HOOK-UPS

DESIGN
OF FLUID
SYSTEMS

Published by

$19.95 per copy

Second
Third
Fourth
Fifth
Sixth
Seventh
Eighth
Ninth
Tenth
Eleventh
Twelfth

Edition
Edition
Edition
Edition
Edition
Edition
Edition
Edition
Edition
Edition
Edition

First Printing January, 1968

First Printing October, 1968
First Printing May, 1970
First Printing September, 1974
First Printing August, 1975
First Printing May, 1978
First Printing September, 1981
First Printing January, 1987
First Printing April, 1990
First Printing January, 1991
First Printing April, 1997
First Printing June, 2000
Second Printing June, 2001

Copyright 2004
by Spirax Sarco, Inc.
All Rights Reserved
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system or transmitted, in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise,
without the prior written permission of the publisher.

Spirax Sarco, Inc.

1150 Northpoint Blvd. Blythewood, SC 29016
Phone: (803) 714-2000
Fax: (803) 714-2222
www.spiraxsarco.com/us
II

Spirax Sarco
Spirax Sarco is the recognized industry standard for
knowledge and products and for over 85 years has
been committed to servicing the steam users worldwide. The existing and potential applications for steam,
water and air are virtually unlimited. Beginning with
steam generation, through distribution and utilization
and ultimately returning condensate to the boiler,
Spirax Sarco has the solutions to optimize steam system performance and increase productivity to save
valuable time and money.
In todays economy, corporations are looking for reliable products and services to expedite processes and
alleviate workers of problems which may arise with
their steam systems. As support to industries around
the globe, Spirax Sarco offers decades of experience,
knowledge, and expert advice to steam users worldwide on the proper control and conditioning of steam
systems.
Spirax Sarco draws upon its worldwide resources of
over 3500 people to bring complete and thorough service to steam users. This service is built into our
products as a performance guarantee. From initial consultation to effective solutions, our goal is to
manufacture safe, reliable products that improve productivity. With a quick, responsive team of sales
engineers and a dedicated network of local authorized
distributors Spirax Sarco provides quality service and
support with fast, efficient delivery.
Reliable steam system components are at the heart of
Spirax Sarcos commitment. Controls and regulators
for ideal temperature, pressure and flow control; steam
traps for efficient drainage of condensate for maximum
heat transfer; flowmeters for precise measurement of
liquids; liquid drain traps for automatic and continuous
drain trap operation to boost system efficiency; rotary
filters for increased productivity through proper filtering
of fluids; condensate recovery pumps for effective condensate management to save water and sewage costs;
stainless steel specialty products for maintaining quality and purity of steam; and a full range of pipeline
auxiliaries, all work together to produce a productive
steam system. Spirax Sarcos new line of engineered
equipment reduces installation costs with prefabricated
assemblies and fabricated modules for system integrity and turnkey advantages.
From large oil refineries and chemical plants to local
laundries, from horticulture to shipping, for hospitals,
universities, offices and hotels, in business and government, wherever steam, hot water and compressed
air is generated and handled effectively and efficiently,
Spirax Sarco is there with knowledge and experience.
For assistance with the installation or operation of any
Spirax Sarco product or application, call toll free:

1-800-883-4411
III

How to Use This Book

Selection of the most appropriate type and size of
control valves, steam traps and other fluid control
valves, steam traps and other fluid control equipment, and installation in a hook up enabling these
components of a system to operate in an optimal
manner, all bear directly on the efficiency and economy obtainable in any plant or system.
To help make the best choice, we have assembled
into this book the accumulation of over 85 years of
experience with energy services in industrial and
commercial use. The hook ups illustrated have all
been proven in practice, and the reference information included is that which we use ourselves when
assisting customers choose and use our products.
The Case in Action stories dispersed throughout this
book are actual applications put to the test by steam
users throughout the country. Their stories are testimonials to the products and services Spirax Sarco
offers and the benefits they have received from utilizing our knowledge and services.

The Hook Up Book is divided into three sections:

Section I is a compilation of engineering data and

information to assist in estimating loads and flow
rates, the basic parameters which enable the best
choice when selecting sizes.
Section II illustrates how the services and control
equipment can be assembled into hook ups to
best meet the particular needs of each application.

Section III is a summary of the range of Spirax

Sarco equipment utilized in the hook ups. Although
it is not a complete catalog of the entire range, it
does describe generically the capabilities and limitations which must be remembered when making
proper product choices.
Most application problems will be approached in the
same order. Section I will enable the load information to be collected and the calculations made so
that sizing can be carried out; Section II will make
sure that the essentials of the hook up, or combination of hook ups, are not overlooked; and Section III
will serve as a guide to the complete equipment catalog so that the most suitable equipment can readily
be selected.
The Hook Up Book is intended to serve as a reference for those actively engaged in the design,
operation and maintenance of steam, air and liquid
systems. It is also intended as a learning tool to
teach engineers how to design productive steam
systems, efficiently and cost effectively.

We gratefully acknowledge the valuable contributions made by our field engineers, representatives,
application engineers, and customers to the body
of accumulated experience contained in this text.

IV

Table of Contents
Section 1: System Design Information .........................................................1
The Working Pressure in the Boiler and the Mains ............................................................2
Sizing Steam Lines on Velocity...........................................................................................3
Steam Pipe Sizing for Pressure Drop.................................................................................5
Sizing Superheated Mains..................................................................................................6
Properties of Saturated Steam ...........................................................................................7
Draining Steam Mains ........................................................................................................8
Steam Tracing ...................................................................................................................12
Pressure Reducing Stations .............................................................................................19
Parallel and Series Operation of Reducing Valves ...........................................................21
How to Size Temperature and Pressure Control Valves ...................................................23
Temperature Control Valves for Steam Service ................................................................26
Temperature Control Valves for Liquid Service.................................................................28
Makeup Air Heating Coils .................................................................................................31
Draining Temperature Controlled Steam Equipment ........................................................33
Multi-Coil Heaters .............................................................................................................36
Steam Trap Selection ........................................................................................................38
Flash Steam......................................................................................................................41
Condensate Recovery Systems .......................................................................................45
Condensate Pumping .......................................................................................................48
Clean Steam .....................................................................................................................50
Testing Steam Traps..........................................................................................................55
Spira-tec Trap Leak Detector Systems for Checking Steam Traps ...................................58
Steam Meters....................................................................................................................59
Compressed Air Systems .................................................................................................62
Reference Charts and Tables ...........................................................................................66

Section 2: Hook-up Application Diagrams................................................83

For Diagram Content, please refer to Subject Index on page 149.

Section 3: Product Information .....................................................................143

An overview of the Spirax Sarco Product Line

Subject Index ...................................................................................149

VI

Section 1

SYSTEM
DESIGN
INFORMATION

The Working Pressure in the Boiler and the Mains

SYSTEM DESIGN

Steam should be generated at a

pressure as close as possible to
that at which the boiler is
designed to run, even if this is
higher than is needed in the
plant. The reasoning behind this
is clear when consideration is
given to what happens in the
water and steam space within the
boiler. Energy flows into the boiler
water through the outer surface of
the tubes, and if the water is
already at saturation temperature, bubbles of steam are
produced. These bubbles then
rise to the surface and break, to
release steam into the steam
space.
The volume of a given weight
of steam contained in the bubbles
depends directly on the pressure
at which the boiler is operating. If
this pressure is lower than the

design pressure, the volume in

the bubbles is greater. It follows
that as this volume increases, the
apparent water level is raised.
The volume of the steam space
above the water level is thereby
reduced. There is increased turbulence as the greater volume of
bubbles break the surface, and
less room for separation of water
droplets above the surface.
Further, the steam moving
towards the crown or steam takeoff valve must move at greater
velocity with a higher volume
moving across a smaller space.
All these factors tend to encourage carryover of water droplets
with the steam.
There is much to be said in
favor of carrying the steam close
to the points of use at a high pressure, near to that of the boiler.

The use of such pressure means

that the size of the distribution
mains is reduced. The smaller
mains have smaller heat losses,
and better quality steam at the
steam users is likely to result.
Pressure reduction to the values needed by the steam using
equipment can then take place
through pressure reducing stations close to the steam users
themselves. The individual reducing valves will be smaller in size,
will tend to give tighter control of
reduced pressures, and emit less
noise. Problems of having a
whole plant dependent on a single reducing station are avoided,
and the effects on the steam
users of pressure drops through
the pipework, which change with
varying loads, disappear.

Table 1: Steam Pipe Sizing for Steam Velocity

Capacity of Sch. 80 Pipe in lb/hr steam
Pressure Velocity
psi
ft/sec
50
5
80
120
50
10
80
120
50
20
80
120
50
30
80
120
50
40
80
120
50
60
80
120
50
80
80
120
50
100
80
120
50
120
80
120
50
150
80
120
50
200
80
120

/2"
12
19
29
15
24
35
21
32
50
26
42
62
32
51
75
43
65
102
53
85
130
63
102
150
74
120
175
90
145
215
110
180
250
1

/4"
1"
26
45
45
75
60
110
35
55
52
95
72
135
47
82
70
120
105
190
56
100
94
155
130
240
75
120
110
195
160
290
95
160
140
250
240
410
120
215
190
320
290
500
130
240
240
400
350
600
160
290
270
450
400
680
208
340
320
570
450
850
265
450
410
700
600 1100
3

11/4"
70
115
175
88
150
210
123
190
300
160
250
370
190
300
460
250
400
610
315
500
750
360
610
900
440
710
1060
550
900
1280
680
1100
1630

11/2"
100
170
245
130
210
330
185
260
440
230
360
570
260
445
660
360
600
950
460
730
1100
570
950
1370
660
1030
1520
820
1250
1890
1020
1560
2400

2"
190
300
460
240
380
590
320
520
840
420
655
990
505
840
1100
650
1000
1660
870
1300
1900
980
1660
2400
1100
1800
2850
1380
2200
3400
1780
2910
4350

21/2"
280
490
700
365
600
850
520
810
1250
650
950
1550
790
1250
1900
1000
1650
2600
1300
2100
3000
1550
2550
3700
1850
2800
4300
2230
3400
5300
2800
4400
6800

3"
410
710
1000
550
900
1250
740
1100
1720
950
1460
2100
1100
1800
2700
1470
2400
3800
1900
3000
4200
2100
3700
5000
2600
4150
6500
3220
4900
7500
4120
6600
9400

4"
760
1250
1800
950
1500
2200
1340
1900
3100
1650
2700
3950
1900
3120
4700
2700
4400
6500
3200
5000
7800
4000
6400
9100
4600
7200
10700
5500
8500
13400
7100
11000
16900

5"
1250
1800
2900
1500
2400
3400
1980
3100
4850
2600
3900
6100
3100
4900
7500
3900
6500
10300
5200
8400
12000
6100
10200
15000
7000
11600
17500
8800
14000
20600
11500
18000
25900

6"
1770
2700
4000
2200
3300
4800
2900
4500
6750
3650
5600
8700
4200
6800
11000
5700
9400
14700
7000
12200
17500
8800
14600
21600
10500
16500
26000
12900
20000
30000
16300
26600
37000

8"
3100
5200
7500
3770
5900
9000
5300
8400
13000
6500
10700
16000
8200
13400
19400
10700
17500
26400
13700
21000
30600
16300
26000
38000
18600
29200
44300
22000
35500
55500
28500
46000
70600

10"
5000
7600
12000
6160
9700
14400
8000
13200
19800
10500
16500
25000
12800
20300
30500
16500
27200
41000
21200
33800
51600
26500
41000
61500
29200
48000
70200
35600
57500
85500
45300
72300
109000

12"
7100
11000
16500
8500
13000
20500
11500
18300
28000
14500
23500
35000
18000
28300
42500
24000
38500
58000
29500
47500
71700
35500
57300
86300
41000
73800
97700
50000
79800
120000
64000
100000
152000

Sizing Steam Lines On Velocity

Steam Line Velocities

In saturated steam lines, reasonable maximum for velocities are
often taken at 80/120 ft. per second or 4800/7200 fpm. In the
past, many process plants have
used higher velocities up to 200
ft. per second or 12,000 fpm, on
the basis that the increased pipe
noise is not a problem within a
process plant. This ignores the
other problems which accompany
high velocities, and especially the
erosion of the pipework and fittings by water droplets moving at
high speed. Only where appreciable superheat is present, with the
pipes carrying only a dry gas,
should the velocities mentioned
be exceeded. Velocity of saturated steam in any pipe may be
obtained from either Table 1, Fig.
1 or calculated in ft. per minute
using the formula:

Formula For Velocity Of

Steam In Pipes
V = 2.4Q Vs
A
Where:
V - Velocity in feet per minute
Q - Flow lbs./hr. steam
Vs - Sp. Vol. in cu. ft./lb. at the
flowing pressure
A - Internal area of the pipe
sq. in.

Steam Piping For PRVs and

Flash Vents
Velocity in piping other than
steam distribution lines must be
correctly chosen, including pressure reducing valve and flash
steam vent applications.
A look at Steam Properties
(Table 3) illustrates how the specific volume of steam increases
as pressure is reduced. To keep
reducing valve high and low pressure pipe velocity constant, the
downstream piping cross-sectional area must be larger by the
same ratio as the change in volume. When downstream pipe size
is not increased, low pressure
steam velocity increases proportionally. For best PRV operation,
without excessive noise, long
straight pipe runs must be provided on both sides, with piping
reduced to the valve then
expanded downstream gradually
to limit approach and exit steam
velocities to 4000/ 6000 fpm. A
sizing example is given in Fig. 1.
Line velocity is also important

in discharge piping from steam

traps where two-phase steam/
condensate mixtures must be
slowed to allow some gravity separation and reduce carryover of
condensate from flash vent lines.
Here line velocities of the flash
steam should not exceed 50/66 ft.
per second. A much lower velocity must be provided for
separation inside the flash vessel
by expanding its size. The flash
load is the total released by hot
condensate from all traps draining into the receiver. For
condensate line sizing example,
see page 46 and see page 43 for
vent line sizing example.

SYSTEM DESIGN

The appropriate size of pipe to

carry the required amount of
steam at the local pressure must
be chosen, since an undersized
pipe means high pressure drops
and velocities, noise and erosion,
while a generously sized pipe is
unnecessarily expensive to install
and heat losses from it will also
be greater than they need be.
Steam pipes may be sized
either so that the pressure drop
along them is below an acceptable limit, or so that velocities
along them are not too high. It is
convenient and quick to size
short mains and branches on
velocity, but longer runs of pipe
should also be checked to see
that pressure drops are not too
high.

Sizing Steam Lines On Velocity

SYSTEM DESIGN

Fig. 1 lists steam capacities of

pipes under various pressure and
velocity conditions.
EXAMPLE: Given a steam heating system with a 100 psig inlet
pressure ahead of the pressure
reducing valve and a capacity of
1,000 pounds of steam per hour
at 25 psig, find the smallest sizes
of upstream and downstream piping for reasonable quiet steam
velocities.

Figure 1: Steam Velocity Chart

Upstream Piping Sizing

Enter the velocity chart at A for
1,000 pounds per hour. Go over
to point B where the 100 psig
diagonal line intersects. Follow up
vertically to C where an
intersection with a diagonal line falls
inside the 4,000-6,000 foot-perminute velocity band. Actual
velocity at D is about 4,800 feet
per minute for 1-1/2 inch
upstream piping.

Downstream Piping Sizing

Enter the velocity chart at A for
1,000 pounds per hour. Go over
to point E where the 25 psig diagonal line intersects. Follow up
vertically to F where an intersection with a diagonal line falls
inside the 4,000-6,000 foot-perminute velocity band. Actual
velocity at G is 5,500 feet per
minute for 2-1/2 inch downstream
piping.

Pressure Drop in Steam Lines

Always check that pressure drop
is within allowable limits before
selecting pipe size in long steam
mains and whenever it is critical.
Fig. 2 and Fig. 3 provide drops in
Sch. 40 and Sch. 80 pipe. Use of
the charts is illustrated in the two
examples.
EXAMPLE 1
What will be the smallest schedule 40 pipe that can be used if
drop per 100 feet shall not
exceed 3 psi when flow rate is
10,000 pounds per hour, and
steam pressure is 60 psig?
Solution:
1. Find factor for steam pressure in main, in this case 60
psig. Factor from chart = 1.5.
4

2. Divide allowable pressure

drop by factor 3 .. 1.5 = 2 psi.
3. Enter pressure drop chart at
2 psi and proceed horizontally to flow rate of 10,000
pounds per hour. Select pipe
size on or to the right of this
point. In this case a 4" main.
EXAMPLE 2
What will be the pressure drop
per 100 feet in an 8" schedule 40
steam main when flow is 20,000
pounds per hour, and steam
pressure is 15 psig?

Solution:
Enter schedule 40 chart at
20,000 pounds per hour, proceed
vertically upward to 8" pipe curve,
then horizontally to pressure drop
scale, read 0.23 psi per 100 feet.
This would be the drop if the
steam pressure were 100 psig.
Since pressure is 15 psig, a correction factor must be used.
Correction factor for 15 psig = 3.6
0.23 x 3.6 = 0.828 psi drop per
100 feet for 15 psig

Steam Pipe Sizing For Pressure Drop

Figure 2: Pressure Drop in Schedule 40 Pipe

psi
factor

0
6.9

2
6.0

5
5.2

10
4.3

15
3.6

20
3.1

30
2.4

1"

3/4"

40
2.0

60
1.5

75
1.3

1-1/4" 1-1/2"

90
1.1

2"

SYSTEM DESIGN

100 psig Saturated Steam

For other pressures use correction factors
100 110 125 150 175 200 225 250 300 350 400 500 600
1.0 0.92 0.83 0.70 0.62 0.55 0.49 0.45 0.38 0.33 0.29 0.23 0.19

2-1/2"

3"

4"

5"

6"

8"

10"

12" 14" 16" 18" 20"

15.0
24"

Pressure Drop psi/100 ft

10.0
9.0
8.0
7.0
6.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0

1.0
.9
.8
.7
.6
.5
.4
.3
.2

.1

100

200 300 400 500

1,000

4 5

10,000

4 5 6 7 8 100,000

1,000,000

Steam Flow lbs/hr

Figure 3: Pressure Drop in Schedule 80 Pipe

100 psig Saturated Steam
For other pressures use correction factors
psi
factor

0
6.9

2
6.0

5
5.2

10
4.3

3/4"

15
3.6
1"

20
3.1

30
2.4

40
2.0

60
1.5

1-1/4" 1-1/2"

75
1.3
2"

90
1.1

2-1/2"

100 110 125 150 175 200 225 250 300 350 400 500 600
1.0 0.92 0.83 0.70 0.62 0.55 0.49 0.45 0.38 0.33 0.29 0.23 0.19
3"

4"

5"

6"

8"

10"

12" 14" 16" 18" 20"

24"

15.0

Pressure Drop psi/100 ft

10.0
9.0
8.0
7.0
6.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0

1.0
.9
.8
.7
.6
.5
.4
.3
.2

.1

100

200

300 400 500

1,000

4 5 6

10,000

5 6 7 8 100,000

4 5

1,000,000

Steam Flow lbs/hr

Sizing Superheated Mains

Example:
Size a steam main to carry
34,000 lb/h of 300 psig steam at a
temperature of 500 F.
From Table 2 the correction factor
is .96. The equivalent capacity is
34,000
= 35,417 lb/h.
.96
Since 300 psig is not found on
Fig. 1, the pipe size will have to
be calculated. From the formula
on page 3:
2.4 x Q x Vs
V=
A
Solving for area the formula
becomes:
2.4 x Q x Vs
A=
V

Sizing Superheated Mains

SYSTEM DESIGN

When sizing steam mains for

superheated service, the following procedure should be used.
Divide the required flow rate by
the factor in Table 2. This will give
an equivalent saturated steam
flow. Enter Fig. 1, Steam Velocity
Chart on page 4 to select appropriate pipe size. If unable, then
use the formula on page 3 to calculate cross sectional area of the
pipe and then Tables 38 and 39,
page 81, to select the pipe size
which closely matches calculated
internal transverse area.

Select a velocity of 10,000 ft/min.

(which is within the process
velocity range of 8,000 - 12,000
ft/min.) and determine Vs (specific volume) of 1.47 ft3/lb (from the
Steam Table on page 7). The formula is now:
2.4 x 35,417 x 1.47
A=
= 12.5 in2
10,000
From Tables 38 and 39 (page 81)
the pipe closest to this area is 4"
schedule 40 or 5" schedule 80.

Table 2: Superheated Steam Correction Factor

Gauge Saturated
Pressure Temp.
TOTAL STEAM TEMPERATURE IN DEGREES FARENHEIT
PSI
F
340 360 380 400 420 440 460 480 500 520 540 560 580 600 620 640 660 680 700 720 740 760

15
20
40
60
80

250
259
287
308
324

100
120
140
160
180

.99 .99
.99 .99
1.00 .99
1.00 .99
1.00 1.00

.98
.98
.99
.99
.99

.98
.98
.98
.98
.99

.97
.97
.97
.97
.98

.96
.96
.96
.96
.97

.95
.95
.95
.95
.96

.94
.94
.94
.94
.94

.93
.93
.93
.93
.93

.92
.92
.92
.92
.92

.91
.91
.91
.91
.91

.90
.90
.90
.90
.90

.89
.89
.89
.89
.89

.88
.88
.88
.88
.88

.87
.87
.87
.87
.87

.86
.86
.86
.86
.86

.86
.86
.86
.86
.86

.85
.85
.85
.85
.85

.84
.84
.84
.84
.84

.83
.83
.84
.84
.84

.83
.83
.83
.83
.83

.82
.82
.82
.82
.82

338
350
361
371
380

1.00 1.00 .99

1.00 1.00 .99

1.00 1.00

1.00

1.00

.98
.98
.99
.99
.99

.97
.97
.97
.98
.98

.96
.96
.96
.97
.97

.95
.95
.95
.96
.96

.94
.94
.94
.95
.95

.93
.93
.93
.94
.94

.92
.92
.92
.93
.93

.91
.91
.91
.92
.92

.90
.90
.90
.91
.91

.89
.89
.89
.90
.90

.88
.88
.88
.89
.89

.87
.87
.87
.88
.88

.86
.86
.86
.87
.87

.85
.85
.85
.86
.86

.85
.85
.85
.85
.85

.84
.84
.84
.84
.84

.83
.83
.83
.83
.83

.82
.82
.82
.82
.83

200
220
240
260
280

388
395
403
409
416

1.00 .99 .99

1.00 1.00 .99

1.00 .99

1.00 .99

1.00 1.00

.97
.98
.98
.98
.99

.96
.96
.97
.97
.97

.95
.95
.95
.96
.96

.94
.94
.94
.94
.95

.93
.93
.93
.93
.93

.92
.92
.92
.92
.92

.91
.91
.91
.91
.91

.90
.90
.90
.90
.90

.89
.89
.89
.89
.89

.88
.88
.88
.88
.88

.87
.87
.87
.87
.87

.86
.86
.86
.86
.86

.85
.85
.85
.85
.85

.84
.84
.84
.85
.85

.83
.84
.84
.84
.84

.83
.83
.83
.83
.83

300
350
400
450
500

422
436
448
460
470

1.00 .99 .98

1.00 1.00 .99

1.00 .99

1.00

1.00

.96
.97
.98
.99
.99

.95
.96
.96
.97
.98

.93
.94
.95
.96
.96

.92
.93
.93
.94
.94

.91
.92
.92
.93
.93

.90
.91
.91
.92
.92

.89
.90
.90
.91
.91

.88
.89
.89
.89
.90

.87
.88
.88
.88
.89

.86
.87
.87
.87
.88

.86
.86
.86
.86
.87

.85
.85
.85
.86
.86

.84
.84
.84
.84
.85

.83
.83
.84
.84
.84

550
600
650
700
750

480
489
497
506
513

1.00 .99 .97

1.00 .99 .98

1.00 .99

1.00 .99

1.00 1.00

.95
.96
.97
.97
.98

.94
.94
.95
.96
.96

.92
.93
.94
.94
.95

.91
.92
.92
.93
.93

.90
.90
.91
.91
.92

.89
.89
.90
.90
.90

.88
.88
.89
.89
.89

.87
.87
.87
.88
.88

.86
.86
.86
.87
.87

.85
.85
.86
.86
.86

.84
.84
.85
.85
.85

800
850
900
950
1000

520
527
533
540
546

1.00 .99 .97 .95

1.00 .99 .98 .96
1.00 1.00 .99 .97

1.00 .99 .97

1.00 .99 .98

.94
.94
.95
.95
.96

.92
.93
.93
.94
.94

.91
.92
.92
.92
.93

.90
.90
.90
.91
.91

.88
.89
.89
.89
.90

.87
.88
.88
.88
.89

.86
.87
.87
.87
.87

.85
.86
.86
.86
.86

Properties Of Saturated Steam

Table 3: Properties of Saturated Steam

IN VAC.

