SEM Petrology Atlas

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SEM Petrology Atlas
by
Joann E. Welton
Chevron Oil Field Research Company
Methods in Exploration Series No. 4

Published by
The American Association of Petroleum Geologists

Tulsa, Oklahoma 74101, U.S.A.
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Table of Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Why SEM Analysis? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Sample Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
How the SEM Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
The SEM Micrograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Elemental Analysis by SEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
EDX Analysis of Minerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
SILICATES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Silica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Quartz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Cristobalite (Opal-CT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Opal (Opal-A) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Feldspars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................... . 21
Potassium Feldspar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .............................. . 21
Resorbed Potassium Feldspar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .............................. . 25
Plagioclase Feldspar with K-Feldspar Overgrowths . . . . . . . .............................. . 27
Resorbed Plagioclase Feldspar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .............................. . 33
Clays . . . . . . . . ................................ . ............................... . 35

Chlorite . . . . ............................... . .............................. . 35
Illite . . . . . . . ............................... . .............................. . 47
Kaolinite . . . . ............................... . .............................. . 56
Halloysite . . . ............................... . .............................. . 66
Smectite . . . . ............................... . .............................. . 68
Nontronite . . ............................... . .............................. . 80
Hectorite . . . . ............................... . .............................. . 82
Illite-smectite . ............................... . .............................. . 84
Corrensite . . . ............................... . .............................. . 88
Glauconite . . ............................... . .............................. . 90
Rectorite . . . . ............................... . .............................. . 92
Palygorskite . . ............................... . .............................. . 94
Vermiculite . . ............................... . .............................. . 96
Zeolites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Analcime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Chabazite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
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Clinoptilolite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Erionite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Heulandite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Laumontite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Mordenite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Phillipsite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Thomsonite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Yugawaralite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Micas . . . . . . . . ............................... . ................................ . 133

Biotite . . . . . .............................. . ............................... . 133
Muscovite . . . .............................. . ............................... . 137
Phlogopite . . . .............................. . ............................... . 139
Amphiboles . . . ................................ . ............................... . 140

Hornblende . . ............................... . .............................. . 140
Actinolite . . . ............................... . .............................. . 141
Riebeckite . . . ............................... . .............................. . 142
Pyroxenes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Augite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Hypersthene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Others . . . . . . . ................................ . ............................... . 145

Talc . . . . . . . ............................... . .............................. . 145
Chrysotile . . . ............................... . .............................. . 146
Sphene . . . . . ............................... . .............................. . 147
CARBONATES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Calcite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Dolomite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Ferroan Dolomite/Ankerite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Siderite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Chalk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
PHOSPHATES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
Apatite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Collophane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Florencite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
HALIDES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Halite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
SULFIDES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Pyrite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Sphalerite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
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SULFATES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Gypsum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
Anhydrite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Copiapite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Melanterite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Barite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
OXIDES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Hematite and Goethite ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Rutile . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Magnetite . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Ilmenite . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
MISCELLANEOUS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Wood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
Energy Table of Characteristic X-ray Transitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
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Publishers Note
The American Association of Petroleum Geologists gratefully acknowl-
edges the management and personnel of Chevron Oil Field Research
Company, for their contribution of this manual to the profession. This com-
parative atlas was developed to assist geologists working for Chevron in their
everyday work of examining sedimentary minerals in exploration and reser-
voir development. It was given to AAPG for publication so that others could
share in its usefulness.
The use of scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, and energy
dispersive X-ray has greatly increased over the past few years as the equip-
ment is now available at more levels within industry and academia. Certainly
geologists are able to have their samples sent away to a service lab for analysis.
In this spirit, weve published this book to assist the generation of geologists
still in school to be exposed to these uses; and weve published this book to
assist the generation of geologists at work in industry to become acquainted
with this valuable tool for exploration and development.
AAPG Publications
Tulsa, Oklahoma
iv
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Acknowledgments
This book is a slightly modified version of a research report compiled
at Chevron Oil Field Research Company, La Habra, California. I would like to
express my appreciation to the management of Chevron Oil Field Research
Company, in particular J.R. Baroffio, F.L. Campbell, and L.C. Bonham for
their encouragement and permission to publish this atlas. Special thanks to
R.L. Burtner who suggested I compile this atlas and to R.L. Burtner and
M.N. Bass for their many hours of careful review which greatly improved the
final text. I would also like to thank my other colleagues at Chevron who
reviewed this atlas and provided helpful suggestions during various phases of
this project: H.M. Beck, A.B. Carpenter, E.W. Christensen, J.R. Frank,
E.L. King, D.R. Kosiur, A. Levison, C.A. Meyer, D.W. Richards, G.W. Smith,
M.A. Warner, and B.J. Welton.
Special thanks to J.M. Peterson (Keplinger and Associates) who
reviewed the text and S.S. Ali (Gulf) who reviewed the bibliography for the
AAPG. R.C. Surdam (University of Wyoming) and R.A. Sheppard (USGS) kindly
provided formation and age information on the zeolite samples.
Finally, I am grateful to the many people who helped in preparation of
the atlas, in particular, N.E. Breen, J.A.B. Quinn, V.E. Welsh, T.N. Bube,
D.K. Kitazumi, J.C. Keeser, C.F. Everett, S.K. Elmassian (cover illustration), and
V.K. Salvi of Chevron, and to the staff of the AAPG, in particular
E.A. Beaumont and R.L. Hart, for their patience in the midst of many
revisions and without whose help this atlas would not have been possible.
J.E. Welton
Chevron Oil Field Research Company
La Habra, California
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Copyright 1984, 2003

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Second printing; December 2003; printed 1984
ISBN: 1-58861-214-7
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Introduction
In the last few years, our need to answer complex ture. However, the actual three-dimensional grain
exploration and production questions has led to the relationships and details of the intergranular pore
use of increasingly sophisticated analytical equip- structure were always beyond our reach.
ment. Today, the scanning electron microscope (SEM) With the introduction of the SEM and EDX sys-
and energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) systems are being tems, geologists are now able to go one step beyond
successfully applied to a wide variety of petroleum thin section analysis to look down into the pores,
exploration and production problems. These include: identify the smallest minerals, and examine the dis-
(1) identification of plant and animal microfossils tribution of these minerals within the pores. Other
(for age and environmental interpretations); (2) eval- advantages of the SEM over optical petrography are
uation of reservoir quality through diagenetic studies; ease of sample preparation, greater depth of field
and (3) the investigation of production problems, such and resolution, and a significantly higher magnifi-
as the effect of clay minerals, steamfloods, and chem- cation range (most SEM analysis of rocks involves
ical treatments on drilling equipment, gravel packs, magnifications between 10 to 20,000). In addi-
and the reservoir itself. tion, less training is required to interpret an SEM
Although the use and application of the SEM has micrograph. When examining an SEM micrograph
steadily increased, the amount of reference material for the first time, the major problem is one of scale.
available to aid in SEM mineral identification has But, with minimal training and experience, the user
severely lagged behind. Some textbooks are available can soon identify minerals and textures previously
which give excellent descriptions of basic SEM theory observed only in thin section.
(Postek et al, 1980; Wells, 1974), but these books are This is not to say that the SEM replaces thin
not written specifically for geologists, so are limited section analysis; instead, the SEM complements thin
as a geologically oriented SEM work. Papers dealing section analysis by providing a different type of
with the identification of authigenic clay minerals information which when used in combination
(Wilson and Pittman, 1977) and zeolites (Mumpton with other techniques provides important new
and Ormsby, 1976) are an excellent beginning, but information to help characterize rocks.
no comprehensive guide to mineral identification by
SEM has been available.
FORMAT
The purpose of this atlas is to provide SEM users
(geologists, engineers, geochemists, and technicians)
The most reliable way to identify minerals through
with a beginning guide to SEM mineral identifica-
the SEM is to compare their characteristic morphol-
tion and interpretation. This atlas by no means con-
ogies (such as those shown in this atlas) with the
tains a complete representation of all common min-
elemental compositions determined by the EDX sys-
erals, but rather includes a wide variety of minerals
tem. This atlas includes both SEM micrographs and
commonly found in clastic reservoir rocks.
EDX spectra for most of the common minerals found
in sedimentary rocks. Identifications were verified
WHY SEM ANALYSIS? by X-ray diffraction analysis when possible. As most
geologists are trained to examine and interpret pet-
Since the 1800s, thin-section analysis of rocks using rographic thin sections, I have included some thin
a polarizing or petrographic microscope has been a section examples showing similar features. Hopeful-
traditional tool of the geologist. With the petro- ly, this will ease the transition from thin section to
graphic microscope, geologists are able to examine SEM analysis and emphasize the complementary as-
a two-dimensional cross section through a rock, esti- pects of the two techniques.
mate the bulk mineral composition, and make im- All of the minerals illustrated in this atlas are
portant observations regarding grain fabric and tex- grouped according to species (e.g. silicates, carbonates);
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2 / Introduction
Figure 1. SEM Alphanumeric Key
the silicates are further subdivided into important eral is located on the opposite page (the white circle
mineral groups (silica, feldspars, clays). Most plates in the SEM micrograph indicates the location of
consist of a series of three micrographs arranged the EDX analysis). The EDX spectra were obtained
in order of increasing magnification and accom- using a KEVEX 5000x energy dispersive fluorescence
panied by a brief interpretive description (Figure 1 X-ray system. In a few cases (hornblende, magnetite,
shows a key to the alphanumerics at the bottom of etc.), only an EDX spectrum and one SEM micrograph
each micrograph). The SEM micrographs were taken are included. These individual spectra provide addi-
using an ETEC Autoscan U-1 scanning electron mi- tional examples of important common minerals for
croscope (20 KV). The EDX spectrum for that min- comparison.
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Introduction / 3
Most of the examples were extracted from Chev- posable gloves, tongs, tweezers, etc., because skin oil
ron Oil Field Research Company (COFRC) technical from fingers will out-gas in the SEM vacuum system,
service projects. In order to more thoroughly docu- degrading the SEM image.
ment and characterize certain important mineral The cut sample is attached to a SEM specimen
groups, examples are also included from the API plug with epoxy or Silpaste and dried overnight in a
Reference Clay Minerals suite, X-ray diffraction stan- low-temperature drying oven. A thin line of Silpaint
dards, and a zeolite reference suite (purchased from is added to provide an electrical ground from the
Minerals Research, Clarkson, New York). sample to the plug. The sample is then coated with a
A brief introductory description of sample prepa- conductive metal, such as carbon, gold, or palla-
ration and SEM/EDX theory follows this introduc- dium in either a sputter or evaporative coater. This
tion. Following the text is a list of selected references coating is required to obtain a clear image of an
emphasizing the geologic application of the SEM, an insulating material (such as a rock sample), but is so
X-ray Energy Table, and a glossary of geologic terms thin (200 A ) that it does not hinder the identifica-
used. All definitions were compiled from the AGI tion of specific minerals.
Glossary of Geology (1972). All chemical formulas We found that for porous sandstones, a combined
were derived from Deer, Howie and Zussman (1966). coating of carbon plus gold (or palladium) gives the
Abbreviations used in this atlas are: TS = thin best results. Most of the samples shown in this atlas
section; PL = plane light; XN = crossed nicols; CL = were coated with carbon and gold in a Kinney evap-
cathodoluminescence; SEM = scanning electron mi- orative coater. After coating, the sample is ready for
croscope; EDX = energy dispersive X-ray; WDX = SEM analysis.
wavelength dispersive X-ray; XRD = X-ray diffrac-
tion, eV = electron volt; KeV = Kilo electron volt; KV = HOW THE SEM WORKS
kilovolts.
The scanning electron microscope consists of an
SAMPLE PREPARATION electron optics column and an electronics console
(Figure 2). The coated SEM sample is placed in the
SEM analysis can be done on a wide variety of ma- sample chamber, in the electron optics column and
terials (for example, core and sidewall samples, drill evacuated to high vacuum (approximately 2 10 6
cuttings, thin sections, corroded tubing). The major torr).
requirement is that the sample be small enough to Instead of using light, as in the petrographic mi-
fit into the SEM sample chamber. croscope, the SEM image is formed by an internally
Rock samples submitted for SEM analysis should generated electron beam. This beam is created by
be large enough that a fresh surface, uncontaminat- heating a hairpin tungsten filament (Figure 2) in
ed by drilling fluids, can be obtained. For log and the electron gun until the filament emits electrons.
petro-physical comparisons using core, it is desirable The electron are accelerated through the column by
that the SEM, thin section, porosity, permeability, a 5- to 30-KV accelerating voltage, demagnified and
cation exchange capacity (CEC), and X-ray diffrac- focused through a series of electromagnetic lenses
tion samples be taken at the same depth. Usually a 1 into a finely-focused beam, which bombards the
by 2 in. (25 by 50 mm) core plug will provide suf- sample. Final diameter of the beam is typically 100
ficient material for all of these analyses. To mini- angstroms (1 A = 10 8 cm) in most commercial
mize column contamination, oil-coated samples can SEMs. Additional components include a stigmator
be cleaned in a soxhlet extractor with solvents such for controlling the shape of the beam and apertures
as a 20/80 chloroform-acetone azeotrope for 24 to to minimize lens defects (aberrations), which in
48 hours. light microscopy severely limit resolution.
The SEM sample is obtained by gently breaking It is the interaction of the primary electron beam
the rock or core plug with a small rock-chopper or with the sample which produces various forms of
X-acto knife. Be careful not to introduce artifacts by radiation, such as secondary electrons, characteristic
scraping the knife across the surface to be examined. X-rays, auger electrons, backscatter electrons, and
Optimal size for the final sample is generally around bremsstrahlung (continuous or background) X-rays.
5 by 10 by 10 mm. Any fine debris on the surface As all of these reactions occur simultaneously, it is
can usually be dislodged with a Freon duster. For possible to both observe and analyze the elemental
best results, samples should be handled with dis- composition of an isolated mineral in a matter of
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4 / Introduction
Figure 2. Schematic Showing SEM/EDX System (modified from Beck, 1977)
seconds. In geologic analysis, we primarily use the and processed by the electronics console into the
secondary electrons (SEM micrograph) and the char- familiar SEM image. This image is either displayed on
acteristic X-rays (EDX spectrum). The remainder of a TV screen or photographed with an attached Po-
the radiation is dissipated into heat or lost in the laroid camera.
walls of the SEM sample chamber.
ELEMENTAL ANALYSIS BY SEM
THE SEM MICROGRAPH
Elemental analysis of a sample is obtained by col-
The three-dimensional topographic image (SEM lecting the characteristic X-rays generated as the
micrograph) is formed by collecting the secondary electron beam scans the sample. The X-ray detector
electrons generated by the primary beam. These are is mounted adjacent to the secondary electron de-
low-energy electrons, so only those formed near the tector (Figure 2). Each element in the sample produces
surface (50 to 500 A deep for insulating materials X-rays with characteristic energies and wavelengths.
such as rocks) are able to escape (Wells, 1974). As the These X-rays can be analyzed using an energy sen-
electron beam traverses the sample, the secondary sitive Si(Li) detector in an energy dispersive system
electrons emitted are collected by a secondary elec- (EDX) or by dispersing the X-rays according to wave-
tron detector mounted in the SEM sample chamber length using the crystal detector of a wavelength
Home Page Search
Introduction / 5
dispersive system (WDX). In general, the EDX system

is used to obtain rapid analysis of elements above
atomic number (Z) = 11 (sodium), whereas the WDX
system yields precise quantitative analyses, includ-
ing light or trace elements.
The major differences between the two systems
are:
1) The EDX system yields quick, low-cost analysis of

