the cave. Only electric
lights should be used and all rubbish must be carried out.
There is a need to manage access to wild caves to ensure that at least 50% of the
known caves or parts of caves within a World Heritage property is protected from
random recreational access including recreational research. Access to special sites
should only be for research that cannot be conducted elsewhere, and the research
should explicitly contribute to the management of the protected area.
Results of cave exploration and survey are important sources of information for
park managers as they help to complete part of the hydrogeological picture and
provide data on natural resources within the area; thus, careful exploration by expe-
rienced cavers should be encouraged, provided impact is minimal and results of
exploration are reported back to management.
Scientific sampling within the cave should be by permit only, having been well
justified and kept to a minimum. Speleothems may take tens to hundreds of thou-
sands of years to grow but can be removed in minutes. The same approach should
be taken to excavating archeological and fossil deposits that are frequently found
near cave entrances. They should only be excavated by experts and for good reason;
only part of the deposit should be removed and taken to a mutually agreed safe
repository, and results of the research should be reported back to park management.
Ecological survey and sampling requires a similar approach and conditions.
21.12.3Monitoring
To be reassured that management activities have been effective, there needs to be a

method of evaluating progress. Monitoring measures change over time, and it is
required to provide objective evidence of the effectiveness of the implementation of
management practices. It is an essential management tool and is designed to provide
reliable information on the current situation that can be compared to baseline
conditions, i.e., to the situation that existed before management commenced. By
monitoring before, during, and after developments, changes can be recorded, and
there is objective evidence of impacts and improvements.
Sensitive sites and sensitive indicators should be chosen for monitoring. In karst,
for example, stream-sinks and springs (input and output sites) should be used as
water quality monitoring stations. Apart from a range of chemical and physical
478 P.W. Williams
measures (e.g., dissolved oxygen, temperature, suspended solids), presence and

abundance of sensitive species with a low tolerance to pollution should be moni-
tored. For instance, at the surface and in caves, endemic snails, arthropods, and
plants are examples of sensitive species that can be monitored. Invasive species
should also be noted.
Water quality monitoring should cover a range of extreme conditions from
drought to flood. Baseline climatological and ecological conditions should be estab-
lished in the cave before development for tourism starts, a year being required to
obtain reliable representative records. Climate and atmospheric measurement in
tourist caves requires a professional weather station approach. Monitoring stations
should be set up at sensitive sites, and climatological and ecological surveys should
be conducted regularly with results published annually. Automatic monitoring
should be undertaken where possible. The objective of management should be to
keep temperature, humidity, and atmospheric CO2 conditions as close to the natural
baseline values as possible, while at the same time keeping the cave free from inva-
sive species, vandalism, rubbish, and wear and tear.
Photo monitoring should be used extensively and regularly at established key
sites, especially along tourist routes (above and below ground), because it is an
effective way of showing up wear and tear from tourist pressure.
Methods and measures used in monitoring should be readily understood and
applied by trained staff. Results of monitoring should be published annually. In a
few years time, we will want to know if the World Heritage site is in at least as good
a condition as when it was first inscribed. Objective monitoring will provide the
evidence. Although tourist pressure creates the potential for environmental impact,
it is the park management that can prevent or, at least, limit serious impact or
permit it to occur.
21.13Conclusions
Managing a World Heritage site is a responsibility of global significance undertaken in