25
20
15
10
5
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
38
40
42
44
46
48
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
105
110
115
120
125
130
135
140
145
150
155
160
165
170
175
180

TemperHeat in Btu/lb.
ature
F
Sensible Latent
Total
134
162
179
192
203
212
215
219
222
224
227
230
232
233
237
239
244
248
252
256
259
262
265
268
271
274
277
279
282
284
286
289
291
293
295
298
300
307
312
316
320
324
328
331
335
338
341
344
347
350
353
356
358
361
363
366
368
371
373
375
377
380

102
129
147
160
171
180
183
187
190
192
195
198
200
201
205
207
212
216
220
224
227
230
233
236
239
243
246
248
251
253
256
258
260
262
264
267
271
277
282
286
290
294
298
302
305
309
312
316
319
322
325
328
330
333
336
339
341
344
346
348
351
353

1017
1001
990
982
976
970
968
966
964
962
960
959
957
956
954
953
949
947
944
941
939
937
934
933
930
929
927
925
923
922
920
918
917
915
914
912
909
906
901
898
895
891
889
886
883
880
878
875
873
871
868
866
864
861
859
857
855
853
851
849
847
845

1119
1130
1137
1142
1147
1150
1151
1153
1154
1154
1155
1157
1157
1157
1159
1160
1161
1163
1164
1165
1166
1167
1167
1169
1169
1172
1173
1173
1174
1175
1176
1176
1177
1177
1178
1179
1180
1183
1183
1184
1185
1185
1187
1188
1188
1189
1190
1191
1192
1193
1193
1194
1194
1194
1195
1196
1196
1197
1197
1197
1198
1198

Specific
Volume
Cu. ft.
per lb.
142.0
73.9
51.3
39.4
31.8
26.8
25.2
23.5
22.3
21.4
20.1
19.4
18.7
18.4
17.1
16.5
15.3
14.3
13.4
12.6
11.9
11.3
10.8
10.3
9.85
9.46
9.10
8.75
8.42
8.08
7.82
7.57
7.31
7.14
6.94
6.68
6.27
5.84
5.49
5.18
4.91
4.67
4.44
4.24
4.05
3.89
3.74
3.59
3.46
3.34
3.23
3.12
3.02
2.92
2.84
2.74
2.68
2.60
2.54
2.47
2.41
2.34

Gauge
Pressure
PSIG
185
190
195
200
205
210
215
220
225
230
235
240
245
250
255
260
265
270
275
280
285
290
295
300
305
310
315
320
325
330
335
340
345
350
355
360
365
370
375
380
385
390
395
400
450
500
550
600
650
700
750
800
900
1000
1250
1500
1750
2000
2250
2500
2750
3000

TemperHeat in Btu/lb.
ature
F
Sensible Latent
Total
382
384
386
388
390
392
394
396
397
399
401
403
404
406
408
409
411
413
414
416
417
418
420
421
423
425
426
427
429
430
432
433
434
435
437
438
440
441
442
443
445
446
447
448
460
470
479
489
497
505
513
520
534
546
574
597
618
636
654
669
683
696

355
358
360
362
364
366
368
370
372
374
376
378
380
382
383
385
387
389
391
392
394
395
397
398
400
402
404
405
407
408
410
411
413
414
416
417
419
420
421
422
424
425
427
428
439
453
464
473
483
491
504
512
529
544
580
610
642
672
701
733
764
804

843
841
839
837
836
834
832
830
828
827
825
823
822
820
819
817
815
814
812
811
809
808
806
805
803
802
800
799
797
796
794
793
791
790
789
788
786
785
784
783
781
780
778
777
766
751
740
730
719
710
696
686
666
647
600
557
509
462
413
358
295
213

1198
1199
1199
1199
1200
1200
1200
1200
1200
1201
1201
1201
1202
1202
1202
1202
1202
1203
1203
1203
1203
1203
1203
1203
1203
1204
1204
1204
1204
1204
1204
1204
1204
1204
1205
1205
1205
1205
1205
1205
1205
1205
1205
1205
1205
1204
1204
1203
1202
1201
1200
1198
1195
1191
1180
1167
1151
1134
1114
1091
1059
1017

Specific
Volume
Cu. ft.
per lb.

SYSTEM DESIGN

Gauge
Pressure
PSIG

2.29
2.24
2.19
2.14
2.09
2.05
2.00
1.96
1.92
1.89
1.85
1.81
1.78
1.75
1.72
1.69
1.66
1.63
1.60
1.57
1.55
1.53
1.49
1.47
1.45
1.43
1.41
1.38
1.36
1.34
1.33
1.31
1.29
1.28
1.26
1.24
1.22
1.20
1.19
1.18
1.16
1.14
1.13
1.12
1.00
.89
.82
.75
.69
.64
.60
.56
.49
.44
.34
.23
.22
.19
.16
.13
.11
.08

Draining Steam Mains

SYSTEM DESIGN

Steam main drainage is one of the

most common applications for
steam traps. It is important that
water is removed from steam
mains as quickly as possible, for
reasons of safety and to permit
greater plant efficiency. A build-up
of water can lead to waterhammer, capable of fracturing pipes
and fittings. When carried into the
steam spaces of heat exchangers, it simply adds to the thickness
of the condensate film and
reduces heat transfer. Inadequate
drainage leads to leaking joints,
and is a potential cause of wiredrawing of control valve seats.

Waterhammer
Waterhammer occurs when a
slug of water, pushed by steam
pressure along a pipe instead of
draining away at the low points, is
suddenly stopped by impact on a
valve or fitting such as a pipe
bend or tee. The velocities which
such slugs of water can achieve
are not often appreciated. They
can be much higher than the normal steam velocity in the pipe,
especially when the waterhammer is occurring at startup.
When these velocities are
destroyed, the kinetic energy in the
water is converted into pressure
energy and a pressure shock is
applied to the obstruction. In mild
cases, there is noise and perhaps
movement of the pipe. More severe
cases lead to fracture of the pipe or
fittings with almost explosive effect,
and consequent escape of live
steam at the fracture.
Waterhammer is avoided completely if steps are taken to ensure
that water is drained away before it
accumulates in sufficient quantity
to be picked up by the steam.
Careful consideration of
steam main drainage can avoid
damage to the steam main and
possible injury or even loss of life.
It offers a better alternative than
an acceptance of waterhammer
and an attempt to contain it by
choice of materials, or pressure
rating of equipment.
8

(a) supervised start up and

(b) automatic start up.

Efficient Steam Main

Drainage
Proper drainage of lines, and
some care in start up methods,
not only prevent damage by
waterhammer, but help improve
steam quality, so that equipment
output can be maximized and
maintenance of control valves
reduced.
The use of oversized steam
traps giving very generous safety factors does not necessarily
ensure safe and effective steam
main drainage. A number of
points must be kept in mind, for a
satisfactory installation.
1) The
heat
up
method
employed.
2) Provision of suitable collecting legs or reservoirs for the
condensate.
3) Provision of a minimum pressure differential across the
steam trap.
4) Choice of steam trap type
and size.
5) Proper trap installation.

Heat Up Method
The choice of steam trap depends
on the heat up method adopted to
bring the steam main up to full
pressure and temperature. The
two most usual methods are:

A) Supervised Start Up
In this case, at each drain point in
the steam system, a manual drain
valve is fitted, bypassing the
steam trap and discharging to
atmosphere.
These drain valves are
opened fully before any steam is
admitted to the system. When the
heat up condensate has been
discharged and as the pressure
in the main begins to rise, the
valves are closed. The condensate formed under operating
conditions is then discharged
through the traps. Clearly, the
traps need only be sized to handle the losses from the lines
under operating conditions, given
in Table 5 (page 10).
This heat up procedure is
most often used in large installations where start up of the system
is an infrequent, perhaps even an
annual, occurrence. Large heating systems and chemical
processing plants are typical
examples.

Separator
Steam
Supply

Trap Set

Figure 4
Trap Boiler header or takeoff separator
and size for maximum carryover. On heavy
demand this could be 10% of generating capacity

Draining Steam Mains

time and then shut off while temperatures equalize. The boilers
are protected from undue stress
by these short bursts of firing,
which extend the warmup time
and reduce the rate at which condensation in the mains is to be
discharged at the traps.

Determining Condensate Loads

As previously discussed there are
two methods for bringing a steam
main on line. The supervised
start up bypasses the traps thus
avoiding the large warm up loads.
The traps are then sized based
on the running conditions found in
Table 5 (page 10). A safety factor
of 2:1 and a differential pressure
of inlet minus condensate return
pressure.
Systems employing automatic start up procedures requires
estimation of the amount of condensate produced in bringing up
the main to working temperature
and pressure within the time
available. The amount of condensate being formed and the
pressure available to discharge it
are both varying continually and
at any given moment are indeterminate due to many unknown
variables. Table 4 (page 10) indicates the warm up loads per 100
feet of steam main during a one

hour start up. If the start up time

is different, the new load can be
calculated as follows:

SYSTEM DESIGN

B) Automatic Start Up
One traditional method of achieving automatic start up is simply to
allow the steam boiler to be fired
and brought up to pressure with
the steam take off valve (crown
valve) wide open. Thus the steam
main and branch lines come up to
pressure and temperature without supervision, and the steam
traps are relied on to automatically discharge the condensate as it
is formed.
This method is generally confined to small installations that
are regularly and frequently shut
down and started up again. For
example, the boilers in many
laundry and drycleaning plants
are often shut down at night and
restarted the next morning.
In anything but the smallest
plants, the flow of steam from the
boiler into the cold pipes at start
up, while the boiler pressure is
still only a few psi, will lead to
excessive carryover of boiler
water with the steam. Such carryover can be enough to overload
separators in the steam takeoff,
where these are fitted. Great
care, and even good fortune, are
needed if waterhammer is to be
avoided.
For these reasons, modern
practice calls for an automatic
valve to be fitted in the steam
supply line, arranged so that the
valve stays closed until a reasonable pressure is attained in the
boiler. The valve can then be
made to open over a timed period
so that steam is admitted only
slowly into the distribution
pipework. The pressure with the
boiler may be climbing at a fast
rate, of course, but the slow opening valve protects the pipework.
Where these valves are
used, the time available to warm
up the pipework will be known, as
it is set on the valve control. In
other cases it is necessary to
know the details of the boiler start
up procedure so that the time can
be estimated. Boilers started from
cold are often fired for a short

lbs. of Condensate (Table 4) x 60

Warm up time in minutes
= Actual warm-up load.
Apply a safety factor of 2:1
and size the trap at a differential
pressure of working steam pressure minus condensate return
line presure. Since most drip
traps see running loads much
more often than start up loads,
care must be taken when sizing
them for start up conditions. If the
start up load forces the selection
of a trap exceeding the capability
of the running load trap, then the
warm up time needs to be
increased and/or the length of
pipe decreased.

Warm Up Load Example

Consider a length of 8" main which is to carry steam at 125 psig. Drip
points are to be 150 ft. apart and outside ambient conditions can be as
low as 0F. Warm-up time is to be 30 minutes.
From Table 4, Warm Up Load is 107 lb./100 ft.
For a 150 ft run, load is 107 x 1.5 = 160.5 lb/150 ft.
Correction Factor for 0F (see Table 4) 1.25 x 160.5 = 200.6 lb/150 ft.
A 30 minute warm up time increases the load by
200.6 x 60 = 401 lb/h
30
total load
Applying a safety factor of 2:1, the trap sizing load is 802 lb/h. If the back
pressure in the condensate return is 0 psig, the trap would be sized for
a 125 psi differential pressure. This would result in an oversized trap during running conditions, calculated at 94 lb/h using Tabe 5 (page 10).
Either increase the warm up time to one hour or decrease the distance
between drip traps.
9

Draining Steam Mains

Table 4: Warm-Up Load in Pounds of Steam per 100 Ft of Steam Main

SYSTEM DESIGN

Ambient Temperature 70F. Based on Sch. 40 pipe to 250 psi, Sch. 80 above 250 except Sch. 120 5" and larger above 800 psi
Steam
Pressure
psi
0
5
10
20
40
60
80
100
125
150
175
200
250
300
400
500
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1750
1800

2"
62
69
75
84
99
110
120
128
137
145
153
160
172
250
278
302
327
38
45
52
62
71
78
80

2 /2"
97
110
118
134
158
175
190
203
217
230
242
253
273
383
43
46
50
58
64
72
79
87
94
97
1

3"
128
144
155
175
206
229
249
266
284
300
317
331
358
51
57
62
67
77
86
96
106
117
126
129

4"
182
204
220
249
903
326
353
378
40
43
45
47
51
75
83
91
98
113
126
140
155
171
184
189

5"
246
277
299
338
397
44
48
51
55
58
61
64
69
104
116
126
136
203
227
253
280
309
333
341

Main Size
6"
8"
10"
319 48
68
359 48
77
388 58
83
44
66
93
52
78
110
57
86
122
62
93
132
67
100
142
71
107
152
75
113
160
79
119
169
83
125
177
89
134
191
143
217
322
159
241
358
173
262
389
187
284
421
274
455
670
305
508
748
340
566
833
376
626
922
415
692 1018
448
746 1098
459
764 1125

12"
90
101
109
124
145
162
175
188
200
212
224
234
252
443
493
535
579
943
1052
1172
1297
1432
1544
1584

14"
107
120
130
146
172
192
208
222
238
251
265
277
299
531
590
642
694
1132
1263
1407
1558
1720
1855
1902

16"
140
157
169
191
225
250
271
290
310
328
347
362
390
682
759
825
893
1445
1612
1796
1988
2194
2367
2427

18"
176
198
213
241
284
316
342
366
391
414
437
456
492
854
971
1033
1118
1835
2047
2280
2524
2786
3006
3082

20"
207
233
251
284
334
372
403
431
461
487
514
537
579
1045
1163
1263
1367
2227
2485
2767
3064
3382
3648
3741

24"
308
324
350
396
465
518
561
600
642
679
716
748
807
1182
1650
1793
1939
3227
3601
4010
4440
4901
5285
5420

OF
Correction
Factor
150
144
141
137
132
129
127
126
125
124
123
122
121
120
118
117
116
1156
1147
1140
1135
1130
1128
1127

For outdoor temperature of 0F, multiply load value in table for each main size by correction factor shown.

Table 5: Running Load in Pounds per Hour per 100 Ft of Insulated Steam Main
Ambient Temperature 70F. Insulation 80% efficient. Load due to radiation and convection for saturated steam.
Steam
Pressure
psi
10
30
60
100
125
175
250
300
400
500
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1750
1800

2"
6
8
10
12
13
16
18
20
23
27
30
36
43
51
60
69
76
79

2 /2"
3"
7
9
9
11
12
14
15
18
16
20
19
23
22
27
25
30
28
34
33
39
37
44
44
53
52
63
62
75
73
89
85
103
93
113
96
117
1

4"
11
14
18
22
24
26
34
37
43
49
55
69
82
97
114
132
145
150

5"
13
17
24
28
30
33
42
46
53
61
68
85
101
119
141
163
179
185

6"
16
20
27
33
36
38
50
54
63
73
82
101
120
142
168
195
213
221

Main Size
8"
10"
20
24
26
32
33
41
41
51
45
56
53
66
62
77
68
85
80
99
91
114
103
128
131
164
156
195
185
230
219
273
253
315
278
346
288
358

12"
29
38
49
61
66
78
92
101
118
135
152
194
231
274
324
375
411
425

14"
32
42
54
67
73
86
101
111
130
148
167
214
254
301
356
412
452
467

16"
36
48
62
77
84
98
116
126
148
170
191
244
290
343
407
470
516
534

18"
39
51
67
83
90
107
126
138
162
185
208
274
326
386
457
528
580
600

20"
44
57
74
93
101
119
140
154
180
206
232
305
363
430
509
588
645
667

For outdoor temperature of 0F, multiply load value in table for each main size by correction factor shown.

10

24"
53
68
89
111
121
142
168
184
216
246
277
365
435
515
610
704
773
800

0F
Correction
Factor
158
150
145
141
139
138
136
135
133
132
131
130
127
126
125
122
122
121

Draining Steam Mains

Draining Steam Mains

2. The length of the drip pocket

shall be 1-1/2 times the diameter of the distribution line but
not less than 18 inches.

Drip Leg Spacing

The spacing between the
drainage points is often greater
than is desirable. On a long horizontal run (or rather one with a
fall in the direction of the flow of
about 1/2" in 10 feet or 1/250)
drain points should be provided at
intervals of 100 to 200 feet.
Longer lengths should be split up
by additional drain points. Any
natural collecting points in the
systems, such as at the foot of
any riser, should also be drained.
A very long run laid with a fall
in this way may become so low
that at intervals it must be elevated
with a riser. The foot of each of
these relay points also requires a
collecting pocket and steam trap.

Sometimes the ground contours are such that the steam

main can only be run uphill. This
will mean the drain points should
be at closer intervals, say 50 ft.
apart, and the size of the main
increased. The lower steam
velocity then allows the condensate to drain in the opposite
direction to the steam flow.
Air venting of steam mains is
of paramount importance and is
far too often overlooked. Steam
entering the pipes tends to push
the air already there in front of it
as would a piston. Automatic air
vents, fitted on top of tees at the
terminal points of the main and
the larger branches, will allow discharge of this air. Absence of air
vents means that the air will pass
through the steam traps (where it
may well slow down the discharge of condensate) or through
the steam using equipment itself.

SYSTEM DESIGN

Note from the example that in

most cases, other than large distribution mains, 1/2" ThermoDynamic traps have ample
capacity. For shorter lengths
between drip points, and for small
diameter pipes, the 1/2" low
capacity TD trap more than meets
even start up loads, but on larger
mains it may be worth fitting parallel 1/2" traps as in Fig. II-6 (page
86). Low pressure mains are best
drained using float and thermostatic traps, and these traps can
also be used at higher pressures.
The design of drip stations
are fairly simple. The most common rules to follow for sizing the
drip pockets are:
1. The diameter of the drip pockets shall be the same size as
the distribution line up to 6
inches in diameter. The diameter shall be half the size of the
distribution line over 6 inches
but never less than 6 inches.

Figure 5
Fall 1/2" in
10 Ft

Draining and Relaying Steam Main

Steam

Steam Trap
Steam Trap
Steam Trap
Steam Trap

Steam Trap
Condensate

Case in Action: Steam Main and Steam Tracing System Drainage

The majority of steam traps in refineries are installed on
steam main and steam tracing systems. Thorough
drainage of steam mains/branch lines is essential for effective heat transfer around the refinery and for waterhammer
prevention. This holds true for condensate drainage from
steam tracing lines/jackets, though some degree of backup (or sub-cooling) is permissible in some applications.
The predominant steam trap installed is a nonrepairable type that incorporates a permanent pipeline
connector. Scattered throughout the system are a number
of iron and steel body repairable types.
Most notable failure of steam traps are precipitate formation on bucket weep-holes and discharge orifices that
eventually plugs the trap shut. A common culprit is valve
sealing compound injected into leaking valves which forms
small pellets that settle in low points, such as drip
legs/steam traps and on strainer screens making blow
down difficult. This problem also occurs during occasional
system upset when hydrocarbon contaminants are mistakenly introduced to the steam system.
A noise detector and/or a temperature-indicating
device is required to detect trap failure. Especially costly is

the fact that operators are not allowed to remove traps for
repair when threading from the line is required.
Maintenance personnel must be involved.

Solution
Universal connector steam traps were installed for trial in
one of the dirtiest drip stations at the refinery. The traps
held up under adverse operating conditions requiring only
periodic cleaning. Since the time of installation, all failed
inverted bucket traps in this service were replaced with universal connector traps. Strainers were installed upstream
of each.

Benefits
The addition of Thermo-Dynamic traps allowed for easier field trap testing.
The addition of universal connectors significantly
reduced steam trap installation and repair time.
33% reduction in steam trap inventory due to standard
trap for all sizes.
Reduced energy loss is significantly reduced using ThermoDynamic steam traps versus original inverted bucket traps.

11

Steam Tracing

SYSTEM DESIGN

The temperature of process liquids

being transferred through pipelines
often must be maintained to meet
the requirements of a process, to
prevent thickening and solidification, or simply to protect against
freezeup. This is achieved by the
use of jacketed pipes, or by attaching to the product line one or more
separate tracer lines carrying a
heating medium such as steam or
hot water.
The steam usage may be relatively small but the tracing
system is often a major part of
the steam installation, and the
source of many problems.
Many large users and plant
contractors have their own
inhouse rules for tracer lines, but
the following guidelines may be
useful in other cases. We have
dealt only with external tracing,
this being the area likely to cause
difficulties where no existing
experience is available. External
tracing is simple and therefore
cheap to install, and fulfills the
needs of most processes.

than Fig. 9b, and the use of wrap

around tracers should be avoided
on long horizontal lines.
A run of even 100 ft. of 6 inch
product line will have a total of
about 500 to 600 ft. of wrap
around tracer. The pressure drop
along the tracer would be very
high and the temperature at the
end remote from the supply would
be very low. Indeed, this end of
the tracer would probably contain
only condensate and the temperature of this water would fall as it
gives up heat. Where steam is
present in the tracer, lifting the
condensate from the multiplicity of
low points increases the problems
associated with this arrangement.

Lagging
Product

Aluminum
Foil

Air Space
Tracer

Figure 6
Tracer Attached To Product Line

Figure 9 Continuous Fall On Wrap Around Tracer

9b

9a

External Tracer Lines

One or more heat carrying lines, of
sizes usually from 3/8" up to 1"
nominal bore are attached to the
main product pipe as in Fig. 6.
Transfer of heat to the product line
may be three waysby conduction
through direct contact, by convection currents in the air pocket
formed inside the insulating jacket,
and by radiation. The tracer lines
may be of carbon steel or copper,
or sometimes stainless steel.
Where the product line is of a
particular material to suit the fluid
it is carrying, the material for the
tracer line must be chosen to
avoid electrolytic corrosion at any
contact points.
For short runs of tracer, such
as around short vertical pipes, or
valves and fittings, small bore copper pipes, perhaps 1/4" bore may
be wound around the product lines
as at Fig. 7. The layout should be
arranged to give a continuous fall
along the tracers as Fig. 9a rather
12

Figure 10 Attaching Tracer To Line

Figure 7

Figure 10a Short Run Welds

Small Bore Tracing

Wraped Around
Vertical Product Line
Figure 10b Continuous Weld
Lagging
Product

Figure 8
Clipping Tracer Around Bends

Heat
Conducting
Paste

Tracer

Figure 10c Heat Conducting Paste

Steam Tracing
Clip On Tracers

Welded Tracers
Where the temperature difference
between the tracer and the product is low, the tracer may be
welded to the product line. This
can be done either by short run
welds as Fig. 10a or by a continuous weld as Fig. 10b for
maximum heat transfer.
Lagging
Product

Heat Conducting Paste

For maximum heat transfer, it can
be an advantage to use a heat
conducting paste to fill the normal
hot air gap as in Fig. 10c. The
paste can be used to improve
heat transfer with any of the clipping methods described, but it is
essential that the surfaces are
wirebrushed clean before applying the paste.

Spacer Tracing
The product being carried in the
line can be sensitive to temperature in some cases and it is then
important to avoid any local hot
spots on the pipe such as could
occur with direct contact between
the tracer and the line.
This is done by introducing a
strip of insulating material
between the tracer and the product pipe such as fiberglass,
mineral wool, or packing blocks of
an inert material.

Insulation
The insulation must cover both
the product line and the tracer but
it is important that the air space
remains clear. This can be
achieved in more than one way.
1. The product line and tracer
can first be wrapped with aluminum foil, or by galvanized
steel sheet, held on by wiring
and the insulation is then
applied outside this sheet.
Alternatively, small mesh galvanized wire netting can be
used in the same way as
metal sheet Fig. 11a.
2. Sectional insulation, preformed to one or two sizes
larger than the product main,
can be used. This has the disadvantage that it can easily
be crushed Fig. 11b.
3. Preformed sectional insulation designed to cover both
product line and tracer can
be used, as Fig. 11c.
Preformed sectional insulation is usually preferred to plastic
material, because being rigid it
retains better thickness and efficiency. In all cases, the insulation
should be properly finished with
waterproof covering. Most insulation is porous and becomes
useless as heat conserving material if it is allowed to absorb water.
Adequate steps may also be
needed to protect the insulation
from mechanical damage.

Lagging

Lagging

Product

Product

Aluminum
Foil
Wire Netting

Tracer

11a

SYSTEM DESIGN

The simplest form of tracer is one

that is clipped or wired on to the
main product line. Maximum heat
flow is achieved when the tracer
is in tight contact with the product
line. The securing clips should be
no further apart than 12" to 18"
on 3/8" tracers, 18" to 24 on 1/2",
and 24" to 36" on 3/4" and larger.
The tracer pipes can be literally wired on, but to maintain
close contact it is better to use
either galvanized or stainless
steel bands, about 1/2" wide and
18 to 20 gauge thickness. One
very practical method is to use a
packing case banding machine.
Where tracers are carried around
bends particular care should be
taken to ensure that good contact
is maintained by using three or
more bands as in Fig. 8.
Where it is not possible to use
bands as at valve bodies, soft
annealed stainless steel wire 18
gauge thick is a useful alternative.
Once again, any special needs to
avoid external corrosion or electrolytic action may lead to these
suggestions being varied.

In these cases the tracer is

sometimes laid along the top of
the pipe rather than at the bottom, which greatly simplifies the
welding procedure. Advocates of
this method claim that this location does not adversely affect the
heat transfer rates.

Tracer

11b

Tracer

11c

Figure 11
Insulating Tracer and Product Lines
13

Steam Tracing
Sizing of External Tracers

SYSTEM DESIGN

The tracing or jacketing of any line

normally aims at maintaining the
contents of the line at a satisfactory working temperature under all
conditions of low ambient temperature with adequate reserve to
meet extreme conditions.
Remember that on some
exposed sites, with an ambient
still air temperature of say 0F, the
effect of a 15 mph wind will be to
lower the temperature to an
equivalent of -36F.
Even 32F in still air can be
lowered to an effective 4F with a
20 mph windcircumstances
which must be taken into full consideration when studying the
tracer line requirements.
Details of prevailing conditions can usually be obtained
from the local meteorological
office or civil air authority.
Most of the sizing of external
tracers is done by rule of thumb,
but the problem which arises here
is what rule and whose thumb?
Rules of thumb are generally
based on the experiences of a certain company on a particular
process and do not necessarily
apply elsewhere. There are also
widely differing opinions on the layout: some say that multiple tracers
should all be below the center line
of the product line while others say,

with equal conviction, that it is perfectly satisfactory to space the

tracers equally around the line.
Then there are those who will
endeavor to size their tracers from
3/8", 1/2", 3/4" or 1" and even
larger pipe: while another school
of thought says that as tracers
have only minute contact with the
product line it will give much more
even distribution of heat if all tracers are from 1/2" pipe in multiples
to meet the requirements. This
does have the added advantage
of needing to hold a stock of only
one size of pipe and fittings rather
than a variety of sizes.
For those who like to follow
this idea, Table 6 will be useful for
most average requirements.
Type A would suffice for most
fuel oil requirements and would
also meet the requirement of
those lines carrying acid, phenol,
water and some other chemicals,
but in some cases spacers
between the product line and
steam line would be employed.
The steam pressure is important and must be chosen
according to the product temperature required.
For noncritical tracing Types
A & B (Table 6) a steam pressure
of 50 psi would generally be suitable. For Type C, a higher
pressure and a trap with a hot
discharge may be required.

Table 6: Number of 1/2" (15mm) Tracers Used

with Different Sizes of Product Lines
Type A
Type B
Noncritical
Noncritical
General frost protection or Where solidification may
where solidification may
occur at temps between
occur at temps below 75F
75-150F
Product
Line Size
1"
11/2"
2"
3"
4"
6"
8"
10"-12"
14"-16"
18"-20"

14

Number of 1/2"
Tracers
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2

Number of 1/2"
Tracers
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
3
3
3

Type C
Critical
When solidification may
occur at temps between
150-300F
Number of 1/2"
Tracers
1
2
2
3
3
3
3
6
8
10

Jacketed Lines
Ideally jacketed lines should be
constructed in no more than 20 ft.
lengths and the condensate
removed from each section.
Steam should enter at the highest
end so that there is a natural fall to
the condensate outlet as Fig. 12a.
When it is considered impractical to trap each length, a
number of lengths up a total of
80-100 ft. approx. may be joined
together in moderate climates,
but in extremely cold parts of the
world 40 ft. should be the maximum. See Fig. 12b.
Always avoid connecting
solely through the bottom loop.
This can only handle the condensate and impedes the free flow of
steam as Fig. 12c. As a general
guide, see Table 7.
Although in most cases 1/2"
condensate outlet will be adequate, it is usual to make this the
same size as the steam connection as it simplifies installation.