all elements in the sample simultaneously; the
WDX system analyzes only one element at a time,
making analysis slower and more expensive.
2) Resolution is poor in the EDX system (150 eV/
channel), but excellent in the WDX system (2 to
20 eV/channel).
3) EDX analysis can be done on either rough-cut or
polished thin sections; WDX analysis can only
be done on polished thin sections.
4) EDX analysis yields semiquantitative data (if
polished thin sections are used, the data is more Figure 3. Electron Transitions in an Atom (modified from
Goldstein and Yakowitz, 1978). When an orbiting electron
precise); the WDX system yields precise quanti- is ejected from the K shell by the SEM electron beam, to
tative data. regain stability an electron from the L shell fills the vacan-
cy. The amount of x-ray energy released during this tran-
In this atlas X-ray elemental analysis will deal sition is termed the K x-ray. If an electron from the M shell
only with EDX systems. For additional information fills the vacancy, the energy released is termed K etc.
on WDX analysis, see Smith (1976) and Postek and
others (1980). information on how these factors affect the EDX
analysis, see Postek et al (1980), chapters 4 and 5. This
atlas deals only with elemental analysis of rough-
EDX ANALYSIS OF MINERALS cut samples; thus the data obtained is at best only
semiquantitative.
In EDX analysis, the primary electron beam in the During EDX analysis the mineral to be identified
SEM ionizes the atoms of the mineral being ana- is isolated in the SEM at approximately 20,000
lyzed by exciting and ejecting electrons in the inner to 50,000 (or in a reduced area mode). All X-rays
shells of the atoms. To regain stability, electrons generated from the isolated area are collected and
from the outer shells replace the inner shell vacan- separated by energy level in a multichannel pulse
cies (Figure 3). These transitions from outer to inner height analyzer. Any major element in the sample
shell release specific amounts of energy, in the form (above Z = 11, Na, sodium) will yield a peak on a
of X-rays. The energy of each X-ray is determined by graph (the EDX spectrum) at its unique energy level.
the energy difference between the electron shells The majority of peaks found in rock-forming miner-
involved, differences in the electron spin, and the als will be common elements such as silicon (Si),
number of protons in the nucleus. Only the strongest aluminum (Al), magnesium (Mg), iron (Fe), sodium
of these transitions are detected by the EDX system. (Na), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), titanium (Ti), and
The K X-rays represent the strongest emissions and sulfur (S), and no elements below Na (Z = 11) will be
are used primarily to identify elements up to atomic detected. Peaks representing gold (Au), copper (Cu),
number 30; the L and M lines are used for elements and palladium (Pd) usually indicate radiation from
greater than atomic number 30. the metal coatings and the specimen plug, so should
A typical accelerating voltage for good X-ray anal- be ignored. Only elemental concentrations above
ysis is 20 KV. Other important factors which can approximately 1% are displayed.
affect the quality of the EDX analysis include count Identification of each peak on the EDX spectrum
rate (deadtime), specimen topography, detector ge- is done by lining up the apex with the energy scale
ometry, and the specimen coating. For additional (KeV) at the bottom of the graph (Figure 4). This
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6 / Introduction
Figure 4. How to Identify Peaks in the EDX Spectrum
Home Page Search
Introduction / 7
number is then compared with the X-ray energy (measured at the 5.89 KeV Mn K energy level). If
tables (see back of this atlas), which list the major the X-ray energies of two elements in a mineral are
X-ray energies for each element. Today all commer- less than 150 eV apart, this will appear on the EDX
cial EDX systems are equipped with a preprogrammed spectrum as a single asymmetrical peak, rather than
MKL marker system to aid in rapid identification of two discrete peaks at that energy level. For exam-
the displayed peaks. By simply dialing in the atomic ple, the mineral Florencite contains phosphorus (P)
number of any element, a cursor will appear on the and is coated with gold (Au) for SEM analysis (see
screen indicating the major peak positions for that EDX spectrum of Florencite in this atlas). Since
element. both P and Au have major emission lines around
After all peaks on the EDX spectrum are identi- 2.1 to 2.2 KeV, the Florencite spectrum shows only
fied, the relative concentrations of the elements are one peak separated at the apex into two points,
then compared with the crystal morphology and the one representing P and the other Au. Thus, if any
chemical formula of the suspected mineral. Corre- peak in the spectrum does not have the ideal gauss-
lation of the peak heights of Si, Al, K, and Ca with ian shape, suspect the presence of more than one
the chemical formula is possible because the peak element.
heights are roughly proportional to their concen- Another problem occurs when trying to identify
tration. However, problems with comparing peak very thin minerals (e.g. authigenic illite). The elec-
heights to concentration do occur at both the low- tron beam is strong enough to penetrate through a
and high-atomic number ends. For example, Na and thin mineral into any underlying detrital grain. This
Mg peak heights are always reduced relative to their results in the weak detection of elements from the
concentration due to absorption of these low-energy underlying grain in addition to the elements from
X-rays in the Beryllium window of the detector. the thin mineral you are trying to identify. The EDX
However, the establishment of at least the presence spectrum obtained then represents a composite of
of these elements aids in the mineral identification. both minerals. Therefore, to correctly identify thin
Two other potential problems in EDX interpreta- minerals, probe the thickest areas, identify the un-
tion occur due to poor resolution and electron beam derlying grain and mentally subtract the possible
penetration through very thin materials, such as clays. elemental contribution of the underlying grain from
Most EDX systems have resolutions better than 150 eV the EDX spectrum.
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Silicates
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Silica
QUARTZ
SiO2
Sample Source: COFRC Reference Suite
Formation (Age): St. Peter Sandstone (Ordovician)
Depth of Sample: Outcrop
Porous, well-rounded quartz arenite with minor authigenic quartz overgrowths and pore-lining
clay. Figure A shows a sample composed entirely of well-rounded detrital quartz grains. On the surface of
these detrital grains (see Figure B), small oval depressions fringed by clay (dashed lines) are observed. These
depressions indicate mild compaction and pressure solution has occurred at points of grain contact. Pressolved
quartz has, locally, reprecipitated near points of grain contact, forming euhedral overgrowths (O). Figure C is
an enlargement of the area outlined by the black box in Figure B, and reveals a thin coating of authigenic
kaolinite books (note black arrows at coordinates D5 and B1) and filamentous illite on the surface of the detrital
grains.
Magnification: (A) 50; (B) 400; (C) 3,000
9
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10 / Silicates Quartz
QUARTZ
SiO2
Sample Source: Amoco Red Canyon #1 well, Wyoming

Formation (Age): Nugget Sandstone ( Jurassic)
Depth of Sample: 8,951 feet
Detrital quartz grain with four slightly concave areas of former grain contact (see contacts in
Figure A at coordinates E5, F9, G5, and E4) formed by pressure solution during compaction. In
Figure B, the outer margin of the grain contact is covered by a thin, smooth mat of illitic clay (I) and fringed
with filamentous illite (coordinates B6). Figure C is an enlargement of the area outlined by the black box in
Figure B. It reveals microcapillary canals between the quartz remnants (see arrows) which may be important
features in transporting pressolved silica from the contact area to the adjacent pores.
Magnification: (A) 300; (B) 2,000; (C) 30,000

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Silicates Quartz / 11
QUARTZ OVERGROWTHS
SiO2

Formation (Age): Navajo Sandstone ( Jurassic-Triassic)
Authigenic quartz overgrowths (O) partly surrounding detrital quartz grains (Q). Figure A shows a
thin section photomicrograph of detrital quartz grains (Q) cemented by authigenic quartz overgrowths. SEM
examination of material from the same sample reveals that the well-developed euhedral quartz overgrowths
(O) do not completely surround the detrital quartz grains (see Figure C for detail). At gaps between the
overgrowths (Figure C, coordinates D4), a thin illitic clay coating (I) is observed on the detrital grains. This
clay coating is responsible for the dark line (see arrows in Figure A) used in thin section analysis to separate
the authigenic and detrital grains.
Magnification: (A) thin section, crossed nicols, 25; (B) 100; (C) 500
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12 / Silicates Quartz
QUARTZ OVERGROWTHS
SiO2
Sample Source: Champlin Brady 5N well, Wyoming

Depth of Sample: 11,599.4 feet
Authigenic quartz overgrowths (O) lining and partly filling pores. Figure A shows four detrital quartz
grains rimmed with authigenic quartz overgrowths. Two stages of authigenic quartz development are
observed: the first stage is formation of a uniform rim of small (2 to 5m) rhombic quartz crystals or druse
(see D in Figure B) around the detrital quartz grains. Growth of the druse was eventually inhibited by
formation of the illite clay mat which covered the druse-lined surface. This clay mat effectively covered up
many of the quartz nucleation sites reducing quartz development. However, at gaps in the clay coatings,
some quartz continued to develop, forming large, euhedral overgrowths (O). These larger overgrowths partly
filled some of the pores, reducing porosity. Note: This sample was chemically treated to remove the clay
before SEM analysis. See illite section for examples of the illite clay mat.

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Silicates Quartz / 13
QUARTZ OVERGROWTHS
SiO2

Authigenic quartz overgrowths (O) partly filling a pore between detrital quartz grains (Q). Figure
A shows a pore partly filled with large quartz overgrowths (O). In the open pores, these overgrowths grew
unobstructed, developing smooth, euhedral faces (see arrow in Figure A). However, where the overgrowth
grew against a pore wall, the authigenic quartz molded itself around the druse-lined detrital grain (see arrow
in Figure B), forming the texture seen in Figure B. Figure C shows a close-up of the molded surface (area
outlined by the black square in Figure B) revealing an area of former grain attachment (see arrow in Figure C)
that was broken during sample preparation. It is at these points of contact that bridges of quartz formed,
mechanically strengthening the rock.

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14 / Silicates Silica (Cristobalite)
CRISTOBALITE (OPAL-CT)
SiO2
Sample Source: Pismo Beach, California

Formation (Age): Monterey Formation (Miocene)
Lepispheres composed of bladed, authigenic crystals of cristobalite (C) lining cavities in a

porcellanite. The bladed morphology of the lepispheres and X-ray diffraction analysis combined with an
EDX spectrum yielding only silica (see EDX on facing page) were used to identify this mineral as cristobalite.
In this example, the cristobalite is associated with elongate, fibrous rods of the zeolite, mordenite (see M in
Figure A; arrow in Figure B at coordinates C7.5; arrows in Figure C at coordinates F4.5 and E8) and clusters of
siderite (S).
Magnification: (A) 1,000; (B) 5,000; (C) 10,000; (D) 20,000

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Silicates Silica (Cristobalite) / 15

Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectrum (EDX)
Cristobalite (Opal-CT) SiO2

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SiO2
Sample Source: Chevron OCS-P-0217-2 well, California

Inner wall of foraminiferal test (F) lined with cristobalite (C). Three stages of crystal development of
cristobalite are illustrated in Figure B: (1) blades; (2) star-shaped clusters (see Figure D for close-up of
morphology of star-shaped cluster); and (3) complete lepispheres (see Figure C). Identification of the crystals
as cristobalite is based on X-ray diffraction analysis and comparison of the morphology and EDX analysis
indicating the crystals are composed only of silica (see EDX on facing page). The minor amount of calcium
detected by the EDX is from the foraminifera test.
Magnification: (A) 600; (B) 2,000; (C) 8,000; (D) 15,000

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Cristobalite (Opal-CT) Si O2
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SiO2
Sample Source: Chevron OCS-P-0217-2 well, California

Equigranular crust of cristobalite (C) lining a cavity. The crust is approximately 3m thick (dashed
lines and arrow in Figure B indicate the lower boundary of the crust) and is composed of blade-like crystals of
cristobalite (see close-up of crust in Figure D). Identification of the material is based on comparing X-ray
diffraction analysis, morphology, and the EDX analysis indicating only silica (see EDX on facing page).

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Cristobalite (Opal-CT) SiO2

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20 / Silicates Silica (Opal)
OPAL (OPAL-A)
SiO2 n H2O
Sample Source: Chevron Hill #22 well, California

Formation (Age): Belridge Diatomite (Pliocene)
Fine-grained diatomite rock composed of broken fragments of diatom frustules (D), clay, and
pyrite (see arrows). In thin section, a few large diatom fragments are visible but the majority of the rock
components are too small to identify. SEM examination of a sample from the same depth, reveals that the
rock is composed primarily of diatom fragments (D) and clay (C). The diatoms can be recognized by their
honeycomb, or cellular structure. The black opaque area observed in thin section (see arrow in Figure A at
coordinates D7) probably consists of small crystals and framboids of pyrite similar to those observed in Figure
C (see arrows in Figure C).
Magnification: (A) thin section, plane light, 40; (B) 500; (C) 1,000
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Feldspars
POTASSIUM FELDSPAR
KAlSi3O8
Sample Source: Amoco Champlin #224A-1 well, Wyoming
Authigenic K-feldspar overgrowths on a detrital K-feldspar grain. Figure A shows a thin section of a
well-rounded detrital K-feldspar (microcline) grain rimmed with small, jagged overgrowths (see arrow on
Figure A at coordinates D4.5). In the SEM, these overgrowths appear as small (2 to 10m) rhombic crystals
(see arrows in Figure C at coordinates C2, C6, and F4.5) partly covering a detrital K-feldspar surface (see
Figure D for a close-up of one of these overgrowths). Bald area, devoid of overgrowths, are areas of former
grain contact (outlined by dashed lines in Figure C). Identification of both the detrital and authigenic
minerals is based on EDX analysis yielding the major elements Si, Al, and K (see EDX on facing page). This is
a typical EDX spectrum for K-feldspar.
Magnification: (A) thin section, crossed nicols, 64; (B) 100; (C) 400; (D) 3,000
21
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22 / Silicates Feldspar (Potassium)

Potassium Feldspar K Al Si3 O8

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Silicates Feldspar (Potassium) / 23
POTASSIUM FELDSPAR
KalSi3O8

Formation (Age): Navajo Sandstone (Triassic-Jurassic)
Authigenic K-feldspar overgrowths (O) rimming a detrital K-feldspar grain (D). In thin section (see
Figure A, coordinates F6), a detrital K-feldspar grain (D) appears to be completely surrounded by blocky, well-
developed, planar, authigenic overgrowths (see arrow in Figure A). However, SEM examination of a similar
grain in the same sample (see arrow in Figure B) shows that the blocky feldspar overgrowths are poorly
developed and corroded (see Figure D for a close-up of the overgrowth surface). Identification of this grain is
by EDX analysis of isolated parts of both the detrital and authigenic components. The EDX spectrum contains
all the major elements (Si, Al, and K) typical of K-feldspars (see EDX on facing page). Well-developed,
euhedral, authigenic quartz overgrowths (Q) are observed adjacent to the feldspar grain.
Magnification: (A) thin section, crossed nicols, 25; (B) 50; (C) 100; (D) 500
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Silicates Feldspar (Potassium) / 25
RESORBED POTASSIUM FELDSPAR
KAlSi3O8
Sample Source: Chevron Overseas Petroleum, Inc.

