Dentistry Section

DOI: 10.7860/JCDR/2016/15868.7184

Review Article

Rehabilitation of Glossectomy
Cases with Tongue Prosthesis:
A Literature Review

Muthu kumar Balasubramaniam1, Ahila Singaravel Chidambaranathan2, Gokul Shanmugam3, rajdeep tah4

ABSTRACT
Tongue is the only movable muscular organ without any bone in the human body. It has very important role in perception of taste and
sensations like touch, pressure, heat and cold. The purpose of the article is to review various types of tongue prosthesis and their clinical
applications. This review helps the clinician to choose the appropriate type of tongue prosthesis for different clinical situations, retention
of tongue prosthesis and material selection for each type of prosthesis. A broad search of published literature was performed using the
keyword glossectomy, glossal prosthesis and tongue prosthesis from 1980 to 2014 in Medline, Google scholar, internet and text book.
This review gives basic knowledge of glossal prosthesis and selection of the same for various clinical conditions.

Keywords: Glossal prosthesis, Palatal augmentation prosthesis, Speech appliance

Introduction
Patients whose floor of the mouth has been resected usually
undergo immediate reconstruction with local flap, skin graft, distant
flap or micro vascular free tissue transfer. Although the shape of
the tongue can be more or less built. Its movement is restricted
by defects of the body or frenum, attachment of the flap, residual
tongue or postoperative scar ring. Each of these restrictions results
in dysfunction of mastication, deglutition and speech [1].
Mastication aids by directly crushing the food against the rugae of
the hard palate. The muscles of the cheek and tongue control the
food bolus by repositioning it onto the occlusal surfaces after each
chewing stroke, after that, saliva mixes into the bolus [2]. Sensory
nerve endings in the tongue help distinguish the texture and
consistency of the food. When the bolus is ready for swallowing,
the tongue helps in debridement of food in the buccal vestibule and
the floor of the mouth [3].
Swallowing is composed of three stages: oral, pharyngeal and
oesophageal. The oral phase is under voluntary neuromuscular
control and the later two phases are under involuntary neuromuscular
control [4]. During the oral phase of deglutition, the tongue gathers
food into a bolus and positions the bolus between the dorsum of
the tongue and the hard palate. As the middle tongue and palate
contacts, the soft palate elevates in combination with the lateral
and posterior pharyngeal walls forming a closed seal between the
oral and nasal cavity. Thus for deglutition, the anterior two thirds
of the tongue is critical at the initial phase of deglutition, while the
posterior one third plays an important role in generating negative
pressure to push the bolus of food down the alimentary canal [5].
In the subsequent pharyngeal stage, as the bolus moves inferiorly
from the base of the tongue, continual palatopharyngeal closure
prevents food from the entering the nasopharynx. Next, elevation of
the larynx towards the base of the tongue is accomplished by the
suprahyoid musculature. This is followed by closure of the larynx by
inferoposterior rotation of the epiglottis. This is a laryngopharyngeal
protective mechanism to prevent aspiration during swallowing.
A finite period of apnea must necessarily take place with each
swallow. Relating deglutition to respiration, deglutition most often
occurs during expiration and includes a period of apnea ranging
from 0.3- 2.5 seconds [4].
The tongue is the major component modulating air to create
speech. The tongue shapes the oral and pharyngeal cavity for vowel
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production. It also restricts air flow to produce consonants such as

k,g,t,d,s and z [3].

Tongue Size
Classification according to House [6]
Class 1: Normal in size, development, and function. Sufficient teeth
are present to maintain normal form and function.
Class 2: Teeth have been absent long enough to permit a change
in the form and function of the tongue.
Class 3: Excessively large tongue, all teeth have been absent for an
extended period of time, allowing for abnormal development of the
size of the tongue. Improper denture contour sometimes can lead
to development of a class 3 tongue.