External Tracers
In horizontal runs, the steam will
generally flow parallel to the product line, but as far as possible,
steam should enter from the high
end to allow free flow of the condensate to the low end, i.e. it
should always be self-draining.
It is generally considered
preferable to fit one tracer on the
bottom of the line as Fig. 13a, two
tracers at 30 as Fig. 13b, three
tracers at 45 as Fig. 13c.
Where multiple 1/2" tracers
are used, they should be arranged
in loop fashion on either side of the
product line, as Fig. 14. In vertical
lines, the tracers would be spaced
uniformly, as Fig. 15a & b.
The maximum permissible
length of tracer will depend to some
extent on the size and initial steam
pressure, but as a general guide
3/8 tracers should not exceed 60
ft. in length and the limit for all other
sizes should be about 150 ft.
Bends and low points in the
tracer, as Fig. 16a should always
be avoided. For example, if it is
necessary to carry a tracer line
round a pipe support or flange,

Steam Tracing

Expansion
Expansion in tracer lines is often
overlooked. Naturally the steam
heated tracer will tend to expand
more than the product line. Where
the tracer has to pass around
flanges, the bends are quite adequate to take care of the
expansion, Fig. 22.
But where this does not occur
and there is a long run of uninterrupted tracer, it is essential to
provide for expansion which can
be done by forming a complete
loop, Fig. 23.

Table 7: Steam Connection Size for Jacketed Lines

Product
Line
2-1/2"
65mm
3"
80mm
4"
100mm
6"
150mm
8"
200mm
10"
250mm

Jacket
Diameter
4"
100mm
6"
150mm
6"
150mm
8"
200mm
10"
250mm
12"
300mm

Steam
Connection
1/2" 15mm
3/4" 20mm
3/4" 20mm
3/4" 20mm
1" 25mm
1" 25mm

General Installation
Fall

Steam

SYSTEM DESIGN

this should be done in the horizontal plane, Fig. 16b.

Where it is essential to maintain the flow of heat to the
product, the tracer should be
taken up to the back of the flange
Fig. 17, and the coupling should
always be on the center line of
the flanged joint.
The same applies to an inline run where the tracer has to
be jointed. This can be done in
two ways, Fig. 18 or Fig. 19.
Each of these is preferable to
Fig. 20 which could produce a
cold spot. Where two tracers are
used it can be better to double
back at a union or flange as Fig.
21, rather than jump over it.

Figure 13
Single and Multiple Tracing
Steam Trap

Steam Trap

Figure 12a
Jacketed Lines, Drained Separately
Steam

Fall

13b

13a

13c

Steam

Figure 12b

Steam
Trap

Jacketed Lines, Connected

Steam Trap

Figure 12c

Figure 14

Incorrect Arrangement of Jacketed Lines

Multiple Tracing

Figure 15 Vertical Tracing

Figure 17
15a

Figure 21
Dual Tracer Double Back

15b

Figure 18
Figure 22
Figure 16a Incorrect Arrangement

Correct Arrangement

Figure 19 for Tracer-line Joints

Figure 23
Figure 16b Correct Arrangement

Figure 20 Incorrect Arrangement

Expansion Arrangements
on Long Tracers
15

Steam Tracing
Tracer Steam Distribution

SYSTEM DESIGN

It is important that the steam supply should always be taken from a

source which is continuously
available, even during a normal
shut down period.
Tracer lines and jacketed pipe
may have to work at any steam
pressure (usually in the range
between 10 and 250 psi, but
always choose the lowest pressure to give the required product
temperature. Excessively high
pressures cause much waste and
should only be used where a high
product temperature is essential).
To suit product temperature
requirements, it may be necessary
to use steam at different pressures. It should be distributed at
the highest pressure and reduced
down to meet the lower pressure
requirements. A Reducing Valve
can be used for this purpose, Fig.
24. Note: it may be necessary to
steam trace the valve body to prevent damage due to freezing..
A number of tracers can be
supplied from one local distribution header. This header should
be adequately sized to meet the
maximum load and drained at its
low point by a steam trap as Fig.
25. All branches should be taken
off the top of this header, one
branch to each tracer line. These
branches should be fitted with
isolating valves.
Dont undersize these branch
connections (1/2" supply to even a
3/8" tracer will avoid undue pressure drop) and serve only tracers

Table 8

local to the header, otherwise high

pressure drop may result.
The size of the header will, of
course, depend upon the steam
pressure and the total load on the
tracers but as a general guide,
see Table 8:

Figure 24

Tracer Trap Sizing

Subcooled discharge traps are
usually a good choice for tracer
service. Tracing loads are approximately 10 to 50 lb./hr., and each
tracer requires its own low capacity trap.
No two tracers can have
exactly the same duty, so group
trapping two or more tracers to
one trap can considerably impair
the efficiency of heat transfer, see
Fig. 26 and Fig. 27.
Even with multiple tracers on
a single product line, each tracer

Number of 1/2" Tracers

2
3-5
6-15
16-30

Recommended header size

for condensate lines
Header Size
1"
11/2"
2"

16

Number of 1/2" Tracers

Up to 5
6-10
11-25

Spirax Sarco
Reducing
Valve

Tracers

Header

Steam Trap

Figure 25
Steam
Steam

Figure 29

Steam Trap

Steam
Trap

3/8" (10mm) OD, 1/4" (6mm) Bore

Figure 26

Steam Trap

Incorrect Arrangement
Steam
Steam

Figure 30

Recommended header size

for supplying steam tracer lines
Header Size
3/4"
1"
11/2"
2"

should be separately trapped

Fig. 28.
When branched tracers are
taken to serve valves, then each
should be separately trapped,
Figs. 29, 30, 31 and 32.

Steam Trap

Steam Trap
3/8" (10mm) OD
1/4" (6mm) Bore

Figure 27

Steam Trap

Correct Arrangement

Steam

Steam
Steam Trap

Figure 31
Figure 28

Steam Trap

Tracer Lines Around Pump Casing

Steam Tracing
Steam

Steam Traps For Tracer Lines

1/2" (15mm) OD

Steam Trap

Figure 32
Typical Instrument Tracing

Important
Getting Rid of the Muck
Pipes delivered to the site may
contain mill scale, paint, preserving oils, etc. and during storage
and erection will collect dirt, sand,
weld splatter and other debris, so
that on completion, the average
tracer line contains a considerable amount of muck.
Hydraulic testing will convert
this muck into a mobile sludge
which is not adequately washed
out by simply draining down after
testing.
It is most important that the
lines are properly cleaned by
blowing through with steam to an
open end before diverting to the
steam traps.
Unless this is done, the traps
will almost certainly fail to operate
correctly and more time will be
spent cleaning them out when the
plant is commissioned.

Figure 33
Insulating Cap for
Thermo-Dynamic
Trap

SYSTEM DESIGN

3/8" (10mm) OD
1/4" (6mm) Bore

Almost any type of steam trap

could be used to drain tracer
lines, but some lend themselves
to this application better than others. The traps should be
physically small and light in
weight, and as they are often fitted in exposed positions, they
should be resistant to frost. The
temperature at which the condensate is discharged by the trap is
perhaps the most important consideration when selecting the
type of trap.
Thermo-Dynamic traps are
the simplest and most robust of
all traps, they meet all of the
above criteria and they discharge
condensate at a temperature
close to that of steam. Thus they
are especially suitable on those
tracing applications where the
holding back of condensate in the
tracer line until it has subcooled
would be unacceptable. Tracers
or jackets on lines carrying sulphur or asphalt typify these
applications where the tracer
must be at steam temperature
along its whole length.
It must be remembered that
every time a Thermo-Dynamic
trap opens, it discharges condensate at the maximum rate
corresponding to the differential
pressure applied. The instantaneous release rates of the steam
flashing off the condensate can
be appreciable, and care is needed to ensure that condensate
return lines are adequately sized

if high back pressures are to be

avoided. Thus, the use of swept
back or y connections from trap
discharges into common headers
of generous size will help avoid
problems.
Where the traps are exposed
to wind, rain or snow, or low ambient temperatures, the steam
bubbles in the top cap of the trap
can condense more quickly, leading to more rapid wear. Special
insulating caps are available for
fitting to the top caps to avoid this,
Fig. 33.
In other non-critical applications, it can be convenient and
energy efficient to allow the condensate to sub-cool within the
tracer before being discharged.
This enables use to be made of
some of the sensible heat in the
condensate, and reduces or even
eliminates the release of flash
steam. Temperature sensitive
traps are then selected, using
either balanced pressure or
bimetallic elements.
The bimetallic traps usually
discharge condensate at some
fairly constant differential such as
50F below condensing temperatures, and tend to give a
continuous dribble of condensate
when handling tracer loads, helping minimize the size of
condensate line needed. They
are available either in maintainable versions, with a replaceable
element set which includes the
valve and seat as well as the
bimetallic stack, or as sealed
non-maintainable
units
as
required.
Balanced pressure traps normally operate just below steam
temperature, for critical tracing
applications, see Fig. 34.
The trap is especially suitable
where small quantities of
condensate are produced, on
applications where sub-cooling is
desirable, and where the condensate is not to be returned to the
recovery system.

Figure 34
Balanced Pressure Tracer Trap
17

Steam Tracing

SYSTEM DESIGN

A similar but maintainable

type intended for use on instrument tracer lines, where the
physical size of the trap is important as well as its operating
characteristics is shown in Fig. 35.
Just as the distribution of
steam is from a common header,
it often is convenient to connect a
number of traps to a common
condensate header and this simplifies maintenance. As noted, the
discharge should preferably enter
the header through swept connections and the headers be
adequately sized as suggested in
Table 8 (page 16).

These may be increased

where high pressures and traps
discharging condensate at near
steam temperature are used, or
decreased with low pressures
and traps discharging cooler condensate.

ture control often provides an

economic solution. This will give
close control and since it is not
necessary to provide either electric power or compressed air, the
first cost and indeed the running
costs are low.

Temperature Control
of Tracer
Where it is essential to prevent
overheating of the product, or
where constant viscosity is
required for instrumentation,
automatic temperature control is
frequently used.
On many systems, the simplest way to achieve control is to
use a reducing valve on the
steam supply to the tracer lines or
jacket. This can be adjusted in the
light of experience to give the correct steam pressure to produce
the required product temperature.
Clearly this is an approximate
way to control product temperature and can only be used where
the product flow is fairly constant.
Where closer control is required,
the simple direct acting tempera-

Figure 35
Maintainable Balanced Pressure
Tracer Trap.

Case in Action: Product Steam Tracing with Temperature Control and Overheat Protection
During steam tracing project design, it was found that five
thousand feet of 2" product piping was to be traced with
150 psig steam. Product temperature was to be maintained
at 100F, with maximum allowable temperature of 150F
and a minimum allowable temperature of 50F.
Of particular concern was the fact that the pipeline
would always be full of the product, but flow would be
intermittent. Overheating could be a real problem. In addition, the tracing system had to be protected from freezing.

Solution
The 5,000 feet of product piping was divided into 30 separate traced sections including: a cast steel temperature
regulator, a bronze temperature control valve used as a
high limit safety cutout, a sealed balanced pressure thermostatic steam trap, a vacuum breaker, and pressure
regulators supplying steam to all 30 tracing sections. Each
section operates effectively at the desired temperature,
regardless of flow rate or ambient temperature.

18

Benefits
The chance of product damage from overheating is minimized and steam consumption is reduced through
steam pressure reduction (150 psig to 50 psig) with the
pressure regulator.
The product temperature is maintained at a consistent
set temperature, maximizing process control under all
flow conditions with the temperature regulator.
Product damage from overheating is prevented through
use of the high limit safety cutout. The system will shut
down completely, should the temperature regulator overshoot its set point.
The tracing system is protected from freezing with the
sealed balanced pressure thermostatic steam trap discharging to drain. Thorough drainage is also facilitated
by the vacuum breaker.

Pressure Reducing Stations

Pressure Reducing Stations

Direct Operated Valves

The direct acting valve shown in
Fig. II-17 (page 91) is the simplest design of reducing valve.
This type of valve has two
drawbacks in that it allows greater
fluctuation of the downstream
pressure under unstable load
demands, and these valves have
relatively low capacity for their
size. It is nevertheless perfectly
adequate for a whole range of
simple applications where accurate control is not essential and
where the steam flow is fairly
small and constant.

Pilot Operated Valves

Where accurate control of pressure or large capacity is required,
a pilot operated reducing valve
should be used. Such a valve is
shown in Fig. II-12 (page 89).
The pilot operated design
offers a number of advantages over
the direct acting valve. Only a very
small amount of steam has to flow
through the pilot valve to pressurize
the main diaphragm chamber and

Pneumatically Operated
Valves
Pneumatically operated control
valves, Fig. II-20 (page 93), with
actuators and positioners being
piloted by controllers, will provide
pressure reduction with even
more accurate control.
Controllers sense downstream pressure fluctuations,
interpolate the signals and regulate an air supply signal to a
pneumatic positioner which in turn
supplies air to a disphragm opening a valve. Springs are utilized as
an opposing force causing the
valves to close upon a loss or
reduction of air pressure applied
on the diaphragm. Industry
sophistication and control needs
are demanding closer and more
accurate control of steam pressures, making pneumatic control
valves much more popular today.

before and after the valve with

tapered expanders, or change
pipe only 1 or 2 sizes at a time.
4. Provide long, straight, full-size
runs of heavy wall pipe on
both sides of the valve, and
between two-stage reductions
to stabilize the flow.
5. Use low pressure turndown
ratios (non-critical.)
6. Install vibration absorbing
pipe hangers and acoustical
insulation.
Most noise is generated by a
reducing valve that operates at
critical pressure drop, especially
with high flow requirements.
Fitting a noise diffuser directly to
the valve outlet will reduce the
noise level by approx. 15 dBA.
It must also be remembered
that a valve designed to operate on
steam should not be expected to
work at its best when supplied with
a mixture of steam, water and dirt.
A separator, drained with a
steam trap, will remove almost all
the water from the steam entering
the pressure reducing set. The
baffle type separator illustrated in
Fig. 36 has been found to be very
effective over a broad range of
flows.

SYSTEM DESIGN

It is a mistake to install even the

best of pressure reducing valves
in a pipeline without giving some
thought to how best it can be
helped to give optimal performance.
The valve selected should be
of such a size that it can handle
the necessary load, but oversizing should be avoided. The weight
of steam to be handled in a given
time must be calculated or estimated, and a valve capable of
passing this weight from the
given upstream pressure to the
required downstream pressure is
chosen. The valve size is usually
smaller than the steam pipes
either upstream or downstream,
because of the high velocities
which accompany the pressure
drop within the valve.
Types of Pressure Reducing
Valves are also important and
can be divided into three groups
of operation as follows:

fully open the main valve. Thus,

only very small changes in downstream pressure are necessary to
produce large changes in flow. The
droop of pilot operated valves is
therefore small. Although any rise
in upstream pressure will apply an
increased closing force on the main
valve, this is offset by the force of
the upstream pressure acting on
the main diaphragm. The result is a
valve which gives close control of
downstream pressure regardless
of variations on the upstream side.

Piping And Noise Consideration

The piping around a steam pressure reducing valve must be
properly sized and fitted for best
operation. Noise level of a reducing station is lowest when the
valve is installed as follows:
1. Avoid abrupt changes in
direction of flow. Use long
radius bends and Y piping
instead of T connections.
2. Limit approach and exit
steam velocity to 4000 to
6000 FPM.
3. Change piping gradually

Figure 36
Moisture Separator for Steam or Air
19

Pressure Reducing Stations

PRV Station Components

SYSTEM DESIGN

A stop valve is usually needed so

that the steam supply can be shut
off when necessary, and this
should be followed by a line size
strainer. A fine mesh stainless
steel screen in the strainer will
catch the finer particles of dirt
which pass freely through standard strainers. The strainer should
be installed in the pipe on its side,
rather than in the conventional
way with the screen hanging
below the pipe. This is to avoid the
screen space acting as a collecting pocket for condensate, since
when installed horizontally the
strainer can be self-draining
Remember that water which
collects in the conventionally piped
strainer at times when the reducing
valve has closed, will be carried
into the valve when it begins to
open. This water, when forced
between the valve disc and seat of
the just-opening valve, can lead
rapidly to wire-drawing, and the
need for expensive replacements.
Pressure gauges at each side
of the reducing valve allow its performance to be monitored. At the
reduced pressure side of the valve,
a relief or safety valve may be
required. If all the equipment connected on the low pressure side is
capable of safely withstanding the
upstream pressure in the event of
reducing valve failure, the relief
valve may not be needed. It may
be called for if it is sought to protect
material in process from overly
high temperatures, and it is essential if any downstream equipment
is designed for a pressure lower
than the supply pressure.

open pressure. Safety valves for

use on boilers carry a V stamp
and achieve rated capacity at only
3% overpressure as required by
Section I of the Code.
The capacity of the safety
valve must then equal or exceed

the capacity of the pressure

reducing valve, if it should fail
open when discharging steam
from the upstream pressure to the
accumulated pressure at the safety valve. Any bypass line leakage
must also be accounted for.

Figure 37
Typical Installation of Single Reducing Valve with Noise Diffuser
Bypasses may be prohibited
by local regulation or by
insurance requirements

Safety Valve
Pressure
Sensing Line

Separator

Diffuser

Reducing
Valve

Downstream Isolating Valve is

needed only with an alternative
steam supply into the L.P. System

Trap Set

Figure 38
Typical Installation
of Two Reducing
Valves in Parallel

Steam Safety Valve Sizing

When selecting a safety valve, the
pressure at which it is to open
must be decided. Opening pressure must be below the limitations
of the downstream equipment yet
far enough above the normal
reduced pressure that minor fluctuations do not cause opening or
dribbling. Type UV Safety Valves
for unfired pressure vessels are
tested to ASME Pressure Vessel
Code, Section VIII and achieve
rated capacity at an accumulated
pressure 10% above the set-to20

Figure 39
Two-Stage Pressure Reducing Valve Station
with Bypass Arrangement to Operate Either
Valve Independently on Emergency Basis

Parallel and Series Operation of Reducing Valves

Case in Action: Elimination of Steam Energy Waste

Solution
Refinery engineers looked for ways to reduce pressure to the tracer lines. Being part of a cost-cutting
exercise, it had to be done without spending large sums of
capital money on expensive control valves. The self-con-

Parallel Operation
In steam systems where load
demands fluctuate through a wide
range, multiple pressure control
valves with combined capacities
meeting the maximum load perform better than a single, large
valve. Maintenance needs, downtime and overall lifetime cost can
all be minimized with this arrangement, Fig. 38 (page 20).
Any reducing valve must be
capable of both meeting its maximum load and also modulating
down towards zero loads when
required. The amount of load
turndown which a given valve can
satisfactorily cover is limited, and
while there are no rules which
apply without exception, if the low
load condition represents 10% or
less of the maximum load, two
valves should always be preferred. Consider a valve which
moves away from the seat by 0.1
inches when a downstream pressure 1 psi below the set pressure
is detected, and which then passes 1,000 pounds per hour of
steam. A rise of 0.1 psi in the
detected pressure then moves
the valve 0.01 inches toward the

tained cast steel pressure regulators and bronze reducing

valves were chosen for the job. In 1-1/2 years, approximately 40 pressure regulators and hundreds of bronze
reducing valves have been installed at a cost of $250K.
Annualized steam energy savings are $1.2M/year. More
specifically, in the Blending and Shipping Division,
$62,640 was saved during the winter of 1995, compared to
the same period in 1994.

Benefits
Low installed cost. The Spirax Sarco regulators and
bronze reducing valves are completely self-contained,
requiring no auxiliary controllers, positioners, converters, etc.
Energy savings worth an estimated $1.2M/year.
The utilities supervisor who worked closely with Spirax
Sarco and drove the project through to successful completion received company wide recognition and a
promotion in grade.

seat and reduces the flow by

approximately 100 pph, or 10%.
The same valve might later
be on a light load of 100 pph total
when it will be only 0.01 inches
away from the seat. A similar rise
in the downstream pressure of
0.1 psi would then close the valve
completely and the change in
flow through the valve which was
10% at the high load, is now
100% at low load. The figures
chosen are arbitrary, but the principle remains true that instability
or hunting is much more likely
on a valve asked to cope with a
high turndown in load.
A single valve, when used in
this way, tends to open and close,
or at least move further open and
further closed, on light loads. This
action leads to wear on both the
seating and guiding surfaces and
reduces
the
life
of
the
diaphragms which operate the
valve. The situation is worsened
with those valves which use pistons sliding within cylinders to
position the valve head. Friction
and sticking between the sliding
surfaces mean that the valve
head can only be moved in a

SYSTEM DESIGN

As part of a broad scope strategy to reduce operating

costs throughout the refinery, a plan was established to
eliminate all possible steam waste. The focus of the plan
was piping leaks, steam trap failures and steam pressure
optimization.
Programs having been previously established to
detect/repair steam trap failures and fix piping leaks, particular emphasis was placed on steam pressure
optimization. Results from a system audit showed that a
considerable amount of non-critical, low temperature tracing was being done with 190 psi (medium pressure)
steam, an expensive overkill. It appeared that the medium
pressure header had been tapped for numerous small
tracing projects over the years.

series
of
discreet
steps.
Especially at light loads, such
movements are likely to result in
changes in flow rate which are
grossly in excess of the load
changes which initiate them.
Load turndown ratios with pistonoperated valves are almost
inevitably smaller than where
diaphragm-operated valves are
chosen.

Pressure Settings
for Parallel Valves
Automatic selection of the valve
or valves needed to meet given
load conditions is readily
achieved by setting the valves to
control at pressures separated by
one or two psi. At full load, or
loads not too much below full
load, both valves are in use. As
the load is reduced, the controlled
pressure begins to increase and
the valve set at the lower pressure modulates toward the closed
position. When the load can be
supplied completely by the valve
set at the higher pressure, the
other valve closes and with any
further load reduction, the valve
still in use modulates through its
own proportional band.
21

Parallel and Series Operation of Reducing Valves

SYSTEM DESIGN

This can be clarified by an

example. Suppose that a maximum load of 5,000 lb/h at 30 psi
can be supplied through one
valve capable of passing 4,000
lb/h and a parallel valve capable
of 1,300 lb/h. One valve is set at
29 psi and the other at 31 psi. If
the smaller valve is the one set at
31 psi, this valve is used to meet
loads from zero up to 1,300 lb/h
with a controlled pressure at
approximately 31 psi. At greater
loads, the controlled pressure
drops to 29 psi and the larger
valve opens, until eventually it is
passing 3,700 lb/h to add to the
1,300 lb/h coming through the
smaller valve for a total of 5,000
lb/h.
There may be applications
where the load does not normally
fall below the minimum capacity
of the larger valve. It would then
be quite normal to set the 4,000
lb/h valve at 31 psi and to supplement the flow through the 1,300
lb/h valve at 29 psi in those few
occasions when the extra capacity was required.
Sometimes the split between
the loads is effectively unknown.
It is usual then to simply select
valves with capacities of 1/3 and
2/3 of the maximum with the
smaller valve at the slightly higher pressure and the larger one at
the slightly lower pressure.

Two-Stage
or Series Operation
Where the total reduction in pressure is through a ratio of more than
10 to 1, consideration should be
given to using two valves in series,
Fig. 39 (page 20). Much will depend
on the valves being used, on the
total pressure reduction needed
and the variations in the load. Pilot
Operated controls have been used
successfully with a pressure turndown ratio as great as 20 to 1, and
could perhaps be used on a fairly
steady load from 100 psig to 5 psi.
The same valve would probably be
unstable on a variable load, reducing from 40 to 2 psi.
22

There is no hard and fast

rule, but two valves in series will
usually provide more accurate
control. The second, or Low
Pressure valve, should give the
fine control with a modest turndown, with due consideration
being given to valve sizes and
capacities. A practical approach
when selecting the turndown of
each valve, that results in smallest most economical valves, is to
avoid having a non-critical drop in
the final valve, and stay close to
the recommended 10 to 1 turndown.

Series Installations
For correct operation of the
valves, some volume between
them is needed if stability is to be
achieved. A length of 50 pipe
diameters of the appropriately
sized pipe for the intermediate
pressure, or the equivalent volume of larger diameter pipe is
often recommended.
It is important that the downstream pressure sensing pipes
are connected to a straight section of pipe 10 diameters
downstream from the nearest
elbow, tee, valve or other obstruction. This sensing line should be
pitched to drain away from the
pressure pilot. If it is not possible
to arrange for this and to still connect into the top of the
downstream pipe, the sensing
line can often be connected to the
side of the pipe instead.
Equally, the pipe between the
two reducing valves should
always be drained through a
stream trap, just as any riser
downstream of the pressure
reducing station should be
drained. The same applies where
a pressure reducing valve supplies a control valve, and it is
essential that the connecting pipe
is drained upstream of the control
valve.

Bypasses
The use of bypass lines and
valves should usually be avoided.
Where they are fitted, the capacity through the bypass should be
added to that through the wide
open reducing valve when sizing
relief valves. Bypass valves are
often found to be leaking steam
because of wiredrawing of the
seating faces when valves have
not been closed tightly.
If a genuine need exists for a
bypass because it is essential to
maintain the supply of steam,
even when a reducing valve has
developed some fault or is undergoing maintenance, consideration should be given to fitting a
reducing valve in the bypass line.
Sometimes the use of a parallel
reducing station of itself avoids
the need for bypasses.

Back Pressure Controls

A Back Pressure regulator or surplussing valve is a derivative of a
pressure reducing valve, incorporating a reverse acting pilot valve.
The pressure sensing pipe is connected to the inlet piping so that the
pilot valve responds to upstream
pressure. Any increase in upstream
pressure then opens the reverse
acting pilot valve, causing the main
valve to open, while a fall below the
set pressure causes the main valve
to close down, Fig. II-18 (page 92).
These controls are useful in
flash steam recovery applications
when the supply of flash steam
may at times exceed the demand
for it. The BP control can then surplus to atmosphere any excess
steam tending to increase the
pressure within the flash steam
recovery system, and maintains
the recovery pressure at the
required level.
The control is also useful in
eliminating non-essential loads in
any system that suffers undercapacity at peak load times,
leaving essential loads on line.
Back Pressure Controls are
not Safety Valves and must never
be used to replace them.