Formation (Age): (Permian)
Partly resorbed detrital K-feldspar grain. In Figure A, dashed lines show the boundary of a corroded
detrital grain (coordinates E5). The observed preferred orientation of the remnants (Figures B and C) suggests
that dissolution of the grain is crystallographically controlled. Identification of the grain as K-feldspar is
based primarily in EDX analysis of the corroded remnants (see Figure D for the location of the analysis). The
relative peak heights of the major elements displayed on the EDX graph (see EDX on facing page) correspond
to the formula for the mineral K-feldspar (K:Al:Si :: 1:1:3). This information, combined with supportive thin
section and X-ray diffraction results confirm the identification.
Magnification: (A) 200; (B) 400; (C) 1,000; (D) 2,000

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Silicates Feldspar (Plagioclase) / 27
PLAGIOCLASE FELDSPAR WITH K-FELDSPAR OVERGROWTHS
Na(AlSi3O8) - Ca(Al2Si2O8)
KAlSi3O8
Sample Source: Point Arena, California

Formation (Age): Gallaway Formation (Miocene)
Detrital plagioclase feldspar grain (P) partly covered with authigenic K-feldspar overgrowths
(K). In Figure B, blocky, euhedral overgrowths are observed on an unusually clean detrital grain. The
morphology of this grain is not distinctive in SEM, thus identification is based on analysis of the major
elements as determined with the EDX system. EDX analysis (see facing page) indicates that the detrital grain
(P) consists of Si, Al, Ca, and Na; the relative peak heights are consistent with the formula for a plagioclase
feldspar. The overgrowths (K) consist of Si, Al, and K; the relative peak heights indicate a K-feldspar (see EDX
and Figure E, on next page).
Magnification: (A) 500; (B) 1,000; (C) 5,000; (D) 1,000; (E) 5,000
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28 / Silicates Feldspar (Plagioclase)

Plagioclase Feldspar Na (Al Si3 O8) Ca (Al2 Si2 O8)

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PLAGIOCLASE FELDSPAR WITH K-FELDSPAR OVERGROWTHS
NaAlSi3O8
KAlSi3O8
Partly resorbed detrital plagioclase feldspar grain (P) rimmed with authigenic K-feldspar
overgrowth (O). The detrital grain appears fluted (see Figure B at coordinates D4) and partly resorbed (see
Figure D for close-up of detrital plagioclase), in contrast to the thin, more resistant authigenic feldspar rim (see
Figure C, coordinates D5; also see Figure E on next page for close-up of K-feldspar overgrowth). EDX analysis
indicates that the detrital grain is composed of albite (Si, Al, Na; see Figure D); the overgrowth consists of
K-feldspar (Si, Al, K; see Figure E). In order to precipitate a K-feldspar overgrowth on a plagioclase grain, the
K/Na ratio of the pore fluids must have been high at the time of formation of the overgrowths. This type of
information can be used to help reconstruct the pore fluid history of the rock.
Magnification: (A) 500; (B) 2,000; (C) 10,000; (D) 10,000; (E) 20,000
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Albite Na (Al Si3 O8)

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RESORBED PLAGIOCLASE FELDSPAR
Na(AlSi3O8)-Ca(Al2Si2O8)

Formation (Age): (Devonian to Carboniferous)
Secondary pore created by the dissolution of a detrital plagioclase feldspar grain (P). Dashed lines
(see Figures A and B) outline the original grain boundary of an almost completely resorbed detrital feldspar
grain. Identification of the original detrital grain is done by analyzing the few remaining slivers of the
detrital grain (see Figure C at coordinates E6) with the EDX system. This analysis indicates this original grain
was a plagioclase feldspar (see EDX on facing page). Authigenic quartz overgrowths (see O on Figure B,
coordinates D4) and rims of webby, authigenic clay, corrensite (see C on Figure C, coordinates F1) also are
seen. X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis was used to identify the clay.
Magnification: (A) 50; (B) 100; (C) 500; (D) 1,000

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Plagioclase Feldspar Na (Al Si3 O8) Ca (Al2 Si2 O8)

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Clays
CHLORITE
(Mg,Al,Fe)12 [(Si,Al)8O20] (OH)16

Sample Source: Chevron L. Crochet #1 well, Louisiana
Formation (Age): Tuscaloosa Formation (Cretaceous)
Pore-lining authigenic chlorite (C). In thin section (Figure A), authigenic chlorite forms thin, uniform, green
rims (see arrows) around the detrital grains. These green rims consist of small (2 to 5m) euhedral, pseudohexagonal
crystals (Figures B and C). Individual crystals are oriented on edge, with faces perpendicular to the detrital grain
surfaces (see Figure D for close-up of chlorite morphology). Chlorite EDX analysis yields the major elements Si, Al,
Mg, and Fe (see EDX on facing page). The amount of iron is highly variable; this particular example is iron-rich.
Bald areas outlined by dashed lines in Figure B are areas of former grain contact and are devoid of chlorite.
Magnification: (A) thin section, plane light, 50; (B) 500; (C) 1,000; (D) 1,500
35
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36 / Silicates Clay (Chlorite)

Chlorite (Mg, Al, Fe)12 [(Si, Al)8 O20] (OH)16

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Silicates Clay (Chlorite) / 37
CHLORITE
(Mg,Al,Fe)12 [(Si,Al)8O20] (OH)16
Sample Source: Chevron L. Crochet #1 well, Louisiana

Formation (Age): Tuscaloosa Formation (Cretaceous)
Authigenic, pore-lining chlorite rosettes. In Figure A, individual chlorite platelets (arrow) are arranged in
a rosette pattern on a chlorite-coated detrital quartz grain. These euhedral, pseudohexagonal crystals are
approximately 2 to 5m in diameter and less than 1m thick (see Figures B and C). EDX analysis indicates an
iron-rich chlorite containing the major elements Si, Al, Mg, and Fe (see EDX on facing page). In this case,
EDX analysis of the major elements and their relative peak heights are very important; otherwise this mineral
might be confused with other rosette-like minerals.

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CHLORITE
(Mg,Al,Fe)12 [(Si,Al)8O20] (OH)16
Sample Source: Chevron PRU 22-5A well, Wyoming

Authigenic chlorite crystals (C) partly filling a pore. In Figures A, B, and C, small stacks of face-to-face
chlorite platelets (note arrow in Figure B) and fan-shaped, on-edge chlorite platelets (note arrow in Figure C)
are seen on detrital quartz grains (Q ). The black square in Figure A indexes Figures B, C, and D. Individual
crystals are pseudohexagonal with irregular edges. Size ranges from approximately 10 to 40m in diameter
and less than 1m thick. Thin ribbons of authigenic illite (see arrow in Figure D) partly coat some of the
chlorite crystals. EDX analysis yields a typical spectrum for iron-rich chlorite. Electron microprobe analyses
indicate that this chlorite contains (approx.) 32 weight percent FeO. This type of clay is sensitive to HCl acid
treatments. Sample courtesy J. Frank. SEM micrographs by P. Flynn.

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CHLORITE
(Mg,Al,Fe)12 [(Si,Al)8O20] (OH)16

Formation (Age): Formation Unknown
Clusters of elongate to disc-like, authigenic chlorite crystals (C) partly filling a depression within
an altered detrital grain (K). Individual crystals (C) are approximately 1 to 2m in diameter with rounded
edges (see arrows in Figure C). The EDX spectrum contains the elements typical of chlorite: Si, Al, Mg, Fe and Ca
(see EDX on facing page). Na and Cl are contaminants from the detrital K-feldspar grain (K) and nearby halite
crystals. The Cu is from the plug mount.

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CHLORITE
(Mg,Al,Fe)12 [(Si,Al)8O20] (OH)16

Ragged-edged, authigenic chlorite platelets (C) stacked face-to-face in a rare beehive-like structure.
Individual crystals are circular with lobate or scalloped edges (see arrows in Figure C, coordinates E5 and I5.5).
Size ranges from 1 to 5m in diameter. EDX analysis yields a typical chlorite EDX spectrum, including abun-
dant Fe (see EDX on facing page). The chlorite formed in a depression within an altered granitic rock fragment.
Smaller stacks of circular chlorite platelets are indicated by arrows in Figure B.

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CHLORITE
(Mg,Al,Fe)12 [(Si,Al)8O20] (OH)16

Pore-filling chloritized biotite (C). In thin section (Figures A and B), the dark green pore-fill (C) sepa-
rating detrital quartz grains (Q ) represents former biotite grains which have altered to chlorite. Identification
of the pore-filling mineral as chlorite is based on SEM/EDX analysis of the morphology and chemical com-
position. The pore-fill consists of individual chlorite flakes oriented face-to-face and aligned parallel to original
biotite cleavage planes (see arrows in Figures C and D). EDX analysis reveals a chlorite EDX spectrum con-
taining the major elements Si, Al, Mg, and Fe (see EDX on facing page).
Magnification: (A) thin section, plane light, 25; (B) thin section, crossed nicols, 25; (C) 500; (D) 1,000
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Silicates Clay (Illite) / 47
ILLITE
K1-1.5Al4 [Si7-6.5Al1-1.5O20] (OH)4
Sample Source: Chevron USA, Inc.

Formation (Age): (Cretaceous)
Detrital quartz (Q) and calcite (C) grains cemented with fine-grained authigenic illite (I) and
pyrite (P). The clay seen in thin section as a brown pore-filling matrix (Figures A and B, coordinates F5.5)
consists of thin flakes with ribbon-like projections of illite (Figure C, coordinates E5; see also Figure D for
close-up of illite morphology). EDX analysis of illite yields the major elements: Si, Al, and K, with a minor
amount of Mg, Ca, and Fe. Note: in the illite EDX spectrum, the relative peak height of K is usually less than
that of Al. This is in contrast to K-feldspars where the K and Al peaks are of equal height.
Magnification: (A) thin section, plane light, 25; (B) thin section, crossed nicols, 25; (C) 1,000; (D) 5,000
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48 / Silicates Clay (Illite)

Illite K1-1.5 Al4 [Si7-6.5 Al1-1.5 O20] (OH)4

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ILLITE
K1-1.5Al4 [Si7-6.5Al1-1.5O20] (OH)4

Detrital quartz grains (Q) coated with filamentous pore-lining and pore-bridging authigenic
illite. Open, interconnected pores (P) lined with ribbons form a mat, coating detrital grain surfaces (see Figure
B, coordinates C6) and also bridging the pores between grains (see arrows) creating permeability barriers to
fluid flow. Neasham (1977) demonstrated that this clay texture severely reduces permeability, without af-
fecting porosity. Higher magnification view of the bridges (see Figure D) reveals that they are composed of
intertwined clay ribbons. EDX analysis yields the major elements Si, Al, and K, with a minor amount of Mg
(see EDX on facing page). The Fe detected here is probably due to amorphous iron oxide coatings.

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ILLITE DUST LINE
K1-1.5Al4 [Si7-6.5Al1-1.5O20] (OH)4
Sample Source: Chevron Keewanee Federal #1 well, Wyoming

Thin illitic clay rim, or dust line, separating detrital quartz grains from authigenic quartz
overgrowths. In thin section analysis, the thin brown line seen in Figure A (see arrow) is commonly referred
to as the dust line, and separates detrital quartz from authigenic quartz. Figure B is an SEM micrograph of a
broken quartz grain, showing a cross section similar to that seen in thin section. In the SEM, the detrital
grain (D) is separated from the authigenic overgrowth (O) by the thin white line. Figure C is an enlargement
of the area indicated by the black box in Figure B, showing the dust line to be composed of minute illitic
clay ribbons (see arrows). These ribbons coated the detrital grain prior to authigenic growth. This type of
observation helps establish the paragenetic sequence of the authigenic minerals.
Magnification: (A) thin section, crossed nicols, 40; (B) 1,000; (C) 10,000
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ILLITE
K1-1.5Al4 [Si7-6.5Al1-1.5O20] (OH)4
Sample Source: Amoco Champlin 346 #1 well, Wyoming

Authigenic illite mat (arrows) coating authigenic quartz overgrowths (O) on a detrital quartz
grain. In the open pores, authigenic quartz druse originally covered this detrital quartz grain creating the
irregular surface seen in Figure A. The overgrowths were later completely covered by thin, interwoven ribbons
of authigenic illite (less than 1m wide; see arrows). Illite growth helped preserve porosity by covering
potential quartz nucleation sites, thus inhibiting quartz growth and cementation. Bald areas (outlined by
dashed lines in Figure A) are areas of former grain contact, uncovered during sample preparation.
Magnification: (A) 1,000; (B) 3,000; (C) 10,000

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ILLITE
K1-1.5Al4 [Si7-6.5Al1-1.5O20] (OH)4

Authigenic illite mat (I) rimming area of grain contact on a detrital quartz grain (Q). Enlargement
of the perimeter of the grain contact area (see Figures B and C) shows individual illite ribbons, less than 0.1m
thick (see Figure C, coordinates B5.5) that were trapped during pressure solution and compressed into a thin,
smooth mat (see also arrow in Figure B). The rugose interior part of the grain contact (coordinates F2) contains
no illite, only quartz. The fringe of illitic ribbons surrounding the grain contact area, at the edge of the mat
(Figure A, coordinates G2, D9) originally bridged the pore but were detached during sample preparation.

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ILLITE
K1-1.5Al4 [Si7-6.5Al1-1.5O20] (OH)4
Sample Source: API Reference Clay #36, Morris, Illinois

Formation (Age): (Pennsylvanian)
Depth of Sample: Open Pit Mine
Massive detrital illite composed of irregular, flake-like clay platelets oriented parallel to each
other. The flaky morphology of this detrital illite is not unique to illite, thus is of no help in identifying this
clay. Precise identification is based on X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis and supported by EDX analysis (see
EDX on facing page). The EDX spectrum is similar to those figured for the other authigenic illites in this atlas
(except for the presence of Ti). Note: although this morphology is not diagnostic of illites, it is a common
morphology of detrital clays and can be helpful in separating detrital and authigenic clays.

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56 / Silicates Clay (Kaolinite)
KAOLINITE
Al4[Si4O10] (OH)8

Well-crystallized, authigenic kaolinite (K) partly filling pores. In thin section (Figures A and B), dark
brown patches of fine-grained kaolinite partly fill pores between detrital quartz and calcite grains. The kaolin-
ite occurs as face-to-face stacks of pseudohexagonal plates or books (see arrows, Figure C). Individual crystals
range from 5 to 30m in diameter (Figure D is close-up of kaolinite books). EDX analysis yielding nearly equal
peak heights of Si and Al confirms the identification as kaolinite. Euhedral, authigenic quartz overgrowths
(O) can be observed in Figure C, associated with kaolinite. Note: thin sections are impregnated with blue epoxy
to highlight pore space.
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Silicates Clay (Kaolinite) / 57

Kaolinite Al4 [Si4 O10] (OH)8

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KAOLINITE
Al4[Si4O10] (OH)8

Formation (Age): ( Jurassic)
Blocky, pore-filling kaolinite (K). This example shows books of kaolinite, approximately 1m thick (see
Figures B and C, coordinates E5), separated and linked by ribbons or sheets of filamentous illite-smectite (see
arrows, Figures C and D) partly filling a pore. Figure D is a close-up view of the individual books. The blocky
morphology and typical kaolinite EDX spectrum are diagnostic (see EDX on facing page). Micropores are
visible within the pore filling (see Figure B, coordinates C6, G9; Figure C, coordinates E7).

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KAOLINITE (VERMIFORM)
Al4[Si4O10] (OH)8

Kaolinite verm on a detrital quartz grain. Figures A, B, and C show individual kaolinite books (K)
arranged face-to-face into an elongate stack, called a verm. This vermiform morphology, combined with the
typical kaolinite EDX spectrum is distinctive. In this example, a secondary growth of blocky kaolinite crystals
(see Figure C, coordinates D5.5; and Figure D) can be observed in a crack within the verm. Filamentous illite-
smectite (see arrows, Figure C) occurs on the surface of the kaolinite verm.

