Laboratory: PTT 252 Fluid Mechanics SEMESTER 1 (2017/2018)

LABORATORY
MODULE
PTT 252
FLUID MECHANICS
SEMESTER 1 (2017/2018)
Sriyana Abdullah
Nor Fauziah Zainudin
Adilah Anuar
Siti Nazrah Zailani
Faculty of Engineering Technology

University Malaysia Perlis
PTT 252 Fluid Mechanics Laboratory Module
CONTENT
CONTENT i
CLEANLINESS AND SAFETY ii
EXPERIMENT 1 Determination of the change in flow speed within a tube cross

sectional
EXPERIMENT 2 Determination of the properties of fluid
EXPERIMENT 3 Determination of the center of pressure and metacentric

height
EXPERIMENT 4 Evaluation of the operating characteristic of various types of
flowmeter
EXPERIMENT 5 Measurement of Reynolds Number at different types of flow
EXPERIMENT 6 Measurement of the pipe friction losses for laminar and

turbulent flows
EXPERIMENT 7 Measurement of the fluid friction head losses of an
incompressible fluid
i
CLEANLINESS AND SAFETY

CLEANLINESS
The Applied Fluid Mechanics Laboratory contains equipment that uses water or air as
the fluid. In some cases, performing an experiment will inevitably allow water to get on
the equipment and/or on the floor.
There are “housekeeping” rules that the user of the laboratory should be aware and
abide by. If no one cleaned up their working area after performing an experiment, the lab
would not be a comfortable or safe place to work in. Consequently, students are required
to clean up their area at the conclusion of the performance of an experiment. Cleanup
will include
• removal of spilled water (or any liquid)

• wiping the table top on which the equipment is mounted
The lab should always be as clean as or cleaner than it was when you entered. Cleaning
the lab is your responsibility as a user of the equipment.
SAFETY
This is to serve as a guide and not as a comprehensive manual on safety. Every

staff/student has, at all time, a duty to care for Health and Safety of himself/herself and
of all people who may be affected by his/her action.
PROTECTIVE CLOTHING – Lab coat or Jackets MUST be worn all times. Rubber
gloves should be worn when handling corrosive materials, and heat-proof gauntlets
when discharging any equipments involving heat.
FOOTWARE – Wear fully covered shoes with strong grip.
EYE PROTECTION – Goggles must be used whenever necessary especially when

dealing with high pressure equipments.
ELECTRICITY – Sometimes the floor may be wet. Therefore, care is essential. Always
switch off power before removing plugs from sockets.
CABLES AND HOSES – Cables must be suspended and not lying on the floor. All
cables and hoses should be routed to avoid walk-ways.
BROKEN GLASS – This should be disposed off in the glass bin, not in the usual waste
bin. Breakage should also be reported to the Instructor in charge.
INSTRUCTION SHEETS – Any appropriate instruction sheets should be studied before

starting the experiment. Particular attention should be given to the recommended
precautions, start up procedure and sequence of operation.
There should be NO EATING in the laboratory. Smoking is strictly prohibited in all
laboratories.
ii
In case of emergency, report to the instructor in charge or

doctor/ambulance/fire fighter from:
Hospital Tuanku Fauziah, Kangar 04-9763333

Bomba Perlis 04-9778827
SAFETY FIRST
iii
EXPERIMENT 1
Determination of change in flow speed within a tube
1.0 OBJECTIVES
1.1 To measure flow rate with pitot static tube

1.2 To determine the water flow profile in a tube flow
2.0 COURSE OUTCOME
CO2: Able to demonstrate and calculate fluid flow parameters using fluid mechanics
devices
3.0 INTRODUCTION
The Pitot tube (named after Henri Pitot in 1732) measures fluid velocity by converting
the kinetic energy of the flow into potential energy. The conversion takes place at the
stagnation point, located at the Pitot tube entrance (Figure 1.1). A pressure higher than
the free-stream (i.e. dynamic) pressure results from the kinematics to potential
conversion. This "static" pressure is measured by comparing it to the flow's dynamic
pressure with a differential manometer.
Figure 1.1: Typical Pitot Static Tube
1
4.0 THEORY
Flowrate Measurement Using Differential Head by a Pitot Static Tube
For incompressible fluid, the Bernoulli’s Equation describes the relationship between the
velocity and pressure along a streamline,
2 *
p v
  z h Constant (1)
g 2 g
where,
p = Fluid static pressure at the cross section
ρ = Density of the flowing fluid
g = Acceleration due to gravity
v = Mean velocity of fluid flow at the cross section
z = Elevation head of the centre at the cross section with respect to a datum
h* = Total (stagnation) head
For incompressible flow, evaluated at two different points along a streamline, the
Bernoulli equation yields,
p1 v 2
v 1 z
2
p2  2 z (2)

g 2 g 1 g 2 g 2
If z1 = z2 and point 1 is a stagnation point, i.e., v1 = 0, and v2=V the above equation
reduces to,
2
V p1 p 2 (3)
2    

The velocity of the flow can hence be obtained by this Pitot formula,

2 p p 
V 2 1 (4)

2
Or more specifically,

2 p p 
stagnation static
V (5)

The flow rate can be obtain by,
Qc  VA (6)
Velocity profile in tube flow
In a tube we make a basic assumption: the liquid in the centre is moving fastest while
the liquid touching the walls of the tube is stationary (due to friction).
Figure 1.2: Velocity profile for flow in tube.
Figure 1.2 shows the laminar and turbulent moving at different speeds in the fully
developed region. For laminar, those closest to the edge of the tube are moving slow
while those near the centre are moving fast. Thus its average velocity is half of the
maximum velocity at the centreline. However, the average velocity is different for
turbulent flow. In the case of turbulent flow, it may be necessary to take the weighted
average or an integral of several local velocity measurements to determine the average
velocity.
3
5.1 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
5.2 Experiment 1: Flow Rate Measurement with Pitot Static Tube
1. Adjust the bench control valve to an appropriate flow rate of approximately 25

LPM.
2. After the level stabilizes, measure the water flow rate using volumetric method
and record the manometers reading.
3. Repeat step 1 to 3 with three other decreasing flow rates by regulating the water
supply valve.
4. Calculate the pitot static tube flow rates.
5. Compare the volumetric flow rates with pitot static tube flow rates, and then
comment on test results.
5.3 Experiment 2: Flow Profile determination in Pitot Static Tube
1. Set the control valve to an appropriate flow rate of approximately 25 LPM.