trust for present and future generations. Therefore, it must be carried out to the highest
international standards and with the cooperation and support of the local people.
The State Party is ultimately responsible to UNESCO for the success or failure
of management of World Heritage properties within its borders. Thus, to assist man-
agers and avoid competing or conflicting interests, legal authority and lines of
responsibility must be clearly established. To ensure grass root support, local people
must have a say in park planning and management and should share in the benefits
of having a World Heritage property in their neighborhood.
The boundaries of Natural World Heritage properties should capture all the out-
standing universal values of the area that they represent. The boundaries should also be
logical, manageable and agreed to, and respected by the local community. Thus, for
example, if a property has been nominated for its natural beauty (criterion vii), then it
is essential to maintain all areas essential for maintaining the aesthetics of the area.
Water quality management of allogenic streams draining into karst is the key
issue of environmental management in any karst area. Hence, protected area bound-
aries in karst areas should follow natural watersheds wherever possible. In many
cases, allogenic stream catchments are required to be included in the managed zone
to ensure that karst values are safeguarded. If this is not achievable, because of the
large size of the allogenic basin, then an effective cooperative agreement for total
catchment management must be achieved between park management and the wider
community that will protect the World Heritage site from water-borne pollution.
This is critical.
All decisions within Natural World Heritage properties must be compatible with
conservation, its value to posterity being more important than short-term economic
gain. Thus, most economic infrastructure should be located outside the World
Heritage property rather than inside it, exceptions being those related to reasonable,
low-impact tourist access, especially in tourist caves.
Tourist and development pressure tends to increase when a property is inscribed
on the World Heritage List, and if not managed and adequately controlled, it may
threaten the very values that led to the inscription of the property in the first place.
The Bay of Halong is a case in point: an outstanding karst World Heritage property
that is being damaged by pressures stemming from activities beyond the control of
park management.
Objective monitoring at key sites should be undertaken as frequently as neces-
sary to assess the effectiveness of policies and management. Results of monitoring
should be publicly available and published regularly. Publication should be by the
State Party or its delegated authority. External reviews should be conducted periodi-
cally under the auspices of the IUCN to evaluate the state of conservation of the
World Heritage property and the effectiveness of management. The overall objec-
tive will be to ensure that the property is in at least as good a condition as when it
was first inscribed in the World Heritage List.
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Index
A B
Acid mine drainage, 22, 297 Bacteria, 124126, 128, 146, 149, 212, 213,
Adaptation, 4, 71, 202, 205, 206, 210, 214, 226, 227, 232, 234, 256, 258, 278, 286,
221, 286, 297 290, 388
Adsorbed contaminants, 116 Bahamas, 299, 442, 445, 446, 448, 450
Agricultural contaminants, 114116 Bahamian archipelago, 369
Agricultural impacts on soil, 110111 Banksula melons, 209
Agricultural point sources, 108, 110, 128 Brenschacht Cave, Switzerland, 290
Agriculture, 103132, 207, 264, 295, 362, 366, Base flow stage, 268, 296
369370, 374, 381, 403, 439, 442, 444, Bathynellacea, 286
453, 455, 475 Bay of Halong World Heritage site, Vietnam,
Akkpr Reservoir, Turkey, 51, 59, 60, 65 464, 474, 479
Allochthonous energy, 206219 Beetles, 212, 214, 217, 229, 286, 290
Allogenic recharge, 265, 290, 296 Belize, 105, 111, 170, 171, 174176, 179180,
Allogenic streams, 473, 479 190198, 393, 442, 444446, 448, 449,
Allowable karst risk level, 97, 98 452454
Altamira Cave, Spain, 145 Ben En National Park, Vietnam, 451
Amblyopsis spelaea, 297 Bentonite, 39, 61
Amblysoma spelaea, 300 Best management practices (BMP), 42, 43,
Amphipod crustaceans, 213 125, 128, 132, 385
Amphipoda, 286, 302 Big Spring Basin, Iowa, U.S.A., 116, 119, 121
Anchialine systems, 287, 288, 299 Bilea Reservoir, Bosnia-Herzegovina, 51, 52,
Annex-to-drain systems (ADS), 267, 54, 56
272, 273 Biodiversity, 104, 155, 161, 162, 209, 227,
Antibiotics, 124, 227, 236 229, 237, 284, 291, 293, 305, 306, 308,
Antikarst protection program, 75 309, 334, 364, 370, 381, 392, 394, 439,
Antrolana lira, 218 453, 455, 462, 469, 475
Ao Phangnga National Park, Thailand, 450 Biofilm, 149, 211, 213, 220, 235, 296, 298, 301
Apulia, Italy, 107, 160, 161, 166, 369, 382 Biofuels industry, 370
Apuseni Nature Park, Romania, 371 Blue Mountains-John Crow Mountains
Aquifer exploitation, 263 National Park, Jamaica, 450
Association of Southeast Asian Nations Bogovina Dam, Serbia, 56
Environment Program Bohol, the Philippines, 113
(ASEAN), 444 Boreholes, 14, 22, 26, 29, 30, 36, 52, 53, 55,
Atrazine, 121, 123, 124, 129, 299 62, 63, 6568, 70, 120, 246248, 250,
Autogenic recharge, 111, 265, 290 258, 273, 290, 292, 294
Autogenic streams, 473 Boundary definition, 404406
P.E. van Beynen (ed.), Karst Management, DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-1207-2, 481