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KAOLINITE
Al4[Si4O10] (OH)8

Formation (Age): (Cambrian to Late Carboniferous)
Pore-filling, ragged edge kaolinite (K). In thin section, stacks and elongate verms of kaolinite appear
to completely fill a pore (Figure A). However, SEM examination of a similar pore from the same sample shows
the existence of micropores between the detrital grain boundaries and the pore filling (see arrow, Figure B,
coordinates F5), and within the pore filling itself (arrows, Figure C, coordinates E3.5 and H4). EDX analysis
yields a typical kaolinite spectrum characterized by nearly equal peak heights of Si and Al, and no other
cations. Documentation of microporosity aids in evaluation of overall reservoir porosity.
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KAOLINITE
Al4[Si4O10] (OH)8
Sample Source: Calhan, Colorado

Formation (Age): Dawson Formation (Paleocene)
Massive, vermicular, kaolinite (see arrows). Elongate verms, composed of large (50 to 60m in diam-
eter), face-to-face stacks of well-developed, pseudohexagonal (Figure C, coordinates E5) kaolinite crystals are
seen in thin section (Figure A) or with the SEM (Figures B and C). The vermiform crystal habit and typical
kaolinite EDX spectrum are distinctive (except for the presence of Ti). This sample was taken from a zone of
thin shale beds interbedded with lignitic coal seams. Sample courtesy of D. Morse.
Magnification: (A) thin section, plane light, 25; (B) 60; (C) 200; (D) 300
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66 / Silicates Clay (Halloysite)
HALLOYSITE
Al2O3 2 SiO2 4 H2O
Sample Source: API Reference Clay #H-12, Bedford, Indiana

Formation (Age): (Pennsylvanian)
Rods or tubes of pore-lining halloysite. Halloysite is a member of the kaolin group, in which individual
layers are separated by sheets of water (Millot, 1970). Figures B and C show that halloysite forms a fibrous
coating of small (less than 1m long) rods or tubes (see arrows), oriented with the long dimension per-
pendicular to the detrital grain surface (see Figure D for a close-up of a halloysite tube). The tubular habit and
typical kaolin-like EDX spectrum (see facing page) - characterized by nearly equal peak heights of Al and Si -
are diagnostic.

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Silicates Clay (Halloysite) / 67

Halloysite Al2O3 2 SiO2 4 H2O

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68 / Silicates Clay (Smectite)
SMECTITE
(1/2Ca, Na)0.7 (Al, Mg, Fe)4 [(Si, Al)8O20] nH2O

Well-developed, highly crenulated authigenic smectite (S) partly coating a detrital quartz grain
(Q). Individual crystals of smectite cannot be resolved in the SEM; instead, the clay appears as a thin, webby
crust. The webby morphology, a common crystal habit of smectite, is distinctive but not unique to smectite
(see Figure D for a close-up of the webby morphology). Precise identification of the clay is based on X-ray
diffraction (XRD) analysis supported by the webby habit and EDX spectrum (see facing page) showing the
major elements of smectite (Si, Al, Ca, Mg, Fe, and K). The collapsed appearance of the coating (Figure C) is
possibly an artifact of sample handling resulting from the dehydration of the clay in the SEM vacuum system
(Wilson and Pittman, 1977). Dashed lines in Figure B outline an area of former grain contact.

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Silicates Clay (Smectite) / 69

Smectite (1/2Ca, Na)0.7 (Al, Mg, Fe)4 [(Si, Al)8O20] nH2O

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SMECTITE
Sample Source: Chevron 327-29D well, California

Depth of Sample: 4,523 to 4,533 feet
Webby or highly-crenulated pore lining (S) and pore-bridging (arrows) authigenic smectite. Figures
B and C show two forms of smectite: (1) well-developed, webby pore-lining smectite (Figure C, coordinates E6);
and (2) a thin (approx. 2m wide) ribbon of pore-bridging smectite (see arrows in Figures B and C). Iden-
tification of the clay is based on X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis. The webby morphology and EDX spectrum
are consistent with the smectite identification (see EDX on facing page). This particular sample contains a large
amount of K, possibly from an underlying detrital K-feldspar. Sample courtesy of E.W. Christensen.

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SMECTITE (100% EXPANDABLE)
Sample Source: Perbaungan #1 well, Sumatra

Formation (Age): Bekasap Formation (Miocene)
Slightly crenulated to flaky smectite clay (S) coating a detrital grain. The flaky or crenulated mor-
phology and EDX spectrum yielding the major elements Si, Al, Mg, Ca, and Fe are consistant with a smectite
identification (see EDX facing page), but alone are not definitive enough to positively identify this clay
coating. Precise identification is based on X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis of the clay. Sample courtesy of
S. Wakeham.

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SMECTITE

Sample Source: API Reference Clay #25b, Upton, Wyoming
Formation (Age): Mowry Formation (Cretaceous)
Ragged-edged, slightly crenulated, sodium-rich, pore-filling smectite. A close-up view of the morphology
is demonstrated in Figure D (also see EDX spectrum, facing page). The morphology of this clay is not distinctive
and could be mistaken for other clay minerals without additional X-ray diffraction (XRD) or chemical data.
Identification of this clay is based on analyses published in API Preliminary Report No. 7 (1950). The EDX
spectrum compares with the published chemical analyses listed below (by Ledoux and Company, New York):
Chemical Composition: SiO2, 57.49%; Al2O3, 20.27%; Fe2O3, 2.92%; FeO, 0.19%; MgO, 3.18%; CaO, 0.23%;
Na2O, 1.32%; K2O, 0.28%; H2O+, 6.85%; H2O , 7.63%; TiO2, 0.12%; Total = 100.48%.

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SMECTITE
(1/2Ca,Na)0.7(Al,Mg,Fe)4 [(Si,Al)8O20] (OH)4n H2O
Sample Source: API Reference Clay #19, Polkville, Mississippi

Formation (Age): Vicksburg Formation (Oligocene)
Depth of Sample: Polkville Mine
Bentonite (altered volcanic tuff ) composed to ragged-edged, crenulated to flaky smectite. In Figures
A and B, a structure resembling a glass shard (see arrows) now altered to smectite is visible. Morphology of this
clay is not diagnostic (see Figures C and D for close-up). Identification is based on analyses published in API
Preliminary Report No. 7 (1950). The relative peak heights of the major elements displayed on the EDX spectrum,
compares favorably with the published chemical analyses listed below (by Ledoux and Company, New York):
Na2O, 0.17%; K2O, 0.47%; H2O+, 8.28%; H2O , 15.01%; TiO2, 0.32%; MnO, 0.01%; C, 0.01%; Total = 100.28%.

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Smectite (1/2Ca, Na)0.7 (Al, Mg, Fe)4 [(Si, Al)8 O20] (OH)4 n H2O
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SMECTITE
(1/2Ca,Na)0.7(Al,Mg,Fe)4 [(Si,Al)8O20] (OH)4n H2O
Sample Source: API Reference Clay #27, Belle Fouche, South Dakota
Formation (Age): Mowry Formation (Cretaceous)
Bentonite composed of crenulated, sodium-rich smectite. The crenulated morphology (see Figures C
and D for close-up) supports the smectite identification, but additional chemical information is needed to
identify the clay. Identification here is based on X-ray diffraction (XRD) and published analyses from API
Preliminary Report No. 7 (1950). The relative peak heights displayed on the EDX spectrum (Si, Al, Mg, Fe, K,
and Na) compare favorably with the chemical analyses listed below (by Ledoux and Company, New York):

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Smectite (1/2Ca, Na)0.7 (Al, Mg, Fe)4 [(Si, Al)8 O20] (OH)4 n H2O
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80 / Silicates Clay (Nontronite)
NONTRONITE
(NaTr1/2Ca)0.46(Al0.05Fe1.93Mg0.12) (Al0.5Si3.5O16(OH)2
Sample Source: API Reference Clay #33a, Garfield, Washington

Formation (Age): (Tertiary)
Massive, ragged-edged flakes of nontronite. Nontronite, a ferric, iron-rich member of the smectite group,
typically contains only Si, Al, Ca, and Fe, with a minor amount of Mg. The morphology is not diagnostic.
Identification is based on X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis. EDX analysis supports the XRD identification and
compares favorably with published chemical analyses (API Preliminary Report No. 7, 1950) listed below (by
Ledoux and Company, New York):
Na2O, trace; K2O, trace; H2O+, 7.0%; H2O , 14.38%; TiO2, 0.08%; Total = 99.88%.

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Silicates Clay (Nontronite) / 81

Nontronite (Nahr1/2Ca).46(Al.05Fe1.93Mg.12)(Al.50Si3.50)O16(OH)2
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82 / Silicates Clay (Hectorite)
HECTORITE
Na0.33(Mg2.71Li0.34Al0.008)Si4O10(F,OH)
Sample Source: API Reference Clay #34a, Hector, California

Smooth, slightly crenulated, occasionally flaky (arrows) hectorite. Hectorite is a magnesium- and
lithium-rich variety of smectite, consisting predominantly of Si, Mg, and Li, with a minor amount of K. The
morphology of this clay is not diagnostic (see Figure D for a close-up of the morphology). Identification is
based on X-ray diffraction (XRD) and chemical analyses published in API Preliminary Report No. 7 (1950).
The EDX spectrum is consistent with the chemical data listed below, except for the lack of Li (Z=3) in the
spectrum. Lithium cannot be detected by the EDX system.
Chemical Composition: SiO2, 53.95%; Al2O3, 0.14%; Fe2O3, 0.03%; FeO, -; MgO, 25.89%; CaO, 0.16%; Na2O,
3.04%; K2O, 3.04%; H2O+, 5.61%; H2O , 9.29%; TiO2, trace; Li2O, 1.22%; Total = 99.56%.

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Silicates Clay (Hectorite) / 83

Hectorite Na0.33(Mg2.71Li.34Al.008)Si4O10(F, OH)

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84 / Silicates Clay (Illite-Smectite)
ILLITE-SMECTITE

Formation (Age): (Permian)
Thin ribbons (arrows) of filamentous illite-smectite clay partly filling and bridging pores between
detrital quartz grains (Q). Individual ribbons (I) bridge across pores (arrows on Figures A and B; Figure C,
coordinates D8), reducing permeability by inhibiting free fluid flow (the black square in Figure B shows the
location of Figure C). Mixed-layer clays are difficult to identify in the SEM. Because mixed-layer clays are com-
posed of more than one clay type, the composition and morphology are highly variable. EDX analysis shows
the major elements Si, Al, K, Ca, Mg, and Fe. But S, Cl, Na, and possibly some of the Fe shown here are not
constituents of the illite-smectite, and are contaminants from adjacent minerals such as pyrite and halite
(see EDX on facing page). Identification of this clay is based on X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis, and not on
SEM/EDX.

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Silicates Clay (Illite-Smectite) / 85

Illite Smectite
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86 / Silicates Clay (Illite-Smectite)
ILLITE-SMECTITE

Pore-filling, authigenic filamentous (arrows) illite-smectite mixed with blocky kaolinite books (K)
adjacent to well-developed authigenic quartz overgrowths (Q). Identification of this mixed-layer clay is
based on X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis and substantiated by the filamentous morphology and EDX spec-
trum containing Si, Al, and K. Interpretation of EDX spectra of thin clays (such as this illite-smectite) is difficult
due to electron beam penetration through the clay into the underlying substrate, yielding a composite EDX
spectrum. In this example (facing page), the peak height of Al relative to Si is much higher than would be
expected from an isolated illite-smectite EDX spectrum. SEM examination of the site of the EDX analysis
(Figure D) shows underlying kaolinite books (K) which probably contributed additional Al to the EDX analysis.

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Silicates Clay (Illite-Smectite) / 87

Illite-Smectite
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88 / Silicates Clay (Corrensite)
CORRENSITE (CHLORITE-SMECTITE)

Depth to Sample: 1,694 feet
Well-developed, webby, pore-lining and pore-bridging corrensite (C). Corrensite, a regularly inter-
stratified mixed-layer chlorite-smectite, forms webby coatings surrounding the detrital grains and wide rib-
bons bridging between the grains (see arrows). This clay shows the typical webby morphology of a smectite, but
the EDX composition resembles a chlorite (see EDX, facing page). Identification of this clay is based on X-ray
diffraction (XRD) analysis. Small verms of kaolinite (K) occur with the corrensite in a pore. Porosity of this
sample is high but permeability is adversely affected by the bridging of clay across the pore throats.

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Silicates Clay (Corrensite) / 89

Corrensite
(Chlorite/Smectite)
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90 / Silicates Clay (Glauconite)
GLAUCONITE
(K,Na,Ca)1.2-2.0(Fe+3,Al,Fe+2,Mg)4(Si7-7.6Al1-1.9O20) (OH)4 n H2O

Bright green, well-rounded, glauconite peloids (G) in a fine-grained, argillaceous sandstone. In

thin section (Figures A and B), round and oval-shaped glauconite peloids are easily recognized by their bright
green color. However, in the SEM, color is not available and glauconite appears as nondescript, oval-shaped
grains (see Figure C, coordinates E5), which are difficult to identify without supplementary thin section or
X-ray diffraction (XRD) information (see Figure D for close-up of a peloid). The composition of glauconite is
highly variable, but EDX analysis here shows Si, Al, Mg, K, Ca, Fe, and Ti, all possible constituents of
glauconite. Bone fragments (B) and pyrite crystals (arrows) are associated with the glauconite.
Magnification: (A) thin section, plane light, 25; (B) thin section, crossed nicols, 25; (C) 30; (D) 100
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Silicates Clay (Glauconite) / 91

Glauconite (K, Na, Ca)1.2-2.0 (Fe+3, Al, Fe+2, Mg)4 (Si7-7.6 Al1-1.9 O20) (OH)4 n H20
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92 / Silicates Clay (Rectorite)
RECTORITE
X0.5(Si,Al)4(Al,Fe,Mg)2O10(OH)2

Compact, flaky, pore-filling rectorite (R). Rectorite is a mixed-layer clay, consisting of a regularly inter-
stratified 50/50 mixture of illite and smectite. In thin section (Figures A and B), and in the SEM (Figure C),
rectorite forms a complete pore-fill (R) between detrital grains. The morphology of this clay is not distinctive
(see Figure D for close-up of clay morphology). Identification is based on X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis. EDX
analysis (facing page) shows Si, Al, Mg, K, and Fe (all possible constituents of rectorite) supporting the XRD
identification.
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Silicates Clay (Rectorite) / 93

Rectorite X0.5 (Si, Al)4 (Al, Fe, Mg)2 O10 (OH)2

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94 / Silicates Clay (Palygorskite)
PALYGORSKITE (FORMERLY ATTAPULGITE)
(OH2)4(OH)2Mg5Si8O20 4 H2O
Sample Source: API Reference Clay #44, Attapulgus, Georgia

Formation (Age): Hawthorn Formation (Miocene)
Massive, interwoven fibers of palygorskite. Palygorskite is an aluminum- and magnesium-rich, fibrous

clay mineral consisting of nearly equal amounts of Al and Mg (Millot, 1970). In Figures A, B, and C, the
fibrous morphology is visible. EDX analysis shows primarily Si, with nearly equal amounts of Al and Mg
and a minor amount of Fe, Ca, and K, consistent with the chemical formula of palygorskite. Identification
of this clay is based on X-ray diffraction and chemical analyses published in API Preliminary Report No. 7
(1950) and supported by EDX analysis and the fibrous crystal habit.