How to Size Temperature and Pressure Control Valves

control may or may not be fully
open. For three-port valves, it is
the difference in pressure
between the two open ports.
Working Pressure. The pressure
exerted on the interior of a valve
under normal working conditions.
In water systems, it is the algebraic sum of the static pressure and
the pressure created by pumps.
Set Point. Pressure or temperature at which controller is set.
Accuracy of Regulation or
Droop. Pressure reducing
valve drop in set point pressure
necessary to obtain the published
capacity. Usually stated for pilotoperated PRVs in psi, and as a %
of set pressure for direct-acting
types.
Hunting or Cycling. Persistent
periodic change in the controlled
pressure or temperature.
Control Point. Actual value of
the controlled variable (e.g. air
temperature) which the sensor is
trying to maintain.
Deviation.
The
difference
between the set point and the
measured value of the controlled
variable. (Example: When set
point is 70F and air temperature
is 68F, the deviation is 2F.)
Offset. Sustained deviation caused
by a proportional control taking cor-

rective action to satisfy a load condition. (Example: If the set point is

70F and measured room temperature is 68F over a period, the offset
is 2F and indicates the action of a
proportional control correcting for
an increase in heat loss.)
Proportional Band or Throttling
Band. Range of values which
cause a proportional temperature
control to move its valve from fully
open to fully closed or to throttle
the valve at some reduced motion
to fully closed.
Time Constant. Time required
for a thermal system actuator to
travel 63.2% of the total movement
resulting
from
any
temperature change at the sensor. Time increase when using
separable well must be included.
Dead Zone. The range of values
of the controlled variable over
which a control will take up no
corrective action.
Rangeability. The ratio between
the maximum and minimum controllable flow between which the
characteristics of the valve will be
maintained.
Turn-Down Ratio. The ratio
between the maximum normal flow
and minimum controllable flow.
Valve Authority. Ratio of a fully
open control valve pressure drop
to system total pressure drop.

SYSTEM DESIGN

Having determined the heating or

cooling load required by the
equipment, a valve must be
selected to handle it. As the valve
itself is only part of the complete
control, we must be acquainted
with certain terminology used in
the controls field:
Flow Coefficient. The means of
comparing the flow capacities of
control valves by reference to a
coefficient of capacity. The term
Cv is used to express this relationship between pressure drop
and flow rate. Cv is the rate of
flow of water in GPM at 60F, at a
pressure drop of 1 psi across the
fully open valve.
Differential Pressure. The difference in pressure between the inlet
and outlet ports when the valve is
closed. For three-port valves, it is
the difference between the open
and closed ports.
Maximum Differential Pressure.
The pressure difference between
inlet and outlet ports of a valve,
above which the actuator will not
be able to close the valve fully, or
above which damage may be
caused to the valve, whichever is
the smaller.
Pressure Drop. The difference
between the inlet and outlet pressures when the valve is passing
the stated quantity. A self-acting

Case in Action: Log Bath-Furniture Manufacturing

At a furniture manufacturing facility, the water used for
bathing logs to prepare them for production was rolling in
the front of its containment tanks. The production manager had thought that the temperature had to be at least 212
F. Further examination showed the waters temperature to
be 180F. The water was rolling because the steam,
entering the side of the tank, could not be absorbed by the
water before it rose to the surface in the front of the tank.
Cedar logs are cooked for 48 hours, in open top tanks
before going through a veneer machine. The logs absorb
the hot water, making it easier to slice the wood into strips.
The six log baths did not have any temperature controls.
Twenty-five psig steam flowed through a 2" coupling into
the side of the tank to heat the water. With the tank size
being 12' x 12' x 6', the 105 cedar logs approximately 10'
long occupy most of the space in the tank. River water or
condenser water off of the turbine at 90F is fed into the
tank.

Solution
Two temperature control valves to be open during start-up
with one closing as it approaches the desired cooking temperature. The second smaller valve continues to provide
steam to the system until the set-point is reached. As additional steam is required, the smaller valve supplies it. A
sparge pipe was also sized and installed.

Benefits:
Payback of this system was less than 2 weeks on
materials and labor.
Substantial cost savings due to improved energy use.
Increased profitability by increasing productivity in the
steam system.

23

How to Size Temperature and Pressure Control Valves

SYSTEM DESIGN

Calculating Condensate Loads

Valve Sizing For Steam

When the normal condensate load is not known, the load can be
approximately determined by calculations using the following formula.

Satisfactory control of steam flow to give

required pressures in steam lines or
steam spaces, or required temperatures
in heated fluids, depends greatly on
selecting the most appropriate size of
valve for the application.
An oversized valve tends to hunt, with
the controlled value (pressure or temperature), oscillating on either side of the
desired control point. It will always seek to
operate with the valve disc nearer to the
seat than a smaller valve which has to be
further open to pass the required flow.
Operation with the disc near to the seat
increases the likelihood that any droplets
of water in the steam supply will give rise
to wiredrawing. An undersized valve will
simply unable to meet peak load requirements, startup times will be extended and
the steam-using equipment will be unable
to provide the required output.
A valve size should not be determined by the size of the piping into
which it is to be fitted. A pressure drop
through a steam valve seat of even a few
psi means that the steam moves through
the seat at high velocity. Valve discs and
seats are usually hardened materials to
withstand such conditions. The velocities
acceptable in the piping are much lower
if erosion of the pipes themselves is to
be avoided. Equally, the pressure drop of
a few psi through the valve would imply
a much greater pressure drop along a
length of pipe if the same velocity were
maintained, and usually insufficient
pressure would be left for the steamusing equipment to be able to meet the
load.
Steam valves should be selected on
the basis of the required steam flow
capacity (lb/h) needed to pass, the inlet
pressure of the steam supply at the
valve, and the pressure drop which can
be allowed across the valve. In most
cases, proper sizing will lead to the use
of valves which are smaller than the
pipework on either side.

General Usage Formulae

Heating water with steam (Exchangers)*
GPM x (1.1) x Temperature Rise F
lb/h Condensate =
2
Heating fuel oil with steam
GPM x (1.1) x Temperature Rise F
lb/h Condensate =
4
Heating air with steam coils
CFM x Temperature Rise F
lb/h Condensate =
800
Steam Radiation
Sq. Ft. EDR
lb/h Condensate =
4
*Delete the (1.1) factor when steam is injected directly into water

Specialized Applications
Sterilizers, Autoclaves,
Retorts Heating Solid Material
lb/h Condensate =
W
Cp
()T
L
t

=
=
=
=
=

W x Cp x T
Lxt

Weight of materiallbs.
Specific heat of the material
Temperature rise of the material F
Latent heat of steam Btu/lb
Time in hours

Heating Liquids in Steam Jacketed

Kettles and Steam Heated Tanks
lb/h Condensate =
G
s.g.
Cp
()T
L
t

=
=
=
=
=
=

G x s.g. x Cp x ()T x 8.3

Lxt

Gallons of liquid to be heated

Specific gravity of the liquid
Specific heat of the liquid
Temperature rise of the liquid F
Latent heat of the steam Btu/lb
Time in hours
Heating Air with Steam;
Pipe Coils and Radiation
A x U x ()T
lb/h Condensate =
L

A
U
()T
L

=
=
=
=

Area of the heating surface in square feet

Heat transfer coefficient (2 for free convection)
Steam temperature minus the air temperature F
Latent heat of the steam Btu/lb

Steam Jacketed Dryers

1000 (Wi - Wf) + (Wi x T)
L
Initial weight of the materiallb/h
Final weight of the materiallb/h
Temperature rise of the material F
Latent heat of steam Btu/lb

lb/h Condensate =
Wi
Wf
()T
L

=
=
=
=

Note: The condensate load to heat the equipment must be added

to the condensate load for heating the material. Use same formula.

24

How to Size Temperature and Pressure Control Valves

Temperature Control Valve Sizing

1. For Liquids
Cv = GPM
Sp. Gr.
Pressure Drop, psi
Where Sp. Gr. Water = 1
GPM = Gallons per minute
2. For Steam (Saturated)
a. Critical Flow
When P is greater than
FL2 (P1/2)
W
Cv =
1.83 FLP1
b. Noncritical Flow
When P is less than
FL2 (P1/2)
W
Cv =
2.1P (P1 + P2)
Where: P1 = Inlet Pressure psia
P2 = Outlet Pressure psia
W = Capacity lb/hr
FL = Pressure Recovery Factor
(.9 on globe pattern valves for flow to open)
(.85 on globe pattern valves for flow to close)
3. For Air and Other Gases
a. When P2 is 0.53 P1 or less,
Cv = SCFH Sp. Gr.
30.5 P1
Where Sp. Gr. of air is 1.
SCFH is Cu. ft. Free Air per
Hour at 14.7 psia, and 60F.
b. When P2 is greater than 0.53 P1,
Cv = SCFH Sp. Gr.
61 (P1 - P2) P2
Where Sp. Gr. of air is 1.
SCFH is Cu. Ft. Free Air per
Hour at 14.7 psia, and 60F.

sure. This pressure drop of 42% of the absolute pressure is called Critical Pressure Drop. The steam then
reaches Critical or Sonic velocity. Increasing the
pressure drop to give a final pressure below the
Critical Pressure gives no further increase in flow.

Pressure Reducing Valve Sizing

Pressure reducing valves are selected in the same
way, but here the reduced or downstream pressure
will be specified. Capacity tables will list the Steam
Flow Capacity (lb/h) through the valves with given
upstream pressures, and varying downstream pressures. Again, the maximum steam flow is reached at
the Critical Pressure Drop and this value cannot be
exceeded.
It must be noted here that for self-acting regulators, the published steam capacity is always given for
a stated Accuracy of Regulation that differs among
manufacturers and is not always the maximum the
PRV will pass. Thus when sizing a safety valve, the
Cv must be used.

SYSTEM DESIGN

After estimating the amount of steam flow capacity

(lbs/hr) which the valve must pass, decide on the
pressure drop which can be allowed. Where the minimum pressure in a heater, which enables it to meet
the load, is known, this value then becomes the
downstream pressure for the control valve. Where it
is not known, it is reasonable to take a pressure drop
across the valve of some 25% of the absolute inlet
pressure. Lower pressure drops down to 10% can
give acceptable results where thermo-hydraulic control systems are used. Greater pressure drops can
be used when it is known that the resulting downstream pressure is still sufficiently high. However,
steam control valves cannot be selected with output
pressures less than 58% of the absolute inlet pres-

Cv Values
These provide a means of comparing the flow capacities of valves of different sizes, type or manufacturer.
The Cv factor is determined experimentally and gives
the GPM of water that a valve will pass with a pressure drop of 1 psi. The Cv required for a given
application is estimated from the formulae, and a
valve is selected from the manufacturers catalog to
have an equal or greater Cv factor.

4. Correction for Superheated Steam

The required Valve Cv is the Cv from the
formula multiplied by the correction factor.
Correction Factor = 1 + (.00065 x
degrees F. superheat above saturation)
Example: With 25F of Superheat,
Correction Factor
= 1 + (.00065 x 25)
= 1.01625
5. Correction for Moisture Content
Correction Factor = Dryness Fraction
Example: With 4% moisture,
Correction Factor = 1 - 0.04
= 0.98
6. GasCorrection for Temperature
Correction Factor = 460 + F
520
Example: If gas temperature is 150F,
Correction Factor = 460 + 150

520
= 1.083
25

Temperature Control Valves for Steam Service

Temperature Control Valves
For Steam Service

SYSTEM DESIGN

As with pressure reducing valves,

temperature control valves can
be divided into three groups.
Installation of these valves are
the same as pressure reducing
styles in that adequate protection
from dirt and condensate must be
used as well as stop valves for
shutdown during maintenance
procedures. A noise diffuser
and/or a safety valve would normally not be used unless a
combination pressure reducing
and temperature control, is
installed. See PRV station components on page 20 for more
information.

Direct Operated Valves

The direct operated type as
shown in Fig. 40 are simple in
design and operation. In these
controls, the thrust pin movement
is the direct result of a change in
temperature at the sensor. This
movement is transferred through
the capillary system to the valve,
thereby modulating the steam
flow. These valves may also be
used with hot water. Such a simple
relationship
between

temperature changes and valve

stem movement enables sensor
and valve combinations to give
predictable valve capacities for a
range of temperature changes.
This allows a valve to be selected
to operate with a throttling band
within the maximum load proportional band. See appropriate
technical sheets for specific valve
proportional bands.
Choice of Proportional Band
is a combination of accuracy and
stability related to each application. However, as control
accuracy is of primary importance, and as direct operated
controls give constant feedback
plus minute movement, we can
concentrate on accuracy, leaving
the controller to look after stability. Generally, to give light load
stability, we would not select a
Proportional Band below 2F.
Table 9 gives the span of acceptable Proportional Bands for some
common heat exchanger applications.

Pilot Operated Valves

Greater steam capacities are
obtained using pilot operated
valves, along with greater accura-

cy due to their 6F proportional

band. Only a small amount of
steam has to flow through the pilot
to actuate the main diaphragm
and fully open the valve. Only very
small changes of movement within the sensor are necessary to
produce large changes in flow.
This results in accurate control
even if the upstream steam pressure fluctuates.
Both direct and pilot operated
valve types are self-contained
and do not require an external
power source to operate.

Table 9
Acceptable Proportional Bands
for Some Common Applications
Application

Proportional
Band F

Domestic Hot Water

Heat Exchanger

7-14

Central Hot Water

4-7

Space Heating
(Coils, Convectors,
Radiators, etc.)

2-5

Bulk Storage

4-18

Plating Tanks

4-11

Case in Action: Dry Coating Process

An office paper product manufacturer uses steam in its
process for a dry coating applied to the paper. Using a
pocket ventilation system, air is blown across the paper as
it moves through the dryer cans.
The original design included inverted bucket type
traps on the outlet of the steam coils, but the coils are in
overload boxes where outdoor and indoor air mix. The
steam supply is on a modulating control with maximum
pressure of 150 psi. The steam traps discharge into a common header that feeds to a liquid mover pump. The pump
had a safety relief valve on its non-vented receiver.
Problems observed included the inability to maintain
desired air temperatures across the machines, high back
pressure on the condensate return system, the doors on
the coil boxes had to be opened to increase air flows
across the coils, paper machine had to be be slowed down
to improve dryness, steam consumption was way up, water
make-up was up and vent lines were blowing live steam to
the atmosphere.

Solution:
A pump trap combination was installed on five of the nine
sections using a pressure regulator for motive steam sup-

26

ply reduction to the pumps. Float & thermostatic traps with

leak detection devices were also installed for efficiency.
Closed doors were then put on the coil boxes.
The back pressure on the return system dropped to an
acceptable and reasonable pressure and the steam consumption also dropped. Temperature control was achieved
and maintained and production increased from 1,000 feet
per minute on some products to 1,600 feet per minute.
They switched all five sections of the paper coater to 1" low
profile Pressure Powered Pump with cast iron float & thermostatic steam traps. This manufacturer also switched
from inverted buckets on heating units to float and thermostatic steam traps with leak detection devices and replaced
several electric pumps and the liquid mover with Pressure
Powered Pumps. Replaced all 16 inverted bucket traps on
paper coater with float and thermostatic steam traps with
leak detection devices.

Benefits:
Production Increased
Trap failure went from 40% to 14%.
Over a half-million dollars in steam saved during first
year of operation

Temperature Control Valves for Steam Service

Installation of
Temperature Control Valves

Heating Liquids By Direct

Steam Injection

Pneumatically operated temperature control valves as shown in

Fig. II-21 (page 93), provide accurate control with the ability to
change the setpoint remotely. A
controller, through a sensor,
adjusts the air signal to the valve
actuator or positioner which, in
turn, opens or closes the valve as
needed. Industry demands for
more accurate control of temperature and computer interfacing is
making the pneumatically operated valves grow within the
marketplace.

The operation and longevity of

these valves depends greatly on
the quality of the steam which is fed
to them. The components of a temperature control valve station are
same as for a pressure reducing
valve, see page 19. In addition,
attention must be paid to the location of the temperature sensing
bulb. It should be completely
immersed in the fluid being sensed,
with good flow around the bulb,
and, if used with a well, some
heatsink material in the well to displace the air which prevents heat
transfer. The capillary tubing should
not be in close proximity to high or
low temperatures and should not
be crimped in any fashion.

Where noise and dilution of the

product are not problems then
direct steam injection can be
used for heating. Steam injection
utilizes all of the latent heat of the
steam as well as a large portion
of the sensible heat. Two methods, sparge pipes and steam
injectors, are used to direct and
mix the steam with the product.

Figure 40
Operating Principle of
Direct Operated Valves

Sparge Pipe Sizing

A sparge pipe is simply a perforated
pipe used to mix steam with a fluid
for heating. Sizing of this pipe is
based on determining the required
steam flow, selecting a steam pressure within the pipe (normally less
than 20 psig for non-pressurized
vessels), and calculating the number of holes by dividing the required
steam flow by the quantity of steam
that will flow through each sparge
hole of a specific diameter as determined from Fig. 42. Holes larger
than 1/8" diameter are used only on
relatively deep tanks where the
larger steam bubbles emitted will
have time to condense before
breaking the liquid surface, or
where the required number of 1/8"
dia. holes becomes unreasonably
great. The sparge holes should be
drilled 30 below the horizontal
spaced approximately 6" apart and
one hole at the bottom to permit
drainage of liquid within the pipe,
see Fig. 41. The sparge pipe should
extend completely across the vessel for complete and even heating.

Valve
Movement
Valve Housing

Thrust Pin Movement

(Movement caused by
adding temp to sensor)

Thrust Pin

Sensor Bulb

Add 1F to Sensor

6"

Figure 41
The sparge pipe diameter can be determined using Fig. 1 (page 4),
limiting the maximum velocity to 6000 ft/min. A typical installation is
shown on Fig II-42 (page 105).

Steam Flow - lbs. per hr.

Capillary

30

SYSTEM DESIGN

Pneumatically Operated
Valves.

50
40
30

ia.
"D
6
1
3/

20

ia.
"D
1/8

Dia.
3/32"

10
0

20
30 40
50 60
10
Sparge Pipe Pressure psig

70

Figure 42
Steam Flow through Sparge Holes
27

Temperature Control Valves for Steam Service

Steam Injector

SYSTEM DESIGN

Unlike a sparge pipe, a steam

injector is a manufactured device
that draws in the cold liquid,
mixes it with steam within the
injector nozzle and distributes the
hot liquid throughout the tank.

The circulation induced by the

injector will help ensure thorough
mixing and avoid temperature
stratification. See Fig. II-43 (page
105) for a typical injector installation. Other advantages of the

injector over a sparge pipe is

reduced noise levels and the ability to use high pressure steam up
to 200 psig. Refer to applicable
technical information sheets for
sizing and selection information.

Case in Action: Cheese Production

Fine steam filtration in the preparation of cheese production is
important to the quality of the final product. Because the producer of cheese products was heating cheese vat washdown
water by direct steam injection, a filtration device was added
to enhance product quality by filtering out the particulates.
While pleased with this simple method of heating, there
was some concern that any particulates entering the washdown water during steam injection may ultimately contaminate
the vats being cleaned, affecting the cheese production.

Solution
Direct steam injection was the best solution for the cheese
producer, but the concern about the contamination was
very important.
A separator was installed in the incoming steam supply
line, which removes a high percentage of the entrained
moisture. A fine mesh screen strainer was installed to
remove solid particulate matter.
A pneumatically actuated two port valve was installed to
control tank temperature. The unit throttles the flow of
steam to the tank based on the signal being transmitted
by the temperature controller.
Having removed the entrained moisture and majority of particulate matter from the steam supply, a cleanable CSF16

stainless steel steam filter was installed which is capable of

removing finer particles smaller than 5 microns in size.
A vacuum breaker was added to the system in order to
prevent any of the heated water being drawn back up
into the filter during certain periods of operation.
A stainless steel injector system was installed which is
capable of efficiently mixing large volumes of high
pressure steam with the tank contents with little noise or
tank vibration. (The customer stipulated the reduction of
noise levels in the production facility.)

Benefits:
Guaranteed steam purity and assured compliance with
the 3-A Industry Standard
Inexpensive installation compared with alternative heat
exchanger packages available
Cleanable filter element for reduced operating costs
(replacement element and labor costs).
Accurate temperature control using components of the
existing system
Quiet and efficient mixing of the steam and the tank contents
Product contamination is minimized, the cost of which
could be many thousands of dollars, loss of production
or even consumer dissatisfaction.

Temperature Control Valves for Liquid Service

Temperature control valves for liquid service can be divided into
two groups. Normally associated
with cooling, these valves can
also be used on hot water.

Direct Operated Valves

Three types are available for liquid service and a selection would
be made from one of the following
styles.
2-Port Direct-Acting.
Normally open valve that the thermal system will close on rising
temperature and used primarily
for heating applications.
2-Port Reverse-Acting.
Normally closed valve which is
opened on rising temperature.
For use as a cooling control,
valve should contain a continuous
bypass bleed to prevent stagnate
flow at sensor.

28

3-Port Piston-Balanced.
This valve is piped either for
hot/cold mixing or for diverting
flow between two branch lines.

Pneumatically Operated
Valves
As with direct operated valves,
the pneumatically operated types
have the same three groups. The
major difference is they require
an external pneumatic or electric
(through a positioner or converter) signal from a controller.

Heating And Cooling Loads

Formulas for calculating the heating or cooling load in gallons per
minute of water are:
Heating Applications:
a. Heating water with water
Heating water GPM required
= GPM (Load) x TR
T1

b.

Heating oil with water

Heating water GPM required
= GPM (Load) x TR
2 X T1
c. Heating air with water
Heating water GPM required
= CFM x TR
400 x T1
Cooling Applications:
d. Cooling air compressor
jacket with water
Cooling Water GPM required
= 42.5 x HP per Cylinder
8.3 x T2
Where:
GPM = Gallons per minute water
TR = Temperature rise of
heated fluid, F
CFM = Cubic feet per minute Air
T1 = Temperature drop of
heating water, F
T2 = Temperature rise of
cooling water, F

Temperature Control Valves for Liquid Service

Water valve capacity is directly
related to the square root of the
pressure drop across it, not the
static system pressure. Knowing
the load in GPM water or any
other liquid, the minimum valve
Cv required is calculated from the
allowable pressure drop (P):
Cv = GPM S.G.
P derived from...
GPM(Water) = Cv P
(Other SG Liquids)
GPM = Cv P
S.G.

O
C

X
Z
Three-Port Valve
Balance
Valve

Heating
System

Boiler
B

Figure 43
Three-Port Mixing Valve in a Closed Circuit
(Constant Volume, Variable Temperature)

Pump

Constantly
Open Port

Z
X
Three-Port Valve
Balance
Valve

Water for process systems

Size valve for pressure drop
of 10% up to 20% of the system pressure.
Cooling Valves
Size for allowable differential
up to full system pressure
drop when discharging to
atmosphere. Be sure to
check maximum allowable
pressure drop of the valve
selected. A bellows-balanced
type may be required.

Using Two-Port and

Three-Port Valves
Pump

Constantly
Open Port

SYSTEM DESIGN

If the allowable differential pressure is unknown, the following

pressure drops may be applied:
Heating and Cooling systems
using low temperature hot
water (below 212F)
Size valve at 1 psi to 2-1/2 psi
differential.
Heating Systems using water
above 212F
Size valve on a 2-1/2 to 5 psi
differential.

Water Valve Sizing

Boiler
B

Figure 43A

C
Heating
Plant or
Process
Equipment

Only two-port valves are used on

steam systems. However, when
dealing with controls for water we
can select either two-port or
three-port valves. But we must
consider the effects of both types
on the overall system dynamics.
A three-port valve, whether
mixing or diverting, is fairly close
to being a constant volume valve
and tends to maintain constant
pressure distribution in the system, irrespective of the position of
the valve.
If a two-port valve were used,
the flow decreases, the valve
closes and the pressure or head
across it would increase. This
effect is inherent in the use of
two-port valves and can affect the
operation of other subcircuits.
Furthermore, the water
standing in the mains will often
cool off while the valve is closed.
When the valve reopens, the
water entering the heat exchanger or load is cooler than expected,
and it is some time before normal
heating can commence. To avoid
this, a small bypass line should
be installed across the supply
and return mains. The bypass line
should be sized to handle flow
rate due to mains losses but in
the absence of information, the
bypass should be sized for 10%
of the design flow rate.

Three-Port Diverting Valve in a Closed Circuit

(Constant Temperature, Variable Volume)

29

Temperature Control Valves for Liquid Service

Mixing And Diverting
Three-Port Valves

SYSTEM DESIGN

A three-port temperature control

has one port that is constantly
open and it is important that the
circulating pump is always positioned on this side of the system.
This will prevent the risk of pumping against dead end conditions
and allow correct circulation to do
its job.
The valve can be used either
to mix or divert depending upon
how it is piped into the system. A
mixing valve has two inlets and
one outlet, a diverting valve has
one inlet and two outlets.
Fig. 43 illustrates the threeport valve used as a mixing valve
in a closed circuit. It has two inlets
(X and Z) and one outlet (O) which
is the permanently open port. Port
X is the port open on startup from
cold, while Port Z will normally be
closed on startup from cold. The
amounts of opening in Ports X and
Z will be varied to maintain a constant outlet temperature from Port
O. Thus a certain percentage of
hot boiler flow water will enter
through Port X to mix with a corresponding percentage of cooler
return water via Port Z.
When the three-port valve is
used to blend cold supply water
with hot water which may be from

another source, for use in showers or similar open circuits where

all the water does not recirculate,
it is essential that the pressure of
the supplies be equal. For these
applications, it is recommended
that both the X and Z ports be fitted with check valves to prevent
any scalding or other harmful
back-flow condition.
With the valve connected as
shown in Fig. 43A, we now have a
diverting arrangement. The valve
has one inlet and two outlets. Hot
water enters Port O and is either
allowed through Port X to the
equipment or through Port Z to
return to the boiler.

The Need for Balancing

The action of a three-port valve in
a closed circuit system, whether
mixing or diverting, tends to
change the pressure conditions
around the system much less than
does a two-port valve. This stability is increased greatly when a
balancing valve is fitted in the
bypass (or mixing connection)
line. Not fitting a flow balancing
valve may result in short circuiting
and starvation of other subcircuits.
The balancing valve is set so
that the resistance to flow in the
bypass line equals or exceeds that
in the load part of the subcircuit.

In Fig. 43, the balance valve

must be set so that the resistance
to flow in line B-Z is equal to the
resistance to flow in line B-A-X. In
Fig. 43A, resistance B-Z must
equal resistance X-C-B.

Makeup Air Heating Coils

Air heating coils in vented condensate
return
systems,
especially preheat coils supplied
with low pressure steam modulated by a control valve, can present
difficulties in achieving satisfactory drainage of condensate. There
is no problem at full load with
properly designed equipment, but
part load conditions often lead to
flooding of the coils with condensate, followed by waterhammer,
corrosion and sometimes by
freeze-up damage. These problems are so widespread that it is
worth examining their causes and
remedies in some detail.