482 Index
Bratsk Reservoir, Russia, 68, 70 Clarinbridge Catchment, Galway, Ireland,

Breccia, 13, 21, 174, 180, 191193, 195197 108, 113
Brionne Basin, Normandy, France, Classic Maya society, 175
117118, 129 Clean Air Act, 362
Brundtland Commission, 362, 363 Clean Water Act, 362
Buffer strips, 128 Climatic change, 403, 441, 455
Building stone, 180, 191, 193197 Closed depressions, 15, 126, 131, 425
Burma, 443, 445448, 451, 452, 454 Cockpit Country, Jamaica, 371, 399411, 445,
Burren karst plateau, Ireland, 106, 108, 110, 453, 462
130, 131 Cockpit karst, 4, 399, 405, 453
Collapse risk assessment, 75100
Compaction grouting, 33, 36, 37
C Comprehensive plans, 352354
C-Bus technology, 147, 153 Con Dao National Park, Vietnam, 451
Caecidotea isopods, 298, 300 Conservation tillage, 104, 112, 128
Caecidotea macropropoda, 215 Contaminant plumes, 121, 256, 260
Calakmul Biological Reserve, Contaminant transport, 252, 257
Guatemala, 448 Copepod crustaceans, 213
Camarasa Dam, Spain, 49 Copepoda, 286
Cambodia, 443, 445, 447, 448, 452 Cordilleran Ice Sheet, Canada, 416
Campur Limestone, 174 Costa Rica, 442, 445, 446, 448, 449, 453, 454
Cap and trade carbon credit programs, 373 Cover collapse sinkholes, 2224
Cap grouting, 34, 37 Cover subsidence sinkholes, 2224
Caprock sinkhole, 15, 2022 Cretaceous Chalk, England, 116, 118, 123, 254
Carbon dioxide levels, 111, 147 Crop rotation, 128
Carbon storage in deep aquifers, 372, 373 Cryptosporidium parvum, 125
Carbonate aquifers, 4, 113, 118, 243260 Cuba, 324, 325, 328, 385, 442, 444446, 448,
Carbonate covered karst, 76 449, 452, 453
Carboniferous limestone, 106, 113, 118, 253 Cuban Speleological Society (CSS), 323325,
Caribbean Conservation Association, 444 328, 329, 342
Caribbean karst, 450 Cuc Phuong National Park, Vietnam, 451, 453
Castelcivita Cave, Campania, Italy, 160, 163 Cut-off (diaphragm) walls, 5961, 6465
Castellana Caves, Apulia, Italy, 160, 161, 165 Cutters, 13, 27, 174
Cave crickets, 203207, 209, 210, 214, Cylindrical dams, 48, 58, 59, 61
216, 217
Cave entrance modification, 143, 145
Cave inventories and classification, 154155 D
Cave lighting, 146, 148, 152, 476 Dam construction, 3, 48, 49, 54, 71, 781
Cave management, 152, 155156, 159166, Danum Valley Conservation Area,
325, 327, 475, 476 Malaysia, 444
Cave monitoring, 151, 165, 166 Darcys law, 252
Cave of Letters (COL), Israel, 170173, Darlingtonea kentuckensis, 217
176178, 180186, 196, 197 Data archive, 338339
Cave restoration, 229, 234236 Data availability, 391393
Cave surveying, 176, 327, 474 Decapoda, 286, 308
Cavity treatment, 26 Decomposers, 217, 218
Central America karst, 2, 4, 384, 441443, Deforestation, 3, 104106, 111114, 127, 297,
447, 452 349, 381, 388, 403
Ceuthophilus secretus, 203, 204, 210 Dendrocoelopsis Americana, 215
Charged body method, 55 Dene aboriginal people, Canada, 416
Chekka Spring, Lebanon, 276 Dense non-aqueous phase liquids, 382
Chemoautotrophic energy, 208 Dental filling, 28, 34
Chiquibul National Park, Belize, 448 Desertification, 111113, 127, 325, 326, 333,
Cicurina baronia, 203 381, 403, 455, 475
Index 483
Desethylatrazine (DEA), 121, 124 Epikarst, 10, 12, 24, 26, 2829, 38, 104, 111,
Devils Icebox cave system, Missouri, 113, 114, 212214, 220, 246, 264, 265,
USA, 300 279, 289291, 294, 296, 385, 389, 390,
Differential foundation settlement subsidence, 427, 473, 476
82, 84 Equilibrium solubility effects, 244245
Diffuse fissure flow, 116 Escherichia coli, 125, 126, 234, 256, 388
Dimensions of sinkholes, 82, 83 European Action COST 620, 278
Dinaric Karst, 61, 111, 297, 460, 465, 475 European Cave Protection Commission
Dissolution rates, 21, 69, 81, 245 (ECPC), 330
Dissolutional enhancement, 259 European Commission LIFE Nature fund, 131
Dissolved organic matter (DOM), 211 European PASCALIS project, 285
Dissolved reactive phosphorus (DRP), 121 European Union Nitrates Directive, 118,
DNA, 302, 308 127129, 132
Dominican Republic, 370, 445, 449, 452 European Water Framework Directive, 354
Dorvan-Cleyzieu karst drainage, France, 294 Eurycea troglodytes, 300
DRASTIC aquifer vulnerability method, Eutrophication, 120, 295, 307
278, 389 Evaporates, 48, 49, 54, 6870, 245, 369
Drilled piles, 31
Dynamic storage, 268270, 273
Dzerzhinsk, Russia, 81, 86, 8890, 93, 94 F
Faecal coliforms, 124126, 128, 232
Faecal streptococci, 124
E Fallout material, 218
E.U. Water Framework Directive, 118, 121, Farm wastes, 104, 108, 118, 132
127, 132, 354 Fauna management, 293, 305
Ecotourism, 372, 373, 411, 453, 454 Federal Cave Resources Protection Act, 384
Educational programs, 236, 306, 323, 327, Ferromanganese deposits, 227, 228
337, 345 Fertilizers, 3, 104, 106, 108, 118, 119, 121,
Edwards Aquifer, USA, 119, 126, 254255, 126, 129, 131, 132, 142, 355, 392
288, 292, 299, 337, 351, 354 Flatworms, 215, 286
El Cajon Dam, Honduras, 67 Flooding, 12, 4042, 104, 106, 113, 114, 144,
El Salvador, 442, 446, 448, 452 208, 289, 295, 297, 300, 307, 333, 352,
Electrical resistivity tomography (ERT), 170, 354, 359, 368, 381, 386, 387, 473
173, 177, 178, 183186, 190, 191, 197 Florentine Valley, Tasmania, 112
Emil Racovita Institute of Speleology (ERIS), Florida, USA, 1, 14, 252, 350, 365, 367, 370,
324, 325, 328, 333, 335, 336, 341, 343 386, 388, 392
Endangered Species Act, 362 Flow paths, 13, 21, 245, 247, 251, 289, 295
Energy flows, 4, 202, 203, 205, 207, 208, 210, Fluometuron, 123, 124
221, 473 Fluorescein, 54
Enforcement, 209, 351, 355, 384, 386, 387, Fluviokarst, 2, 461, 463
403, 405, 408, 445, 454, 474 Fontaine de Vaucluse, France, 268, 269,
Engineering karstology, 7577 271, 272
Entre-deux-Mers karst plateau, France, 112 Food web, 203, 207, 208, 213, 220, 288
Environmental equity, 362 Forest reserves, 400, 403405, 407, 408, 411,
Environmental impact assessments (EIAs), 444, 448, 450, 451
160, 303, 385
Environmental index, 385
Environmental Performance Index (EPI), G
364, 365 Gammarus minus, 213, 288
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 41, Genetic variation, 290
43, 118, 120, 303, 308, 354 Geoarchaeology, 169198
Environmental tracers, 251, 252 Geodiversity, 155, 462, 475
EPIK aquifer vulnerability method, 127, 278, Geographic Information System (GIS)
389, 391 databases, 303, 385
484 Index
Geomorphological analysis, 54 High permeability, 4, 244246, 253, 257259