2. After the level stabilizes, set the position of the pitot static tube at the bottom
level.
3. The height of the pitot tube can be adjust by loosening the white cap, and
tightening it once it is adjust to the suitable position.
4. Take the reading of the transverse distance on the scale with increment of 5 mm.
5. Take the manometer readings.
6. Repeat step 1 to 4 with a few transverse position by sliding the pitot static to the
top level.
7. Calculate the pitot static tube velocity.
8. Plot the graph distance versus velocity.
Note:
i. The pitot tube position is important in order to get accurate results. Always ensure the
pitot tube is parallel with the water flow after each transverse distance adjustment.
ii. Allow the manometer reading to stabilise before taking the reading.
MAINTENANCE AND SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
1. It is important to drain all water from the apparatus when not in use. The
apparatus should be handled properly to prevent damage.
2. Clean and wipe the apparatus with damp cloth after each laboratory session.
3. The apparatus should not be exposed to any shock and stresses.
4. Always run the experiment after fully understand the unit and procedures.
4
EXPERIMENT 2
DETERMINATION OF THE PROPERTIES OF FLUID
1.0 OBJECTIVES
1. To determine the density and the specific gravity of liquid using universal
hydrometer
2. To determine the kinematics viscosity for different kind of fluid
3. To demonstrate the application of dead weight tester in bourdon pressure gauge
calibration
4. To demonstrate and compare the application of water and mercury manometer
2.0 COURSE OUTCOME
CO1: Ability to classify fluid flows and analyze essential properties describing them
3.0 INTRODUCTION
The Fluid Properties and Hydrostatic Study (Model: FM02) has been designed to
demonstrate and provide student with hands on experience and fully understand how
the properties of fluids and their behavior under hydrostatic conditions.
By understanding the basic mechanics and properties of fluid, student will be able to go
through a wide range of application of hydrostatic principles, including buoyancy, center
of pressure, floatation and stability of floating bodies, measurement of barometric
pressure, operation and calibration of Bourdon pressure gauge.
4.0 THEORY
Density
There is little to be said about density other than to define it as mass per unit volume.
The density of water varies with temperature, but approximately 1g/cm3 or 1000kg/m3.
Specific Gravity
A convenient alternative method is to use a specially calibrated instrument called a

hydrometer. This takes the form of a hollow glass float, which is weighted to float upright
in liquids of various densities. The depth to which the stem sinks in the liquid is measure
of the liquid and a scale is provided which is calibrated to read specific gravity.
5
Viscosity
In the case in which a section of fluid is acted on by a shear stress,it can be shown that
a velocity gradient is produced, which is proportional to the applied shear stress. The
constant of proportionality is the coefficient of viscosity, μ and the equation is usually
written as:
du
 
dy
du
Where is the velocity gradient normal to the plane of the applied stress. This
dy
equation represents a model of a situation in which layer of fluid move smoothly over
one another and this is called viscous or laminar flow.
There are many experimental methods which can be used to determine μ. One common
method is the falling sphere viscometer. Under an equilibrium condition, the shear or
'friction' forces, FD on the sphere will equal its weight, W minus the buoyant force, FB and
the sphere will fall at a maximum velocity, called the terminal velocity,V.
FD W FB 0 ; W sgand FB f g


An equation due to the drag force acting on a spherical object at low Reynolds number
which is called Stoke’s law is given by:
FD 3Vd
Then, equation can be written;
gd 2  
 18V s 1

 f 

where,
is the volume of the sphere
d is the diameter of the sphere
s is the density of the sphere
f is the density of the fluid
V is the terminal velocity.
6
Deadweight tester
Another type of mechanical pressure gage is the deadweight tester. It is used primarily
for calibration and can measure extremely high pressures. A deadweight tester
measures pressure directly through application of a weight that provides a force per unit
area—the fundamental definition of pressure. It is constructed with an internal chamber
filled with a fluid (usually oil), along with a tight-fitting piston, cylinder, and plunger.
Weights are applied to the top of the piston, which exerts a force on the oil in the
chamber. The total force F acting on the oil at the piston–oil interface is the sum of the
weight of the piston plus the applied weights.
Figure 2.1: Deadweight tester
Liquid Column Manometers
Columns of liquid can be used in a wide range of configuration for measuring both static
and moving fluids. The barometer which absolute pressure is measured but, liquids
column are use to measure differential pressures.
U-tube manometer is used to measure the differential pressure between two points in a
system containing fluid of density, . The U-tube is filled with a heavier fluid of density p2
and the differential pressure is measured in terms of the difference in height h = (h4-h3)
of the two columns.
P1 = P2 + gh1
Consider the pressure at the bottom of the U-tube due to fluid in the left-hand column:
7
P1 P2
h1
Figure 2.2: Liquid Filled Manometer
5.0 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
Experiment 1: Determination of Density and Specific Gravity
(i) Measuring Beaker
1. Weight an empty and dry measuring beaker using the triple-beam balance and
record the mass.
2. Fill the beaker with water and read the volume as accurately as possible.
3. Weight the beaker plus water and record the mass. The mass of water can then be
determined by subtraction and the density p obtained as:
10 kg / m3 
6
mass, g
  
volume, ml 103
The density of pure water at 20°C is 998.2 kg/m3 and this is often rounded up to 1000
kg/m3 for engineering purposes. The experimental result should be within 1% of this
value. The measurement of volume is not very precise and depends on the accuracy of
the graduations on the beaker and this cannot be checked.
(ii) Density Bottle
Density of liquid can be measured accurately using a special vessel known as density
bottle. Density bottle is accurately made and has a glass stopper with a hole in it through
which excess liquid is expelled. When the liquid is level with the top of the stopper, the
volume of liquid is as indicated on the bottle.
1. Weight the empty and dry density bottle and stopper using the triple-beam balance
8
and record the mass.

2. Fill the bottle with clean water and replace the stopper.
3. Carefully dry the outside of the bottle with a cloth or tissue paper and remove any
excess liquid from the stopper, such that the liquid in the hole is level with the top
of the stopper.
4. Weight the bottle plus liquid again and determine the mass of liquid and hence
the density.
(iii) Specific gravity
1. Place one of 1000ml measuring cylinder on working bench.