Coil Configurations
The coils themselves are usually
built with a steam header and a
condensate header joined by
finned tubes. The headers may be
both at one side of the unit, with
hairpin or U tubes between them,
or sometimes an internal steam
tube is used to carry the steam to
the remote end of an outer finned
tube. Vertical headers may be
used with horizontal finned tubes,

Case in Action: Hydrogen Compressor Cooling Jacket Temperature Control

Hydrogen gas is an important ingredient to many oil refining processes. Large multi-stage compressors are located
in operating sections throughout the refinery. Considerable
attention is paid to maintaining gas quality, and keeping
liquid from accumulating in the system.
The telltale signs of entrained liquid became evident
as a high-pitched whistling noise was heard coming from
the compressor sections. It was determined to be the
result of poor cooling water temperature control. The cooling water/Glycol mixture leaving the heat exchanger at
95F, circulating through the compressor jacket was causing excess hydrogen condensing on the cold surfaces of
jacket walls. Its important to maintain the 95F heat
exchanger outlet temperature to assure that sufficientlycool water/Glycol is supplied to the compressor sections
necessary for proper heat transfer.

30

Solution
A 2" temperature control with adjustable bleed and a sensing system was installed on the cooling water/Glycol outlet
piping from three stages for each of two compressors.
They were set to maintain a discharge temperature of
140F. This had the effect of holding back Glycol in the
jacket sufficiently to prevent excess hydrogen condensing
while, at the same time, maintaining necessary cooling.

Benefits
Reduced energy consumption as hydrogen condensing
is reduced.
Installation of a self-contained control was far less
expensive than a more sophisticated pneumatic type
that was also under consideration.
System start-up was fast because of the easily-adjusted, pre-calibrated sensing system.
Accurate process temperature control of each jacket
resulted from having separate controls on each.

Makeup Air Heating Coils

Figure 44
Air Heater Coils
Inlets

Finned
Tubes

Outlets

Air Vent
Location

Inlet
Inlet

Outlet

Venting Air From Coils

As steam enters a coil it drives air
ahead of it to the drain point, or to
a remote area furthest from the
inlet. Coil size and shape may prevent a good deal of air from
reaching the trap and as steam
condenses, a film of air remains
reducing heat transfer. Coils with
a center inlet connection make it
more difficult to ensure that air is
pushed from the top tubes, the
steam tending to short circuit past
these tubes to the condensate
header. Automatic air venting of
the top condensate header of
these coils is essential. With other
layouts, an assessment must be
made of the most likely part of the
unit in which air and noncondensable gases will collect. If this is at
the natural condensate drain
point, then the trap must have
superior air venting capability and
a Float-Thermostatic type is the
first choice. When an inverted
bucket or other type with limited
air capacity is used, an auxiliary
air vent should be piped in parallel
above the trap. As a general rule,
a thermostatic vent and vacuum
breaker are desirable on most
coils to prevent problems.

Alternative Steam Inlet and

Condensate Outlet Connecitons
On Coils with Vertical
or Horizontal Headers

SYSTEM DESIGN

or sometimes horizontal headers

at the bottom of the unit supply
vertical finned tubes. The alternative arrangement has the headers
at opposite sides of the unit, either
horizontally at top and bottom or
vertically at each side.
While each different arrangement has its own proponents,
some general statements can be
made, including the fact that even
so-called freeze-proof coils can
freeze if not properly drained of
condensate. In horizontal coils,
the tubes should not be horizontal
but should have a slight fall from
inlet to outlet so that condensate
does not collect in pools but
drains naturally. Steam inlets to
horizontal headers may be at
one end or at mid length, but with
vertical headers the steam inlet is
preferably near the top.

Outlet

Inlet

Outlets

Waterlogged Coils
The most common cause of problems, however, is lack of pressure
within the steam space under
part load conditions to push condensate through the traps,
especially if it is then to be lifted
to a return line at high level or
against a back pressure. System
steam pressure lifts condensate,
not the trap, and is generally not
appreciated how quickly the pressure within the steam space can
be reduced by the action of the
control valve. When pressure
used to push condensate through
the traps is lost, the system
stalls and as condensate backs
up into the coil, waterlogging
problems of hammering, temperature stratification, corrosion and
freeze-up begin. The coil must be
fitted with a vacuum breaker so
that condensate is able to drain
freely to the trap as shown in Fig.
II-27 (page 97) and from the trap
by gravity to a vented receiver
and return pump. This is especially important when incoming air
temperature can fall below freezing. With low coils, this may
require the pump to be placed in
a pit or lower floor. How to deter-

mine system stall conditions

and the solution for draining coils
to a pressurized return is covered
later in this manual.

Vacuum Breaker
And Trap Location
A vacuum breaker ensures that
some differential pressure can
always exist across a trap that
drains by gravity but any elevation
of condensate after the trap
reduces the hydraulic head available. Heating is done using an
atmospheric air/steam mixture so
coil air venting is most important.
A vacuum breaker should be fitted
to the steam supply pipe, between
the temperature control valve and
the coil inlet. It is not recommended to fit a vacuum breaker on the
steam trap where the hydraulic
head of water used to push condensate through the trap would
hold the vacuum breaker closed.
In systems where the return
piping is kept under vacuum, a
reversed swing check valve
should be used and piped to
equalize any coil vacuum not to
atmosphere, but to the discharge
side of the trap.
31

Makeup Air Heating Coils

SYSTEM DESIGN

The steam trap must handle

lots of air and drain condensate
at saturated steam temperature
continuously while the load and
pressure are changing and thus a
Float-Thermostatic type is recommended for all air heating coils.
The trap is mounted below the
condensate outlet from the coil
with a vertical drop giving enough
hydraulic head to enable a suitable size to be selected. A 14"
head should be the minimum and
represents about 1/2 psi, a 28"
head about 1 psi, and to reduce
possibility of freeze-up, a drop of
3 ft. to the trap is recommended.

Preheat/Reheat Coils
The preheat/reheat coil hookup
shown in Fig. II-26 (page 96) may
employ a direct-acting temperature
control or with larger coils, a quicker responding pilot-operated type
with a closer control band is recommended. This arrangement
allows filtration and perhaps humidification of the air to be carried out
at the controlled preheat temperature, and the reheat coil brings the
dry bulb temperature of the conditioned air to the required value for
distribution. The preheat coil is
used to heat outside air up to the

intermediate temperature but as

outside temperature increases, the
temperature control lowers the
steam pressure in the preheat coil
and condensate drainage tends to
slow down. If the coil is being used
where design loads occur at subzero temperatures, there can
sometimes be only atmospheric
pressure in the coil, although the air
passing over it is still cold enough
to lead to freeze-up problems.
This difficulty is greatly
reduced if the temperature sensor
controlling the steam supply to the
preheat coil is set to the needed
distribution temperature. Part load
conditions would then lead firstly to
lowering the steam pressure in the
reheat coil, where freezing will not
occur, but pressure is maintained
in the preheat coil until outside air
temperatures are above the danger point. Such an arrangement
reduces freeze-up problems in
many instances on existing installations, at minimal cost.

Corrosion And Waterhammer Problems

Condensate mixed with air
becomes corrosive and assuming
the boiler water treatment is satis-

factory, coil corrosion problems

are usually due to condensate
regularly backing up or lying stagnant on the bottom of the tubes
during shutdown. If the coil is
trapped correctly, the most likely
cause is an overhead return
which prevents the coil from draining. One remedy for this is to fit a
liquid expansion steam trap at the
lowest piping level, as shown in
Fig. II-26 (page 96), set to open
when the temperature drops
below 90F. The coil then drains
only cold condensate to a sewer.
In high pressure systems
where waterhammer on startup
remains troublesome, a safety
drain trap is sometimes used. This
consists of a stock 15 psi rated
inverted bucket trap fitted above
the main trap which discharges to
drain whenever coil pressure is
low, but due to its design locks shut
at higher pressure. While this is
useful on pressurized mains, the
safety trap may require a pressure
considerably higher than its nominal rating to lock shut and on
modulating service a considerable
amount of condensate may be
wasted. This makes the combination pump/trap a more viable
solution to this problem.

Case in Action: Air Handling System Steam Coil Drainage

Typical storage buildings are extremely large and difficult to
heat. This example in specific has three floors with approximately 486,000 ft2 of floor space and heated with 150 air
handling units. These units are comprised of bay heaters,
overhead door heaters and administrative office area
heaters. The minimum steam supply pressure to all of them
is 20 psig and are pneumatically controlled.
In the preceding 12 month period, $201,000 was
spent on labor and materials to repair damaged coils. The
common problem was condensate standing in the coils,
unable to drain, causing erosion due to presence of carbonic acid and bulging/splitting as a result of freezing.

Solution
Starting with a training session at the facility that addressed
this problem and typical solutions, Spirax Sarcos local
sales office implemented a Cooperative Research and
Development Agreement (CRDA). The purpose of the
agreement was to test a proposed solution including
Pressure Powered Pumps and Pump/Trap combinations
to eliminate system stall, thereby assuring thorough condensate drainage, regardless of supply air temperature,
control valve turn-down or over-sized heaters.
A test was conducted on four air handling units. One
unit was hooked up as usual, without Pressure Powered

32

Pump drainage systems. The other three were drained

by either open or closed loop PPP systems. Four days into
the test and the unit without a PPP drainage system had
three frozen coils. It was found that as outside supply air
temperature dropped below 36F, it was necessary to close
outside dampers and use 100% recirculated air, or the
coils would freeze. The three units drained by PPP systems continued operating trouble-free.

Benefits
Employee Safety
Improved indoor air quality through the use of a higher
percentage of outside air supply.
Reduced chance of injury by eliminating water leakage on
the floor from broken coils and subsequent slippage.
Fewer burns because there are fewer steam leaks.
Greater employee awareness of hazards because of
training.
Cost Savings
Reduced steam and condensate losses resulting in
energy savings.
Reduced cost for management support (paper-work).
Cost savings of up to 30% above the initial installation
cost in a 12 month period.

Draining Temperature Controlled Steam Equipment

Plotting A Stall Chart

An easy way to determine the
conditions at which drainage

Velocity
in Ft./Sec.
1

Fouling Factor
.0005
.001
1.14 (14%) 1.27 (27%)

1.19 (19%)

1.38 (38%)

1.24 (24%)

1.45 (45%)

1.27 (27%)

1.51 (51%)

1.29 (29%)

1.55 (55%)

1.30 (30%)

1.60 (60%)

1.31 (31%)

1.63 (63%)

problems will occur, and prevent

them at the design stage is to use
the stall chart shown in Fig. 45.
The steam supply pressure is
shown on the vertical axis, with
corresponding temperatures on
the opposite side, and the plot will
indicate graphically what will occur
for any percentage of the design
load. This method provides a fairly
accurate prediction of stall conditions even though the chart uses
arithmetic rather than log mean
temperature difference.

235

380

180

360

140

340

105

320

75

300

55

280

34

260

20

240

10

220

3
0
5"
10"
15"
20"

200
180
160
140

25"

Pressure psig

400

Inches Vacuum

Sys-

With the steam equipment and

the operating pressure selected,
the load at which any system
stalls is a function of how close
the equipment is sized to the
actual load and any condensate
elevation or other back pressure
the trap is subject to.
Other less obvious things can
also seriously contribute to system stall; for instance, overly
generous fouling factors and
equipment oversizing. As an
example, a fouling factor of only
.001 can result in a coil surface
area increase of 50% (See Table
10). Equipment oversizing causes
the system to stall faster. This is
particularly the case when the
heating equipment is expected to
run considerably below design
load.
Saturated steam temperature
is directly related to its pressure

Table 10:
Percentage Fouling Allowance

Figure 45: Stall Chart

Temperature F

Conditions Creating
tem Stall

and for any load requirement, the

control valve output is determined
by the basic heat transfer equation, Q = UA x T. With UA for a
steam-filled coil a constant, the
amount of heat supplied, Q, is
regulated by the T, the log
mean temperature difference
(LMTD) between the heated air or
liquid and saturated steam temperature at the pressure delivered
by the valve. Thus, the steam
pressure available to operate the
trap is not constant but varies with
the demand for heat from almost
line pressure down through subatmospheric,
to
complete
shutdown when no heat is
required. Actual differential across
the trap is further reduced when
the heating surface is oversized or
the trap must discharge against a
back pressure. Knowing these
conditions, the system must be
designed accordingly.

SYSTEM DESIGN

Makeup air heating coils and

other heat exchange equipment
where the steam supply pressure
is modulated to hold a desired
outflow temperature must always
be kept drained of condensate.
Fitting a vacuum breaker and
steam trap, no matter what the
size, does not always result in
trouble-free operation and problems with noisy, hammering,
corroded and especially frozen
coils are well documented. These
problems are the result of coil
flooding at some point when
either:
a. Incoming makeup air increases above minimum design
temperature, or
b. Flow rate through an exchanger decreases below the
maximum equipment output.
In a steam system, temperature regulation actually means
controlling the pressure. Under partial load conditions, the steam
controller, whether self-acting,
pneumatic or any other type,
reduces the pressure until the necessary trap differential is eliminated,
the system stalls, and steam coils
become waterfilled coils.

120
100
80
60
40
20
0
100

90

80

70

30
50
60
40
Percentage Load

20

10

33

Draining Temperature Controlled Steam Equipment

SYSTEM DESIGN

An example plot is shown on

Fig. 46 for a coil where air is heated to 80F and the trap must
discharge against back pressure.
Step 1. The system is designed for
100% load when air enters at 0F
(T1) and there is 0% load when air
enters at 80F (T2). Draw line
(T1/T2) connecting these points.
Step 2. At maximum load, the
arithmetic mean air temperature
(MT) is 40F. Locate (MT) on line
(T1/T2), extend horizontally to 0%
load, and identify as (MT1).
Step 3. Allowing for pressure
drop, the control valve has been
sized to supply 25 psig steam to
the coil at 100% load. This pressure is (P1) and has a steam
temperature of 267F. Mark (P1)
and draw line (P1/MT1).
Line (P1/MT1) approximates the
steam supply at any load condition and the coil pressure is below
atmospheric when it drops below
the heavy line at 212F. In a gravity system with sub-atmospheric

conditions, a vacuum breaker and

hydraulic pressure due to condensate will prevent stall and allow
the trap to drain the coil.
Step 4. In many systems, the trap
does not discharge freely to
atmosphere and in our example,
total back pressure on the trap is
15 psig, drawn as horizontal dotted line (P2). Coil pressure equals
back pressure at the intersection
of (P2) with (P1/MT1) which when
dropped vertically downward to
(R1) occurs at 93% load. At less
than this load, the required trap
differential is eliminated, the system stalls, and the coil begins to
waterlog. In our air heating coil
the air flows at a constant rate
and extending the air temperature
intersection horizontally to (R2),
stall occurs when the incoming air
is 6F or more.
The same procedure applies
to a heat exchanger although the
example temperature is not a
common one. If the stall chart

235

380

180

360

140

340

105

320

75

300
Temperature F
Stall MTD

Design MTD

280

55
34

P1

260

20

240

160

10
3
0
5"
10"
15"
20"

140

25"

P2

220
200
180

120
100
80

T2

60
40
R2

0
T1 100

90 80
R1

34

MT1

MT

20
70

60 50 40 30 20
Percentage Load

10

Inches Vacuum

400

Pressure psig

Figure 46: Air Make-up Coil Stall Chart

example represented a heat

exchanger where the liquid was to
be heated through a constant temperature rise from 0 to 80F, but at
a flow rate that varies, stall would
still occur below 93% load. In this
instance, if 100% load represents
a 50 GPM exchanger, the system
would stall when the demand was
46.5 GPM (50 x .93) or less.

Draining Equipment Under

Stall Conditions
System stall is lack of positive
differential across the steam trap
and temperature controlled
equipment will always be subject
to this problem when the trap
must operate against back pressure. Under these conditions, a
vacuum breaker is ineffective
because stall always occurs
above atmospheric pressure.
Even when steam is supplied at a
constant pressure or flow to
batch type equipment, stall can
occur for some period of time on
startup when the steam condenses quickly and the pressure drops
below the required differential.
What happens when the system stalls is that the effective coil
area (UA in the formula) drops as
the steam chamber floods and
heat transfer is reduced until the
control valve responds to deliver an
excessive supply of steam to the
coil. This results in a hunting system with fluctuating temperatures
and hammering coils as the relatively
cooler
condensate
alternately backs up, then at least
some portion is forced through the
trap.
The solution to all system stall
problems is to make condensate
drain by gravity. Atmospheric systems tend to operate more
predictably and are generally easier to control but major heating
equipment is usually not drained
into an atmospheric return
because of the large amount of
energy that is lost from the vent. In
many process plants, venting
vapors of any type is discouraged
and a closed loop system is not
only required but is less subject to
oxygen corrosion problems.

Draining Temperature Controlled Steam Equipment

To make equipment drain by

gravity against back pressure, the
steam trap must be replaced by a
Pressure Powered Pump or
pump/trap combination installed
in a closed loop system. In this
arrangement, the equipment
does not have a vacuum breaker
but is pressure equalized to drain
by gravity, then isolated while
condensate is pumped from the
system. The basic hookup is
shown in Fig. II-32 (page 99)
where the equipment is constantly stalled and back pressure
always exceeds the control valve
supply pressure.
In many closed loop applications, the pump alone is not
suitable because the steam supply pressure can at times exceed
the back pressure (P1 is higher on
the Stall Chart than P2.) These
applications require the Pressure
Powered Pump to be fitted in
series with a Float and
Thermostatic trap (combination
pump-trap) to prevent steam
blowthrough at loads above the
stall point.

Sizing A Combination
Pump/Trap
The Pressure-Powered Pump
selected must have capacity to
handle the condensate load from
the equipment at the % stall condition. Trap sizing is more critical
and should be a high capacity

Before

Float and Thermostatic type sized

not for the equipment load, but to
handle the high flow rate during
the brief pump discharge period.
The trap must be capable of
handling the full system operating
pressure with a capacity of stall
load at 1/4 psig. This size trap will
allow the pump to operate at its
maximum capacity.

Multiple Parallel Coils With A

Common Control Valve

SYSTEM DESIGN

With pressurized returns and

larger coils, it is often economical
to fit a combination pump/trap to
each coil in a closed loop system
rather than the conventional gravity
drain
line
accepting
condensate from several traps
and delivering it to a common
pump. The pump/trap system is
illustrated in Fig. II-35 (page 101)
with the check valve fitted after
the trap. This hookup assures
maximum heat from the equipment and provides the additional
advantages of no atmospheric
venting, no vacuum breakers,
therefore less oxygen contamination and no electric pump seals to
leak. Integral to the design of this
system is the air vent for startup,
the liquid reservoir for accumulation during discharge, and
consideration should also be
given to shutdown draining with a
liquid expansion steam trap.

Closed Loop Drainage Systems

While group trapping should generally be avoided, a system with a

single control valve supplying
steam to identical parallel coils
within the same air stream can be
drained to a single pump/trap
combination closed loop system.
(See Fig. 47.) This hookup
requires that the pressure must be
free to equalize into each coil. No
reduced coil connections can be
permitted and the common condensate manifold must not only
pitch to the pump but be large
enough to allow opposing flow of
steam to each coil while condensate drains to the pump/trap. The
basic premise still applies, that
coils which are fully air vented and
free to drain by gravity give maximum heat output.

After
Steam Control Inlet
Steam Control Inlet

Steam Control
Inlet

Steam Control Inlet

Air
Vent

Air
Vent
Steam
Coils

Steam
Coils
Steam
Coils

High Pressure
Drip Traps
Level-Control
Drain Tank

Air
Vent

To
Condensate
Return

Air
Vent

Air
Vent
To
Condensate
Return

Air
Vent

Steam
Coils

Reservoir
Motive
Steam

Motive
Steam

To Drain
Pressure Powered Pump/Trap

Figure 47
Combination Pressure-Powered Pump/Traps in a Closed Loop Eliminate Waterlogging in Parallel Steam Coils
Previously Trapped to a Stalled Level Control System
35

Draining Temperature Controlled Steam Equipment

Case in Action: Absorption Chiller, Condensate Drainage

SYSTEM DESIGN

Absorption chillers are important sources of cooling necessary for many refinery processes. A typical example is
the need to cool products (using large heat exchangers)
after the stripping process in an alky unit. Products going
to storage are generally maintained below 100F.
Steam is used to drive the absorption process at low
pressure, typically below 15 psig. Condensate drainage
becomes a very real concern.
In this case, steam is supplied at 12 psig to the chiller
through an automatic control valve. Condensate system
backpressure is a constant 6-7 psig, considering the 30 ft.
uphill pipe-run to the vented condensate receiver. The
Refinery Contact Engineer recognized the potential for
system stall (having previously used the Pressure
Powered Pump to overcome other similar problems).

Solution
Two Pressure Powered Pumps were installed in parallel, along with necessary steam traps, air vents and
strainers . The Refinery supplied the reservoir and interconnecting piping.

Benefits
Regardless of varying steam supply pressure, considering the throttling that naturally occurs through the
automatic control valve, thorough condensate drainage
is assured and cooling efficiency is maintained.
Installation cost was much lower with the Pressure
Powered Pumps over electric pumps that were also
being considered. Costly water and explosion proof
control panels were not required.
Pump maintenance cost is also much lower through
elimination of the need for mechanical seals and pump
motors.

Multi-Coil Heaters
In many cases, a fluid is heated
by passing it through a series of
heat exchangers which are all
provided with steam through a
common control valve (Fig. 48).
Multiple section air heater coils or
batteries typify such applications, as also the multi-roll dryers
used in laundries. While the load
on the first heater is usually
appreciably greater than the load
on later heater sections, the proportion of the total load which
each section takes is often a matter of rule of thumb or even
conjecture.
The temperature difference
between the steam and the entering cold fluid can be designated
t1. Similarly, the temperature difference between the steam and
the outlet heated fluid can be t0.
The ratio between t1 and t0 can
be calculated, and will always be
less than one, see Fig. 49 (page
37)
If the chart at Figure 50 is
entered on the horizontal axis at
this ratio, a vertical can be taken
upwards until the curve corresponding with the number of
heaters or coils in use is intersected. A horizontal from this
36

point given the proportion of the

total heater load which is carried
by the first section.
Multiplying this proportion by
the total load given the condensate rate in this section, and
enables a trap with sufficient
capacity to be selected.
If it is required to accurately
determine the load in the second

section, estimate the temperature

at the outlet from the first section,
and regard this as the inlet temperature for an assembly with one
less section than before.
Recalculate the ratio ts - to/ts - ti2,
and re-enter the chart at this
value to find the proportion of the
remaining load taken by the first
of the remaining sections.

Steam Temp. ts

Air Inlet
Temp. ti

Figure 48
Multiple Coil Air Heater

Air Outlet
Temp. to

Multi-Coil Heaters
Single Section
1.0

to
Outlet Temp.
to

Temp.
ti
ti2

Proportion of Load on First Section

Single Section ts

0.8
0.7

Two
Sec
tion

0.6
0.5

Thr
ee S
ecti
on
Fou
r Se
ctio
n
Five
Sec
tion

0.4
0.3

Inlet Temp.
0.2

ti

SYSTEM DESIGN

0.9

0.1 0.2

0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9

Ratio to/t
i

Figure 49

Figure 50

Temperature Distribution in Multi-Coil Heater

Load on First Section of Multi-Coil Heater

Case in Action: Air Make-Up Coil Drainage

Paper Mills require a huge volume of air exchange. This
means that a great deal of air heating is necessary, particularly during winter months. Air Make-Up systems are split
between two general applications:
a. Machine or Process Air Make-Up is supplied to
the
immediate area around the machine and, more specifically, to certain areas within the machine for higher
temperature heating (i.e. Pocket Ventilation or PV coils).
b. Mill Air Make-Up, which is distributed across the mill for
HVAC comfort.
Either application may be accomplished with single
banks of coils or double-preheat/reheat coils, depending
on heating requirements.
The mill experienced a chronic problem of frozen Air
Make-Up coils, typically associated with condensate flooding and waterhammer. The 50/150 psig steam coils
ballooned and ruptured routinely, creating costly maintenance headaches and safety hazards. Several coils were
removed from service, requiring extensive repair.

Solution
Mill Engineers, working with the local Spirax Sarco
Representative, developed a long-range plan to redesign
and retrofit the entire Air Make-Up System. Over the last
two years, approximately 20 Pressure Powered
Pump/float & thermostatic trap closed-loop packages
have been installed. The project will continue until the
entire system is retrofitted. They have similarly retrofitted
several shell and tube heat exchangers, improving water
heating efficiency.

Benefits
Energy savings are achieved through installation of
pressurized closed-loop packages. There is no loss to
flash.
Chemical savings are achieved because of the pressurized packages. Chemicals are not lost out the vent.
Desired air heating efficiency has been achieved. All
retrofitted coils have operated properly and continuously since installation. Flooding has been eliminated.
Maintenance costs dropped dramatically with elimination of condensate flooding, water-hammer and
freezing.
Personnel safety has improved as steam/condensate
leaks have been reduced.

37

Steam Trap Selection

SYSTEM DESIGN

A full discussion of steam trap

functions are found in the companion Fluid System Design
volume, STEAM UTILIZATION.
The material covers operation of
all types of traps, along with the
need for proper air venting and
trap selection. Traps are best
selected not just on supply pressure and load requirements, but
after reviewing the requirements
of the application compared to
trap characteristics including discharge temperature, air venting
capability, response to pressure
and load change, and resistance
to dirt, corrosion, waterhammer
and
freezing
conditions.
Answering these questions leads
to the selection of the most
appropriate generic type of trap
and the general recommendations found in Table 11 reflect this.
This Selection Guide covers most
trap uses and the recommended
type can be expected to give satisfactory performance.

Steam Trap Sizing

Steam main drip traps shall be
sized with a 2 times safety factor
at full differential pressure. In
most cases, they will be 3/4 size
with low capacity orifice or smaller unless otherwise shown on the
drawings and they shall be located every 200 feet or less. Traps
for steam tracing shall be 1/4" to
1/2" size. They shall be located
every 100 feet or less. Radiator
traps shall be pipe size. Freeze
protection traps shall be 1/2" to
3/4" size unless otherwise noted.
Traps for equipment drainage
are sized with safety factors that
reflect the differences of the
HVAC and Process industries,
such as variations in actual
hydraulic head and material construction of tube bundles. A
summary of these typical recommendations are as follows:
HVAC Industry
Non-modulating control systems have traps selected with
a 2 times factor at full pressure differential.
Modulating control systems
with less than 30 psig inlet
pressure have traps selected

for full-load at 1/2 psi pressure differential, provide 18 to

24" drip leg for condensate to
drain freely to 0 psi gravity
return. (With drip legs less
than 18", consult a Spirax
Sarco representative.)
Modulating control systems
with greater than 30 psig inlet
pressure have traps selected
with a 3 times factor at full
pressure differential for all
preheat coils, and a 2 times
factor for others.
Process Industry
Non-modulating control systems have traps selected with
a 2 times factor at full pressure differential.
Modulating controls systems
with less than 30 psig inlet
pressure have traps selected
for full load at 1/2 psi pressure differential, provide 18 to
24" drip leg for condensate to
drain freely to gravity return
at 0 psi. (With drip legs less
than 18", consult a Spirax
Sarco representative.)
Modulating control systems
have traps selected with a 3
times factor at full pressure
differential.