Tongue Position
Classification according to Wright [6]
Normal: The tongue fills the floor of the mouth and is confined
within the mandibular teeth. The lateral borders rest on the occlusal
surfaces of the posterior teeth and the apex rests on the incisal
edges of the anterior teeth.
Class 1: Retracted: The tongue is retracted. The floor of the mouth
is pulled downward and is exposed back to the molar area. The
lateral borders are raised above the occlusal plane and the apex is
pulled down into the floor of the mouth.
Class 2: Retracted: The tongue is very tense and pulled backward
and upward. The apex is pulled back into the body of the tongue and
it almost disappears. The lateral borders rest above the mandibular
occlusal plane. The floor of the mouth is raised and tense.
Class 3: When tongue is low in relation to mandibular ridge crest
or retarded in relation to anterior ridge, retention of the mandibular
denture will be poor.

Investigation
Articulatory function after glossectomy has been evaluated by means
of dynamic palatography. The dynamic palatograph is an electronic
apparatus that generate a visual display of constantly changing
linguo-palatal sounds as a function of time using an artificial palatal
plate with affixed electrodes. Palatography can examine whether
tongue contacts the palate or not at measuring point [7]. The glossal
sounds which are one of the misheard sounds in glossectomy
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Muthu kumar Balasubramaniam et al., Rehabilitation of Glossectomy Cases with Tongue Prosthesis

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patients categorised into three types by type of articulation, stop

plosive, affricate and fricative. These sounds cannot be evaluated
by observing simply whether not the tongue contacts the palate.
Therefore, to assist with the rehabilitation of glossectomy patients,
it is necessary to evaluate objectively the degree of linguo-palatal
contact [8].
Wax trial and patients speech was assessed with the help of Dr.
Speech Software Version 4 (Tiger DRS, Inc., Seattle). This software
allows the user to record, analyze and display the acoustic signals.
The programme will automatically compute statistical information
and plot a voice profile from sustained vowel and continuous
speech. This is an objective, non-invasive method to evaluate
acoustic signals [9].

Defect Classification with Treatment Option

Tongue (glossal) defects can be classified into partial or total.
Factors influencing the prognosis of restoring the tongue with
prosthesis depend upon the presence or absence of teeth and
the type of procedure that is combined with the glossectomy (e.g.,
mandibulectomy, palatectomy, radiation therapy). Patients with
partial glossectomy (i.e., < 50% of tongue removed) suffer minimal
functional impairment and require no prosthesis. Removal of more
than 50% of the tongue requires rehabilitation with either palatal
or lingual augmentation prosthesis. Total glossectomy create a
large oral cavity, loss of speech, and pooling of saliva and liquid.
Patients with a total glossectomy require a total glossal prosthesis.
In dentulous patients, the glossal prosthesis can be attached to the
mandibular teeth through a lower partial denture [2].

[Table/Fig-4]: Partial denture with

palatal augmentation prosthesis.

production. The tongue for swallowing is made with a trough in the

posterior aspect to guide the food bolus into the oro-pharynx [10].

3. Partially edentulous with partial glossectomy

involving anterior part of the tongue.
Treatment: Maxillary partial denture with palatal augmentation [12].

4. Dentulous patient with segmental resection of

mandible and resection of lateral part of the tongue.
Treatment: Maxillary partial denture with palatal augmentation
prosthesis and mandibular cast partial denture obturating the defect
with a guiding flange [Table/Fig-3,4]. The guidance flange for the
mandibular framework was designed to extend upto the non-defect
side [13].

Types of tongue prosthesis based upon the function

A. Single piece tongue

On reviewing the literature, the following various clinical scenarios

were identified and treated with different types of tongue prosthesis.

1. Tongue prosthesis for swallowing.

1. Completely edentulous with total glossectomy [10]

In edentulous patients, tongue prosthesis can be retained to either

a mandibular or maxillary denture. Common problems associated
with tongue prosthesis include lack of salivary control and loss of
ability to maneuver food from the buccal vestibule. Therefore, it is
best to fabricate two prosthetic tongues, one for swallowing and 1
for speech [14].