2. Fill the measuring cylinder with water.
3. Insert the hydrometer and allow it to settle in the center of the cylinder. Take care
not to let the probe touch the sides. Otherwise surface tension effects may cause
errors.
4. When the hydrometer has settled, read the scale at the level of the free water
surface at the bottom of the meniscus.
5. Repeat step 2 until 4 using different liquid such as gasoline, diesel or seawater.
Experiment 2: Viscosity
(i) Falling Sphere Method
Fill the graduated 1000 ml measuring cylinder with testing fluids; test each fluid in turn
using 3.175 mm and 5.000 mm Stainless Steel Ball:
Note:
Density of stainless steel ball = 7800 kg/m3
1. Place the ball guide on top of the measuring cylinder.

2. Set the upper timing band marker approximately 20 mm below the level of
the base of the ball guide.
3. Set the lower timing band marker to approximately 300 mm bellow the upper
timing band marker and measure the distance between the markers.
4. Drop the ball into the fluid and time the descent between the markers using
the stopwatch.
5. Measure the temperature of the liquid.
(ii) Capillary Viscometer
9
Note:
The viscosity constant of this capillary viscometer = 0.01046 mm2/s
For demonstration purpose, water is used for ease of cleaning.
1. Clean the viscometer using suitable solvents, and by passing clean, dry, filtered
air through the instrument to remove the final traces of solvents. Periodically,
traces of organic deposits should be removed with chromic acid or non-chromium
cleaning solution.
2. If there is a possibility of lint, dust, or other solid material in the liquid sample,
filters the sample through a fritted glass filter or fine mesh screen.
3. Charge the viscometer by pouring enough samples through tube L to fill the
lower reservoir until the liquid meniscus is between the minimum and maximum
fill lines marked on the reservoir.
4. Place the viscometer into the holder.
5. Seal the branching vent tube M with a finger or stopper and apply suction to tube
N until the liquid reaches the center of bulb D. Remove suction from tube N.
Remove seal from vent tube M, and immediately seal tube N until the sample
drops away from the lower end of the capillary R into bulb B. Then remove seal
and measure the efflux time.
6. To measure the efflux time, allow the liquid sample to flow freely down past mark
E, measuring the time for the meniscus to pass from mark E to mark F to the
nearest 0.1 second or 0.01 second.
7. Calculate the kinematics viscosity of the sample by multiplying the efflux time by
the viscometer constant.
8. Without recharging the viscometer, make check determinations by repeating
steps 6 to 8.
10
Experiment 3: Pressure Measurement using Dead Weight Tester and Liquid filled
Manometer
(i) Dead Weight Tester
1. Remove the piston from the unit.

2. Close all valve except V14 and use a beaker to fill the cylinder with water.
3. Remove air trapped in the transparent tube by gently tapping the unit.
4. Top up with water and insert piston into cylinder. Close valve, V14.
5. Allow piston to settle.
6. Record the initial pressure gauge reading which is corresponding to the piston
mass.
7. Add available masses and record pressure gauge reading, along with mass
added to piston and total mass (piston mass & added mass).
8. To prevent the piston from sticking, rotate the piston gently as each mass is
added.
9. Remove masses previously added and records the pressure gauge reading,
along with mass removed from the piston and total mass (piston mass & added
mass).
10. Repeat this procedure for a few times.
11. Open valve, V15 to drain remaining water.
Note:
This procedure will need to be completed quickly within one continuous process.
Due to leakage the piston will sink to the bottom of the apparatus. At this point no further
mass may be added or removed.
(ii) Liquid filled Manometer
1. With the isolating valve to the manometer, V5 and V6 open, attach the bulb
pipette filler and gently pump until a pressure is registered. This will be
shown on both the mercury and water manometers.
2. Compare the readings of each manometer until the water manometer
approaches the limit of its range.
3. Vent both manometers upon completion of experiment by opening valve V2 and
V3.
11
EXPERIMENT 3
DETERMINATION OF THE CENTER OF PRESSURE AND METACENTRIC
HEIGHT
1.1 OBJECTIVES
1.2 To determine the key parameters of a pontoon and to investigate its stability
1.3 To determine the centre of pressure on both submerged and partially submerged
plane surface.
1.3 To compare the centre of pressure between experimental and theoretical.
2.0 COURSE OUTCOME

3.0 INTRODUCTION
The Fluid Properties and Hydrostatic Study (Model: FM02) has been designed to
demonstrate and provide student with hands on experience and fully understand how
the properties of fluids and their behavior under hydrostatic conditions.
By understanding the basic mechanics and properties of fluid, student will be able to go
through a wide range of application of hydrostatic principles, including buoyancy, center
of pressure, floatation and stability of floating bodies, measurement of barometric
pressure, operation and calibration of Bourdon pressure gauge.
4.0 THEORY
4.1 Stability of Floating Bodies
Pontoon is a term used to denote a flat bottomed vessel which is rectangular in cross
section and in plan. Considering Figure 3.1, we have the weight force, W, acting
vertically down through the centre of gravity, G, of the pontoon. Since the pontoon is
floating in water with a constant depth immersion, it follows that there must be an equal
force acting the opposing direction of the weight force, known as buoyancy force, F,
which acts vertically up through the centre of gravity of the displaced water.
12
Figure 3.1: A pontoon floating on an even keel with W and F collinear
Since the pontoon is a simple rectangle, the shape of the displaced liquid is also a
rectangle with its centre at the geometrical centre namely the centre of buoyancy, B. The
buoyancy force, F acts upwards through B. Note that W and F act collinearly with G
situated some distance above B.
B
B*
Figure 3.2: A pontoon floating with an imposed angle of tilt, showing the
righting couple
When a pontoon is tilted as shown in Figure 3.2, W acts vertically down through G which
maintained at the same position but F now acts through point B* instead of B. This is
because F acts through the centre of gravity of the displaced liquid which is now
trapezoidal in shape with its centre of gravity at B*. As a result F and W are no longer
collinear, but a couple of forces that will return the pontoon to an even keel are formed.
This is known as righting couple. In this case the pontoon is capable of righting itself
when tilted, hence it is stable.
13
W
G
B*
B
Figure 3.3: A pontoon with a raised G and an imposed angle of tilt,

showing the overturning couple caused by W acting outside F
If a relatively tall piece of weight is placed on the pontoon as shown in Figure 3.3, the
combined weight, W of the pontoon and its load acts through the centre of gravity, G
which is relatively high. When G becomes higher and the angle of tilt increases, W acts
further and further to the left. This means that at some point the movement of the
buoyancy force, F from B to B* is unlikely to be large enough to produce a righting
couple. What we now have is the situation depicted in Figure 3.3, where the line of
action of W is outside (nearer the edge of the pontoon) than the line along which F acts.
Thus W is trying to overturn the pontoon. The two forces F and W form an overturning
couple. Thus it is unstable.
B
B*
Figure 3.4: The position of metacentre
A pontoon floating on an even keel has its center of buoyancy at B and its center of
gravity at G. A line joining B to G would be as shown in Figure 3.1., that is vertical and at
90º to the deck of the pontoon. Imagine line BG extends upwards and now consider the
14
pontoon in its tilted position as in Figure 3.4, the center of buoyancy moved from B to B*.
A line drawn vertically upwards through B* will intersect the line BG at the point labeled
M in the diagram. This is called the metacentre. Provided G does not move, then for all
relatively small angle of tilt:
1. The vertical line through B* through M. Consequently if the location of