Geomyces destructans, 216, 232 Hin Namno Karst Reserve Laos, 451
Geophysics, 48, 170, 176, 178, 180, 182, Hispaniola, 442, 449
197, 327 Hoffman Environment Research Institute
Geosynthetics, 48 (HERI), 324, 325, 331335, 340342
Geotextile filter fabric, 38 Huoshipo Reservoir, Guizhou Province, China,
Geothermal cooling or heating, 368 68, 69
Glaciokarst, 461 Hutovo Reservoir, Bosnia-Herzegovina, 51,
Glowworm, 301 59, 60
Gorin Mill Spring, Kentucky, USA, 251, Hydraulic conductivity, 246, 247, 249, 250,
256257 252, 258, 273, 278, 292, 389
Gotvand Dam, Iran, 69 Hydraulic gradients, 246, 253, 257, 258, 295,
Gran Parque Sierra Maestra, Cuba, 444, 449 425, 427, 428, 461
Great Falls Dam, USA, 49 Hydraulic head, 54, 276
Greater Antilles, 441, 442, 452 Hydrofracturing, 24, 37
Green building, 365, 368 Hydrogeological and hydrological
Green River, Kentucky, USA, 256, 257, 300 investigations, 54, 71
Greenhouse gas management, 362, 366, Hydroids, 286
372374 Hypogenic caves, 461
Ground penetrating radar (GPR), 173,
177179, 183, 184, 186, 188, 190, 197
Groundwater ecosystems, 284, 298, 302 I
Groundwater extraction, 273, 299, 309 Illegal dumping, 207, 369, 381, 392
Groundwater source protection zones, 131 Impacts of agriculture, 104, 132
Groundwater vulnerability models Impacts of visitors, 145151
(GVMs), 389 Impermeabilization, 48, 49, 51, 56, 58,
Groundwater withdrawals, 263, 370 59, 71
Grout curtain, 4850, 5356, 6167, 69, 71 Imported exotic microorganisms, 232234
Grout plug, 36 Inagua National Park, Bahamas, 450
Grouting, 11, 12, 25, 26, 30, 33, 34, 36, 37, Indicators, 124, 151, 306, 356, 364, 366, 385,
42, 48, 49, 54, 57, 61, 62, 6467, 386, 388, 393, 406, 474, 476, 477
6971, 89 Infrastructure on show caves, 145151
Guano, 142, 203, 208, 212, 214217, 220 Inorganic salts, 54
Guatemala, 105, 190, 442, 444446, 448, 449, Institute of Karst Geology (IKG), 324, 325,
452, 453 328, 333, 334, 341
Guizhou Province, Guangxi Zhuang Instituto do Carste (IC), 324326, 330, 331
Autonomous Region, China, 69, 111, Integrated water resource management
126, 274 (IWRM), 264
Gypsum, 9, 21, 22, 6870, 85, 89, 173, 327, Intensity of sinkhole development, 82, 83,
416, 460, 465 92, 96
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC), 363
H International Research Center on Karst, 324,
Hadenoecus subterraneus, 217 326, 328, 333, 341
Hales Bar Dam, USA, 49, 53 International Union for the Conservation of
Halong Bay UNESCO World Heritage Site, Nature (IUCN), 5, 142, 306, 309, 384,
Vietnam, 451 440, 443, 444, 447, 452, 453, 460462,
Happy Planet Index, 364 464, 467, 479
Henri Pitot, 264 Irrigation, 24, 48, 104, 106108, 131, 277,
Herbicides, 121, 123, 124, 370, 382, 386 295, 309, 370
Hessigheim Dam, Germany, 70 Isochrone method, 278
Hidden River Cave, Kentucky, USA, 145, 256, Isopoda, 286
257, 298 Italian Institute of Speleology (IIS), 324, 326,
High energy passages, 144 328, 338
Index 485
IUCN Guidelines for Cave and Karst Landfills, 41, 79, 81, 295, 354, 369
Protection, 142 Landspreading of manure, 108, 124, 129
IUCN Working Group on Cave and Karst Langkawi UNESCO Geopark, Malaysia,
Protection, 443 445, 451
IUCN World Commission on Protected Areas Laos, 443448, 451, 452, 454
(WCPA), 384, 440, 444 Lar Dam, Iran, 49, 51, 67
Ix Chel Archaeological Site, Belize, 194 Larzac Plateau, France, 119, 127, 129
Lascaux Cave, France, 148, 236
Laurentide Continental Ice Sheet, 416
J Leadership in Energy and Environmental
Jamaica, 5, 370, 371, 388, 399411, 442, 445, Design (LEED), 365, 368
446, 448, 450, 452454, 462 Leakage prevention, 5868
Jet grouting, 37 Lechuguilla Cave, New Mexico, USA,
Jura-type karst aquifers, 267, 273 149, 234
Lesser Antilles, 442
Lez Spring, France, 264, 272, 276278
K Libo World Heritage property, China, 474
Kamskaya Dam and Reservoir, Russia, 68, 69 Light Emitted Diode (LED) lamps, 163
Karst aquifers, 14, 42, 43, 50, 54, 104, 106, Limits to Acceptable Change, 154
108, 111, 113118, 120, 121, 123129, Lindane, 123, 124
132, 243246, 250, 263269, 271, Linlangdong River, Yunnan Province,
273278, 280, 293, 299, 333, 335, 337, China, 53
338, 343, 368, 369, 382, 384, 389, 390, Local endemism, 289, 308
392, 434, 436, 449 Lorentz National Park, Indonesia, 450, 453, 462
Karst conduits, 54, 55, 62, 69, 114, 117, 125, Los Haitises National Park, Dominican
129, 270, 274 Republic, 449
Karst Disturbance Index (KDI), 4, 385388, Low-energy cave passages, 144
393, 399411 Lucayan National Park, Bahamas, 450
Karst Dynamics Laboratory, 328 Lumped or rainfall-runoff models, 271
Karst hazard types, 7885 Lycopodium spores, 54