Treatment: Mandibular denture lingual flange extending over the floor

of the mouth with a mushroom
shaped button attached to it on
which, the silicon tongue can
be placed [Table/Fig-1]. After a
total glossectomy the floor of
the mouth becomes concave.
Two prosthetic tongues can be
made, one for phonetics and the
other for swallowing. The tongue
made for phonetics is somewhat
flat, with a slightly wide anterior [Table/Fig-1]: Tongue prosthesis for
elevation to aid in articulation of swallowing.
linguo-alveolar sounds `t` and `d`
and to aid in shaping the oral cavity for improved vowel production.
The tongue for swallowing is made with a trough in the posterior
aspect to guide the food bolus entery into the oropharynx.

2. Completely edentulous with total glossectomy and

hemi-mandibulectomy.
Treatment 1: Mandible is reconstructed with bone graft and
rehabilitated with implant retained
overdenture is made with tongue
prosthesis [11]. [Table/Fig-2].
Treatment 2: Maxillary complete
denture and mandibular complete
denture with guiding flange which
will close the defect [Table/Fig-3].
Loss of continuity of the mandible
affects the balance of the lower
face and leads to deviation of
the residual segment toward the
resected side to aid in shaping
the oral cavity for improved vowel
2

[Table/Fig-3]: Guiding flange.

[Table/Fig-2]: Tongue prosthesis for

speech.

2. Tongue prosthesis for speech.

A typical prosthetic tongue for speech is flat with wide anterior

elevation, which aids in articulation of linguo-alveolar sounds
(e.g., /t/, /d/). It also has a posterior elevation, which aids in
production of posterior linguoalveolar sounds (e.g., /k/, /g/)
and helps to shape the oral
cavity for improved vowel
productions [14].
The tongue prosthesis made
for swallowing had a trough in
its posterior slope to guide the [Table/Fig-5]: Tip of the tongue pros
food bolus into the oropharynx. thesis (silicone).
A speech pathologist and a
dietitian should monitor the
patients who have had a glossectomy [14] [Table/Fig-5].
B. Two piece tongue
Impressions are made with alginate using a maxillary tray for
mandibular arch in order to record the floor of the mouth properly.
The base of the mandibular denture extends over the floor of the

[Table/Fig-6]: Mushroom type retention; [Table/Fig-7]: Tongue prosthesis.

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Muthu kumar Balasubramaniam et al., Rehabilitation of Glossectomy Cases with Tongue Prosthesis

Silicone

[Table/Fig-8]: Maxillary denture with palatal augmentation prosthesis;

[Table/Fig-9]: Mandibular denture with wax pattern.

mouth. A mushroom like button is made on the mandibular

prosthesis so that a silicone tongue can be placed over it [10]
[Table/Fig-6,7].
C. Prosthesis Attached to Maxillary Denture-Palatal Augmentation
Prosthesis
The Palatal Augmentation Prosthesis (PAP) has been defined by the
Glossary of Prosthodontic Terms as a palatal prosthesis that allows
reshaping of the hard palate to improve tongue/palate contact
during speech and swallowing because of impaired tongue mobility
as a result of surgery, trauma, or neurologic/motor deficits [15]. The
palatal augmentation prosthesis is used to restore impaired speech
and swallowing in glossectomy [Table/Fig-8] patients by artificially
lowering the palatal vault to provide contact between the remaining
tongue and the palatal contours [15]. The function of the residual
tongue is recorded with softened modeling compound. The patient
is asked to repeat the linguo-velar sounds and the linguo-alveolar.
The compound gets moulded accordingly and then the denture is
processed. Modification if acceptable speech articulation is attained
for most elements of speech except the linguo-alveolar fricatives
`s` and `t`, for which another modification can be done. A narrow,
sharp groove carved in the midline of the palatal prosthesis can, by
directing the air stream, improve the production of these sounds
[16].