Case in Action: Polyvinyl Butyral Extruders

Condensate removal was needed from 3 polyvinyl butyral
extruders at a pressure of 240 psi. Application required
that a consistent temperature be maintained the length of
the extruder to provide product quality in the melt. There
were nine sections per extruder.
The customer had used various brands of traps and
trap styles to drain the extruders. Most recently they used
a competitors bimetallic trap. They were experiencing
inconsistent temperatures throughout the length of the
extruder because the bimetallic traps subcooled the condensate, which then backed up into the heat transfer area.
They were also experiencing high maintenance costs in
relation to these traps.

38

Solution
Float & Thermostatic steam traps were recommended for
draining the extruders. This would give them immediate
condensate removal; therefore maintaining a consistant
temperature throughout the length of the extruder, providing better control over product melt. Also, upon
recommendation, strainers were installed before the traps
to help keep dirt out, and cut down on maintenance cost.

Benefits
Maintained consistent temperatures with existing equipment because there is no condensate in the heat
transfer area.
There is less maintenance cost due to the strainers
installed before the traps.

Steam Trap Selection

Steam Trap
tion Software

Selec-

Need To Know:
1. The steam pressure at the trapafter any pressure drop through
control valves or equipment.
2. THE LIFT, if any, after the trap.
Rule of thumb: 2 ft. = 1 psi back pressure, approximately.
3. Any other possible sources of BACK PRESSURE in the
condensate return system.
e.g. A) Condensate taken to a pressurized DA. tank.
B) Local back pressure due to discharges of numerous traps
close together into small sized return.
4. QUANTITY of condensate to be handled. Obtained from
A) Measurement, B) Calculation of heat load (see page 24), and
C) Manufacturers Data
5. SAFETY FACTORThese factors depend upon particular
applications, typical examples being as follows:
General With Temp. Control
Mains Drainage
x2

Storage Heaters
x2

Space Unit Heaters

x2
x3
Air Heating Coils
x2
x3
Submerged Coils (low level drain)
x2

Submerged Coils (siphon drain)

x3

Rotating Cylinders
x3

Tracing Lines
x2

Platen Presses
x2

SYSTEM DESIGN

Selecting the best type and size

steam trap is easier today for system designers who use computer
software programs. The Spirax
Sarco STEAM NEEDS ANALYSIS PROGRAM is available at
www.snapfour.com and goes a
step further. SNAP not only recommends and sizes the trap from
input conditions, but also specifies condensate return pumps,
other necessary auxiliary equipment, and warns of system
problems that may be encountered. The SNAP program is
user-friendly, menu-driven software that accurately calculates
the condensate load for a wide
range of drip, tracing and process
applications (described both by
common name and generic
description.) Significant is the fact
that a SNAP user has the choice
of selecting either a recommended type of trap or a different type
that may be preferred for any reason. For all selections, a formal
specification sheet may be printed which contains additional
information.

A QUICK GUIDE TO THE SIZING OF STEAM TRAPS

Rule of thumb: Use factor of 2 on everything except Temperature

Controlled Air Heater Coils and Converters, and
Siphon applications.
How To Use
The difference between the steam pressure at the trap, and the total
back pressure, including that due to any lift after the trap, is the
DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE. The quantity of condensate should be
multiplied by the appropriate factor, to produce SIZING LOAD. The
trap may now be selected using the DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE and
the SIZING LOAD.
Example
A trap is required to drain 22 lb/h of condensate from a 4" insulated
steam main, which is supplying steam at 100 PSIG. There will be a lift
after the trap of 20 ft.
Supply Pressure
Lift
Therefore
Differential Pressure
Quantity
Mains Drainage Factor
Therefore Sizing Load

= 100 psig
= 20 ft = 10 psi approx.
=
=
=
=

100 10 = 90 psi
22 lb/hr
2
44 lb/hr

A small reduced capacity Thermo-Dynamic steam trap will easily

handle the 44 lb/h sizing load at a differential pressure of 90 psi.
39

Steam Trap Selection Guide

Table 11: Steam Trap Selection Guide

SYSTEM DESIGN

As the USAs leading provider of steam system solutions, Spirax Sarco recognizes that no two steam trapping
systems are identical. Because of the wide array of steam trap applications with inherently different characteristics,
choosing the correct steam trap for optimum performance is difficult. Waterhammer, superheat, corrosive condensate, or other damaging operating characteristics dramatically affect performance of a steam trap. With over 80 years
of experience in steam technology, Spirax Sarco is committed to helping its customers design, operate and maintain
an efficient steam system. You have our word on it!

1st Choice

2nd Choice

Float &
Thermo- Balanced
Liquid
Inverted
Float &
Thermo- Balanced
Liquid
Inverted
Thermostatic Dynamic Pressure Bimetallic Expansion Bucket Thermostatic Dynamic Pressure Bimetallic Expansion Bucket

Application
Steam Mains

to 30 psig

30-400 psig
to 600 psig
to 900 psig
to 2000 psig
with Superheat

Separators
Steam Tracers

Critical

Non-Critical

Heating Equipment
Shell & Tube Heat Exchangers
Heating Coils
Unit Heaters
Plate & Frame Heat Exchangers

Radiators
General Process Equipment
to 30 psig
to 200 psig
to 465 psig

to 600 psig
to 900 psig
to 2000 psig
Hospital Equipment
Autoclaves
Sterilizers

Fuel Oil Heating

Bulk Storage Tanks
Line Heaters

Tanks & Vats

Bulk Storage Tanks
Process Vats

Evaporators
Reboilers
Rotating Cylinders
Freeze Protection

40

Vulcanizers

Flash Steam
The Formation of Flash Steam

Table 12: Percent Flash

Steam
Pressure Atmosphere
Flash Tank Pressure
psig
0
2
5
10
15
20
30
40
60
80 100
5
1.7
1.0
0
10
2.9
2.2 1.4
0
15
4.0
3.2 2.4 1.1
0
20
4.9
4.2 3.4 2.1 1.1
0
30
6.5
5.8 5.0 3.8 2.6 1.7
0
40
7.8
7.1 6.4 5.1 4.0 3.1 1.3
0
60
10.0
9.3 8.6 7.3 6.3 5.4 3.6 2.2
0
80
11.7
11.1 10.3 9.0 8.1 7.1 5.5 4.0 1.9
0
100
13.3
12.6 11.8 10.6 9.7 8.8 7.0 5.7 3.5 1.7
0
125
14.8
14.2 13.4 12.2 11.3 10.3 8.6 7.4 5.2 3.4 1.8
160
16.8
16.2 15.4 14.1 13.2 12.4 10.6 9.5 7.4 5.6 4.0
200
18.6
18.0 17.3 16.1 15.2 14.3 12.8 11.5 9.3 7.5 5.9
250
20.6
20.0 19.3 18.1 17.2 16.3 14.7 13.6 11.2 9.8 8.2
300
22.7
21.8 21.1 19.9 19.0 18.2 16.7 15.4 13.4 11.8 10.1
350
24.0
23.3 22.6 21.6 20.5 19.8 18.3 17.2 15.1 13.5 11.9
400
25.3
24.7 24.0 22.9 22.0 21.1 19.7 18.5 16.5 15.0 13.4

SYSTEM DESIGN

When hot condensate under

pressure is released to a lower
pressure, its temperature must
very quickly drop to the boiling
point for the lower pressure as
shown in the steam tables. The
surplus heat is utilized by the
condensate as latent heat causing some of it to re-evaporate into
steam. Commonly referred to as
flash steam, it is in fact perfectly
good useable steam even at low
pressure.

Percent flash for various initial steam pressures and flash tank pressures.

Proportion Of Flash Steam

Released
The amount of flash steam which
each pound of condensate will
release may be calculated readily. Subtracting the sensible heat
of the condensate at the lower
pressure from that of the condensate passing through the traps
will give the amount of heat available from each pound to provide
Latent Heat of Vaporization.
Dividing this amount by the actual Latent Heat per pound at the
Lower Pressure will give the proportion of the condensate which
will flash off. Multiplying by the
total quantity of condensate being
considered gives the weight of
Low Pressure Steam available.
Thus, if for example, 2000
lb/h of condensate from a source
at 100 psi is flashed to 10 psi, we
can say:
Sensible Heat at 100 psi
Sensible Heat at 10 psi
Heat Available for Flashing
Latent Heat at 10 psi
Proportion Evaporated

To simplify this procedure we

can use Table 12 to read off the
percentage of flash steam produced by this pressure drop. An
example would be if we had 100
PSIG saturated steam/condensate being discharged from a
steam trap to an atmospheric,
gravity flow condensate return
system (0 psig), the flash percentage of the condensate would
be 13.3% of the volume discharged.
Conversely, if we had 15 psig
saturated steam discharging to
the same (0 psig) atmospheric
gravity flow return system, the
percentage of flash steam would
be only 4% by volume. These
examples clearly show that the
amount of flash released
=
=
=
=
=

Flash Steam Available =

=

309 Btu/lb
208 Btu/lb
101 Btu/lb
952 Btu/lb
101 .. 952 = 0.106 or 10.6%
0.106 x 2000 lb/h
212 lb/h

depends upon the difference

between the pressures upstream
and downstream of the trap and
the corresponding temperatures
of those pressures in saturated
steam. The higher the initial pressure and the lower the flash
recovery pressure, the greater
the quantity of flash steam produced.
It must be noted here that the
chart is based upon saturated
steam pressure/temperature conditions at the trap inlet, and that
the condensate is discharged as
rapidly as it appears at the trap.
Steam traps that subcool the condensate, such as balanced
pressure
thermostatic
and
bimetallic traps, hold condensate
back in the system allowing it to
give up sensible heat energy and
causing it to cool below the saturated steam temperature for that
pressure. Under those circumstances, we must calculate from
the formula above the percentage
of flash steam produced, but the
amount of subcooling (the condensate temperature) must be
known before calculating.

41

Flash Steam
Flash Steam Utilization

SYSTEM DESIGN

In an efficient and economical

steam system, this so called
Flash Steam will be utilized, on
any load which will make use of
low pressure steam. Sometimes it
can be simply piped into a low
pressure distribution main for
general use. The ideal is to have
a greater demand for Low
Pressure steam, at all times, than
available supply of flash steam.
Only as a last resort should flash
steam be vented to atmosphere
and lost.
If the flash steam is to be
recovered and utilized, it has to
be separated from the condensate. This is best achieved by
passing the mixture of flash
steam and condensate through
what is know as a flash tank or
flash vessel. A typical arrangement is shown in Fig. II-76 (page
120). The size of the vessel has to
be designed to allow for a
reduced velocity so that the separation of the flash steam and
condensate can be accomplished
adequately, so as not to have carryover of condensate out into the
flash steam recovery system.
This target velocity is ten feet per
second per ASHRAE standards
to ensure proper separation. The
condensate drops to the bottom
of the flash tank where it is
removed by a float and thermostatic steam trap. The flash steam
outlet connection is sized so that
the flash steam velocity through
the outlet is approximately 50
ft./sec. The condensate inlet is
also sized for 50 ft./sec. flash
velocity.
A number of basic requirements and considerations have to
be met before flash steam recovery is a viable and economical
proposition:
1. It is first essential to have a
sufficient supply of condensate, from loads at sufficiently
higher pressures, to ensure
that enough flash steam will
be released to make recovery
economically effective.
42

The steam traps, and the

equipment from which they
are draining condensate,
must be able to function satisfactorily while accepting the
new back pressure applied to
them by the flash recovery
system. Particular care is
needed when attempting to
recover flash steam from
condensate which is leaving
equipment controlled by a
modulating temperature control valve. At less than full
loads, the steam space pressure will be lowered by the
action of the temperature
control valve. If the steam
space pressure approaches
or even falls below the flash
steam vessel pressure, condensate drainage from the
steam
space
becomes
impractical by a steam trap
alone, and the equipment
becomes stalled and water
logging will most definitely
occur.
2. The second requirement is a
suitable use for low pressure
flash steam. Ideally, low pressure load(s) requires at all
times a supply of steam
which either equals or
exceeds the available flash
steam supply. The deficit can
then be made up through a
pressure reducing valve set.
If the supply of flash steam
exceeds the demand for it,
the surplus may have to be
vented to waste through a
backpressure control valve
(see Fig. II-77, page 120).
Thus, it is possible to utilize
the flash steam from process
condensate on a space heating installation - but the
savings will only be achieved
during the heating season.
When heating is not required,
the
recovery
system
becomes
ineffective.
Whenever possible, the better arrangement is to use
flash steam from process
condensate
to
supply

process loads, and that from

heating condensate to supply
heating loads. Supply and
demand are then more likely
to remain in step. When all
else fails, in many facilities
there is always a need for hot
water, especially in the boiler
house. This can be supplied
via a heat exchanger and the
use of flash steam.
3. It is also preferable to select
an application for the flash
steam which is reasonably
close in proximity to the high
pressure condensate source.
Piping for low pressure steam
is inevitably
of larger
diameter. This makes it
somewhat costly to install.
Furthermore, the heat loss
from large diameter pipes
reduces the benefits obtained
from flash steam recovery
and in the worst cases could
outweigh them.
Flash steam recovery is simplest when being recovered from
a single piece of equipment that
condenses a large amount of
steam, such as a large steam to
water converter of a large air handling coil bank, but we cannot
forget that flash steam recovery
systems by design will apply a
backpressure to the equipment
being utilized as the flash steam
source.

How To Size Flash Tanks

And Vent Lines
Whether a flash tank is atmospheric or pressurized for flash
recovery, the procedure for determining its size is the same. The
most important dimension is the
diameter. It must be large enough
to provide adequate separation of
the flash and condensate to minimize condensate carryover.

Flash Steam
flowrate, of flash steam produced. 3,000 lb/h x .124 =
372 lb/h.
3. Using the calculated flash
steam quantity of 372 lb/h
enter Fig. 51 at A and move
horizontally to the right to the
flash tank pressure of 20 psig
B. Rise vertically to the flash
tank diameter line (600
ft/min) at D. Read tank
diameter of 5. If schedule 80
pipe is to be installed, the
table within the body of the

chart can be used to determine whether the velocity will

exceed the recommended
limit of 600 ft/min.
4. From point D continue to
rise vertically to E to determine the size of vent pipe to
give a velocity between 3000
and 4000 ft/min. In this case
2 schedule 40 pipe. As
before, use the table within
the body of chart for schedule
80 pipe.

SYSTEM DESIGN

Example
Size a 20 psig flash recovery vessel utilizing condensate from a
160 psig steam trap discharging
3000 lb/h.
1. Determine percent flash
steam produced using Table
12. With a steam pressure of
160 psig and a flash tank
pressure of 20 psig, read a
value of 12.4%.
2. Next, multiply the condensate
load by the percent flash from
Step #1 to determine the

Figure 51: Condensate Line, Flash Tank, and Vent Line Sizing
Velocity
(ft/sec)

Velocity
(ft/min)

Pipe Size (schedule 40)

100

6000

4000

66

50
33

30 28" 26 24
" "
"

20 18 16 14 12
" " " " "

10

"

6"

8"

5"

4"

3"

2-1
/2"

3000

2"

1-1 1-1
/2" /4"

3/4
"

1"

1/2
"

Recommended
Service
Condensate Return
Line Sizing
Vent Pipe Sizing

2000

1000

17

10

600

Flash Tank
Diameter Sizing

50,000
Multiply chart velocity
by factor below
to get velocity
in schedule 80 pipe

0
10 0
8
60 0
4 0
3 0
2

30,000
20,000
10

Pipe Size
1/2"
3/4" & 1"
1-1/4" & 1-1/2"
2" & 3"
4" to 24"
26" to 30"

5
0

10,000

5000
0
10 0
8
60 0
4 0
3 0
2

3000
2000
10
5
0

Flash Steam Flowrate (lb/h)

8000

Factor
1.30
1.23
1.15
1.12
1.1
1.0

1000
800
500

300
200
0
10 0
8
60 0
4 0
3 0
2

100
80
10
5
0

60
50
40
30
20

10

P
c re
fla ond ssu
sh en re
ta sa in
nk te
(p lin
si e
g) or

43

Flash Steam
Flash Vessel Configurations

SYSTEM DESIGN

Flash vessels can be either horizontal or vertical. For flash steam recovery (pressurized receiver) the vertical
style is preferred because of its ability to provide better separation of steam and water.

Figure 52: Flash Vessel Configurations

Horizontal
Flash Vessel

Flash steam outlet

or vent pipe

Flash Steam
outlet or vent pipe

Vertical Flash
Vessel

Condensate
inlet

Length
Length = 2 x diameter or
24" minimum

Diameter

Diameter

Height = 3 x Diameter or
36" minimum

Condensate
inlet

35% of
height
Condensate
outlet

For proper installation of flash vessels, controls and traps refer to

Figures II-76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83 (starting on page 120)

Condensate
outlet

Case in Action: Sour Water Condenser-Reboiler Temperature Control

The sour water condenser-reboiler is an important element in a refinery sulfur unit. Though the
configuration/design will vary with the specific process
used, the purpose and priority remain the same. Process
water contaminated with ammonia and hydrogen sulfide
gas (H2S) is stripped of those compounds for reuse. The
remaining stream of contaminants goes to waste treatment. The process depends on accurate temperature
control of the steam heated condenser-reboiler.
40 psig steam is supplied through a modulating control valve. Condensate is lifted 15 feet from the outlet at the
bottom of the vertical condenser-reboiler to the overhead
condensate receiver tank, which is maintained at 20 psig.
Process load fluctuations and resultant turndown on the
modulating steam control valve would have created a
STALL situation, unacceptable process temperature control and reduced throughput.

44

Solution
A 3" x 2" PPF with 2-1/2" FTB 125 pump/trap combination
was designed into the new project as was a VS 204 air
vent. The installation was immediately successful.

Benefits
With faster start-up, it came up to temperature faster
than any other comparable unit, to date, at the refinery.
This improves productivity.
The feed rate is higher than designed because the unit
is able to operate efficiently at any degree of turndown.
Installation cost is several times less costly for the
pump/trap combo than traditional level control system
that would otherwise have been used.
Maintenance cost is lower, through elimination of electric/pneumatic controls and electric pumps used in a
traditional level control system.

Condensate Recovery Systems

Condensate Line Sizing
Condensate recovery systems
divide naturally into three sections, each section requiring
different design considerations.
a. Drain Lines to the traps carry
pressurized high temperature
hot water that moves by gravity.
b. Trap discharge lines that
carry a two-phase mixture of
flash steam and condensate.
c. Pumped return systems utilizing electric or non-electric
pumps.

Drain Lines To Traps

In the first section, the condensate has to flow from the
condensing surface to the steam
trap. In most cases this means
that gravity is relied on to induce
flow, since the heat exchanger
steam space and the traps are at
the same pressure. The lines
between the drainage points and
the traps can be laid with a slight
fall, say 1 in 10 feet, and Table 13
shows the water carrying capacities of the pipes with such a
gradient. It is important to allow
for the passage of incondensibles
to the trap, and for the extra water
to be carried at cold starts. In
most cases, it is sufficient to size
these pipes on twice the full running load.

Trap Discharge Lines

At the outlet of steam traps, the
condensate return lines must
carry condensate, non-condensible gases and flash steam
released from the condensate.
Where possible, these lines
should drain by gravity to the condensate receiver, whether this be
a flash recovery vessel or the
vented receiver of a pump. When
sizing return lines, two important
practical points must be considered.

Table 13: Condensate, lb/h

Steel
Pipe
Size
1/2"
3/4"
1"
11/4"
11/2"
2"
21/2"
3"
4"

Approximate Frictional Resistance

in inches Wg per 100 ft of Travel
1
5
7
10
100
240
290
350
230
560
680
820
440
1070
1200
1550
950
2300
2700
3300
1400
3500
4200
5000
2800
6800
8100
9900
5700 13800 16500 20000
9000 21500 25800 31000
18600 44000 52000 63400

SYSTEM DESIGN

The importance of effective condensate removal from steam

spaces has been stressed
throughout this course. If maximum steam system efficiency is
to be achieved, the best type of
steam trap must be fitted in the
most suitable position for the
application in question, the flash
steam should be utilized, and the
maximum amount of condensate
should be recovered.
There are a number of reasons why condensate should not
be allowed to discharge to drain.
The most important consideration
is the valuable heat which it contains even after flash steam has
been recovered. It is possible to
use condensate as hot process
water but the best arrangement is
to return it to the boiler house,
where it can be re-used as boiler
feed water without further treatment, saving preheating fuel, raw
water and the chemicals needed
for boiler feed treatment. These
savings will be even greater in
cases where effluent charges
have to be paid for the discharge
of valuable hot condensate down
the drain.
Condensate recovery savings can add up to 20 to 25% of
the plants steam generating
costs. One justifiable reason for
not returning condensate is the
risk of contamination. Perforated
coils in process vessels and heat
exchangers do exist and the
cross contamination of condensate and process fluids is always
a danger. If there is any possibility that the condensate is
contaminated, it must not be
returned to the boiler. These
problems have been lessened by
the application of sensing systems monitoring the quality of
condensate in different holding
areas of a plant to determine condensate quality and providing a
means to re-route the condensate if contaminated.

First, one pound of steam

has a specific volume of 26.8
cubic feet at atmospheric pressure. It also contains 970 BTUs
of latent heat energy. This means
that if a trap discharges 100
pounds per hour of condensate
from 100 psig to atmosphere, the
weight of flash steam released
will be 13.3 pounds per hour, having a total volume of 356.4 cubic
feet. It will also have 12,901
BTUs of latent heat energy. This
will appear to be a very large
quantity of steam and may well
lead to the erroneous conclusion
that the trap is passing live steam
(failed open).
Another factor to be considered is that we have just released
13.3 pounds of water to the
atmosphere that should have
gone back to the boiler house for
recycling as boiler feed water.
Since we just wasted it, we now
have to supply 13.3 pounds of
fresh city water that has been
softened, chemically treated and
preheated to the feedwater systems temperature before putting
this new water back into the boiler.
Secondly, the actual formation of flash steam takes place
within and downstream of the
steam trap orifice where pressure
drop occurs. From this point
onward, the condensate return
system must be capable of carrying this flash steam, as well as
condensate. Unfortunately, in the
past, condensate return lines
45

Condensate Recovery Systems

SYSTEM DESIGN

have been sized using water volume only and did not include the
flash steam volume that is present.
The specific volume of water
at 0 psig is .017 cubic feet per
pound, compared to 26.8 cubic
feet per pound for flash steam at
the same pressure. Sizing of condensate return lines from trap
discharges based totally on water
is a gross error and causes lines
to be drastically undersized for
the flash steam. This causes condensate lines to become
pressurized, not atmospheric,
which in turn causes a backpressure to be applied to the traps
discharge which can cause
equipment failure and flooding.
This undersizing explains
why the majority of 0 psi atmospheric
condensate
return
systems in the United States do
not operate at 0 psig. To take this
thought one step further for those
people who perform temperature
tests on steam traps to determine
if the trap has failed, the instant
we cause a positive pressure to
develop in the condensate return
system by flash steam, the condensate return line now must
follow the pressure/temperature
relationship of saturated steam.
So, trap testing by temperature
identifies only that we have a
return system at a certain temperature above 212F (0 psig)
and we can then determine by
that temperature the system
pressure at which it is operating.
Elevated condensate return temperatures do not necessarily
mean a trap has failed.
When sizing condensate
return lines, the volume of the
flash steam must be given due
consideration. The chart at Fig.
51 (page 43) allows the lines to
be sized as flash steam lines
since the volume of the
condensate is so much less than
that of the steam released.
Draining condensate from
46

traps serving loads at differing

pressures to a common condensate return line is a concept
which many find difficult. It is
often assumed that the HP high
pressure condensate will prevent
the low pressure condensate
from passing through the LP
traps and give rise to waterlogging of the LP system.
However, the terms HP and
LP can only apply to the conditions on the upstream side of the
seats in the traps. At the downstream or outlet side of the traps,
the pressure must be the common pressure in the return line.
This return line pressure will be
the sum of at least three components:
1. The pressure at the end of
the return line, either atmospheric or of the vessel into
which the line discharges.
2. The hydrostatic head needed
to lift the condensate up any
risers in the line.
3. The pressure drop needed to
carry the condensate and
any flash steam along the
line.
Item 3 is the only one likely to
give rise to any problems if condensate from sources at different
pressures enters a common line.
The return should be sufficiently
large to carry all the liquid condensate and the varying amounts
of flash steam associated with it,
without requiring excessive line
velocity and excessive pressure
drop. If this is accepted, the total
return line cross sectional area
will be the same, whether a single
line is used, or if two or more lines
are fitted, with each taking the
condensate from a single pressure source.
The return could become
undersized, requiring a high pressure at the trap discharges and
restricting or preventing discharge from the LP traps, if it is
forgotten that the pipe has to

carry flash steam as well as water

and that flash steam is released
in appreciable quantity from HP
condensate.
While the percentage, by
weight, of flash steam may be
rather low, its overall volume in
comparison to the liquid is very
large. By determining the quantity
of flash steam and sizing the
return line for velocities between
4,000 and 6,000 ft/min, the twophase flow within the pipe can be
accommodated. The information
required for sizing is the condensate load in lb/h, inlet pressure to
steam trap(s) in psig and return
line system pressure.
Example:
Size a condensate return line
from a 160 psig steam trap discharging to 20 psig. flash tank.
Load is 3,000 lb/h.
1. Determine percent flash
steam produced using Table
12 (page 41). With a steam
pressure of 160 psig and a
flash tank pressure of 20 psig
read a value of 12.4%.
2. Next, multiply the condensate
load by the percent flash from
step #1 to determine the
flowrate, of flash steam produced.
3,000 lb/h x .124 = 372 lb/h.
3. Enter Fig. 51 (page 43) at the
flash steam flowrate of 372
lb/h at A and move horizontally to the right to the flash
tank pressure of 20 psig B.
Rise vertically to choose a
condensate return line size
which will give a velocity
between 4,000 and 6,000
ft/min, C. In this example, an
1-1/2 schedule 40 pipe with
a velocity of approximately
5,000 ft/min. If schedule 80
pipe is to be used, refer to
table within body of chart.
Multiply the velocity by the
factor to determine whether
the velocity is within acceptable limits.

Condensate Recovery Systems

Pumped Return Lines

line which carries the condensate

to the receiver of the pump. If this
is impossible, a second best
alternative may be to pipe the
trap discharge through a sparge
or diffuser inside the pumped
return line.
The trap most suitable for this
application would be the Float
and Thermostatic type due to its
continuous discharge. This is very
much a compromise and will not
always avoid the noise (see Fig.
53 and 53A) although it will
reduce the severity.