Karst hazards, 7685, 89, 90, 95, 96, 99, 100
Karst Information Portal (KIP), 339, 344
Karst institutes, 4, 321, 322, 324, 332, 333, M
335, 338, 340, 342346 Mackenzie Mountains, Canada, 416
Karst porosity, 50, 65 Macrocotyla glandulosa, 300
Karst regulations, 350, 354359 Macrokarstic development, 246
Karst Research Institute, 4, 321346 Maillets formula, 269
Karst submarine springs (KSS), 275, 276 Malaysia, 443448, 451, 452, 454
Karst Waters Institute (KWI), 285, 324326, Mammoth Cave, Kentucky, USA, 145, 214,
329, 340, 341, 388 217, 300, 366, 384, 474
Karst-related land use regulations, 353359 Managed aquifer recharge (MAR), 275
Keban Dam, Turkey, 49, 51, 56, 66 Management of groundwater species, 283309
Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary, Thailand, 451 Management plan, 29, 30, 4043, 127, 203, 220,
Khammoune National Park, Laos, 451 264, 268, 276, 337, 338, 371, 372, 471
Khao Leam Dam, Thailand, 65 Manganese oxides, 225
Kinematic porosity, 258 Mangins method, 269, 270
Kinetic solubility effects, 244, 245 Manure, 41, 108, 120, 121, 124, 125, 128,
Kyoto Protocol, 363 129, 258
Marine tower karst, 451
Maroon Wars, Jamaica, 402
L Massif del a Hotte karst aquifer, Haiti, 449
Lampenflora, 147, 160, 207, 235, 236, 476 Matrix permeability, 250
Land management strategies, 128 May Dam, Turkey, 49
Land preservation, 362, 371372 Maya cultural landscape, 179, 191
486 Index
Mayan culture, 370 Ombla Dam and Reservoir, Croatia, 53, 55, 56
McMilan Dam, USA, 49 One-dimensional models, 246
Medium-energy cave passages, 144 Orconectes crayfish, 298
Meiofauna, 286, 288, 294, 299 Orconectes pellucidus, 300
Melanised fungi, 149 Organic carbon enrichment, 229232
Micrite, 180, 192, 193, 195197 Ostracoda, 286
Microbial communities, 225238 Outstanding universal value, 155, 461, 462,
Microbial conservation, 229, 236 464, 466470, 474
Microbial mats, 226, 227, 232 Ox Bel Ha Cave System, Yucatn Peninsula,
Microbial pathogens, 108, 124126, 129 Mexico, 289
Microkarstic development, 246
Microorganisms, 108, 110, 126, 129, 149, 226,
227, 229238 P
Micropiles, 31 Palaemonias ganteri, 300
Minimal Impact Code for Caving, 145, 146 Panama, 442, 446, 448, 453
Mites, 286 Papua New Guinea, 447, 451, 452
MODFLOW, 246, 258, 271 Particulate organic matter, 211, 212, 216
Mona Island Nature Reserve, Puerto Rico, 449 Pasture tillage, 106, 131
Montpellier, France, 263, 276, 277, 279 Patuca National Park, Honduras, 449
Mosul Dam, Iraq, 57, 68, 70 Pendant acidic microbial structures, 228
Mulu National Park, Malaysia, 451 Pennsylvania, USA, 14, 41, 119, 350, 358
Murgia, Italy, 106, 113 Periglacial, 416, 427, 428, 430, 453, 464
Muzhu Dong Dam, China, 274 Permafrost, 421, 422, 427, 429, 434, 436, 461
Myotis grisescens, 215 Pertosa Cave, Campania, Italy, 160, 162164
Pesticides, 3, 106, 108, 114, 116, 117,
121124, 129, 131, 132, 207, 295, 370,
N 382, 386
Nahanni Labyrinth, Canada, 425427 Petrographic analysis, 174, 180, 192
Namakiers, 465 Phosphorus, 108, 116, 120122, 127
Nard, Italy, 300 Photomonitoring, 145
National Cave and Karst Research Institute Phreatic zone, 265, 267271, 273, 275, 473
(NCKRI), 4, 322325, 327, 328, Phu Luang Wildlife Sanctuary, Thailand, 444
331333, 335342, 345, 346 Phylogenetic divergence, 308
National parks, 155, 384, 434, 439, 444, 445, Physiological adaptation, 297
448, 450, 451, 477 Pinar del Rio, Cuba, 449
Natural World Heritage List, 468 Pinnacles, 12, 13, 27, 2931, 206, 441
Neaphaenops tellkampfi, 217 Plugging, 36, 43, 48, 49, 58, 61, 62, 6468,
Nematodes, 286, 299 71, 113, 272, 300
Netherlands Antilles, 442 Point recharge, 104, 108, 113, 114,
Newman, Western Australia, 308 118120, 129
Niah National Park. Malaysia, 451 Policy-based solutions, 351
Nicaragua, 442, 446, 448, 452, 454 Preferential flow, 21, 246, 247, 278
Niphargus virei, 288 Probabilistic assessment of karst hazard, 78, 99
Nitrate, 108, 109, 118120, 127129, 297 Probabilistic properties of sinkhole diameters,
Non-aqueous phase liquids (NAPLs), 296, 298 9092
Non-linearities, 271 Probability of damage, 96
Non-profit institutes, 328332 Protected Area Resource Conservation
Northwest Territories, Canada, 415436 (PARC), Jamaica, 403
Nullarbor Plain, Australia, 112 Protected karst, 5, 98, 439455
Numerical models, 246, 259 Protective legislation, 445, 454
Proteus anguinus, 205, 283, 300
Protozoan parasites, 124, 125
O Pseudokarst, 2, 290, 461
OECD phosphorus threshold, 120 Public education, 321, 326, 327, 335337,
Oligotrophic habitats, 229 343344, 356, 386, 393
Index 487
Puerto Princessa National Park, the Sanctuaries, 444, 451