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Silicates Clay (Palygorskite) / 95

Palygorskite (OH2)4 (OH)2 Mg5 Si8 O20 4 H2O

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96 / Silicates Clay (Vermiculite)

Vermiculite (Mg, Ca)0.7 (Mg, Fe+3, Al)6 [(Al, Si)8 O20] (OH)4 8 H2O
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Zeolites
ANALCIME
Na [AlSi2O6] H2O
Sample Source: Kamishak Bay, Alaska

Formation (Age): Naknek Formation ( Jurassic)
Well-developed, cubo-octahedral crystals of analcime lining pores (A). Large analcime crystals are
visible in both thin section (arrows, Figure A) and in the SEM (black square, Figure B; A, Figure C). These
crystals were identified by E. Christensen on the basis of their optical properties and are similar in
morphology to samples figured by Mumpton and Ormsby (1976). No EDX analysis is available for this
sample. Note: in Figure A, the blue color represents pore space. Thin section photomicrograph by E.
Christensen; SEM micrographs by L. Young.
Magnification: (A) thin section, plane light, 180; (B) 100; (C) 500
97
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98 / Silicates Zeolite (Analcime)
ANALCIME (ARTIFICIAL)
Na [AlSi2O6] H2O
Sample Source: Chevron Oil Field Research Co.

Formation (Age): Boise Sand
Artificially formed analcime crystals on a detrital grain. Well-developed crystals of analcime (or
analcite) are observed in a variety of crystal habits (A). Crystal forms range from cubic (Figure B), spherical
(Figure A, coordinates A5), and trapezohedral (Figure C), to various combinations of these forms, including
one with interpenetration twins (Figure D). EDX analysis (facing page) yields the major elements of
analcime: Si, Al, and Na, with a minor amount of Fe and Cl. Identification of these crystals is based on
comparison of crystal morphology, X-ray diffraction (XRD), and EDX analysis. These crystals were artifically
produced during steamflood experiments by M.G. Reed. SEM micrographs by K. Austin.

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Silicates Zeolite (Analcime) / 99

Analcime Na [Al Si2 O6] H2O

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100 / Silicates Zeolite (Analcime)
ANALCIME
Na [AlSi2O6] H2O
Sample Source: Wikieup, Arizona

Formation (Age): Big Sandy Formation (Pliocene)
Ferruginous, clay-coated trapezohedrons of analcime. In Figure A, small (10 to 20m), subhedral

crystals of analcime form the bulk of this altered saline lake tuff. Thick clay coatings obscure the crystal
morphology (Figure B) but some well-developed crystal faces are visible (arrows, Figure C). EDX analysis
(facing page) indicates the major elements Si, Al, and Na, and minor amounts of Ca, K, and Mg.
Identification is based on crystal habit, EDX, and X-ray diffraction analysis (XRD).

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Silicates Zeolite (Analcime) / 101

Analcime Na [Al Si2 O6] H2O

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102 / Silicates Zeolite (Chabazite)
CHABAZITE
Ca [Al2Si4O12] 6 H2O
Sample Source: Bowie, Arizona

Formation (Age): (Pliocene-Pleistocene)
Zeolitized volcanic ash composed of chabazite. In Figure A, the vitroclastic texture of this altered
volcanic ash is visible and is preserved by the pseudomorphic replacement of glass bubbles and shards
(arrows) with chabazite. Chabazite occurs as well-developed discs (Figure B, coordinates C4) and rosettes
(Figure C, coordinates E5.5). Figure D is a close-up of a rosette. EDX analysis (facing page) yields the major
elements of chabazite: Ca, Na, Si, and Al. Identification is based on the comparison of morphology, X-ray
diffraction, and EDX analysis.

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Silicates Zeolite (Chabazite) / 103

Chabazite Ca [Al2 Si4 O12] 6 H2O

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CHABAZITE

Strings and discs of rhombic chabazite crystals in an altered volcanic ash. In Figure A, a zeolitized
glass shard (arrow) is visible. Enlargement of this shard (Figure B) reveals elongate strings (arrow at
coordinates C5) and discs (coordinates E6) of chabazite (the black square in Figure A shows area of Figure B
enlargement). The strings and discs are composed of individual rhombohedra (less than 1m in diameter;
arrows, Figure C) containing the major elements of chabazite: Ca, Na, Si, and Al (see EDX on facing page).
The rhombic morphology and EDX spectrum are consistent with a chabazite identification.

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CHABAZITE

Erionite lath (E) surrounded by elongate strings and discs of chabazite (C). In Figures B and C, high
magnification SEM analysis shows that the discs (Figure B, arrow) and the elongate strings (Figure C, arrows)
are composed of small (0.2 to 1.0m), well-developed rhombohedra containing the major elements, Ca, Na,
Si, and Al (EDX on facing page). Identification of these crystals as chabazite is based on correlation of the
rhombic morphology and EDX spectrum.

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108 / Silicates Zeolite (Clinoptilolite)
CLINOPTILOLITE
Na6 [Al6Si30O72] 24 H2O
Sample Source: Hector, California

Tabular crystals of authigenic clinoptilolite filling a pore. In Figure A, dashed lines outline the
boundary of a pore filled with euhedral crystals of clinoptilolite (C). Individual clinoptilolite crystals are
small (1 to 5m), tabular or coffin-shaped, and in some cases are coated with a thin sheet of authigenic
clay (arrow, Figure C). Identification is based on comparison of the tabular morphology, X-ray diffraction,
and EDX analysis (not included here), yielding the major elements of clinoptilolite: Na, Si, and Al.

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Silicates Zeolite (Clinoptilolite) / 109
CLINOPTILOLITE
Na6 [Al6Si30O72] 24 H2O
Sample Source: Castle Creek, Idaho

Formation (Age): Chalk Hills (Miocene-Pliocene)
Authigenic clinoptilolite lining pores in a lacustrine tuff. In Figures A, B, and C, small (1 to 10m),
tabular, euhedral crystals of clinoptilolite (C) are shown lining a pore. EDX analysis (facing page) yields the
major elements of clinoptilolite: Na, K, Si, and Al. Correlation of the tabular morphology, X-ray diffraction
analysis, and EDX analysis was used to identify these crystals as clinoptilolite.

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Clinoptilolite Na6 [Al6 Si30 O72] 24 H2O

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Silicates Zeolite (Clinoptilolite) / 111
CLINOPTILOLITE
Na6 [Al6Si30O72] 24 H2O
Sample Source: Fish Creek Mountains, Nevada

Well-developed, authigenic clinoptilolite crystals (C) lining a cavity in a fine-grained tuff. In

Figures A and B, small, euhedral crystals of clinoptilolite (arrows, Figure B) are seen lining a cavity wall.
Individual crystals are small (10 and 30m long), tabular, and partly coated with authigenic clay (see Figure
D for a close-up of a clay-coated surface). EDX analysis (facing page) of the clay-coated surface yields a
composite EDX spectrum containing all the major elements of clinoptilolite (Na, Si, Al, Ca, and K) with the
additional Si, Al, Ca, K, and Mg coming from the clay coatings. Identification here is based on comparison of
the tabular morphology, X-ray diffraction (XRD), and EDX analysis.

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Clinoptilolite Na6 [Al6 Si30 O72] 24 H2O

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Silicates Zeolite (Erionite) / 113
ERIONITE
(Na2, K2, Ca, Mg)4.5 [Al9 Si27 O72] 27 H2O
Sample Source: Rome, Oregon

Formation (Age): Rome Beds (Late Miocene)
Interwoven fibers and elongate rods of erionite in an altered volcanic tuff. In Figure A, relict glass
shards altered to erionite are seen (arrows). Two growth forms of erionite are shown in Figures B and C: (1)
thin, interwoven fibers of erionite occur on the surface of the glass shard (black square in Figure B is the
index to Figure C), and (2) pores between the shards are filled with elongate, rigid rods of erionite (two black
arrows, Figure B). EDX analysis of both the rods and the fibers (facing page) yields the major elements of
erionite (K, Ca, Si, and Al) and is supported by X-ray diffraction analysis.

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114 / Silicates Zeolite (Erionite)

Erionite (Na2, K2, Ca, Mg)4.5 [Al9 Si27 O72] 27 H2O

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ERIONITE
(Na2, K2, Ca, Mg)4.5 [Al9 Si27 O72] 27 H2O
Sample Source: Rome, Oregon

Formation (Age): Rome Beds (Late Miocene)
Interwoven mat of erionite fibers. In Figures A, B, and C, small (less than 1m wide), thin, intertwined
fibers of erionite form a mat covering the surface of a volcanic tuff (arrows, Figure C). Identification is based
on EDX analysis yielding the major elements of erionite (Na, Ca, K, Si, and Al) and supported by X-ray
diffraction analysis.

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Erionite (Na2, K2, Ca, Mg)4.5 [Al9 Si27 O72] 27 H2O

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ERIONITE
(Na2,K2,Ca,Mg)4.5 [Al9Si27O72] 27 H2O

Depth of Formation: Outcrop
Barrel-shaped bundles of erionite surrounded by chabazite in a lacustrine tuff. In Figures A, B,

and C, small (5 to 10m) isolated bundles of erionite (E) are seen within a primarily chabazite tuff.
Identification of these bundles as erionite is based on morphology and EDX analysis yielding the major
elements of erionite (Na, K, Ca, Si, and Al). X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis indicating the presence of
erionite supports the identification.

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Erionite (Na2,K2,Ca,Mg)4.5 [Al9 Si27 O72] 27 H2O

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Silicates Zeolite (Heulandite) / 119
HEULANDITE
(Ca,Na2) [Al2Si7O18] 6 H2O
Sample Source: Canada Creek, Nova Scotia

Formation (Age): Formation unknown
Depth of Formation: Outcrop
Blocky to coffin-shaped crystals of heulandite (H). In Figures A, B, and C, blocky crystals (black arrow,
Figure C) of monoclinic heulandite are observed. Identification of these crystals is based on X-ray diffraction
(XRD) analysis. The coffin-shaped morphology and EDX analysis (facing page) yielding the major elements
of heulandite supports the XRD identification. Heulandite is similar in morphology to clinoptilolite, but
typically contains less K.
Magnification: (A) 20; (B) 50; (C) 100; (D) 300

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120 / Silicates Zeolite (Heulandite)

Heulandite (Ca,Na2) [Al2 Si7 O18] 6 H2O

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Silicates Zeolite (Laumontite) / 121
LAUMONTITE
Sample Source: Union Bell #107 well, California

Depth of Sample: 11,418 to 11,421 feet
Blocky, pore-filling laumontite cementing detrital quartz and feldspar grains. In Figures A, B, and
C, blocky, pore-filling laumontite (L) is seen. The morphology of laumontite is not distinctive in the SEM,
but is similar to sparry, pore-filling calcite cement. EDX analysis is required to differentiate the two cements
in the SEM. EDX analysis of laumontite (facing page) indicates the major elements Ca, Si, and Al, whereas
EDX analysis of calcite reveals only Ca. Sample courtesy of T. McCulloh, U.S. Geological Survey.

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122 / Silicates Zeolite (Laumontite)

Laumontite Ca [Al2 Si4 O12] 4 H2O

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Silicates Zeolite (Mordenite) / 123
MORDENITE
(Na2, K2, Ca) [Al2 Si10 O24] 7 H2O

Formation (Age): Obispo Formation (Miocene)
Elongate rods or fibers of mordenite. In Figures A and B, elongate rods of mordenite (M) are seen within
a cristobalite-lined cavity (C). Individual rods of mordenite are thin (less than 1m wide), occasionally
radiating from a point source forming a whiskerbroom-like feature (black arrows, Figure A). EDX analysis
(facing page) yields the major elements Ca, Na, K, Si, and Al, and is similar to erionite. Identification of this
sample is based on X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis.

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124 / Silicates Zeolite (Mordenite)

Mordenite (Na2, K2, Ca) [Al2 Si10 O24] 7 H2O

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Silicates Zeolite (Mordenite) / 125
MORDENITE
(Na2, K2, Ca) [Al2 Si10 O24] 7 H2O

Formation (Age): Obispo Formation (Miocene)
"Rats nest" of mordenite fibers (M) partly filling a cavity within a porcellanite. In Figures A, B, and
C, thin fibers of mordenite intertwine throughout a cavity forming a structure resembling a rats nest.
Individual fibers are long and less than 0.1m in width (see Figure D for close-up of morphology of the
fibers). Identification of these fibers as mordenite is based on X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis and supported
by the fibrous morphology and EDX spectrum (facing page) containing the major elements of mordenite:
Ca, K, Na, Si, and Al. For additional photos of mordenite, see Mumpton and Ormsby (1976).

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126 / Silicates Zeolite (Mordenite)

Mordenite (Na2, K2, Ca) [Al2 Si10 O24] 7 H2O

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Silicates Zeolite (Phillipsite) / 127
PHILLIPSITE
(1/2Ca, Na, K)3 [Al3Si5O16] 6 H2O
Sample Source: Shoshone, California

Formation (Age): Lake Tecopa Beds (Pleistocene)
Radiating clusters of phillipsite in a saline-lake tuff. In Figures A, B, and C, stubby prisms of

phillipsite (P), arranged into radiating clusters (Figure B, coordinates C3) or rosettes (Figure C) are seen.
Individual crystals are small, ranging in size from 3 to 30m in length and 0.3 to 3m in width.
Identification of these prisms as phillipsite is based on X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis and supported by
morphologic and EDX analysis (facing page) yielding the major elements of phillipsite: K, Na, Ca, Si, and Al.

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128 / Silicates Zeolite (Phillipsite)

Phillipsite (1/2Ca, Na, K)3 [Al3Si5O16] 6 HO

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Silicates Zeolite (Thomsonite) / 129
THOMSONITE
NaCa2 [(Al, Si)5O10]2 6 H2O
Sample Source: Goble, Oregon

Formation (Age): Goble Volcanics (Miocene)
Globular masses of thomsonite (T) lining vugs in a basalt. In Figures A and B, globular masses of
radiating thomsonite crystals (arrows, Figure A), associated with blocky heulandite (Figure A, coordinates G5 and
C5) are visible. A close-up of the surface of one of the balls (Figure C; black square in Figure B is the index) shows
that the balls are composed of small (less than 0.1m wide and 1 to 3m long), tabular crystals oriented with
the C-axis perpendicular to the growth surface (see Figure D for a close-up of the morphology). Identification
of these crystals as thomsonite is based on X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis and supported by EDX analysis
(facing page) yielding the major elements of thomsonite: Ca, Na, Si, and Al. Sample courtesy of R. Beasley.

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130 / Silicates Zeolite (Thomsonite)

Thomsonite Na Ca2 [(Al, Si)5 O10]2 6 H2O

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Silicates Zeolite (Yugawaralite) / 131
YUGAWARALITE
Sample Source: Fudonataki, Yugawara Spa, Japan

Well-developed crystals of yugawaralite in an andesitic tuff. In Figures A, B, and C, tabular crystals of

yugawaralite (Y) are seen. Identification of these crystals is based on X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis and
supported by EDX analysis (facing page), yielding the major elements of yugawaralite: Ca, Si, and Al.
Yugawaralite is a very rare zeolite mineral that has been reported in Japan (in veins within andesitic tuffs
altered by hot water) and in Iceland (Roberts et al., 1974). Sample courtesy of D. Kosiur.