SYSTEM DESIGN

Finally, the condensate is often

pumped from the receiver to the
boiler plant. These pumped condensate lines carry only water,
and rather higher water velocities
can often be used so as to minimize pipe sizes. The extra friction
losses entailed must not increase
back pressures to the point where
the pump capacity is affected.
Table 35 (page 77) can be used
to help estimate the frictional
resistance presented by the
pipes. Commonly, velocities in
pumped returns should be limited
to 6-8 ft./sec.
Electric pumps are commonly installed with pumping
capability of 2-1/2 or 3 times the
rate at which condensate reaches
the receiver. This increased
instantaneous flow rate must be
kept in mind when sizing the
delivery lines. Similar considerations apply when steam powered
pumps are used, or appropriate
steps taken to help attain constant flow along as much as
possible of the system.
Where long delivery lines are
used, the water flowing along the
pipe as the pump discharges
attains a considerable momentum. At the end of the discharge
cycle when the pump stops, the
water tends to keep moving along
the pipe and may pull air or steam
into the delivery pipe through the
pump outlet check valve. When
this bubble of steam reaches a
cooler zone and condenses, the
water in the pipe is pulled back
towards the pump. As the
reversed flow reaches and closes
the check valve, waterhammer
often results. This problem is
greatly reduced by adding a second check valve in the delivery
line some 15 or 20 ft. from the
pump. If the line lifts to a high
level as soon as it leaves the
pump, then adding a generously
sized vacuum breaker at the top

of the riser is often an extra help.

However, it may be necessary to
provide means of venting from
the pipe at appropriate points, the
air which enters through the vacuum breaker. See Figures II-71
and II-72 (page 118).
The practice of connecting
additional trap discharge lines
into the pumped main is to be
avoided whenever possible. The
flash steam which is released
from this extra condensate leads
to thermal shock creating a banging noise within the piping
commonly associated with waterhammer. The traps should
discharge into a separate gravity

Discharge
from Trap

Condensate
Return

Figure 53
Discharge of Steam Trap into Pumped (flooded) Return Line using
Sparge Pipe.

ThermoDynamic
Steam Trap
with Integral
Strainer

Trap Diffuser
Spira-tec
Loss Detector

Figure 53A
Discharge of Steam Trap into Pumped (flooded) Return Line
using a Trap Diffuser.

47

Condensate Pumping

SYSTEM DESIGN

In nearly all steam-using plants,

condensate must be pumped
from the location where it is
formed back to the boilerhouse,
or in those cases where gravity
drainage to the boilerhouse is
practical, the condensate must be
lifted into a boiler feed tank or
deaerator. Even where deaerators are at low level, they usually
operate at a pressure a few psi
above atmospheric and again, a
pump is needed to lift condensate
from atmospheric pressure to
deaerator tank pressure.

The PUMP NPSH in any given application can readily be estimated

from:
NPSH = hsv = 144 (Pa - Pvp) + hs - hf
W
Where:
hs = Total suction head in feet.
Pa = Absolute pressure in
(Positive for a head above
receiver supplying pump,
the pump or negative for a
in psi (that is at atmoslift to the pump)
pheric pressure in the
case of a vented receiver).
hf = Friction loss in suction piping.
Pvp= Absolute pressure of
W = Density of water in pounds
condensate at the liquid
per cubic foot at the
temperature, in psi.
appropriate temperature.

Electric Condensate
Return Pumps

The absolute pressure at the

inlet to the pump is usually the
atmospheric pressure in the
receiver, plus the static head from
the water surface to the pump
inlet, minus the friction loss
through pipes, valves and fittings
between the receiver and the
pump. If this absolute pressure
exceeds the vapor pressure of
water at the temperature at which
it enters the pump, then a Net
Positive Suction Head exists.
Providing this NPSH is above the
value specified by the pump manufacturer, the water does not
begin to boil as it enters the pump
suction, and cavitation is avoided.
If the water entering the pump is
at high temperature, its vapor
pressure is increased and a
greater hydrostatic head over the
pump suction is needed to ensure
that the necessary NPSH is
obtained.
If the water does begin to boil
in the pump suction, the bubbles
of steam are carried with the
water to a high pressure zone in
the pump. The bubbles then
implode with hammer-like blows,
eroding the pump and eventually
destroying it. The phenomenon is
called cavitation and is readily
recognized by its typical rattle-like
noise, which usually diminishes
as a valve at the pump outlet is
closed down.
However, since in most cases
pumps are supplied coupled to
receivers and the static head

When using electric pumps to lift

the condensate, packaged units
comprising a receiver tank (usually vented to atmosphere) and
one or more motorized pumps
are commonly used. It is important with these units to make sure
that the maximum condensate
temperature specified by the
manufacturer is not exceeded,
and the pump has sufficient
capacity to handle the load.
Condensate temperature usually
presents no problem with returns
from low pressure heating systems. There, the condensate is
often below 212F as it passes
through the traps, and a little further subcooling in the gravity
return lines and in the pump
receiver itself means that there is
little difficulty in meeting the maximum temperature limitation. See
Fig. II-74 (page 119).
On high pressure systems,
the gravity return lines often contain condensate at just above
212F, together with some flash
steam. The cooling effect of the
piping is limited to condensing a
little of the flash steam, with the
remainder passing through the
vent at the pump receiver. The
water must remain in the receiver
for an appreciable time if it is to
cool sufficiently, or the pump discharge may have to be throttled
down to reduce the pumps capacity if cavitation is to be avoided.
See Fig. II-75 (page 119).
48

above the pump inlet is already

fixed by the pump manufacturer, it
is only necessary to ensure that
the pump set has sufficient
capacity at the water temperature
expected at the pump. Pump
manufacturers usually have a set
of capacity curves for the pump
when handling water at different
temperatures and these should
be consulted.
Where steam systems operate at higher pressures than
those used in LP space heating
systems, as in process work, condensate temperatures are often
212F, or more where positive
pressures exist in return lines.
Electric pumps are then used
only if their capacity is downrated
by partial closure of a valve at the
outlet; by using a receiver mounted well above the pump to ensure
sufficient NPSH; or by subcooling
the condensate through a heat
exchanger of some type.

Pressure Powered Condensate Pump

All these difficulties are avoided
by the use of non-electric condensate pumps, such as the
Pressure Powered Pump. The
Pressure Powered Pump is
essentially an alternating receiver
which can be pressurized, using
steam, air or other gas. The gas
pressure displaces the condensate (which can be at any
temperature up to and including
boiling point) through a check

Condensate Pumping
the catalog. A closed system
requires only a liquid reservoir. In
open systems, the vented receiver serves this purpose as it is
always larger in order to also separate the flash steam released.

Vented Systems
Condensate from low pressure
heating systems may be piped
directly to a small size Pressure
Powered Pump only when 50
lb/h or less of flash steam must
vent through the pump body. This
does not eliminate the requirement that there must be enough
piping to store condensate during
the brief discharge cycle. In many
low pressure systems, the reservoir may be a section of larger
horizontal pipe which is vented to
eliminate flash steam. In higher
pressure, high load systems, the
larger quantity of flash released
requires a vented receiver with
piping adequate to permit complete separation. To prevent
carryover of condensate from the

vent line, the receiver should be

sized to reduce flow velocity to
about 10 FPS.

Closed Loop Systems

It is often advisable where larger
condensate loads are being handled to dedicate a Pressure
Powered Pump to drain a single
piece of equipment. The pump
exhaust line can then be directly
connected to the steam space of
a heat exchanger or, preferably
with air heating coils, to the reservoir. This allows condensate to
drain freely to the pump inlet and
through a steam trap at the pump
outlet. Only liquid is contained in
the reservoir of a closed loop system. Fig.II-32 (page 99) illustrates
how the Pressure-Powered pump
functions as a pumping trap, and
use Fig. II-35 (page 101) when
the steam supply may sometimes
be greater than the return pressure
and
a
combination
pump/trap is required.

SYSTEM DESIGN

valve at the outlet of the pump

body. At the end of the discharge
stroke, an internal mechanism
changes over, closing the pressurizing inlet valve and opening
an exhaust valve. The pressurizing gas is then vented to
atmosphere, or to the space from
which the condensate is being
drained. When the pressures are
equalized, condensate can flow
by gravity into the pump body to
refill it and complete the cycle.
As the pump fills by gravity
only, there can be no cavitation
and this pump readily handles
boiling water or other liquids compatible with its materials of
construction.
The capacity of the pump
depends on the filling head available, the size of the condensate
connections, the pressure of the
operating steam or gas, and the
total head through which the condensate is lifted. This will include
the net difference in elevation
between the pump and the final
discharge point; any pressure difference between the pump
receiver and final receiver; friction
in the connecting pipework, and
the force necessary to accelerate
the condensate from rest in the
pump body up to velocity in the
discharge pipe. Tables listing
capacities under varying conditions are provided in the catalog
bulletins.

Vent
Condensate
Return

Steam
Supply

Vented Receiver

Piping Requirements
Depending upon the application,
the Pressure Powered Pump
body is piped so that it is vented
to atmosphere or, in a closed system, is pressure equalized back
to the space that it drains. This
allows condensate to enter the
pump but during the short discharge stroke, the inlet check
valve is closed and condensate
accumulates in the inlet piping. To
eliminate the possibility of condensate backing up into the
steam space, reservoir piping
must be provided above the
pump with volume as specified in

Pressure
Powered
Pump

Figure 54
Venting of Pump Exhaust and Inlet Receiver Pipe in a
Low Pressure System
49

Clean Steam
Case in Action: Printing Mill Dryer Roll Drainage

SYSTEM DESIGN

Printing mills frequently mix tolulene and isopropyl acetate

with dyes to produce quick drying inks. This flammable
mixture requires special care to avoid explosions and fire.
Larger printing mills typically use steam-heated rolls to dry
the printed material. The electric motor-driven condensate
pumps that are commonly used, require explosion-proof
controls/enclosures to accommodate the flammable
atmosphere.
During a new project design, the consulting Engineer
and Client decided to find a better way to deal with the
hazardous environment and costly explosion-proof condensate pumps. The cost was of particular concern
considering that the project included 16 dryer rolls on 2
printing machines, requiring 4 condensate pumps.

Clean Steam
The term Clean Steam can
cover a wide range of steam qualities,
depending
on
the
production method used and the
quality of the raw water.
The term Clean Steam is
something of a misnomer and is
commonly used as a blanket
description to cover the three
basic types - filtered steam, clean
steam and pure steam.
a) Filtered steam is produced by
filtering plant steam using a
high efficiency filter. A typical
specification would call for

Separator

Solution
Four non-electric Pressure Powered Pumps were selected as alternatives to costlier electric pump sets. These
were in addition to the 16 float and thermostatic steam
traps installed on each dryer roll.

Benefits
Installation cost was lower for the Pressure Powered
Pumpsno electrical wiring/controls required.
Pressure Powered Pumps purchase price was substantially lower.
Pressure Powered Pumps operation is safer than with
electric pump/controls.
Without mechanical seals, the Pressure Powered
Pumps will operate with lower maintenance cost.

the removal of all particles

greater than 2.8 microns,
including solids and liquid
droplets (Fig. 55).
b) Clean steam is raised in a
steam generator or taken
from an outlet on a multieffect still, and is often
produced from deionized or
distilled water. A simpliffied
generator and distribution
system is shown in Fig. 56.
c) Pure steam is very similar to
clean steam, but is always
produced from distilled,
deionized or pyrogen-free

Pressure
Reducing
Valve

water, and is normally

defined as uncondensed
water for injection (WFI).
Often, the generic term clean
steam is used to describe any of
the three different types outlined
above. It is therefore very important to know which is being used
for any application, as the characteristics and system requirements
for each can differ greatly. Note
that in the following text, the
expression clean steam will be
used to denote any or all of the
three basic types, where no differentiation is required.

Filter

Filtered
Steam

Sample
Cooler

Figure 55
Filtered Steam: A filtered steam station produces steam to be used
for direct injection into food products, culinary steam, or for use in
sterilizers and autoclaves.
50

Clean Steam
Steam Quality
vs. Steam Purity

Table 14: Differences in Steam Characteristics

Quality
Filtered
Clean
Pure

Purity
Particles
Boiler Additives
Typically 2.8 microns
Normally present
Varies
Limited to process
Varies
None

High
Varies on System Design
Varies on System Design

Thus, the three different

types of clean steam (filtered,
clean and pure) can, and will,
have different characteristics,
summarized in Table 14.
Note in particular that:
1. The quality of filtered steam
will normally be high because
water droplets larger than the
filter element rating will be
removed. Clean and pure
steam systems will have a
quality related to the design
and operating characteristics
of the generator, length and
installation details of distribution system, insulation of
system, number and effectiveness of mains, drainage
points, etc.

Clean Steam
Distribution Main

2. Boiler additives may well be

present in filtered steam and
also possibly in clean steam,
but often this will be limited by
process requirements. For
example, the FDA restricts
the use of certain additives,
including amines, in any
steam which comes into
direct contact with foods or
dairy products.
3. Assuming the generating and
distribution system have
been designed and installed
correctly, the particles present in a pure steam system
will be water only. Dependent
on feed water type, the same
may also apply to clean
steam systems.

SYSTEM DESIGN

It is important to define the difference between steam quality and

purity.
Steam Quality The ratio of the
weight of dry steam to the weight
of dry saturated steam and
entrained water. For example, if
the quality of the steam has been
determined to be 95%, the wetsteam mixture delivered from the
boiler is composed of 5 parts by
weight of water, usually in the
form of a fine mist, and 95 parts
by weight of dry saturated steam.
Likewise, if the quality of the
steam has been determined to be
100%, there is no wet steam
delivered from the boiler, 100% of
the steam delivered from the boiler is dry saturated steam.
Steam Purity A quantitative
measure of contamination of
steam caused by dissolved solids,
volatiles, or particles in vapour or
by tiny droplets that may remain in
the steam following primary separation in the boiler.

Regulators
for accurate
pressure control

Separators and
filters for efficient
conditioning of
steam.

Plant
Steam

Pure/
Clean
Steam
Generator

Process
Vessel

Main drip
traps for
distribution
system
condensate
removal

Hygienic ball valves

for isolation on
distribution systems.

Condensate

Condensate
Condensate

Process steam traps for

effective contaminated
condensate drainage.

Diaphragm
Valves

Pure Water
Condensate

Figure 56
Clean/Pure Steam Generator and Distribution System
51

Clean Steam
Overall Requirements of a
Clean Steam System

SYSTEM DESIGN

The overall requirements of a

clean steam system, irrespective of the means of generation of
production used, can be very simply stated:
It is essential that the
steam delivered to the point of
use is of the correct quality
and purity for the process.
In order to achieve this end
goal, there are three key areas of
design which must be considered
once the requirement for clean
steam has been identified.
Point of Use
Distribution
Production
Design and operation of
equipment, piping, components,
etc. in all these three areas will
influence the quality of the final
process or products. It is essential for the needs of the user
process to be the first concern.
Must the steam be pyrogen free?
Are any boiler additives allowed?
Are products of corrosion going to
harm the process or product?
Must the risk of biological contamination be totally prevented? It
is by answering these questions,
and perhaps others, which will
indicate the required type of production, design of the distribution
system, and the operation modes
of the user equipment, including
aspects such as steam trapping.

Specific Requirements of
Clean Steam Systems
Clean or pure steam produced
from water of very high purity is
highly corrosive or ion hungry.
The corrosive nature becomes
more pronounced as the concentration of dissolved ions decreases
with the resistivity approaching the
theoretical maximum of 18.25
megohm/cm at 25C. In order to
recover a more natural ionic balance, it will attack many of the
materials commonly used in
pipework systems. To combat this,
pipework, fittings, valves and
associated equipment such as
traps, must be constructed from

52

corrosion resistant materials.

Typically, a clean steam system
of this type will have resistivity values of the condensate in the 2-15
megohm/cm range, resulting in
very rapid attack of inferior quality
components.
Even in some filtered plant
steam applications, such as in the
food, dairy and pharmaceuticals
industries, certain corrosion inhibiting chemicals may be prohibited
from the boiler and steam generating system. Again, condensate is
then likely to be very aggressive
and so careful consideration must
be given to material selection.
A common problem encountered on clean and pure steam
systems in the pharmaceutical
industry is that of rouging, which
is a fine rusting of pipes and system
components. This
is
encountered most frequently
when low grade stainless steels
are used, and further corrosion
due to galvanic effects can take
place where dissimilar alloys are
present in the same system.
Unless care is taken with material selection throughout the
system, corrosion can become a
major problem in terms of:
a) Contaminating the system
with products of corrosion,
which are undesirable or
even potentially dangerous to
the process or product.
b) Severely reduce life of system components, increasing
maintenance time, material
replacement costs, and system downtime.
In order to prevent these
problems, austenitic stainless
steel should be used throughout,
never of lower grade than AISI
304. For severe duties, the recommended material is AISI 316
or 3161L (alternatively 316Ti) or
better, passivated to further
enhance corrosion resistance.
In summary, 316 or 316L
stainless steel is essential in
pure steam systems from its production at the generator right
through to the steam traps. Not
only will inferior materials corrode
and fail prematurely, they will also

lead to contamination of the system as a whole. Note that

although filtered plant steam will
not necessarily be so aggressive
by nature, the exclusion of many
of the corrosion inhibiting feed
chemicals for end product purity
reasons will still demand the use
of austenitic stainless steel, never
of lower grade than 304/304L, but
preferable 316/316L.

Clean Steam and Condensate

System Design
The proper and effective drainage
of condensate from any steam
system is good engineering practice, as it reduces corrosion,
erosion, and waterhammer, and
increases heat transfer. This
becomes even more important in
clean steam system, where
poor condensate drainage in the
distribution system or at the user
equipment can result in rapid corrosion and also, under certain
conditions, the risk of biological
contamination. The following
points should be carefully considered:
Pipework should have a fall in
the direction of flow of at least
1.0 inch in 10 ft., and should be
properly supported to prevent
sagging.
Adequate mains and service
pipe steam trapping should be
provided, for example at all vertical risers, upstream of control
valves, and at convenient
points along any extended pipe
length. Trapped drain points
should be provided at intervals
of at least every 100 ft.
Undrained collecting points
should not be used, as dirt
should not be present and they
provide an ideal location for
bacterial growth where systems
are shut down.
Condensate should be allowed
to discharge freely from steam
traps using gravity and an air
break. This air break should be
provided at the manifold outlet or
the closest convenient location
(Fig. 57). Where the air break
would otherwise be in a clean
room, the potentially harmful

Clean Steam

Condensate

The presence of crevices on

pipe and component walls can
provide an ideal location for
microbial growth. Pipeline components which are likely to
become fouled, such as steam
traps installed on process systems, should be installed so
they can be easily taken out of
service for thorough cleaning.
A clean steam service should
not be interconnected to any
other service which is not of
sanitary design.
Condensate from clean or pure
steam systems should not be
reused as make up for the
clean/pure steam generation
plant.
Dead legs of piping which are
not open to steam under normal
operating conditions should be
avoided by proper initial system
design and the careful placement of isolation valves. Any
dead leg open to steam must be
properly trapped to prevent condensate build up.
The use of OD tubing is becoming increasingly common for
the distribution of clean steam.
Table 15 gives capacities in lb/h
for dry-saturated steam at various pressures. In order to
reduce erosion and noise, it is
recommended that designs
should be based on flow velocities of 100 ft/sec. or less.

Condensate

Sterile barriers, or block and bleed

systems are used extensively in
the biotechnology, pharmaceutical, food, dairy and beverage
industries to prevent contaminating organisms from entering the
process. A simple example also
illustrating steam in place, condensate drainage from a process
vessel, is shown in Fig. 59.
In this application, the steam
trap is directly coupled to the
process pipework, which is normally of sanitary design. It is quite
possible that contamination at the
trap, caused by either biological
or chemical (corrosion) means,
could find its way into the process
system, thus resulting in failure of
a product batch. Steam traps with
corrosion resistant materials of
construction and self draining
features will reduce this risk, taking sanitary standards one step
further from the process.
Due to piping arrangements,
process fluids will often be flushed
through the trap. This can often
result in plugging if standard
industrial designs of trap are used.
Specialty steam traps are
called for which have the features
outlined above plus the ability for
rapid removal from the pipeline and
quick disassembly for cleaning.

User Equipment

Vent Filter
(alternatively
at kill tank)

Clean
Steam
Traps

Clean
Steam
Trap
Air Break

Typical Application

SYSTEM DESIGN

effects of flash steam can be prevented by using an expansion

pot at the end of the manifold and
venting through a filtered vent
outside the clean room. The vent
filter could alternatively be located at a kill tank, if used (Fig. 58).
To prevent the risk of contamination, the direct connection of
clean steam and condensate
services should be prevented
wherever possible. Under no
circumstances should the condensate line or manifold lift
above the level of the traps.
Where the risk of biological contamination must be minimized,
then care should be taken to
select pipeline products which
are self draining. This becomes
most important in applications
where the steam supply is frequently turned off, and where
steam pipeline products are
close coupled to sanitary
process lines. Under these conditions, microbial growth will
become possible in any pocket
of condensate or process fluid
retained in the system. However,
where the steam supply is guaranteed, then this requirement
does not become so stringent.
Never group trap i.e. always
use a single trap for draining
each process line, vessel, etc.
Failure to do this will invariably
cause back-up of condensate
in the system.

Clean
Steam
Traps

Manifold
Air Break
To Process Drain

To Process Drain

Clean Area
Single Trap

Manifold
Arrangement

Figure 57

Figure 58

Steam Trap Discharge Details

Steam Trap DischargeClean Room

Killer Tank/
Sewer

53

Clean Steam
Figure 59

Table 15: Saturated Steam Capacities OD Tube Capacities in lb/h

Effective Condensate Drainage

SYSTEM DESIGN

Steam
Inlet
Process/
Medium
Drip
Trap
Process
Trap

Tube Size (O.D. x 0.065 inch wall)

Pressure Velocity
psi
ft/sec
50
5
80
120
50
10
80
120
50
20
80
120
50
30
80
120
50
40
80
120
50
50
80
120
50
60
80
120
50
80
80
120
50
100
80
120
50
120
80
120

/4"

5
5

5
5

5
5

5
5
5
5
5
5
5
10
5
5
10
1

3
/8"

5
5
5
5
10
5
10
10
5
10
15
10
10
20
10
15
20
10
15
25
15
20
30
15
25
35
20
30
40

/2"
5
10
15
10
15
20
10
20
25
15
30
35
15
25
40
20
30
50
25
35
55
30
45
70
35
55
85
40
65
95

/4"
20
30
45
25
35
55
30
50
75
40
65
95
50
75
115
55
90
135
65
105
155
80
130
195
95
155
230
115
180
270
3

1
35
60
85
45
70
110
60
100
150
80
125
190
95
150
230
110
180
265
125
205
305
160
255
380
190
305
455
220
355
535

11/2"
90
145
215
110
180
270
155
245
370
195
310
465
235
375
556
275
440
660
315
505
755
395
630
950
470
755
1135
550
885
1325

2"
170
270
405
210
330
500
285
460
685
365
580
870
440
700
1050
515
820
1235
590
940
1411
735
1175
1764
880
1410
2115
1030
1645
2465

21/2"
270
430
650
335
535
800
460
735
1105
585
935
1400
705
1125
1690
825
1320
1980
945
1510
2265
1180
1890
2835
1415
2265
3395
1650
2640
3965

3"
395
635
950
490
785
1175
675
1080
1620
855
1370
2050
1035
1655
2480
1210
1935
2905
1385
2215
3325
1730
2770
4155
2075
3320
4975
2420
3875
5810

Case in Action: Hospital Sterilizer

A hospital was experiencing continuing problems with a
number of its sterilizers which were having an adverse
effect on both the sterilization process itself and the
amount of maintenance required to keep the units in service. These problems included:
Ineffective sterilization
Prolonged sterilization cycles
Wet and discolored packs
Instrument stains, spotting and rusting
High maintenance of drain traps and controls
Dirty sterilizer chambers requiring frequent cleaning

Solution
In discussion with the hospital maintenance engineer, the
Spirax Sarco Sales Representative offered the opinion
that these problems were a result of a wet and contaminated steam supply. In a number of cases the steam
supply to the sterilizers was unconditioned, allowing moisture and solid particles, such as pipe scale and rust, to
enter both the sterilizer jacket and chamber, resulting in the
problems identified by the user.
The solution was to install Spirax Sarco steam filter
stations. Each steam filter station is comprised of:
An isolation valve to aid in maintenance.
A separator complete with strainer and drain trap to
remove residual condensate and any entrained moisture
being carried in suspension within the steam.
A main line strainer to remove larger solid particles.
A steam filter and drain trap combination.

54

The steam filter specified was a Spirax Sarco CSF16

fitted with a 1 micron absolute filter element. The cleanable
CSF16 filter element ensured that 99% of all particles larger than 0.1 microns were removed, while the thermostatic
steam trap drained any condensate that formed in the filter
body during operation and periods when the steam supply
to the sterilizer was isolated. These installations resulted in
steam supplies free of both moisture and solid particles.

Benefits
Effective sterilization every time
Reduced sterilization cycles and improved productivity
High quality of packs and instruments without spots,
stains or corrosion
Minimal re-work of sterilizer loads
Reduced cleaning and maintenance of sterilizer, drain
traps and controls

Cost Savings
With the help of the hospital maintenance engineer, a
steam filter station payback analysis sheet was completed.
The estimated cost of maintenance, the cost associated
with re-working wet or spotted packs, and the cost due to
loss of performance were included in the payback calculation. In total, annual costs were over $25,000 for each
sterilizer. Using this figure a payback period of less than
two months was established for suitably sized Spirax Sarco
steam filter stations.

Testing Steam Traps

Temperature Test Methods

One well established method of
checking traps is to measure temperature, either upstream or
downstream. People use pyrometers, remote scanners and
temperature sensitive crayons or
tapes, while generations of maintenance men have thought they
could assess trap performance by
spitting onto the trap and watching
how the spittle reacted! Certainly, if
a trap has failed closed, the temperature at the trap will be lower
than normal, but equally the equipment being drained will also cool
down. The trap is not leaking
steam since it is closed, and this
failure is only a cause of problems
in applications like steam main
drips where the condensate not
discharged at the faulty trap is carried along the steam line. More
usually, the temperature on the
inlet side of the trap will be at or
close to the saturation temperature
of steam at whatever pressure is
reaching the trap. Even if the trap
were blowing steam, the temperature remains much the same.
The one exception is in the
case of a temperature sensitive
trap, especially one of the bimetal
pattern. If this fails open, then the
temperature at the inlet side will
rise from the normal subcooled
level to saturation values, and this
rise may be detectable if the
steam pressure is a known, constant value.