Techniques [17]
Wax up for the tongue prosthesis was done on the auto-polymerized
acrylic resin record bases, which was done like the shape of a tongue
that conforms to oral cavity dimensions with rounded edges [Table/
Fig-9]. The tongue tip was arched downwards to approximately a
15-degree angle, and the entire pattern was then arched slightly
to form the highest point at the anterior one third of the tongue.
Wax pattern was then folded to form a wide central V-shaped angle
(approximately 160 degrees). The thickness of the wax was reduced
4 to 5mm at the base and the posterior two thirds of the tongue.

Materials Used for Tongue Prosthesis

Acrylic Resin
Polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) resin is the material of choice in
the past. It is easy to work with acrylic resin and it is, hygienic,
durable and easily matches to skin colour. It has many advantages
like, intrinsic and extrinsic colouration can be done easily with
acrylic resin. Strength of this is material is high compared to
silicone. Alterations can be easily done and compatible with most
adhesive systems, heat PMMA preferred over the auto polymerizing
PMMA (Presence of free toxic tertiary amines). The colour stability
when exposed to UV light is better in heat polymerized resin.
Also, it remains serviceable for up to two years. Surface colour
applications can be easily done and lasts for longer periods. It has
some disadvantages like rigidity, cannot be used in movable tissue
beds which leads to local discomfort and exposure of margins and
high thermal conductivity which may precipitate discomfort in cold
climates. Duplication of the prostheses is not possible because
removal of prosthesis is possible only after destruction of the mold
[18].
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Long chain molecules composed of alternating chain of silicone and

oxygen atoms. The extraordinary properties of silicones are due
to the special characteristics of the silicon oxygen bonds in their
backbone. Because the silicon oxygen bond is much stronger than
the carbon-carbon bond of organic polymers, silicones make better
electric insulators and are more resistant to oxidation. Two types of
silicone are RTV and HTV (According to vulcanising temperature)
[18].

RTV Silicone (Silastic 382, Silastic 399)

They set by condensation polymerisation in which stannous
octate is the catalyst; Ortho-alkyl Silicate is cross linking agent.
The advantages are, allows intrinsic colouration, easy handling,
quick processing, good thermal and colour stability and inert. The
disadvantages are they have weak edge strength, zipper effect,
poor tear strength, high specific gravity, stiff, poor wettability [19].

Silicone (MDX 4-4210)

Most commonly used material for maxillofacial prosthesis. It
requires heat for vulcanization. It is highly viscous, white and
opaque. It is available as one or two component in which platinum
salts (for addition polymerisation) and Hydro-methylsiloxane for
cross-linking. It requires advanced equipment for processing and
it has better physical properties. It exhibits improved qualities
relating to colouration and edge strength, not heavily filled, making
it translucent, increased elongation and resistant to tear. Surface
characterization can be achieved with pigments immersed in a silicon
adhesive. Superior cosmetic results are achieved with this material.
The advantages are excellent thermal stability, colour stablity with
UV, superior strength, biologically inert, polychromatic and it has
good tear strength. The disadvantages are low edge strength, poor
wettability, low elasticity, require two roll milling machine for intrinsic
colouring and metal molds for processing. Also, extrinsic colouring
is difficult [20].
The material used to fabricate tongue prosthesis is silicone
which. has several advantages. (i) single component, (ii) ready to
use, (iii) eliminating mixing errors, (iv) easy processing, (v) can be
polymerized simultaneously with acrylic, (vi) stands the influences of
oral environment without deterioration, (vii) non-irritant (viii) odourless
and tasteless [2].