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132 / Silicates Zeolite (Yugawaralite)

Yugawaralite Ca [Al2 Si5 O14] 4 H2O

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Micas
BIOTITE
K2(Mg,Fe+2)6-4(Fe+3,Al,Ti)0-2 [Si6-5Al2-3O20] (OH,F)4
Sample Source: Oxy Cal Canal #81X-6 well, California

Formation (Age): Stevens Formation (Miocene)
Elongate detrital biotite grain (B) compacted between detrital quartz grains (Q) within a chert-
clay matrix (M). The longate grain visible in this thin-section (Figures A and B) is similar to that seen in the
SEM (Figure C). Individual cleavage planes of the biotite book appear as flakes (arrow, Figure D shows a close-
up). The morphology of all micas is similar in the SEM but it is possible to differentiate some of the micas
with the EDX system. Biotite and phlogopite can be distinguished from muscovite by EDX (see EDX
examples of muscovite, biotite, and phlogopite on the following pages for comparison). Biotite and
phlogopite consist of Si, Al, K, Mg, Fe, and Ti, whereas muscovite contains only a minor amount of Fe, and
no Mg. X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis is required to separate biotite from phlogopite.
133
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134 / Silicates Mica (Biotite)

Biotite K2 (Mg, Fe+2)6-4 (Fe+3, Al, Ti)0-2 [Si6-5 Al2-3 O20] (OH, F)4
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Silicates Mica (Biotite) / 135
BIOTITE
K2(Mg,Fe+2)6-4(Fe+3,Al,Ti)0-2 [Si6-5Al2-3O20] (OH,F)4

Detrital biotite grain wedged between clay-coated detrital grains. In Figure A, an elongate biotite
grain (arrows) is seen. Enlargement of the ends of the biotite flake (Figures B and C) shows that the open
cleavages are filled with authigenic gypsum crystals (G). Identification of the mica as biotite and the pore-
filling as gypsum is based on EDX analysis (facing page) showing the major elements of biotite (Si, Al, Mg, K,
Fe, and Ti), combined with Ca and S from nearby gypsum crystals.

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136 / Silicates Mica (Biotite)

Biotite K2 (Mg, Fe+2)6-4 (Fe+3, Al, Ti)0-2 [Si6-5 Al2-3 O20] (OH, F)4
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Silicates Mica (Muscovite) / 137

Muscovite K2 Al4 [Si6 Al2 O20] (OH, F)4

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138 / Silicates Mica (Muscovite)

Muscovite K2 Al4 [Si6 Al2 O20] (OH, F)4

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Silicates Mica (Phlogopite) / 139

Phlogopite K2 (Mg, Fe+2)6 [Si6 Al2 O20] (OH, F)4

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Amphiboles
140
Hornblende (Na, K)0-1 Ca2 (Mg, Fe+2, Fe+3, Al)5 [Si6-7 Al2-1 O22](OH, F)2
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Silicates Amphibole (Actinolite) / 141

Actinolite Ca2 (Mg, Fe+2)5 [Si8 O22] (OH, F)2

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142 / Silicates Amphibole (Riebeckite)

+2 +3
Riebeckite Na2 Fe3 Fe2 [Si8 O22] (OH)2
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143
Pyroxenes
Augite (Ca, Na, Mg, Fe+2, Mn, Fe+3, Al, Ti)2 [(Si, Al)2 O6]
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144 / Silicates Pyroxene (Hypersthene)

Hypersthene (Mg, Fe) SiO3

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145
Others
Talc Mg6 [Si8 O20] (OH)4

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146 / Silicates Chrysotile

Chrysotile Mg3 [Si2 O5] (OH)4

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Silicates Sphene / 147
SPHENE
CaTi [SiO4] (O, OH, F)

Detrital sphene (S) surrounded by mixed-layer detrital clay (C) in a feldspathic lithic arkose.
Identification of this crystal as sphene is based on the EDX spectrum (facing page) which shows almost equal
peak heights of Si, Ca, and Ti. This corresponds very well to the ideal chemical formula listed above, except
for minor substitution of Fe for Ti, which slightly reduced the Ti peak.

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148 / Silicates Sphene

Sphene CaTi [SiO4] (O, OH, F)

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Carbonates
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CALCITE
CaCO3
Well-rounded detrital dolomite grains (D) cemented with pore-filling sparry calcite (C). Similar
views in thin section (Figure A) and in SEM (Figure C) show large, detrital carbonate grains (D) separated by
blocky, pore-filling cement (C). Identification of the pore-filling cement as calcite is based on the distinctive
EDX spectrum (facing page) yielding only Ca. Carbon and oxygen, the other elements in calcite, are not
detected with the EDX system.
150
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Carbonates Calcite / 151

Calcite Ca CO3
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152 / Carbonates Calcite
CALCITE
CaCO3

Formation (Age): Navajo Sandstone ( Jurassic-Triassic)
Pore-lining and pore-filling calcite (C) adjacent to well-developed quartz overgrowths (Q). In thin
section (Figure A), patches of calcite (arrows) are shown between detrital quartz grains. In the SEM (Figure C),
the calcite (C) appears slightly dissolved (Figure D is a close up of the calcite morphology). EDX analysis
(facing page) consisting primarily of calcium supports thin-section identification of the cement as calcite.
The minor amount of Mg is probably part of the calcite, whereas the Si, Al, and K are due to clay inclusions
within the calcite.
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Calcite Ca CO3
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154 / Carbonates Calcite
CALCITE
CaCO3
Sample Source: Chevron Crossman #1 well, Texas

Formation (Age): Hosston Sandstone (Cretaceous)
Calcite-filled inclusion (C) in a detrital quartz grain. Cross section through a detrital quartz grain
(Figures A and B) reveals the presence of numerous small (less than 2m) micropores (arrows). EDX analysis
(facing page) of a crystal inclusion lining one of the micropores (black square in Figure B is index to Figure C)
yields the elements Si and Ca. The Si is probably from the surrounding quartz grain, thus the inclusion must
be composed of Ca. The rhombic morphology and Ca EDX analysis were used to identify the crystal as
calcite. Identification of the composition of inclusions using the SEM/EDX provides important information
which can be used in reconstructing the geochemical history of the grain.

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Calcite Ca CO3
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156 / Carbonates Dolomite
DOLOMITE
CaMg(CO3)2
Large (500 to 600 m m), well-rounded detrital dolomite grain (D) in a calcite-cemented
conglomerate. Figures A and B show thin-section and SEM views of similar detrital dolomite grains from
the same depth. SEM analysis (Figure C; black square in Figure B is index for Figure C) shows the presence of
small, rhombic, authigenic overgrowths (O) and flakes of illitic clay (arrows) on the detrital grain surface
(Figure D is a close up of the morphology of the authigenic minerals). Identification of the detrital grain and
the overgrowths as dolomite is based on EDX analysis (facing page). The EDX spectrum indicates the pres-
ence of all the major elements typical of dolomite (Ca, Mg, and Fe). In this example, and in many EDX
dolomite spectra, the peak height of Mg relative to Ca is slightly reduced compared to its ideal chemical
formula (above). This is partly due to substitution of Fe for Mg in the dolomite lattice and slight attenuation
of Mg in the EDX system.
Magnification: (A) thin section, plane light, 25; (B) 100; (C) 500; (D) 2,000
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Carbonates Dolomite / 157

Dolomite Ca Mg (CO3)2
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DOLOMITE
CaMg(CO3)2

Fine-grained, sucrosic, pore-lining and pore-filling dolomite (D). In thin section (Figures A and B),
detrital quartz grains (Q) appear coated with very fine-grained carbonate cement (D). SEM examination of
material from the same depth (Figure C) shows that the cement consists of clusters of small (2 to 5m)
rhombic crystals (arrows). The rhombic morphology and EDX analysis (facing page) yield the major elements
Ca, Mg, Mn, and Fe, and suggest that the mineral is dolomite. Additional elements present in the EDX
spectrum (S, Si, and probably some of the Ca) are due to detection of adjacent quartz and anhydrite grains.
Note: in Figure A, the blue represents pore space.
Magnification: (A) thin section, plane light, 50; (B) thin section, crossed nicols, 50; (C) 500; (D) 900
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DOLOMITE
CaMg(CO3)2

Well-developed, authigenic dolomite rhombs (D) in a fine-grained detrital clay matrix. In thin
section (Figure A), highly birefringent rhombic crystals are visible (arrows). In the SEM (Figures B and C),
these crystals are seen as small (10 to 20m), euhedral rhombs (D) floating in a detrital clay matrix.
Incorporated in the dolomite are minute clay inclusions (arrows; Figure D is a close up of one of the
rhombs). Identification of the crystals as dolomite is based on the rhombic morphology and EDX spectrum
consisting of Ca, Mg, and Fe. X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis confirms the identification.
Magnification: (A) thin section, crossed nicols, 25; (B) 500; (C) 1,000; (D) 4,000
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DOLOMITE
CaMg (CO3)2

Partly resorbed detrital dolomite grain (D). In Figure A, dashed lines indicate the grain boundary of a
partly resorbed detrital grain. The morphology of this grain is not diagnostic, so identification is based on
EDX analysis of the remaining detrital fragments (Figure D shows location of EDX). EDX analysis (facing
page) shows the major elements of dolomite, Ca and Mg, and also some Si, Al, and K, from nearby illite
ribbons (arrows, Figure C).

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164 / Carbonates Ankerite
FERROAN DOLOMITE/ANKERITE
Ca(Mg,Fe+2,Mn) (CO3)2
Sparry, pore-filling ferroan dolomite/ankerite (D). Thin section photomicrograph (Figure A) and SEM
micrograph (Figure B) of the same polished thin section (carbon coated for SEM analysis) shows detrital
quartz grains (Q ) partly cemented with pore-filling carbonate cement (D). Identification of the carbonate as
ferroan dolomite/ankerite is done in the SEM using the EDX system. Major elements detected (EDX, facing
page) are Ca, Mg, Fe, and a minor amount of Mn. The relative peak heights of the elements correspond to
the chemical formula (above) for ferroan dolomite/ankerite. Additional information about the sample is
obtained from an SEM mount of the same sample (Figure C) which shows three-dimensionally the dis-
tribution of the cement and its relationship to the adjacent detrital grains. SEM photomicrographs by
D. Richards and J. Welton.
Magnification: (A) thin section, crossed nicols, 150; (B) SEM, thin section, 500; (C) 200; (D) 200
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Carbonates Ankerite / 165

Ferroan Dolomite/Ankerite Ca (Mg, Fe+2, Mn) (CO3)2

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166 / Carbonates Siderite
SIDERITE
FeCO3
Sample Source: Minas #8C-15 well, Indonesia

Formation (Age): Bekasap Formation (Miocene)
Detrital quartz grains (Q) coated with bladelike crusts of authigenic siderite (S). In thin section
(Figure A), siderite (S) appears to completely cement detrital grains. SEM examination of the same sample
shows that the siderite actually forms a thin crust around the detrital grains (Figure B) and does not fill the
pores (P). The crust is made up of elongate blades of rhombic siderite (arrows, Figure D). The blades are
oriented on-edge, normal to the detrital grain surfaces (Figure C) in a honeycomb pattern (arrows). The
rhombic morphology and EDX spectrum (facing page) which show primarily Fe (C and O are not detected
with the EDX system) and minor amounts of Mg, Ca, and Mn are used to identify the cement as siderite. The
minor amount of Si in the spectrum is from the underlying detrital quartz grain.
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Carbonates Siderite / 167

Siderite Fe CO3
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168 / Carbonates Siderite
SIDERITE
FeCO3
Sample Source: Pittsburg, Kansas

Formation (Age): Cherokee Sandstone (Pennsylvanian)
Depth of Sample: 200 feet
Small, authigenic siderite crystals (S) within an altered biotite (B) grain. In Figures A and B, a
detrital biotite grain is observed surrounded by detrital quartz grains (Q ). Within the open cleavages of the
biotite book, small (2 to 5m) crystals of siderite (S) are visible (Figure C). Identification of the crystals as
siderite is based on the rhombic habit (arrow, Figure C) and EDX spectrum (facing page) consisting primarily
of Fe and a minor amount of Ca, Mg, and Mn (C and O are not detected in an EDX system). Si and Al in the
spectrum represents contamination from adjacent grains. Sample courtesy of A. Carpenter.

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Carbonates Siderite / 169

Siderite Fe CO3
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170 / Carbonates Chalk
CHALK
CaCO3

Formation (Age): (Early Paleocene)
Very fine-grained porous chalk. Megascopically and at low magnifications in the SEM (Figure A), the
chalk appears to be of uniform grain size and very homogeneous. But, at higher magnifications, the chalk
actually consists of a complex mixture of whole (arrows, Figure B) and broken coccolith plates (assorted sizes
and shapes, Figure B), complete coccospheres (Figure C), rhombic micrite crystals (M, Figure C), and minor
pore-bridging authigenic clay (arrows, Figure C). Preservation of the fragile coccosphere (Figure C) suggests
that only mild compaction has occurred. Porosity of this chalk is high (averaging 35 to 40 percent) and is
primarily in the form of micropores between grains (Figure C, coordinates A4, B9.5, and I6) and fractures.
Permeability is low (8 to 10 md) and is further reduced by the formation of pore-bridging authigenic clay
(arrows, Figure C).

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Carbonates Chalk / 171
CHALK
CaCO3

Formation (Age): (Early Paleocene-Cretaceous)
Spar-lined foraminiferal tests (arrows) in a chalk. In Figure A, round foraminiferal chambers (arrows)
are seen as large (10 m) hollow cavities or macropores within the microporous chalk. The tests are often
lined with euhedral, sparry calcite rhombs (arrows, Figure B) and occasionally in-filled with micrite (M,
Figure C). If fossil tests are abundant in a chalk sample, they can increase overall porosity; however, these
large pores are generally not interconnected, so the effective porosity and permeability is not increased.

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Phosphates
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APATITE
Ca5(PO4)3 (OH,F,Cl)

Small (20 to 30 mm), equant, detrital apatite crystal (A) in an argillaceous lithic arkose.
Identification of this crystal as apatite is based on EDX analysis (facing page) showing the major elements of
apatite, Ca, P, and Cl. Minor amounts of Si, Al, Mg, and Fe in the EDX spectrum are probably contaminants
from surrounding clay minerals.
173
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174 / Phosphates Apatite

Apatite Ca5 (PO4)3 (OH, F, Cl)

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Phosphates Collophane / 175
COLLOPHANE
Ca5(PO4)3 (F,CL,OH)
Sample Source: Oxy Cal Canal #61-5 well, California

Small (40 mm), round concretionary balls (C) of collophane. Collophane is a cryptocrystalline
phosphatic material related to apatite, and is a major constituent in fossil bones. In Figures A and B, the dark
brown balls (C) observed in thin section were identified by E.W. Christensen (Chevron-Western) as
collophane. Thin section identification is supported by SEM/EDX analysis of a similar clay-coated ball (C;
Figure C) from the same sample (Figure D is a close-up of the ball). EDX analysis (facing page) shows that the
ball is composed primarily of Ca and P, the major elements of collophane. Minor amounts of Si, Al, Mg, and
Fe in the spectrum are due to clay coatings on the detrital grain.
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176 / Phosphates Collophane

Collophane Ca5 (PO4)3 (F, CL, OH)

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Phosphates Florencite / 177
FLORENCITE
CeAl3 (PO4)2 (OH)6

Spherical clusters and elongate rods (F) of the authigenic rare-earth phosphate mineral,
florencite. In Figure A, round and rod-shaped authigenic minerals are observed within the cavity of a
resorbed detrital grain (boundary of the detrital grain is outlined by dashed lines). These authigenic minerals
are composed of well-developed, rhombohedral crystals arranged to small (10 to 30m) rods (see F, Figure B)
and spherical clusters (see F, Figure C). Identification of this mineral is based on comparison of the rhombic
morphology with the EDX analysis (facing page) containing the major elements of florencite: Al, P, and the
rare-earth elements Ce (cerium), Nb (niobium), and La (lanthanum). Identification by M. Bass.