B* can be calculated, the position of M can be found graphically.
2. The distance of M above B is constant.
3. The distance GM is called the metacentric height of the pontoon.
When considering the stability of a floating body, it is usual to assume that the angle of
tilt θ is small. This is necessary to simplify the theory by making the assumption that θ
radians = sin θ = tan θ = θ radians.
Considering the restoring moment that rights a rectangular pontoon to an even keel
when it is tilted, the distance from the centre of buoyancy to the matacentre, BM is
calculated by:
BM Ixx V
where,
V = the volume of water displaced by the body
Ixx = the second moment of the area
X
b
Figure 3.5: Plan of the pontoon where the tilt takes place about the
longitudinal axis X-X
lb 3
I xx 
12
It should be apparent that BM depends only upon:
1. l and b, the dimensions of the pontoon which govern the value of Ixx.
15
2. V, the volume of displaced water which depends only upon the weight of the
pontoon.
Referring to Figure 3.6, you should be able to see that BM = BG + GM or,
GM = BM - BG
If we can calculate BG, then we can obtain GM and hence determine if the body is
stable or unstable. Now, B is the center of buoyancy, and with the pontoon floating on an
even keel B is located at a height equal to half the depth of immersion (h/2) above the
point O on the bottom of the pontoon.
GM
OG by taking B H=V/lb
moments about O h/2
O
Figure 3.6: A pontoon showing the key points and dimensions
It is common practice to carry out an experiment on a vessel to assess its stability by

calculating GM. This is a simple procedure utilizing movable weight positioned on the
deck at approximately the middle of the longitudinal centerline and a pendulum hanging
inside the vessel. The weight namely jockey weight (wj) is moved from the centerline a
known distance (x) towards the side as shown in Figure 3.7. This moves the center of
gravity of the pontoon from G on the centerline to a new position G* and causes the
vessel to tilt at the angle of θ.
The magnitude of GG* depends upon how far the jockey weight is moved and its size
relatively to the total weight of the pontoon. Using the ratio of weights and x,
wj
GG*  x
 

W 

where W is the total weight of the pontoon including the pontoon.
GG* = GM tanx
16
Combining both equations,
wj dx
GM  
 

W d

It is important to remember that θ is in radian.
dθ
Jockey dx
Weight
G
G*
B* B
Figure 3.7: Movement of the jockey weight from the centerline
17
4.2 Hydrostatic Forces on Plane Surface
Consider a plane surface of rectangular shape and orientation submerged in a static

fluid as shown in Figure 3.8.
(a) (b)
Figure 3.8: Hydrostatic pressure on submerged (a) vertical and (b) tilted rectangular
plates
The hydrostatic force on one side of a plane surface submerged in a static fluid equals to
the product of the fluid pressure at the centroid of the surface times the surface area in
contact with the fluid. Thus, basic physics says that the hydrostatic force is a distributed
load equal to the integral of the local pressure force over the area. Pressure acts normal
to a surface, therefore the direction of the resultant force will always be normal to the
surface.
In most cases, since it is the net hydrostatic force that is desired and the contribution of
atmospheric pressure P0 will act on both sides of a surface, the result of atmospheric
pressure P0 will cancel and the net force is obtained by:
FR gy C sin A
FR PCA
For submerged vertical plate, since =90º, thus sin 90º=1,
18
b
A g sab gh A
F gy
 
R C C
2 
PC is now the gauge pressure at the centroid of the area in contact with the fluid.
Therefore, to obtain the net hydrostatic force, F on a plane surface,
1. Determine depth of centroid, hC for the area in contact with the fluid
2. Determine the gauge pressure at the centroid, PC
3. Calculate F = PCA
The effective point of application of force which is normally called the ―Center of
Pressure, yP‖ of the hydrostatic force which is directly beneath the centroid.
The center of pressure for rectangular shape that vertical submerged, yP is determined
by this equation:
I
yP h C  xx
h CA
where, Ixx is defined as the Second Moment of area about x-axis passing through the
centroid of the area that is given for some common areas (Appendix 2).
The following figure illustrates a hydrostatic pressure demonstration setup where the
center of pressure of an immersed and partial immersed vertical plane surface can be determined.
Figure 3.9: Hydrostatic Pressure Demonstration
19
Referring to Figure 3.9,
L = Distance between Suspended Mass and Fulcrum
D = Height of End Surface
B = Width of End Surface
H = Total Depth of Quadrant
C = Centroid of End Surface
P = Center of Pressure of Plane Surface
Partial Submerged Vertical Plane Surface
Figure 3.10: Partial Immersed Vertical Plane Surface
d = Depth of Immersion in Water
FR = Hydrostatic Force exerted on Quadrant
hC = Depth of Centroid from the Water Surface
yP = Depth of Center of Pressure from the Water Surface
h’’ = Distance between Fulcrum and the Center of Pressure
20
For a partially submerged plane surface as shown in Figure 3.10,
A Bd
d
h 
C
2
Therefore, the hydrostatic force, FR is simplified as:
Bd 2
F g
R
2
The depth of center of pressure for partially submerged is then given by:
2
y  d
P
3
Fully submerged Vertical Plane Surface
Figure 3.11: Fully submerged Vertical Plane Surface
Referring to Figure 3.11,
d = Depth of Immersion in Water
FR = Hydrostatic Force exerted on Quadrant

hC = Depth of Centroid from the Water Surface
yP = Depth of Center of Pressure from the Water Surface
h‖ = Distance between Fulcrum and the Center of Pressure
21
The hydrostatic force of a fully immersed vertical plane surface, F is determined as:
 D 
F g AhC gBD d  
 2 

The depth of center of pressure for fully submerged vertical plate below the water
surface is then given by:
Ixx
yP h C 
hC A
If both systems; partial and fully submerged planes are in equilibrium with the moment of
horizontal arm, Mfulcrum the total moments is equal zero. That is:
 M fulcrum Fh"WL 0
Fh " WL mg L
Then, the distance between fulcrum and the centre of pressure is given by:
mg L
h"
FR
22
Experiment 1: Stability of Floating Bodies
1. Weigh the transverse adjustable mass. (Given: 0.215 kg.