Discussion
Tongue is the major articulator during the production of all
phonemes except bilabial, labio-dentals and glottal sounds. Tongue
movements modify the shape of the oral cavity and change the
resonance characteristics that produce different consonants [2]. The
coordination of the muscle and nerve is impaired in glossectomy
patients even after reconstruction by flap [21].
When a patient undergoes a partial on total glossectomy, the ability
to masticate, swallow and formulate vowels and consonants for
speech sounds is dramatically altered. The size, location and extent
of the defect affect the degree of disability to swallow or speak. The
areas of surgical resection that affects function of the tongue include
removal of the anterior tip of the tongue, lateral (partial) glossectomy,
removal of the base of the tongue and total glossectomy [22]. Moore
(1972) suggested that tongue prosthesis as the treatment of choice
in total glossectomy. This approach seldom restores the function of
speech and small; it is mostly cosmesis [23].
Artificial tongue prosthesis may be either hard or resilient acrylic
which is attached to the lower denture base, which covers the
alveolar ridge as well as floor of the mouth. The artificial tongue is
designed such a way that the dorsum of the anterior two third of
the tongue conforms to the anterior part of the palate and comes in
contact with the palate when the teeth are brought into occlusion.
The posterior one third of the tongue is designed to act as a funnel,
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Muthu kumar Balasubramaniam et al., Rehabilitation of Glossectomy Cases with Tongue Prosthesis

Palatal augmentation (or drop) prosthesis is indicated when the

tongue resection and reconstruction results in limited bulk and
restricted movement of the reconstructed tongue. [22].

[4]

The palatal augmentation prosthesis allows reshaping of the hard

and/or soft palate to improve tongue/palate contact during speech
and swallowing. This could be a removable partial denture or
complete denture prosthesis [22]. While rehabilitating a glossectomy
patient, the oral functions of the residual structures must be
assessed. In addition to the extent of the defect factors such as
mobility of the residual oral and paraoral structures, neuromuscular
co-ordination and motivation will also determine the prognosis of
the treatment [24].

[5]

A patient may be able to compromise some dysfunction without

prosthetic support, while desiring prosthetic treatment which will
help to improve or correct other specific problems [25]. While
fabricating denture for a glossectomy patient, the bucco-lingual
table should be wide, height of the occlusal table to be matched to
that of the tongue body, and a closely adhering tongue and lingual
flange are effective means of preventing the food from dropping into
the floor of the oral cavity, keeping the food on the occlusal table,
and crushing the food [2].

[9]

The Space of Donders is essential for the successful function of

the prostheses [26]. When constructed in a systematic manner
with the assistance of the speech pathologist, the mandibular
denture with tongue prosthesis can achieve the following [2,13]: (1)
reduction in the size of the oral cavity, thereby improving resonance
characteristics; (2) direction of food into the oesophagus with the
aid of a trough carved into the prosthetic tongue; (3) protection
of the underlying soft tissue; (4) development of a surface of the
residual tongue coming into contact during speech and swallowing;
(5) improvement in appearance, psycho-social adjustment and
phonetics.

Conclusion
The prosthetic tongue may not replace the internal structure of
the tongue, which is capable of infinite movements in swallowing
and speech. The silicone tongue prosthesis does provide a certain
degree of comfort and function.

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PARTICULARS OF CONTRIBUTORS:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Professor and Head of Deptartment, Deptartment of Prosthodontics, SRM Dental College, Ramapuram, Chennai, India.
Reader, Deptartment of Prosthodontics, SRM Dental College, Ramapuram, Chennai, India.
Post Graduate Student, Deptartment of Prosthodontics, SRM Dental College, Ramapuram, Chennai, India.
Post Graduate Student, SRM Dental College, Ramapuram, Chennai, India.

NAME, ADDRESS, E-MAIL ID OF THE CORRESPONDING AUTHOR:

Dr. Ahila Singaravel Chidambaranathan,
Reader, SRM Dental College, Ramapuram, Chennai-89, India.
E-mail: [email protected]
Financial OR OTHER COMPETING INTERESTS: None.

Date of Submission: Jul 23, 2015

Date of Peer Review: Aug 05, 2015
Date of Acceptance: Oct 27, 2015
Date of Publishing: Feb 01, 2016

Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research. 2016 Feb, Vol-10(2): ZE01-ZE04