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178 / Phosphates Florencite

Florencite Ce Al3 (PO4)2 (OH)6

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Halides
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HALITE
NaCl
Pore-filling halite, cementing detrital grains. Smooth, slightly dissolved (arrow), pore-filling halite (H)
is shown on Figures A, B, and C. Identification of this porefill is based on EDX analysis showing the major
elements of halite, Na and Cl, with a minor amount of Si and Al from nearby quartz and clay minerals. Note:
An interpretation of an EDX spectrum containing Na must take into account that Na is the lightest element
detectable by EDX. Thus, the peak height of Na is always very reduced relative to other elements and does
not reflect the concentration of Na in the sample.
180
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Halides Halite / 181

Halite Na Cl
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182 / Halides Halite
HALITE
NaCl

Pore-lining and pore-filling halite (H). Figure A is a thin section photomicrograph showing a pore
completely filled with halite (H). SEM examination of material from the same well (Figures B and C) shows two
different forms of halite. In Figure B, the halite (H) forms smooth cubes which appear to line a pore. In Figure C,
detrital grains are cemented with a columnar-like halite porefill (H). Identification of both cements is based on
EDX analysis yielding a typical halite EDX spectrum (facing page) consisting of Na and Cl. The relative peak
height of Na is always much less than Cl (see EDX to compare) because of attenuation of Na X-rays in the EDX
system.
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Halite Na Cl
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184 / Halides Halite
HALITE
NaCl

Small, cubic halite crystals (H) scattered across a clay-coated detrital grain (arrows). In Figures A,
B, and C, SEM examination of material from a sidewall sample shows the presence of small (1 to 2m) cubic
crystals (arrows). The cubic morphology and EDX analysis indicate the presence of Cl and Na and were used to
identify these crystals as halite. Si, Al, and K in the spectrum (facing page) are contaminants from the
underlying clay-coated detrital grain. These small crystals are probably not primary constituents of the rock but
result from drilling mud contamination or drying of a saline formation brine.

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Halite Na Cl
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Sulfides
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PYRITE
FeS2
Pyritohedron (P) on a clay-coated detrital quartz grain with authigenic quartz overgrowths (O).
In Figure B, a well-developed euhedral, authigenic pyrite crystal (P) is shown (square in Figure A is index for
Figure B pyritohedron). Enlargement of the surface of the pyrite crystal (Figure C) shows a thin coating of
small rods (arrows) and pseudohexagonal clay platelets (C). These rods and platelets are too small and thin to
be analyzed with the EDX system. Based on morphology, the rods are probably a fibrous zeolite mineral and
the clay platelets are kaolinite.
187
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188 / Sulfides Pyrite
PYRITE
FeS2

Octahedra (arrows) and pyritohedra of pyrite (P) within a pore. In thin section (Figure A), elongate
lenses (coordinates E5) of black, opaque pyrite crystals are seen. SEM examination of material from the same
depth (Figures B and C) show similar clusters of pyrite. The surface of the pyrite crystals (Figure D is a close-
up of the octahedra) is coated with small rods of a fibrous mineral (arrow; possibly a zeolite) and clay
platelets (C). The crystal morphology and EDX spectrum (facing page) consisting primarily of Fe and S are
diagnostic. In this example, the S peak is slightly offscale. Si, Al, and Ca are from adjacent clay, zeolite, and
calcite grains.
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Sulfides Pyrite / 189

Pyrite Fe S2
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PYRITE
FeS2
Sample Source: Eugene Island #305 well, Louisiana

Formation (Age): 10,300-foot Sand (Pleistocene)
Lens of pyrite framboids in a burrow (arrows). Pyrite framboids are round, occasionally oval-shaped
aggregates composed of small (1 to 2m) closely packed crystallites (Figure D is a close-up of this mor-
phology). Framboids occur as isolated crystals or in lenses, such as those seen in Figures A, B, and C. The
morphology is distinctive and easily recognized in the SEM. EDX analysis yielding the major elements Fe and
S (facing page) confirm the identification.
a J b
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
J
c
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Pyrite Fe S2
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PYRITE
FeS2

Pore-filling pyrite (P). Figure A shows a thin-section photomicrograph of detrital quartz (Q ) and calcite (C)
grains partly cemented by black, opaque, pore-filling pyrite (P). SEM examination of a similar pore from the
same sample (Figures B and C) shows a blocky, sparry pore filling between detrital grains. The morphology
(see Figure D) of this pore filling is not diagnostic. Identification of the pore filling as pyrite is based on EDX
analysis of the area indexed by the square in Figure C. EDX analysis (facing page) yields the major elements
of pyrite (Fe and S), with a minor amount of Ca from nearby calcite grains.
Magnification: (A) thin section, plane light, 40; (B) 50; (C) 100; (D) 2,000
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Pyrite Fe S2
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PYRITE
FeS2
Sample Source: Oxy Cal Canal #61-5 well, California

Small patch of euhedral pyrite octahedra (arrows) partly lining a pore. In thin section (Figure A),
pyrite occurs as a thin, black mass adjacent to a detrital quartz grain (Q ). SEM analysis (Figures B and C) of a
similar pyrite-lined pore from the same depth (arrows) shows that the black patch is formed by small (1m),
individual octahedral pyrite crystals (Figure D is a close up of the morphology). The octahedral habit and
EDX spectrum (facing page) consisting primarily of Fe and S and were used to identify the crystals as pyrite.
Minor amounts of Si, Al, K, and Ca in the EDX spectrum are due to adjacent clay-coated detrital feldspar
grains.
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Pyrite Fe S2
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PYRITE
FeS2

Euhedral pyrite crystal (P) in a clay-rich calcite (C) cemented sandstone. Thin-section (Figure A)
and SEM analyses (Figures B and C) of material from the same sample show a similar well-developed pyrite
crystal (P). SEM identification of this crystal as pyrite is based on EDX analysis (facing page) showing
primarily Fe and S, the major elements of pyrite. The pyrite crystal is surrounded by and the surface partly
coated with authigenic clay (illite and kaolinite; arrows). Figure D is a close-up of the clay-coated surface.
The clay contributes some Al and Si to the EDX spectrum; Ca is from nearby calcite grains (C; Figure C).
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Pyrite Fe S2
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PYRITE
FeS2

Formation (Age): (Early Cretaceous)
Clay-coated pyrite framboids and octahedra (arrows) partly filling a burrow (Figure A). Con-
ductive minerals such as pyrite are known to affect well log conductivity. However, in this example, pyrite
forms 8.5% of the bulk mineral composition (based on Al-Petrolog XRD analysis), yet does not appear to affect
the logs. SEM analysis (Figure A) shows abundant euhedral pyrite framboids and octahedra in the sample. At
lower magnifications (Figure A) these pyrite crystals do not appear unusual; but at higher magnifications
(Figures B and C) thin, authigenic clay coats (arrows, Figures B and C) are found covering the pyrite crystals.
These clay coats effectively insulated the pyrite, thereby nulling any effect the pyrite would be expected to have
on log conductivity. Note: the arrows in Figure A are the index to Figures B and C.

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Sulfides Sphalerite / 199
SPHALERITE
(Zn,Fe)S

Sphalerite crystal (S) in the cavity of a completely resorbed detrital grain. In Figures A, B, and C, a
small (10m), euhedral sphalerite crystal (S) is shown (Figure D is a close-up of the morphology of the
crystal). Identification of this crystal as sphalerite is based on the octahedral habit and EDX spectrum (facing
page) showing all the elements characteristic of sphalerite (Zn,Fe,S). Dashed lines in Figure A indicate the
original grain boundary of the resorbed detrital grain.

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200 / Sulfides Sphalerite

Sphalerite (Zn, Fe) S

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Sulfates
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GYPSUM (ARTIFICIAL)
CaSO4 2 H2O
Sample Source: Panna Maria, Texas
Formation (Age): Jackson Formation (Eocene)
Gypsum rosettes (G) formed of lath-like gypsum crystals. In Figures A, B, and C, short prismatic laths
(Figure A, coordinates E5; Figure B, D5; and Figure C, C8) and long prismatic laths (Figure A, E4; Figure B, G7;
and Figure C, C3) are observed arranged into a rosette (long laths range from 5 to 30 m long). Identification
of these crystals as gypsum is based on correlating the morphology with the EDX analysis (facing page)
which indicates the major elements of gypsum (nearly equal amounts of Ca and S). The EDX spectrum is
identical to anhydrite, so identification is based on crystal habit and supplemented by XRD analysis. These
rosettes were artificially formed during experiments by C. McAllister. Sample courtesy of P. Kimbrell.
202
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Sulfates Gypsum / 203

Gypsum Ca SO4 2 H2O

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204 / Sulfates Anhydrite
ANHYDRITE
CaSO4

Prismatic, pore-filling anhydrite (A). In thin section (Figure A), elongate laths of anhydrite (A) fill pores
adjacent to a well-rounded detrital quartz grain (Q ). SEM examination of a similar pore from the same depth
(Figures B and C) shows that the well-developed, lath-like morphology seen in thin section is barely rec-
ognizable in the SEM (arrows, Figure C; the square in Figure B is the index to Figure C). The morphology of this
pore-fill is not diagnostic; identification is based on correlation of thin section and X-ray diffraction data with
EDX analysis (facing page) indicating the major elements of anhydrite: Ca and S.
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Sulfates Anhydrite / 205

Anhydrite Ca SO4
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ANHYDRITE
CaSO4

Sparry pore-filling anhydrite (A) and fine-grained dolomite (D) cementing detrital grains. Similar
views in thin section (Figure A) and in the SEM (Figure C) show the sparry, pore-filling nature of this
anhydrite cement (dashed lines in Figure C show the boundary of the anhydrite-filled pore). SEM iden-
tification of the sparry pore filling depends on EDX analysis (facing page) which shows that the cement
consists of nearly equal amounts of Ca and S. This data is consistent with thin section and X-ray diffraction
(XRD) information which documented the presence of anhydrite in this sample.
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Sulfates Anhydrite / 207

Anhydrite Ca SO4
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ANHYDRITE
CaSO4

Rectangular (arrows) to blocky pore-filling anhydrite (A). In thin section (Figure A), patches of highly
birefringent anhydrite (A) partly fill pores. SEM analysis of material from the same depth (Figures B and C)
shows the morphology of the anhydrite. The anhydrite cement consists of small (10 to 20 m) crystals
intermixed with fine-grained dolomite (D). These individual crystals appear to coalesce to form blocky
patches seen in Figures A and B (Figure A, coordinates D3; Figure B, coordinates C3). Identification of this
cement is based on EDX analysis (not included here) yielding Ca and S, which agrees with the thin section
identification.
Magnification: (A) thin section, crossed nicols, 100; (B) 500; (C) 1,000
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Sulfates Copiapite / 209
COPIAPITE
(Fe,Mg)Fe4+3(SO4)6(OH)2 20 H2O
Sample Source: Wards Pyrite Standard, Custer, South Dakota

Thin, tabular crystals of copiapite (C) encrusting pyrite (P). Copiapite forms by the oxidation of
pyrite. Figure A shows a pyrite sample (P) coated with a blobby, discontinuous crust of copiapite crystals (C;
Figures B and C). Individual crystals of copiapite are small (5 to 10 m), tabular, euhedral, and arranged on-
edge to the pyrite surface (Figure D is a close-up of the morphology). The EDX spectrum (facing page) is
similar to pyrite, so identification must be supplemented by comparison of the morphology and mineral
associations. Sample courtesy of S. McDonald; identification by A. Carpenter.

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210 / Sulfates Copiapite

Copiapite (Fe, Mg) Fe4+3 (SO4)6 (OH)2 20 H2O

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Sulfates Melanterite / 211
MELANTERITE
(Fe,Zn,Cu,Co,Mg)SO4 7 H2O
Sample Source: Wards Pyrite Standard, Custer, South Dakota

Small clusters of melanterite (M) on the surface of a pyrite sample (P). Melanterite is formed by the
oxidation of pyrite. It occurs as very small (1 m), bladelike crystals arranged into radial clusters (Figure D is
a close-up of the morphology). The EDX spectrum is similar to pyrite (facing page) so identification must be
supplemented by morphology comparisons and mineral associations. Sample courtesy of S. McDonald;
identification by A. Carpenter.

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212 / Sulfates Melanterite

Melanterite (Fe, Zn, Cu, Co, Mg) SO4 7 H2O

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Sulfates Barite / 213
BARITE
BaSO4
Single barite crystal (B) on a detrital quartz grain. Figures B and C show a small (5m), equant barite
crystal. Identification of this crystal as barite is based on EDX analysis (facing page) yielding the major
elements Ba and S. The peak heights of these two elements are nearly equal which is consistent with the
chemical formula for barite listed above. Minor amounts of Si and Al in the spectrum are contaminants from
nearly quartz and clay minerals. This slightly abraded crystal is probably not a primary constituent of the
sample, but represents drilling mud contamination. Note: The two major peaks of Ba and Ti are at similar
energy levels and can be misidentified without careful analysis of the EDX spectrum. If Ba is present, four
peaks representing the Ba L lines will be displayed on the graph (see EDX, facing page); if only two peaks
are present, then the element is Ti.
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214 / Sulfates Barite

Barite Ba SO4
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Oxides
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HEMATITE AND GOETHITE
Fe2O3 and FeO(OH)
Sample Source: Southeast Missouri

Formation (Age): Taum Sauk Limestone (Late Cambrian)
Hematite (H) and goethite (G) inclusions within a partly dedolomitized dolomite rhomb (D).
Figure A shows a large (1mm), euhedral, dolomite rhomb, partly altered to calcite. The calcite was dissolved
using HCl, revealing small inclusions (arrow, Figure B) filled with iron oxides (G and H, Figure C); the square
in Figure A indexes Figure B. Two crystal habits of iron oxide are seen in the dolomite: a small (less than
1 m), round or disc-shaped hematite (?) (see H, Figure C, coordinates E7); and a radiating, rod-shaped
goethite (?) (see G, Figure C, coordinates F5). These minute iron oxide inclusions are responsible for the
reddish-brown coloration of the dolomite crystals. For additional examples see Frank (1981). Sample and
identification courtesy of J. Frank and A. Carpenter.
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Oxides Hematite / 217
HEMATITE AND GOETHITE
Fe2O3 and FeO(OH)
Sample Source: Southeast Missouri

Formation (Age): Taum Sauk Limestone (Late Cambrian)
Hematite (H) and goethite (G) inclusions within a partly dedolomitized dolomite rhomb. Figure A
shows iron oxides within a dolomite crystal. Individual hematite and goethite crystals are so small (less than
1 m) that their morphology is only seen by higher magnification (Figures B and C). Identification is based
on crystal morphology and color (as observed under a binocular microscope). Brown areas are dominantly
goethite, whereas red areas are hematite. The iron oxide crystals are so small and thin that it is difficult to
isolate them with the EDX system; however, EDX analysis does indicate primarily iron (facing page). By
comparing the EDX of an iron oxide-coated surface with the EDX of an iron oxide-free surface, the major
element of these crystals was identified. In this case, Fe increased only in the EDX of the coated surface,
supporting the morphologic identification. Sample and interpretation by J. Frank and A. Carpenter.