2. Assemble the pontoon and weigh it (Given: 2.0408 kg)
3. Position the sliding mass along the mast such that the center of gravity occurs at
the top of the pontoon. This can be determined by using either a knife edge or by
suspending from a light string around the mast.
4. Fill the sink with water, float pontoon ensuring that the adjustable mass is in its
central position.
5. Check zero datum between plumb line and scale.
6. Move adjustable mass to the right of center in 10 mm increments to the end of
the scale, noting the angular displacement of the plumb line for each position.
7. Repeat for movement of the adjustable mass to the left of center.
8. With the exception of weighing the adjustable weight and emptying and refilling
the volumetric tank, repeat all of the above for the sliding mass at different
heights up the mast, i.e. for different centers of gravity.
9. Record all reading in the result sheet.
10. Prepare the graph of lateral position of adjustable mass against angle of list for
dx
each sliding mass height. Obtain the value of for each sliding mass height,
d
calculate the metacentric height, GM and distance between the center of
buoyancy and the metacentric.
11. The water in the sink can be discharge by opening valve V7.
Figure 3.12: Stability of floating bodies test unit
23
Experiment 2: Forces on Plane Surfaces: Center of Pressure
1. Level the apparatus using the adjustable feet facilitate by the spirit level attached.
2. Adjust the counter-weight to level the balance arm to horizontal position.
3. Make sure that the drain valve is closed and slowly add water into the tank until the
surface just touches the quadrant base, thus establishing a datum level.
4. Record the reading (datum level) at the scale.
5. Place a 50 g weight on the balance pan and slowly add water into the tank until the
balance arm is again horizontal.
6. Record the mass of weight, m and depth of immersion, d in the experimental data
sheet. (Note: The new depth of immersion must be subtracted with the datum level).
7. Repeat steps 5 and 6 with increasing number of weights until the tank is full of water.
8. Drain off the water after the experiment is completed.
9. Record your data in Table A in the Laboratory Report Sheet.
Figure 3.13: Hydrostatic Pressure Apparatus
Total Depth of Quadrant, H: 200 mm

Height of Fulcrum above Quadrant: 100 mm
Height of End Surface, D 100 mm
Width, B: 75 mm
Length of Balance, L: 300 mm
24
EXPERIMENT 4
FLOW RATE MEASUREMENT AND DETERMINATION OF THE LOSS
COEFFICIENT WHEN FLUID FLOWS THROUGH 90 DEGREE ELBOW
1.0 OBJECTIVES
1.1 To obtain the flow rate measurement by utilizing three basic types of flow measuring
techniques, which are rotameter, venturi meter and orifice meter.
1.2 To compare pressure drop against each device.
2.0 COURSE OUTCOME

CO2: Able to demonstrate and calculate fluid flow parameters using fluid mechanics
devices
3.0 INTRODUCTION
®
SOLTEQ Flowmeter Measurement Apparatus (Model: FM101) is designed to operate
together with a basic hydraulic bench or any water supply. It is to familiarize the students
with typical methods of flow measurement of an incompressible fluid.
The apparatus is able to demonstrate the flow measurement comparison by using a

venturi device, orifice device and rotameter. The flow comparison can be further be used
to compare against the flow measurement of the hydraulics bench.
4.0 THEORY
4.1 Rotameter
The rotameter is a flow meter in which a rotating free float is the indicating element.
Basically, a rotameter consists of a transparent tapered vertical tube through which fluid
flow upward. Within the tube is placed a freely suspended ―float‖ of pump-bob shape.
Figure 4.1: The Rotameter
25
4.2 Venturi Meter and Orifice Meter
Venturi and orifice meters are the obstruction type flow meter. The venturi meter
consists of a venturi tube and a suitable differential pressure gauge. The venturi tube
has a converging portion, a throat and a diverging portion as shown in the Figure 4.2.
While, the orifice for use as a metering device in a pipeline consists of a concentric
square-edged circular hole in a thin plate, which is clamped between the flanges of the
pipe as shown in the Figure 4.3 below.
Figure 4.2: Venturi meter Figure 4.3: Orifice meter
The mass balance and the Bernoulli equation between location before constriction (at
pipe diameter D- Point 1) and the location where constriction occurs (point at the pipe
diameter d-Point 2) are written as
where,
Cd = Coefficient of discharge (0.98)
d = Throat diameter point 1
D = Inlet diameter
•
V = Volumetric flowrate
P1= Pressure at Inlet
P2= Pressure at throat
A1 = Inlet area
A2 = Throat area
26
V1- Fluid velocity at inlet

V2=Fluid velocity at throat
g = 9.81 m/s2
ρ = Density of water
The above equations which to determine the fluid velocity by venturi and orifice meters
are without considering any losses in pipe. However, in the case of real fluid flow, the
flow rate will be expected to be less than that given by equation (2) because of frictional
effects and consequent head loss between inlet and throat. In metering practice, this
non-ideality is accounted by insertion of an experimentally determined coefficient, Cd that
is termed as the coefficient of discharge.
where,
Cd = Coefficient of discharge (0.98)
27
PTT 252 Fluid Mechanics Laboratory
Module
5.0 EQUIPEMENTS AND SPECIFICATIONS
5.1 Equipments
®
Figure 4.4: SOLTEQ Flowmeter Measurement Apparatus (Model: FM101)
Note: Hydraulic bench is provided
28
5.2 Specifications
Figure 4.5: Specification of Venturi Meter
Tapping A = 26 mm
Tapping B = 21.6 mm
Tapping C = 16 mm
Tapping D = 20 mm
Tapping E = 22 mm
Tapping F = 26 mm
Figure 4.6: Specification of Orifice
Orifice upstream diameter (G) = φ26 mm