Philippines, 451 Santo Tomas Wildlife Refuge, Cuba, 444
Puerto Rico, 107, 442, 444446, 448, 449, 454 Sarawak, Malaysia, 114, 445, 453
Pyrite, 21, 22, 434 Scale effects, 248253
Scarisoara Ice Cave or Bear Cave,
Romania, 371
Q Seepage, 23, 25, 27, 28, 40, 53, 56, 57, 59, 60,
Quarrying, 179, 196, 208210, 295, 380382, 65, 68, 69, 84, 247, 381, 393
386, 388, 403, 404, 408, 442, 454, 455 Segmented worms, 286
Quartzite fluvio-karst, 461 Setbacks, 40, 41, 352, 353, 356, 358, 392
Qumran Cemeteries, Israel, 178 Sewage leakage, 232
Shallow overburden strata, 2628
Shimeon Bar Kokhba, 171, 176
R Shotcrete, 48, 49, 58, 59
Radioactive salts, 54 Show caves, 4, 142, 145152, 159166, 203,
Rajah Sikatuna National Park, 235, 256, 257, 334, 385
the Philippines, 451 Shwe u Daung Game Reserve, Burma
Ram Plateau, Canada, 420, 421, 424, 427429, (Myanmar), 451
431433, 435, 436 Shwesettaw Game Reserve, Burma
Ram River, Canada, 416418, 421, 424, 425, (Myanmar), 451
427, 430, 431, 434, 436 Sinkhole caps, 35, 3940
Raveling, 23, 24 Sinkhole development, 3, 26, 40, 76, 82, 83,
Recharge area, 127, 220, 265, 266, 278, 337 8997, 100, 113, 298, 353
Recreation Opportunity Spectrum and Visitor Sinkhole insurance, 78
Impact Management, 154 Sinkhole management plans, 4043
Recreational caving, 142145 Sinkhole treatment, 3240
Redox gradients, 289 Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI), 384
Reduced input agriculture, 128 Sklope Dam, Croatia, 56, 63
Reforestation, 112, 127, 374 Skocjan Cave World Heritage property,
Refuges, 444 Slovenia, 474
Renewable storage of karst aquifers, 268 Slano Reservoir, Montenegro, 57, 62
Reservoir abutments, 52 Slump zone, 27, 28
Reservoirs, 2, 3, 24, 39, 4771, 79, 111, 268, Slumps, 36, 82, 84, 85, 434, 436
269, 271274, 278, 300 Slurry grouting, 37
Residence time, 114, 118, 124, 250, 252, Snails, 211, 286, 307, 478
269271, 278, 289, 295, 473 Social justice, 362, 369, 374
Revised universal soil loss equation (RUSLE), Socketed caissons, 3032
126 Soil collapse, 22, 23, 27, 37, 82
Rhadine subterranea, 217 Soil compaction, 229, 388
Rhodamin B, 54 Soil conservation measures, 105
Rio Bravo Conservation and Management Soil erosion, 22, 26, 42, 103106, 110112,
Area, Belize, 448 114, 116, 126, 131, 333, 382, 385,
Risk assessment, 75100, 126127 407, 469
RISKE aquifer vulnerability method, 278, 279 Soil load-bearing capacity, 8184
Robber Baron Cave, Texas, USA, 203210, Soil water content, 106
214, 217 Source-pathway-receptor model of risk
Rural point sources, 108110 assessment, 126
South China Karst, 454, 465, 474, 475
South Nahanni National Park Reserve,
S Canada, 415436
Salinisation, 106, 107 Southeast Asia karst, 441443, 447, 450452
Salman Farsi Dam, Iran, 51, 55, 6264, 66, 67 Sparite, 180, 192, 193, 195, 196
Salt water intrusion, 264, 295, 299, 369, Species richness (a-diversity, b-diversity,
374, 382 g-diversity), 284
San Juan Earth Dam, Spain, 68, 70 Specific discharge, 247
488 Index
Spelaeogriphacea, 286 Threshold effects, 271