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218 / Oxides Hematite

Hematite Fe2 O3
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Oxides Rutile / 219
RUTILE
TiO2

Formation (Age): (Jurassic)
Elongate rods of authigenic rutile (arrows) within a pore. In Figures B and C, small (10 to 20m long
and less than 1m wide) rods are associated with authigenic quartz overgrowths (O) and clay (C). The rod-
shaped crystal habit and EDX analysis (facing page) indicating primarily Ti, were used to identify these
crystals as rutile. Minor amounts of Si, Al, and Fe in the EDX spectrum are probably contaminants from
nearby quartz and clay minerals.

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220 / Oxides Rutile

Rutile Ti O2
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Oxides Magnetite / 221

Magnetite Fe+2 Fe+32 O4

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222 / Oxides Ilmenite

Ilmenite Fe Ti O3
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Miscellaneous
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CARBONACEOUS MATTER (WOOD)

C

Cellular, carbonaceous wood fragment (W) in a fine-grained lithic arkose. In Figure A, the square
outlines a large, rectangular grain. Enlargement of the grain surface (Figures B and C) shows a cellular structure,
suggestive of wood. EDX analysis (facing page) yields no major peaks, except for Au from the gold sample
coating, and yields only a minor amount of Si and Ca. This spectrum is consistent with the morphologic
identification, because wood is composed primarily of carbon (an element not detected by the EDX system).
224
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Miscellaneous Wood / 225

Carbonaceous Fragment (Wood) C

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Appendices
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Energy Table for Characteristic X-Ray Transitions
Energy Table / 227

228 / Energy Table
Search
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Glossary
argillaceous: Pertaining to, largely composed of, or oxides, hydroxides, and silicates (e.g., brucite, for-
containing clay-size particles or clay minerals. sterite) resulting in the enrichment in calcite (Teall,
authigenic: Formed or generated in place; specif- 1903). The term was originally used by Morlot (1847)
ically said of rock constituents and minerals that for the replacement of dolomite by calcite during
have not been transported or that were derived locally diagenesis or chemical weathering.
where they are found, and of minerals that came into detrital: Pertaining to or formed from detritus; said
existence at the same time, or subsequently to, the especially of rocks, minerals, and sediments.
formation of the rock of which they constitute a part. diagenesis [sed]: All the chemical, physical, and
The term, as used, often refers to a mineral (such as biologic changes, modifications, or transformations
quartz or feldspar) formed after deposition of the orig- undergone by a sediment after its initial deposition
inal sediment. (i.e., after it has reached its final resting place in the
current cycle of erosion, transportation, and deposi-
birefringence: The ability of crystals other than tion), and during and after its lithification, exclusive
those of the isometric system to split a beam of ordi- of surficial alteration (weathering) and metamorphism.
nary light into two beams of unequal velocities; the dissolution: A space or cavity in or between rocks,
difference between the greatest and the least indices formed by the solution of part of the rock material.
of refraction of a crystal. druse: A mineral surface covered with small pro-
birefringent: Said of a crystal that displays bire- jecting crystals; specifically the crust or coating of
fringence; such a crystal has more than one index of crystals lining a druse in a rock, such as sparry calcite
refraction. filling pore spaces in a limestone.
coccolith: A general term applied to various micro- equant: Said of a crystal, in an igneous or sedimentary
scopic calcareous structural elements or button-like rock, having the same (or nearly the same) diameters
plates having many different shapes and averaging in all directions. Synonym: equidimensional.
about 3 microns in diameter (some have diameters as equigranular: Said of a rock texture having crystals
large as 35 microns), constructed of minute calcite or of the same, or nearly the same, size.
aragonite crystals, and constituting the outer skeletal euhedral: Said of a crystal, in a sedimentary rock
remains of a coccolithophore. Coccoliths are found (such as a calcite crystal in a recrystallized dolomite),
in chalk and in deep-sea oozes of the temperate and characterized by the presence of crystal faces. Said of
tropical oceans, and were probably not common be- the shape of a euhedral crystal.
fore the Jurassic.
coccosphere: The entire spherical or spheroidal test feldspathic litharenite: A term used by McBride
or skeleton of a coccolithophore composed of an (1963, p. 667) for a litharenite containing appreciable
aggregation of interlocking coccoliths that are exter- feldspar; specifically a sandstone containing 10 to 50%
nal to or embedded within an outer gelatinous layer of feldspar, 25 to 90% fine-grained rock fragments, and
the cell. A coccolithophore. 0 to 65% quartz, quartzite, and chert.
conchoidal: Said of a type of mineral or rock fracture ferruginous: Pertaining to or containing iron (e.g., a
that gives a smoothly curved surface. It is a charac- sandstone that is cemented with iron oxide).
teristic habit of quartz and of obsidian. fibrous: Said of the habit of a mineral, and of the
crenate: Having the edge, margin, or crest cut into mineral itself (e.g., asbestos), that crystallizes in elon-
rounded scallops or shallow rounded notches. gated thin, needle-like grains, or fibers.
filiform: capillary.
dedolomitization: A process whereby, presumably framboid: A microscopic aggregate of pyrite grains,
during contact metamorphism at low pressure, part often in spheroidal clusters. It was considered to be
or all of the magnesium in a dolomite or dolomitic the result of coloidal processes but is now linked with
limestone is used for the formation of magnesium the presence of organic materials; sulfide crystals fill
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chambers or cells in bacteria (Park and MacDiarmid, pore [geol]: A small to minute opening or passageway
1970, p. 133). in a rock or soil; an interstice.
pressure solution: Solution (in a sedimentary rock)
micrograph: A graphic recording. occurring preferentially at the contact surfaces of
micropore: A pore small enough to hold water against grains (crystals) where the external pressure exceeds
the pull of gravity and to inhibit the flow of water. the hydraulic pressure of the interstitial fluid. It re-
sults in enlargement of the contact surfaces and
overgrowth: Secondary material deposited in optical thereby reduces pore space and tightly welds the
and crystallographic continuity around a crystal grain rock.
of the same composition, as in the diagenetic process pressolved: Said of a sedimentary bed or rock in
of secondary enlargement. which the grains have undergone pressure solution;
e.g., pressolved quartzite whose toughness and
paragenesis: The sequential order of mineral for- homogeneity is due to a tightly interlocked texture
mation. A characteristic association or occurrence of of quartz grains subjected to pressure solution. Term
minerals. was introduced by Heald (1956, p. 22).
paragenetic: Pertaining to paragenesis. Pertaining to pseudomorph: A mineral whose outward crystal
the genetic relations of sediments in laterally con- form is that of another mineral species; it has de-
tinuous and equivalent facies. veloped by alteration, substitution, incrustation, or
paramorphism: The property of a mineral to paramorphism. A pseudomorph is described as being
change its internal structure without changing its after the mineral whose outward form it has (e.g.,
external form or chemical composition. Such a min- quartz after fluorite; Dana, p. 206).
eral is called a paramorph.
pellet: A small, usually rounded aggregate of accre- resorption: The act or process of reabsorption or
tionary material, such as a lapillus or a fecal pellet; readsorption; specifically the partial or complete re-
specifically a spherical to elliptical (commonly ovoid, fusion or solution, by and in a magma, of previously
sometimes irregularly shaped) homogeneous clast formed crystals or minerals with which it is not in
made up almost exclusively of clay-sized calcareous equilibrium or, owing to changes of temperature, pres-
(micritic) material, devoid of internal structure, and sure (depth), or chemical composition, with which
contained in the body of a well-sorted carbonate rock. it has ceased to be in equilibrium.
Folk (1959; 1962) suggested that the term apply to rhomb [cryst]: An oblique, equilateral parallelogram;
allochems less than 0.15 to 0.20 mm in diameter, the in crystallography, a rhombohedron.
larger grains being referred to as intraclasts, although rhombohedron: A trigonal crystal form that is a
in some rocks it is impossible to draw a sharp division. parallelepiped whose six identical faces are rhombs.
Pellets appear to be mainly the feces of mollusks and It is characteristic of the hexagonal system.
worms; others include pseudo-ooliths and aggregates
produced by gas bubbling, by algal budding phenom- secondary porosity: The porosity developed in a
ena, or by other intraformational reworking of lithi- rock formation subsequent to its deposition or em-
fied or semilithified carbonate mud. A small rounded placement, either through natural processes of dis-
aggregate (0.1 to 0.3 mm in diameter) of clay minerals solution or stress distortion, or artificially through
and fine quartz found in some shales and clays, sep- acidization or the mechanical injection of coarse sand.
arated from a matrix of the same materials by a shell sparry: Pertaining to, resembling, or consisting of
of organic material, and ascribed to the action of wa- spar; (e.g., sparry vein or sparry luster). Pertaining to
ter currents (Allen and Nichols, 1945). sparite, especially in allusion to the relative clarity
planar: Lying or arranged as a plane or in planes, both in thin section and hand specimen of the calcite
usually implying more or less parallel planes, such as cement; abounding with sparite, such as sparry rock.
those of bedding or cleavage. It is a two-dimensional sparry calcite: Clean, coarse-grained calcite crystal;
arrangement, in contrast to the one-dimensional sparite.
linear arrangement. spectrum: (pl. spectra) An array of intensity values
porcellanite: A hard, dense, siliceous rock having ordered according to any physical parameter, e.g.,
the texture, dull luster, hardness, fracture, or general energy spectrum, mass spectrum, velocity spectrum.
appearance of unglazed porcelain; it is less hard, sucrosic: A synonym of saccharoidal. The term is
dense, and vitreous than chert. commonly applied to idiotopic dolomite rock.
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vermiform: Worm-like or having the form of a worm vitroclastic: Pertaining to a pyroclastic rock struc-
(e.g., vermiform problematica consisting of long, thin, ture characterized by crescentically or triangularly
and more or less cylindrical tubes). fragmented bits of glass.
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References
Recommended References: Introduction Morlot, A. von, 1947, Ueber Dolomit und seine
and General kunstliche Darstellung aus Kalkstein: Naturwissenschaf-
tliche Abhandlungen, gesammelt and durch Subscrip-
AGI, 1972, Glossary of geology, M. Gary, R. McAfee, tion hrsg. von Willhelm Haidinger, v. 1, p. 305315.
Jr., and C.L. Wolf, eds.: Falls Church, Virginia, Amer- Mumpton, F.A., and W.C. Ormsby, 1976, Mor-
ican Geological Institute, 805 p. phology of zeolites in sedimentary rocks by scanning
Allen, V.T., and R.L. Nichols, 1945, Clay-pellet electron microscopy: Clays and Clay Minerals, v. 24,
conglomerates at Hobart Butte, Lane County, Ore- p. 123.
gon: Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, v. 15, p. 25 Park, C.F., Jr., and R.A. MacDiarmid, 1970, Ore
33. deposits: San Francisco, W.H. Freeman Company,
Bassin, N.J., 1975, Suspended marine clay mineral 522 p.
identification by scanning electron microscopy and Postek, M.T., et al, 1980, Scanning electron mi-
energy-dispersive X-ray analysis: Limnology and Oce- croscopy - a students handbook: Burlington, Ver-
anography, v. 20, p. 133137. mont, Ladd Research Industries, Inc., 305 p.
Beck, H.M., 1977, Schematic drawing of SEM/EDX Roberts, W.L., G.R. Rapp, Jr., and J. Weber,
system: unpub., 1 p. 1974, Encyclopedia of minerals: New York, Van
Buchanan, R., 1983, SEM examination of non- Nostrand Reinhold Co., 693 p.
conducting specimens: American Laboratory, April, Smith, D.G.W. (ed.), 1976, Short course in mi-
p. 5661. crobeam techniques: Mineralogical Association of
Dana, E.S., 1892, The system of mineralogy by Canada, 186 p.
J.D. Dana, 18371868, descriptive mineralogy: New Teall, J.J.H., 1903, On dedolomitisation: Geologi-
York, John Wiley and Sons, 1,134 p. cal Magazine, v. 10, p. 513514.
Deer, W.A., R.A. Howie, and J. Zussman, 1962, Wells, O.C., 1974, Scanning electron microscopy:
Rock-forming minerals: New York, John Wiley and New York, McGraw-Hill, 421 p.
Sons, vols. 15. Wilson, M.D., and E.D. Pittman, 1977, Authi-
Everhart, T.E., and T.L. Hayes, 1972, The scan- genic clays in sandstone: recognition and influence
ning electron microscope: Scientific American, v. 226, on reservoir properties and paleoenvironmental ana-
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240

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SEM Petrology Atlas

Chevron Oil Field Research Company

Methods in Exploration Series No. 4

The American Association of Petroleum Geologists

Why SEM Analysis? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

How the SEM Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

The SEM Micrograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Elemental Analysis by SEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

EDX Analysis of Minerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Clays . . . . . . . . ................................ . ............................... . 35

Micas . . . . . . . . ............................... . ................................ . 133

Amphiboles . . . ................................ . ............................... . 140

Others . . . . . . . ................................ . ............................... . 145

Copyright 1984, 2003

AAPG Editor: John C. Lorenz

This and other AAPG publications are available from:

The AAPG Bookstore

Figure 1. SEM Alphanumeric Key

Figure 2. Schematic Showing SEM/EDX System (modified from Beck, 1977)

dispersive system (WDX). In general, the EDX system

1) The EDX system yields quick, low-cost analysis of

Sample Source: Amoco Red Canyon #1 well, Wyoming

Magnification: (A) 300; (B) 2,000; (C) 30,000

Sample Source: COFRC Reference Suite

Sample Source: Champlin Brady 5N well, Wyoming

Magnification: (A) 300; (B) 1,000; (C) 2,000

Sample Source: Champlin Brady 5N well, Wyoming

Magnification: (A) 300; (B) 2,000; (C) 10,000

Sample Source: Pismo Beach, California

Lepispheres composed of bladed, authigenic crystals of cristobalite (C) lining cavities in a

Magnification: (A) 1,000; (B) 5,000; (C) 10,000; (D) 20,000

Silicates Silica (Cristobalite) / 15

Cristobalite (Opal-CT) SiO2

Sample Source: Chevron OCS-P-0217-2 well, California

Magnification: (A) 600; (B) 2,000; (C) 8,000; (D) 15,000

Silicates Silica (Cristobalite) / 17

Sample Source: Chevron OCS-P-0217-2 well, California

Magnification: (A) 1,000; (B) 2,000; (C) 5,000; (D) 21,000

Silicates Silica (Cristobalite) / 19

Cristobalite (Opal-CT) SiO2

Sample Source: Chevron Hill #22 well, California

22 / Silicates Feldspar (Potassium)

Potassium Feldspar K Al Si3 O8

Sample Source: COFRC Reference Suite

24 / Silicates Feldspar (Potassium)

Potassium Feldspar K Al Si3 O8

RESORBED POTASSIUM FELDSPAR

Sample Source: Chevron Overseas Petroleum, Inc.

Magnification: (A) 200; (B) 400; (C) 1,000; (D) 2,000

26 / Silicates Feldspar (Potassium)

Potassium Feldspar K Al Si3 O8

PLAGIOCLASE FELDSPAR WITH K-FELDSPAR OVERGROWTHS

Sample Source: Point Arena, California

28 / Silicates Feldspar (Plagioclase)

Plagioclase Feldspar Na (Al Si3 O8) Ca (Al2 Si2 O8)

Silicates Feldspar (Plagioclase) / 29

Potassium Feldspar K Al Si3 O8

PLAGIOCLASE FELDSPAR WITH K-FELDSPAR OVERGROWTHS

Silicates Feldspar (Plagioclase) / 31