Orifice diameter (H) = φ16 mm
29
1. Place apparatus on bench, connect inlet pipe to bench supply and outlet pipe into
volumetric tank.
2. With the bench valve fully closed and the discharge valve fully opened, start up
the pump supply from hydraulic bench.
3. Slowly open the bench valve until it is fully opened.
4. When the flow in the pipe is steady and there is no trapped bubble, start to close
the bench valve to reduce the flow to the maximum measurable flow rate.
5. By using the air bleed screw, adjust water level in the manometer board. Retain
maximum readings on manometers with the maximum measurable flow rate.
6. Note readings on manometers (A - H), rotameter and measured flow rate.
7. Step 6 is repeated for different flow rates. The flow rates can be adjusted by
utilizing both bench valve and discharge valve.
8. To demonstrate similar flow rates at different system static pressures, adjust
bench and flow control valve together. Adjusting manometer levels as required.
9. You are also required to measure the flow rate using hydraulic bench.
10. Record your data.
MAINTENANCE NAD SAFETY PRECAUTION

apparatus should be stored properly to prevent damage.
2. Any manometer tube, which does not fill with water or slow fill, indicates that
tapping or connection of the manometer is blocked. To remove the obstacle,
disconnect the flexible connection tube and blow through.
4. Always wear protective clothing, shoes, helmet and goggles throughout the
laboratory session.
5. Always run the experiment after fully understand the unit and procedures
39
EXPERIMENT 5
MEASUREMENT OF REYNOLDS NUMBER
1.0 OBJECTIVES
1.1 To observe the laminar, transitional and turbulent flow.

1.2 To determine the upper and lower critical velocities at transitional flow.
1.3 To compute Reynolds number (Re).
2.0 COURSE OUTCOME

3.0 INTRODUCTION
The SOLTEQ® Osborne Reynold’s Demonstration (Model: FM 11) has been designed
for students experiment on the laminar, transition and turbulent flow. It consists of a
transparent header tank and flow visualization pipe. The header tank is provided with a
diffuser and stilling materials at the bottom to provide a constant head of water to be
discharged through a bell mouth entry to the flow visualization pipe. Flow through this
pipe is regulated using a control valve at the discharge end. The water flow rate through
the pipe can be measured using the volumetric tank (or volumetric cylinder). Velocity of
the water can therefore be determined to allow the calculation of the Reynold’s Number.
A dye injection system is installed on top of the header tank so that flow pattern in the
pipe can be visualized.
4.0 THEORY
The theory is named in honor of Osborne Reynolds, a British engineer who discovers the
variables that can be used as a criterion to distinguish between laminar and turbulent
flow.
The Reynolds number is widely used dimensionless parameters in fluid mechanics.
Reynolds number formula:
31
Re = Reynolds number
V = Fluid velocity, (m/s)
L = characteristic length or diameter (m)
= Kinematic viscosity (m2/s)
Reynolds number Re is independent of pressure.
4.1 Pipe Flow Conditions
For water flowing in pipe or circular conduits, L is the diameter of the pipe. For Reynolds
number less than 2300, the pipe flow will be laminar. For Reynolds number from 2300 to
4000 the pipe flow will be considered a transitional flow. Turbulent occur when Reynolds
number is above 4000. The viscosity of the fluid also determines the characteristic of the
flow becoming laminar or turbulent. Fluid with higher viscosity is easier to achieve a
turbulent flow condition. The viscosity of fluid is also dependent on the temperature.
4.2 Laminar Flow
Laminar flow denoted a steady flow condition where all streamlines follow parallel paths,
there being no interaction (mixing) between shear planes. Under this condition the dye
observed will remain as a solid, straight and easily identifiable component of flow.
4.3 Transitional Flow
Transitional flow is a mixture of laminar and turbulent flow with turbulence in the center
of the pipe, and laminar flow near the edges. Each of these flows behaves in different
manners in terms of their frictional energy loss while flowing, and have different
equations that predict their behavior.
4.4 Turbulent Flow
Turbulent flow denotes an unsteady flow condition where streamlines interact causing
shear plane collapse and mixing of the fluid. In this condition the dye observed will
become disperse in the water and mix with the water. The observed dye will not be
identifiable at this point.
32
Module
®
Figure 5.1: SOLTEQ Osborne Reynold’s Demonstration (Model: FM 11)
1. Dye reservoir 2. Dye injector

3. Stilling tank 4. Observation tube
5. Water inlet valve 6. Bell mouth
7. Water outlet valve 8. Overflow tube
Observation tube diameter = 15.6 mm

-6
Kinematic viscosity of water at 25°C = 0.89 x 10
33
1. Lower the dye injector until it is seen in the glass tube.

2. Open the inlet valve, V1 and allow water to enter stilling tank.
3. Ensure a small overflow spillage through the over flow tube to maintain a constant
level by opening valve, V3.
4. Allow water to settle for a few minutes.
5. Let water flow through the visualizing tube.
6. Slowly adjust the dye control valve, V4 until a slow flow with dye injection is
achieved.
7. Regulate the water inlet valve, V1 and outlet valve, V2 until a straight identifiable
dye line is achieved. The flow will be laminar.
8. Measure the flow rate at the outlet valve, V2 using volumetric method.
9. Repeat the experiment by regulating water inlet valve, V1 and outlet valve, V2 to
produce turbulent and transitional flow.

1. It is important to drain all water from the apparatus when not in use. The apparatus
should be handled properly to prevent damage.
34
PTT 252 Fluid Mechanics
Laboratory Module
APPENDIX 5.1
35
EXPERIMENT 6
Measurement of the pipe friction losses for laminar and turbulent
flows
1.0 OBJECTIVES
1.1 To determine the relationship between head loss due to fluid friction and velocity for
flow of water through smooth bore pipes.
1.2 To confirm the head loss predicted by pipe friction equation associated with flow of
water through a smooth bore pipe.
2.0 COURSE OUTCOME
CO3: Ability to evaluate common devices for measuring pressure, flow rates and
turbo macheneris
3.0 INTRODUCTION
This apparatus is designed to allow a detailed study of the fluid friction head losses when an
incompressible fluid flows through a smooth 3.0 mm ID pipe. Friction head losses in the straight
3 5
pipe can be investigated over a range of Reynold’s numbers from 10 to nearly 10 , thereby
covering the laminar, transitional and turbulent flow regimes in smooth pipes. In addition, an
artificially roughened pipe is supplied which, at the higher Reynolds’ numbers, shows a clear
departure from the typical smooth bore pipe characteristics. Pipe friction is one of the classic
laboratory experiments and has always found a place in the practical teaching of fluid
mechanics. The results and underlying principles are of the greatest importance to engineers in
the civil, mechanical, marine, agricultural and hydraulic fields.
36
Holding tank
Outlet valve
Inlet valve
Water Manometer
Figure 6.1: Parts Identification and Equipment Set-up of Pipe Friction Apparatus
4.1 THEORY
4.2 Head Loss due to Friction Through Pipes
For a circular pipe flowing full, the head loss due to friction (mH2O) may be calculated form the
formula:
4f Lu 2
Lu 2
h or (6.1)
2gd 2gd
where,
L = length of pipe between tappings (m) = 1 m for all pipes