Spelaeomysis bottazzii, 300 Thungyai-Huai Wildlife Sanctuary,
Speleothem records, 373 Thailand, 451
Spelobia tenebrarum, 205 Tikal National Park, Guatemala, 449
Sponges, 61, 286 Tobago, 442, 446, 448
Spring hydrograph analysis, 268 Total dissolved phosphorus, 120
St-Clement Spring, France, 264 Total organic carbon, 129
Steel piles, 30 Tower karst, 405, 449, 451, 453, 464
Stochastic properties of sinkhole diameters, Tracer tests, 54, 57, 247, 249, 252, 253,
9092 256259
Stormwater management, 42, 352353 Transmissivity, 246, 254, 273
Stormwater management ordinances, 352354 Trebinjica River, Bosnia-Herzegovina, 59
Stormwater runoff regulations, 358 Trends in cave management, 155156
Stress-strain analysis, 22 Trinidad, 442, 445, 446, 448, 450
Stygal species, 288, 289 Troglobionts, 203, 205, 206
Stygobionts, 283287, 290, 292, 294, 297, Troglobites, 205, 206, 381
299, 300, 308 Troglomorphic phenotype, 205
Stygobromus emarginatus, 213 Troglomorphy, 205, 215
Stygobromus stegerorum, 219 Troglophiles, 205, 206
Subdivision and land development ordinances Trogloxenes, 205, 206
(SALDOs), 352, 355 Turbidity, 116119, 126, 129, 381, 435
Submarine overflow springs, 276 Types of disturbance, 380384
Subsidence, 10, 15, 2022, 25, 28, 36, 43, 48, Typhlichthys cavefish, 298
8089, 343, 345, 351, 353, 355358, Typhlomolge rathbuni, 299
461, 464
Subterranean habitats, 202, 203, 205207,
284, 287, 291 U
Subterranean species, 202, 205, 210, 212, 217, Ukrainian Institute of Speleology and
286, 307, 470, 473 Karstology (UISK), 324, 325, 327, 328,
Suffusion, 69, 112 339, 341, 345
Sulfuric acid dissolution, 226 UN Convention for the Protection of World
Sulphate covered karst, 75 Natural and Cultural Heritage, 444
Surface-subsurface connections, 202 UN World Heritage sites, 439
Suspended sediment, 11, 104, 105, 111, 114, Underground dams, 53, 55, 56, 274
116118, 123 Underwater cave systems, 450
Sustainability measurement tools, 364 UNESCO Man and the Biosphere (MAB)
Sustainable karst systems, 362 Programme, 444
Sustainable use of karst, 4, 276, 454 Union Internationale de Splologie, 323
Swallowholes, 48, 5860 United Nations List of Protected Areas, 440
Swiss Institute of Speleology and Karstology
(SISK), 324, 325, 327, 330, 331, 333,
336, 337, 339, 341 V
Vaca Plateau, Belize, 105, 170, 171, 174176,
179180, 190197, 453
T Vaucluse-type karst aquifers, 267, 273
Tardarida brasiliensis, 215 Venetian Fore-Alps, 111
Tasmanian karst, 105 Vibro-compaction, 37
Technical education, 335, 343 Vietnam, 67, 144, 384, 443, 445448,
Texella cokendolpheri, 203 451453, 464, 474
Thailand, 61, 65, 443448, 450, 452, 454 Viruses, 116, 124, 125
Thermal logging, 55 Visitor capacity, 160
Thermokarst, 2, 461 Viegrad Dam, Bosnia-Herzegovina, 53, 57
Thermosbaenacea, 286 Volatile organic compounds, 382
Thin section analysis, 179, 180, 193, 195 Vrtac Reservoir, Montenegro, 49, 53, 57
Index 489
Vuggy porosity, 50 World Conservation Monitoring Centre