d = internal diameter of the pipe (m)
u = mean velocity of water through the pipe 2
(m/s)
9.81 (acceleration due to gravity, m/s
g = )
f = pipe friction coefficient (British)
4f = (American)
Having established the value of Reynolds number Re for flow in the pipe, the value of f may be
determined from a Moody diagram.
Re  u d (6.2)

37
PTT 252 Fluid Mechanics
Laboratory Module
= molecular viscosity

-4 2
= 8.09 x 10 Ns/m at 28°C
= density
3 o
= 999 kg/m at 28 C
A simplified Moody diagram is included in Appendix C.
38
Test Section:
i. 3.0 mm ID Smooth Bore Pipe
Procedures:
1. Start-up the apparatus according to general procedures (Done by instructor).

2. Adjust valve, V5 to obtain flow of water through the required test
pipe. (Note: Maintain the water level at the holding tank for each
flowrate)
3. Measure flow rates using the volumetric tank in conjunction with flow control valve.
4. For small flow rates use the measuring cylinder in conjunction with flow control.
5. Measure head loss between the tapping using the pressurised water manometer as
appropriate.
6. Obtain readings on test section.
7. Repeat the experiment for different flow rate.
apparatus should be handled properly to prevent damage.
39
EXPERIMENT 7
Measurement of the fluid friction head losses of an incompressible
fluid
1.3 OBJECTIVES
1.4 To confirm the head loss predicted by pipe friction equation associated with flow of
water through a smooth bore pipe at different diameter of pipe.
1.5 To determine the fluid friction coefficient for flow of water through a pipe having a
roughened bore.
1.6 To determine the head loss associated with flow of water through standard fittings
used in plumbing installations
2.0 COURSE OUTCOME
CO3: Ability to evaluate common devices for measuring pressure, flow rates and
turbo macheneris
3.0 INTRODUCTION
This apparatus is designed to allow the detailed study of the fluid friction head losses which
occur when an incompressible fluid flows through pipes, bends and valves. Friction head losses
in straight pipes of different sizes can be investigated over a range of Reynolds’ numbers from
3 5
10 to nearly 10 , thereby covering the laminar, transitional and turbulent flow regimes in smooth
pipes. In addition, an artificially roughened pipe is supplied which, at the higher Reynolds’
numbers, shows a clear departure from the typical smooth bore pipe characteristics. Pipe
friction is one of the classic laboratory experiments and has always found a place in the
practical teaching of fluid mechanics. The results and underlying principles are of the greatest
importance to engineers in the aeronautical, civil, mechanical, marine, agricultural and hydraulic
fields.
49
Module
Figure 6.1: Unit Construction for Fluid Friction Measurement Apparatus
No. Description No. Description

1 Smooth Bore Pipes (6mm,10mm,17mm) 8 Inline Y-Strainer
2 Artificial Roughen Pipe (17mm) 9 Various Pipe Fittings
3 Gate valve 10 Manometer
4 Globe valve 11 Pitot Static Tube
5 Differential Pressure Transmitter 12 Venturi Meter
6 Outlet Control valve 13 Orifice Meter
7 Sudden Enlargement and Contraction
Unit Assembly
There are six pipes arranged to provide facilities for testing the following:
4.2 Smooth bore pipes of various diameters (6mm, 10mm and 17mm)
4.3 An artificially
o
roughened pipe
4.4 A 90o bend
4.5 A 90 elbow
o
4.6 A 45 elbow
o
4.7 A 45 ―Y‖
o
4.8 A 90 ―T‖
4.9 A sudden enlargement
4.10 A sudden contraction
4.11 A gate valve
4.12 A globe valve
4.13 An in-line strainer
4.14 A venturi made of Perspex
4.15 An orifice meter made of Perspex
4.16 Pitot Static Tube
41
= THEORY
= Head Loss due to Friction Through Pipes
For a circular pipe flowing full, the head loss due to friction (mH2O) may be calculated from the formula:
2
h  fLu (1)
2gd
where,
L = length of pipe between tappings (m) = 1 m for all pipes

d = internal diameter of the pipe (m)
u = mean velocity of water through the pipe (m/s)
g = 9.81 (acceleration due to gravity, m/s2)
f = pipe friction coefficient (British)
Having established the value of Reynolds number Re for flow in the pipe, the value of f may be determined
from a Moody diagram.
u d (2)
Re 


 = molecular viscosity
= 1.15 x 10-3 Ns/m2 at 15°C
 = density
= 999 kg/m3 at 15oC
A simplified Moody diagram is included in Appendix A.
42
4.2 Head Loss Through Fittings
A piping installation consists of various fittings such as bends, elbows, tees and valves that form
obstructions to flow. Head loss in a pipe fitting is proportional to the velocity head of the fluid flowing
through the fittings.
K u2
h  (3)
2g
where,
h = Head loss across fittings (mH2O)

K = Fittings Factor
u = Mean velocity of water through the pipe (m/s)
g = 9.81 (acceleration due to gravity m/s2)
43
Experiment 1: Head Loss due to Pipe Friction
Test Section:
8. 6 mm Smooth Bore Pipe

Procedures:

6. Turn or switch the valves (Outlet or Inlet valve) to obtain flow of water flow to the test
section only.
8. For small flow rates, use the measuring cylinder in conjunction with flow control valve.
9. Measure head loss between the tapping using the differential pressure transmitter or
pressurised water manometer as appropriate.
10. Repeat the testing with different flowrate and obtain readings on test section.
All readings should be tabulated as follows:
Test Section: Smooth Bore Pipe
Volume, Time, Flowrate, Pipe Velocity, Reynolds Head Calculated

V T Q Dia., u No., f (from loss, Head Loss,
(Litre) (Sec) (m3/s) d (m/s) Re Moody h H
V x 10-3 (m) 4Q ud Diagram) (mH2 O) (mH2 O)
T d2  Lu2
2gd
44
Experiment 2: Fluid Friction in a Roughened Pipe
Test Section:
i. 17 mm Artificial Roughened Bore Pipe
Procedures:
1. Start-up the apparatus according to general procedures (prepared by instructor).
2. Turn or switch the valves (Outlet or Inlet valve) to obtain flow of water flow to the test
section only.
4. For small flow rates, use the measuring cylinder in conjunction with flow control valve.
5. Measure head loss between the tapping using the differential pressure transmitter or
pressurised water manometer as appropriate.
6. Repeat the testing with different flowrate and obtain readings on test section.
Experiment 3: Head Loss Through Fittings
Test Section:
o
i. A 90 bend
o
ii. A 90 elbow
o
iii. A 45 elbow o o
iv. A 45o ―Y‖(135 flow, 180 flow)
o o o
v. A 90 ―T‖( 90 flow, 180 flow)
vi. A sudden enlargement
vii. A sudden contraction
viii. An in-line strainer
ix. A gate valve (Fully opened, 2 turns, 3 turns)
x. A globe valve (Fully opened, 1 turn, 2 turns)
45

2. Turn or switch the valves (Outlet or Inlet valve) to obtain flow of water flow to the test section
only.
4. Measure differential head between tapping on each fitting with the differential pressure
transmitter or pressurised water manometer as appropriate.
5. Measure differential head between tapping on test valves using differential pressure
transmitter or pressurised water manometer as appropriate for different valve settings (open
to closed).
6. Repeat the testing with different flowrate and obtain readings on test section. Choose any 4
test section.
1. It is important to drain all water from the apparatus when not in use. The apparatus
should be handled properly to prevent damage.
46
APPENDICES
47
APPENDIX 1
1. Reference to a journal publication:
Argyropoulos D, Müller J, 2014. Effect of convective-, vacuum- and freeze drying on sorption
behavior and bioactive compounds of lemon balm (Melissa officinalis L.). Journal of Applied
Research on Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, 1, 59-69.
2. Reference to conference proceedings:

Argyropoulos D, Kudadam J, Müller J, 2009. Color degradation of lemon balm (Melissa officinalis
L.)as affected by the drying process. In: 5th International Technical Symposium on Food
Processing,Monitoring Technology in Bioprocesses and Food Quality Management, Potsdam,
Germany, August31 September 2, pp. 730-736.
3. Reference to a book:
Strunk J, White EB, 2000. The Elements of Style, 4th ed. Longman, New York.
4. Reference to a chapter in an edited book:

Mettam GR, Adams LB, 2009. How to prepare an electronic version of your article. In: Jones BS,
Smith RZ (Eds.), Introduction to the Electronic Age. E-Publishing Inc., New York, pp. 281-304.
5.Reference to a chapter in an edited book:

Mettam GR, Adams LB, 2009. How to prepare an electronic version of your article. In: Jones
BS,Smith RZ (Eds.), Introduction to the Electronic Age. E-Publishing Inc., New York, USA, pp. 281-
304.
6. Reference to a PhD thesis

Bhner M, 2012. Optimization of a belt dryer for medicinal and aromatic plants with respect to energy
requirement and product quality. PhD thesis. University of Hohenheim, Stuttgart, Germany.
7. Reference to a standard
ASABE Standards, 2009. D245.6 OCT2007: Moisture relationships of plant based agricultural
products. St. Joseph, Michigan, USA.
8. Reference to a website
EUROPAM, 2014. Production of medicinal and aromatic plants in Europe. Available at
http://www.europam.net/ (Accessed 15.07.2015)
48
APPENDIX 2
49
Appendix 3: Moody Diagram
59

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LABORATORY

Faculty of Engineering Technology

CLEANLINESS AND SAFETY ii

EXPERIMENT 1 Determination of the change in flow speed within a tube cross

EXPERIMENT 3 Determination of the center of pressure and metacentric

EXPERIMENT 6 Measurement of the pipe friction losses for laminar and

CLEANLINESS AND SAFETY

• removal of spilled water (or any liquid)

This is to serve as a guide and not as a comprehensive manual on safety. Every

FOOTWARE – Wear fully covered shoes with strong grip.

EYE PROTECTION – Goggles must be used whenever necessary especially when

INSTRUCTION SHEETS – Any appropriate instruction sheets should be studied before

In case of emergency, report to the instructor in charge or

Hospital Tuanku Fauziah, Kangar 04-9763333

1.1 To measure flow rate with pitot static tube

2.0 COURSE OUTCOME

Figure 1.1: Typical Pitot Static Tube

Flowrate Measurement Using Differential Head by a Pitot Static Tube

p = Fluid static pressure at the cross section

ρ = Density of the flowing fluid

g = Acceleration due to gravity

v = Mean velocity of fluid flow at the cross section

h* = Total (stagnation) head

The flow rate can be obtain by,

Velocity profile in tube flow

Figure 1.2: Velocity profile for flow in tube.

5.1 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES

5.2 Experiment 1: Flow Rate Measurement with Pitot Static Tube

1. Adjust the bench control valve to an appropriate flow rate of approximately 25

5.3 Experiment 2: Flow Profile determination in Pitot Static Tube

1. Set the control valve to an appropriate flow rate of approximately 25 LPM.

MAINTENANCE AND SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

2.0 COURSE OUTCOME

A convenient alternative method is to use a specially calibrated instrument called a

FD W FB 0 ; W sgand FB f g

Then, equation can be written;

is the volume of the sphere

d is the diameter of the sphere

s is the density of the sphere

f is the density of the fluid

V is the terminal velocity.

Figure 2.1: Deadweight tester

Liquid Column Manometers

Figure 2.2: Liquid Filled Manometer

5.0 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

Experiment 1: Determination of Density and Specific Gravity

(i) Measuring Beaker

(ii) Density Bottle

and record the mass.

(iii) Specific gravity

1. Place one of 1000ml measuring cylinder on working bench.

(i) Falling Sphere Method

Density of stainless steel ball = 7800 kg/m3

1. Place the ball guide on top of the measuring cylinder.

(ii) Capillary Viscometer

The viscosity constant of this capillary viscometer = 0.01046 mm2/s

For demonstration purpose, water is used for ease of cleaning.

(i) Dead Weight Tester

1. Remove the piston from the unit.