Vulcanokarst, 2, 461 (WCMC), 440, 444, 447
World Heritage Convention (WHC), 459462,
468, 469
W World Heritage designation, 453
Wadi Jilo, South Lebanon, 273 Wujiangdu Dam, China, 51, 66, 68
Waitomo Caves, New Zealand, 301
Walkerton Inquiry, 258
Walkerton, Ontario, Canada, 125, 248, X
258259 Xiaojiang Catchment, Yunnan Province,
Water pollution, 368, 370, 393, 473 China, 106
Water quality, 39, 42, 43, 69, 104106,
108, 114126, 128, 131, 151, 255,
257, 264, 292, 297, 304307, 326, Y
357, 359, 364, 382, 385, 386, 470, Yucatn Peninsula, Mexico, 105, 289, 299, 370
473, 474, 476, 479 Yucatan, Mexico, 442, 445, 446, 448, 452
Water quality monitoring, 477, 478 Yunnan Province, China, 53, 106, 111
Western karst lowlands of Ireland, 120 Yverdon, Switzerland, 117
White-nose syndrome (WNS), 216
Wild caves, 142, 143, 145, 477
Wildlife reserves, 444, 451 Z
Wolf Creek Dam, USA, 57, 65 Zoning ordinances, 352, 354, 355

Karst Management

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Karst Management

Philip E. van Beynen

ISBN 978-94-007-1206-5 e-ISBN 978-94-007-1207-2

Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011

Printed on acid-free paper

Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com)

Part I Management of Surface Karst

2 Engineering Issues on Karst................................................................... 9

Part II Management of Subterranean Karst

6 Management of Caves.............................................................................. 141

10 Managing Microbial Communities in Caves......................................... 225

Part III Management of Karst Aquifers

11 Management of Carbonate Aquifers...................................................... 243

Part IV Management of Karst Regions as Integrated Units

14 National Karst Research Institutes: Their Roles in Cave

Michel Bakalowicz HydroSciences, Universit Montpellier 2, cc MSE, 34095,

Sandra Jo Garren Department of Geography, University of South Florida,

Philip E. van Beynen

1.1What Is Karst and Karst Management?

Karst is a landscape created by the dissolution of carbonate rocks, although similar

P.E. van Beynen (*)

P.E. van Beynen (ed.), Karst Management, DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-1207-2_1, 1

pseudokarst, volcanokarst, fluviokarst, and thermokarst (Ford and Williams 2007).

1.3Management of Karst Resources

Environmental management is the attempt to purposely control or influence human

1.4Rationale for Producing Text

benchmark text on the physical processes of karst environments, Becks edited

1.5Structure of This Text

Wanfang Zhou and Barry F. Beck

Abstract The design and construction of engineering structures in karst regions

Karst terrane is commonly formed by limestone, dolomite, and gypsum. It is char-

P.E. van Beynen (ed.), Karst Management, DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-1207-2_2, 9

Fig.2.1 Classic limestone karst in Kentucky, USA

Karst poses a unique set of geotechnical and environmental problems that

Fig.2.2 A sinkhole that occurred in South China

as solution-enlarged features, such as sinkholes or ponors drain water from surface

2.2Engineering Conditions on Karst

Fig.2.3 (a, b) Cutters and pinnacles in karst

2.3Sinkholes and Their Formation

Table2.1 Selected types of sinkhole

2.3.1Sinkholes in Soluble Bedrocks

While mining-induced subsidence occurs within relatively short periods due to

The continuous solution of gypsum is enhanced by the continuous movement of

When a karst area is mantled by unconsolidated materials, the sinkhole formation

Fig.2.5 Sinkholes that occurred in a detention pond in Tennessee

2.4Design Considerations for Foundations

2.4.2Foundation Options in Karst Terrains

2.4.2.1Foundations on Shallow Overburden Strata

However, there are also significant negative characteristics which must be

2.4.2.2Foundations on Weathered or Shattered Bedrock

2.4.2.3Shallow Foundations on Competent Limestone (All Overburden,

Very uneven limestone bedrock surfaces demand careful foundation designs.

2.4.2.4Socketed Caissons and Piles, Including End Bearing Piles

2.5Sinkhole Treatment Options

Sinkhole mitigation is to repair damage caused by the existing sinkhole and to

Table2.2 Selected options for sinkhole remediation

Deep sinkholes with known

Compaction grouting (Siegel

Graded backfilling (Fort

Dental filling by grout

1.1What Is Karst and Karst Management?

1.3Management of Karst Resources

1.4Rationale for Producing Text

1.5Structure of This Text

2.2Engineering Conditions on Karst

2.3Sinkholes and Their Formation

2.3.1Sinkholes in Soluble Bedrocks

2.4Design Considerations for Foundations

2.4.2Foundation Options in Karst Terrains

2.4.2.1Foundations on Shallow Overburden Strata

2.4.2.2Foundations on Weathered or Shattered Bedrock

2.4.2.3Shallow Foundations on Competent Limestone (All Overburden,

2.4.2.4Socketed Caissons and Piles, Including End Bearing Piles

2.5Sinkhole Treatment Options

2.5.1Treatments of Sinkhole Throat

2.5.2Filling of Sinkhole Bodies

2.5.3Construction of Sinkhole Caps

2.6Sinkhole Management Plans

3.2Overview of Dam and Reservoirs Construction in Karst

3.3Role of Geological and Geomorphological Conditions

3.4Investigation Methods in Karst

3.5Common Problems and Failures

3.6Leakage Prevention in Karst

3.6.2.1Grout Curtain Continual Watertight Structures

3.6.2.2Cut-Off (Diaphragm) Walls

3.6.2.3Treatment of Karst Cavern Plugging

3.7Dams and Reservoirs in Evaporates

4.2Types of Karst Hazard

4.2.1Karst Hazard Type A

4.2.2Karst Hazard Type B

4.2.3Karst Hazard Type C

4.3Examples of Structural Damage to Construction

4.4Stochastic Laws for Sinkhole Development

4.4.1Probabilistic and Stochastic Properties

4.4.2Space and Time Laws for Karst Sinkhole Development

4.4.3Methods of Assessment of Karst Territories

4.5Karst Risk Assessment