Measuring temperatures on
the downstream side of a trap, by
whatever method, is even less
likely to be useful. Lets look first
at a trap discharging through an
open-ended pipe to atmosphere.
The pressure at the trap outlet
must be only just above atmospheric, and the temperature just
above 212F.
With any condensate present
with the steam at temperatures
above 212F on the inlet side, the
condensate, after passing through
the trap will flash down to 212F
and this temperature is the one
that will be found. Any leaking
steam will help evaporate a little
more of the condensate without
increasing the temperature.
Again, the only exception which
may be encountered is the low
pressure steam heating system
where thermostatic traps normally discharge at temperatures
below 212F into atmospheric
return. A temperature of 212F
here may indicate a leaking trap.
Discharge of condensate into
a common return line is more
usual than discharge to an open
end, of course. The temperature
in the return line should be the
saturation temperature corresponding to the return pressure.
Any increase in this temperature
which may be detected will show
that the return line pressure has
increased. However, if trap A
discharging into a line blows
steam and the pressure in the
line increases, then the pressure
and temperature at traps B and
C and all others on the line will
also increase. Location of the
faulty trap is still not achieved.

Visual Determinations
The release of flashing steam
from condensate nullifies the
effectiveness of test cocks, or
three-way valves diverting a trap
discharge to an open end for test
purposes. It also restricts the information which can be gained from
sight glasses. Consider a trap discharging to an open end some
500 lbs. per hour of condensate

from a pressure of 125 psi. The

steam tables show that each
pound of water carries 324.7 BTU
which is a144.5 BTU more than it
can carry as liquid at atmospheric
pressure. As the latent heat at 0
psig is 970.6 BTU/hr., then
144.5/970.6 lbs. of flash steam are
released per pound of condensate, or 14.29%, which is some
74.45 pounds per hour. The volume of steam at 0 psig is 26.8 cu.
ft. per pound, so some 1,995 cu. ft.
per hour of flash steam is
released. The remaining water,
500 - 74.45 = 425.55 lbs. has a
volume of about 7.11 cu. ft. per
hour. Thus, the discharge from the
trap becomes 1995/1995 + 7.11 =
99.65% steam and 0.35% water,
by volume.
It is sometimes claimed that
an observer can distinguish
between this flash steam and
leakage steam by the color of the
steam at the discharge point.
While this may be possible when a
trap is leaking steam but has no
condensate load at all, so that only
steam is seen at the discharge, it
is obvious that the presence of any
condensate will make such differentiation virtually impossible. It
would be like trying to distinguish
between 99.65% steam with
0.35% water, and perhaps 99.8%
steam with 0.20% water!

SYSTEM DESIGN

Increasing attention is being paid

in modern plants to means of
assessing steam trap performance. While it is important to
know if a trap is working normally
or is leaking steam into the condensate return system, most of
the available methods of assessing trap operation are of much
more restricted usefulness than is
appreciated. To explain this, it is
necessary to consider the mode
of operation of each type of trap
when operating and when failed,
and then to see if the proposed
test method can distinguish
between the two conditions.

Trap Discharge Sounds

In a closed piping system, trap
discharge sounds may be a good
indicator of its operation. A simple
stethoscope will be of little value,
but the sound produced at ultrahigh frequencies measured by an
ultrasonic instrument eliminates
background noise interference.
Live steam flow produces a
greater and steady level of ultrasound, while flashing condensate
tends to have a crackling sound
and the level changes with the
trap load. The problem is that the
instrument requires the operator
to make a judgement as to trap
condition which will only be as
reliable as his training and experience provide for.
55

Testing Steam Traps

Table 16: Steam Trap Discharge Modes

SYSTEM DESIGN

Mode of Operation
Trap Type

No Load

Float &
Thermosatic

No Action

Inverted Bucket

Small Dribble

Balanced Pressure
Thermostatic

Full or
Overload

Usual
Failure Mode

Continuous

Closed,
A.V. Open

Intermittent

Continuous

Open

Normal Load

Usually continuous but may

cycle at high pressure
Intermittent

No Action

May Dribble

Intermittent

Continuous

Variable

Bimetallic
Thermostatic

No Action

Usually Dribble
Action

May blast at
high pressures

Continuous

Open

Impulse

Small Dribble

Continuous

Open

Disc
Thermo-Dynamic

No Action

Continuous

Open

What must be done, using all

audible and visual clues, is to
detect normal or abnormal
cycling of the discharge. Even
this method is very fallible, since
the mode of operation of different
trap types if not nearly so well
defined as is sometimes thought.
Table 16 lists some of the possibilities and allows the problem to
be seen more clearly.
It is seen that the signal to be
obtained from the trap, whether
visual, audio or temperature, is
usually going to be so ambiguous
as to rely largely on optimism for
interpretation. The one trap which
is fairly positive in its action is the
disc thermodynamic typeif this
is heard or seen to cycle up to ten
times per minute, it is operating
normally. The cycling rate increases when the trap becomes worn
and the characteristic machine
gun sound clearly indicates the
need for remedial action.

Spira-tec Leak
tor System

Detec-

Logic says that if it is not possible

to have a universally applicable
method of checking steam traps
by examining the traps themselves, then we must see if it can
be done by checking elsewhere.
This is what Spirax Sarco has
done with the Spira-tec system.
See Fig. 61 (page 58).
The Spira-tec detector chamber is fitted into the condensate
56

Light Load

Usually continuous
with blast at high loads
Intermittent

Intermittent

line on the inlet side of the trap. If

there is, at this point, a normal flow
of condensate towards the trap,
together with a small amount of air
and the steam needed to make up
heat loss from the body of the
steam trap, then all is normal. On
the other hand, an increased flow
of gas along the pipe indicates
that the trap is leaking.
The chamber contains an
inverted weir. Condensate flows
under this weir and a small hole
at the top equalizes the pressure
on each side when the steam trap
is working normally. An electrode
on the upstream side of the baffle
detects the presence of condensate by its conductivity which is
much higher than that of steam.
By plugging in the portable indicator, it is possible to check if the
electrical circuit is complete when
a visual signal indicates that the
trap is working.
If the trap begins to leak
steam, then the pressure on the
downstream side of the weir
begins to fall. The higher pressure
on the upstream side drops the
condensate level below the electrode and exposes it to steam.
The conductivity circuit is broken and the indicator light gives a
fail signal.
The advantage of the system
lies in the very positive signal
which does not require experience of personal judgement
before it can be interpreted.

Using suitable wiring, the test

point can be located remote from
the sensor chamber or it can
have a multi switch to allow up to
twelve (12) chambers to be
checked from a single test location. When appropriate, an
electronic continuous 16-way
checking instrument can monitor
the chambers and this is readily
connected into a central Energy
Management System.
The object of detecting leaking steam traps is to correct the
problem. This can mean replacement of the whole trap, or
perhaps of the faulty part of the
internal mechanism. It is very
useful indeed to be able to check
a repaired trap in the workshop
before it is installed in the line,
and many repair shops now use a
Spira-tec chamber as part of a
bench test rig. The diagram
shows a simple hookup which
allows suspect or repaired traps
to be positively checked. (Fig. 60)

Cost Of Steam Leaks

The installation and use of the
Spira-tec units does involve some
cost, and it is necessary to compare this with the cost of steam
leakages to see if the expenditure
is economically justifiable. Since
all equipment must wear and
eventually fail, we need first an
estimate of the average life of a
steam trap. Let us assume that in
a particular installation, this is,

Testing Steam Traps

Table 17: Steam Flow through Orifices Discharging to Atmosphere
Diameter
(inches)
1/32
1/16
3/32
1/8
5/32
3/16
7/32
1/4
9/32
5/16
11/32
3/8
13/32
7/16
15/32
1/2

Steam flow, lb/h, when steam gauge pressure is

2
5
10
15
25
50
75
100
125 150 200 250 300
psi
psi
psi
psi
psi
psi
psi
psi
psi psi psi
psi
psi
.31
.47
.58
.70
.94 1.53 2.12 2.7
3.3 3.9
5.1
6.3 7.4
1.25 1.86 2.3
2.8
3.8
6.1
8.5 10.8 13.2 15.6 20.3 25.1 29.8
2.81 4.20 5.3
6.3
8.45 13.8 19.1 24.4 29.7 35.1 45.7 56.4 67.0
4.5
7.5
9.4 11.2 15.0 24.5 34.0 43.4 52.9 62.4 81.3 100 119
7.8 11.7 14.6 17.6 23.5 38.3 53.1 67.9 82.7 97.4 127 156 186
11.2 16.7 21.0 25.3 33.8 55.1 76.4 97.7 119 140 183 226 268
15.3 22.9 28.7 34.4 46.0 75.0 104 133 162 191 249 307 365
20.0 29.8 37.4 45.0 60.1 98.0 136 173 212 250 325 401 477
25.2 37.8 47.4 56.9 76.1 124 172 220 268 316 412 507 603
31.2 46.6 58.5 70.3 94.0 153 212 272 331 390 508 627 745
37.7 56.4 70.7 85.1 114 185 257 329 400 472 615 758 901
44.9 67.1 84.2 101 135 221 306 391 476 561 732 902 1073
52.7 78.8 98.8 119 159 259 359 459 559 659 859 1059 1259
61.1 91.4 115 138 184 300 416 532 648 764 996 1228 1460
70.2 105 131 158 211 344 478 611 744 877 1144 1410 1676
79.8 119 150 180 241 392 544 695 847 998 1301 1604 1907

Figure 60
Steam Trap Test Rig
Pressure
Reducing Valve
D
Strainer
Steam Supply

Pressure
Gauge
A

Spira-tec
Loss
Detector

Test
Trap

Estimating Trap Steam Loss

Steam loss through a failed open
trap blowing to atmosphere can
be determined from a variant of
the Napier formula as follows:
Steam Flow in lbs/hr =
24.24 X Pa X D2
Where:
Pa = Pressure in psi absolute
D = Diameter of trap orifice
in inches
By multiplying the steam loss
by hours of operation, steam cost
(typically $6.00 per 1,000
pounds), and by the number of
failed traps, total cost of steam
system loss may be estimated.
The formula above should
not be used to directly compare
potential steam loss of one type

SYSTEM DESIGN

say seven (7) years. This means

that after the first seven years of
the life of the plant, in any year an
average of almost 15% of the
traps will fail. With an annual
maintenance campaign, some of
the traps will fail just after being
checked and some just before the
next check. On average, the 15%
can be said to have failed for half
the year, or 7-1/2% of traps failed
for the whole year.
Now, most of the traps in any
installation, on the mains drip and
tracer installations are probably
1/2" or 3/4" size and most of them
are oversized, perhaps by a factor
of up to 10 or more. Let us assume
that the condenste load is as high
as 25% of the capacity of the trap.
If the trap were to fail wide open,
then some 75% of the valve orifice
would be available for steam flow.
The steam loss then averages
75% of 7-1/2% of the steam flow
capacity of the whole trap population, or about 5.62%.
The steam flow through a
wide open seat clearly depends
on both pressure differentials and
orifice sizes, and orifice sizes in a
given size of trap such as 1/2"
usually are reduced as the
designed working pressure
increases.

C
Drain

B
Drain
To
Atmosphere

of trap against another because

of differences in failure modes. In
those that fail open only the
inverted bucket trap orifice blows
full open. Thermostatic types usually fail with their orifice at least
partially obstructed by the valve,
and flow through thermodynamic
types is a function of many passageways and must be related to
an equivalent pass area. In every
case, no trap begins losing steam
through wear or malfunction until

Inexpensive test stand may be

used to test steam trap operation.
Valves A, B, C, and D are closed and
the trap is attached. Valve C is
cracked and valve D is slowly opened.
The pressure-reducing valve is
adjusted to the rated pressure of the
trap being tested, valve C is closed,
and valve A is opened slowly, allowing
condensate flow to the trap until it is
discharged. Valve B is then partially
opened to allow the condensate to
drain out, unloading the trap. Under
this final condition, the trap must
close with a tight shutoff. With some
trap configurations, a small amount of
condensate may remain downstream
of the trap orifice. Slow evaporation of
this condensate will cause small
amounts of flash steam to flow from
the discharge of the trap even though
shutoff is absolute.

the leakage area exceeds that

needed by the condensate load.
The cost then begins and reaches the maximum calculated only
when the trap fails completely.
The object is, of course to prevent
it from reaching that stage. The
steam system always functions
best when traps are selected that
are best for the application and
checked on a regular basis to
control losses.

57

Spira-tec Trap Leak Detector System for Checking Steam Traps

SYSTEM DESIGN

Purpose
The Spira-tec Trap Leak Detector System is designed to indicate if a
steam trap is leaking steam. It can be used to check any known type or
make of trap while it is working.
Equipment
1. Sensor chamber fitted immediately upstream of the trap (close
coupled), the same size as the trap.
2. Indicator with cable.
3. Where the sensor chamber is not readily accessible, a Remote
Test Point may be fitted at a convenient position, wired back
through a junction to the sensor chamber. Remote Test Points for
either one chamber or up to 12 chambers, are available.
4. An Automatic Remote Test Point, capable of interfacing with most
Building Management Systems, is also available allowing up to 16
steam traps to be continuously scanned for steam wastage.

Figure 61
Sensor
Chamber

Plug
Tail

Wiring
Junction by Installer

Indicator

Remote
Test Point

Sensor
Chamber

Single inaccessible steam trap checking system

Spira-tec sensor chamber, plug tail, wiring (by installer),
remote test point, indicator and indicator cable.

Indicator
Cable

Indicator

Basic steam trap checking system

Spira-tec sensor chamber, indicator and indicator cable.

Automatic
Remote
Test Point

Indicator
Multiple
Remote
Test Point

Continuous scanning systemSpira-tec Automatic

Remote test point, sensor chambers, plug tails.
Multiple inaccessible steam trap checking system Spiratec sensor chambers, plug tails, wiring (by installer),
remote multiple test point, indicator and indicator cable.

58

Steam Meters

Plant Efficiency
Is idle machinery switched off?
Is the plant loaded to capacity?
Is plant efficiency deteriorating
over time indicating the need
for cleaning, maintenance and
replacement of worn parts?
When do demand levels peak
and who are the major users?
This information may lead to a
change in production methods
to even out steam usage and
ease the peak load problems
on boiler plant.

Energy Efficiency
Is an energy saving scheme
proving effective?
How does the usage and efficiency of one piece of plant
compare with another?

Process Control
Is the optimum amount of
steam being supplied to a certain process?
Is that steam at the correct
pressure and temperature?

Costing and Custody Transfer

How much steam is being supplied to each customer?
How much steam is each
department or building within
an organization using?

Selecting a Steam Meter

Repeatability

Before selecting a steam meter it

is important to understand how a
meters performance is described.
The overall performance of a
meter is a combination of
Accuracy, Repeatability and
Turndown.

This describes the ability of a

meter to indicate the same value
for an identical flowrate over and
over again. It should not be confused with accuracy i.e. the meters
repeatability may be excellent in
that it shows the same value for an
identical flowrate on several occasions, but the reading may be
consistently wrong (or inaccurate).
Repeatability is expressed as a
percentage of either actual reading
or FSD. Good repeatability is
important for observing trends or
for control e.g. batching.

Accuracy
This is the measurement
(expressed as a percentage) of
how close the meters indication
of flow is to the actual flow
through the meter. There are two
methods used to express accuracy (or percentage of uncertainty)
and they have very different
meanings.
a.Measured Value or Actual
Reading
Example: Meter is ranged 01000 lb/h and has a specified
accuracy of 3% of Actual
Reading
At an indicated flow rate of
1,000 lb/h, the true flow rate lies
between 1,030 and 970 lb/h.
At an indicated flow rate of 100
lb/h, the true flow rate lies
between 103 and 97 lb/h.
b.F.S.D. or Full Scale Deflection
Example: Meter is ranged 01000 lb/h and has a specified
accuracy of 3% FSD
At an indicated flow rate of
1,000 lb/h, the true flow rate lies
between 1,030 and 970 lb/h.
At an indicated flow rate of 100
lb/h, the true flow rate lies
between 130 and 70 lb/h (i.e.
30% of Reading !).

SYSTEM DESIGN

The steam meter is the basic tool

that provides an operator or manager,
information
vital
in
monitoring and maintaining high
efficiency levels within a plant or
building. This information can be
split into four categories:

Turndown
Sometimes called Turndown
Ratio, Effective Range or even
Rangeability. In simple terms, it is
the range of flow rate over which
the meter will work within the
accuracy and repeatability tolerances given. If a meter works
within a certain specified accuracy at a maximum flow of 1,000
lb/h and a minimum flow of 100
lb/h, then dividing the maximum
by the minimum gives a turndown
of 10:1. A wide turndown is particularly important when the flow
being measured is over a wide
range. This could be due to a variation in process e.g. a laundry
could be operating 1 machine or
20 machines (20:1 turndown), or
due to seasonal variations in
ambient temperature if the steam
is being used for space heating the difference in demand between
mid winter and mid summer can
be considerable. Generally the
bigger the turndown the better.
The Spirax Sarco family of meters
covers a wide range of sizes, turndown, accuracy, and repeatability
as detailed in Table 18.

Table 18: Specification of the Spirax Sarco Meter Range

Meter Type

Sizes

Accuracy

Turndown

Repeatability

Orifice Plate

1" -24"

3% of Reading

4:1

0.3% of Reading

Gilflo (Made to Order)

2" - 16"

1% FSD ( 1% of Reading with flow computer)

100:1

0.25% of Reading

Gilflo (S.R.G.)

2" - 8"

2% FSD ( 1% of Reading with flow computer)

100:1

0.25% of Reading

Gilflo (I.L.V.A.)

2" - 8"

2% FSD ( 1% of Reading with flow computer)

100:1

0.25% of Reading

Spiraflo

1-1/2" - 4"

2% of Reading (50% - 100% of meter range)

1% FSD (1% - 50% of meter range)

25-40:1

0.5% of Reading

59

Steam Meters
Installation

For accurate metering of compressible fluids such as gases

and vapors, the actual flowing
density must be taken into
account. This is especially true in
the case of steam. If the actual
flowing density of the steam is different to the specified density for
which the meter was originally set
up or calibrated, then errors will
occur. These errors can be considerable and depend on both the
magnitude of difference between
the specified density and the
actual flowing density, and the
type of meter being used.
Example:
The steam meter is set up and
calibrated for 100 psig (specific
volume = 3.89 ft3/lb)
The steam is actually running at a
pressure of 85 psig (specific volume = 4.44 ft3/lb).
a. Differential Pressure Device
(e.g. Orifice Plate or Gilflo Meter)
Error = s.v. actual
-1 x 100
s.v. specified

Ninety percent of all metering failures or problems are installation

related. Care should be taken to
ensure that not only is the meter
selected suitable for the application, but that the steam is
correctly conditioned both to
improve meter performance and
provide a degree of protection,
and that the manufacturers
recommendations
regarding
installation are carefully followed.

[
Error = [ 4.44 -1 x 100
3.89

Steam Conditioning
For accurate metering of saturated
steam, irrespective of the meter
type or manufacturer, it is important to condition the steam so that
it is in the form of, or as close as
possible to, a dry gas. This can be
achieved by correct steam engineering and adequate trapping to

reduce the annular film of water

that clings to the pipe wall, and
effective separation ahead of the
meter to remove much of the
entrained droplets of water. It is
therefore recommended that a
steam conditioning station (as
shown in Fig. 62) is positioned
upstream of any type of meter on
saturated steam applications. This
will enhance accuracy and protect
the meter from the effects of water
droplets impacting at high velocity.
Good steam engineering such as
the use of eccentric reducers,
effective insulation and adequate
trapping will also prevent the dangerous effects of high velocity
slugs of water known as waterhammer which can not only
destroy meters but will also damage any valves or fittings in its
path.

SYSTEM DESIGN

Density Compensation

Thermostatic
Air Vent

Error = 6.8 Therefore the meter

will over read by 6.8%
b. Velocity Device
(e.g. Vortex Meter)
Error = s.v. actual
-1 x 100
s.v. specified

[
Error = [ 4.44 -1 x 100
3.89

Steam
Separator

Isolating
Valve

Steam to
Meter

Error = 14 Therefore the meter

will over read by 14%
In the case of saturated steam,
pressure and temperature are
related and therefore to establish
the flowing density of saturated
steam, either pressure or temperature should be measured. In the
case of superheated steam, pressure and temperature can vary
independently from one another
and therefore to compensate for
changes in density of superheated steam, both pressure and
temperature must be measured.
60

Check
Valve

Strainer

Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap

Figure 62
Steam Conditioning Station

Steam Meters
Meter Location
Table 19 shows the minimum piping requirements for Orifice
Plates as laid down in the US
standard ASME MFC-3M together with the manufacturers
recommendations for vortex and
spring loaded variable area
meters. See Figures II-93, 94, 95,
96 (pages 131 and 132).

SYSTEM DESIGN

Meters need to be installed in

defined lengths of straight pipe to
ensure accurate and repeatable
performance. These pipe lengths
are usually described in terms of
the number of pipe diameters
upstream and downstream of the
meter. For example, an Orifice
Plate with a Beta ratio of 0.7
installed after a 90 bend requires
a minimum of 28 pipe diameters
of straight pipe upstream and 7
downstream. If the pipe diameter
is 6", this is equivalent to 14 feet
upstream and 3-1/2 feet downstream.
If the meter is located downstream of two 90 bends in
different planes, then the minimum straight length required
upstream of the meter is 62 pipe
diameters or thirty one feet. This
can be difficult to achieve, particularly in fairly complex pipework
systems, and there may not in
fact be a location that allows
these criteria to be met. This is an
important consideration when
selecting a meter.

Table 19: Recommended Minimum Straight Lengths (D) for Various Meter Types
On Upstream (inlet) side of the primary device
Meter Type

Single Two 90 Bends Two or more 90 Bends Reducer

Ratio (3) 90 Bend Same Plane
Different Planes
2D to D
0.30
10
16
34
5
0.35
12
16
36
5
0.40
14
18
36
5
0.45
14
18
38
5
0.50
14
20
40
6
0.55
16
22
44
8
0.60
18
26
48
9
0.65
22
32
54
11
28
36
62
14
0.70 (4)
0.75
36
42
70
22
0.80
46
50
80
30
N/A
20 - 40
20 - 40
40
10 - 20
N/A
6
6
12
6
N/A
6
6
12
6
N/A
6
6
12
6
N/A
6
6
12
6

Downstream
Expander
0.5D to D
16
16
16
17
18
20
22
25
30
38
54
10 - 35
12
12
12
12

Globe Valve Gate Valve All Fittings

Fully Open Fully Open in this table
18
12
5
18
12
5
20
12
6
20
12
6
22
12
6
24
14
6
26
14
7
28
16
7
32
20
7
36
24
8
44
30
8
50
20 - 40
5 - 10
6
6
3-6
6
6
3-6
6
6
3-6
6
6
3-6

Orifice Plate
Orifice Plate
Orifice Plate
Orifice Plate
Orifice Plate
Orifice Plate
Orifice Plate
Orifice Plate
Orifice Plate
Orifice Plate
Orifice Plate
Vortex (1)
Spiraflo (2)
Gilflo (2)
Gilflo SRG (2)
Gilflo ILVA (2)
Notes:
1.
The table shows the range of straight lengths recommended by various Vortex meter manufacturers.
2.
Downstream requirements are 3D and 6D when upstream are 6D and 12D respectively.
3.
ratio = Orifice diameter (d) divided by Pipe diameter (D)
4.
Most Orifice Plates are supplied with a ratio of around 0.7 which gives the best pressure recovery without compromising signal strength.

61

Compressed Air Systems

Sizing Compressed Air Traps

Heat is released when air or any

gas is compressed. The compressor must be cooled to avoid
overheating, usually by circuating
water through the jackets.
Cooling is an important function
which must be controlled to
ensure maximum efficiency.
Overcooling wastes water and
leads to condensation within the
cylinders, with deterioration of the
lubricating oils. Undercooling
reduces compressor capacity
and can result in serious damage
to the compressor. Automatic
temperature control of cooling
water flow ensures maximum efficiency.
The atmosphere is a mixture
of air and water vapor. Free air
has a greater volume, and moisture holding capacity, than
compressed air at the same temperature. As the compressed air
is cooled after leaving the compressor, or between stages,
some of the water is precipitated.
This water must be drained from
the system to avoid damage to
pneumatic valves and tools.

The amount of water which is to be discharged is determined from

steam table saturated vapor density or estimated with the help of a
graph, Fig. 63 and compression ratio table. An example shows how this
is used.
Example:
How much water will precipitate from 150 cfm of free air at 70F and 90%
relative humidity when compressed to 100 psig and cooled to 80F?
Air flow = 150 cfm X 60 = 9000 cu. ft/hour.
From Fig. 63, at 70F water in air drawn in will be
1.15 X 9000 X 90% = 9.32 lb/h
1000
Determine excess moisture due to compression by dividing hourly air
flow by factor from Compession Ratio Table 20B (page 64), and convert
for (absolute) temperature.
Compression ratio at 100 psig = 7.8
Air volume after compression = 9000 X (460 + 80) = 1175 cu. ft./h
7.8
(460 + 70)
From Fig. 63, 1000 cu. ft. at 80F can carry 1.6 lb. of water.
1175 cu. ft. will carry 1175 X 1.6 = 1.88 lb/h
1000
So, (9.32 lb. 1.88 lb.) = 7.44 lb/h of water will separate out.

Choice Of Drainer Trap

The quantities of water which
must be drained from the air are
relatively small, even on quite
large installations, providing they
are dealt with continuously. It is
unusual to need air traps in sizes
larger than 1/2". Except where a
worn compressor is allowing
lubricating oils to be discharged
with the compressed air, float
operated drainers are the best
choice.
Where the presence in the
system of water/oil emulsions
interferes with the operation of float
drainers, the thermodynamic TD
trap is used. As the TD trap needs
an operating pressure of at least
50 psi when used as an air drainer,
care must be taken when it is used
on small systems. Preferably, the
TDs should be valved off at startup until the system pressure is up
to 50 psi or more.
62

Figure 63: Moisture Holding Capacity of Air at Varying Temperatures

3.0
2.8
Pounds Water Vapor per 1,000 cubic ft. at Saturation

SYSTEM DESIGN

Air Compressors

2.6
2.4
2.2
2.0
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
.8
.6
.4
.2
0
-20 -10

10

20

30 40 50
Air Temp F

60

70

80

90

100

Compressed Air Systems

Distribution Lines

Automatic drainers are needed at

any absorption or refrigerant
dryer, and any separator which is
instaled in the air line from the
aftercooler, or at the entry to a
building. They are also needed at
the low points in the distribution
lines. (Fig. 64)
Unless fitted close to the
points being drained, and on light
loads, drainers often need a balance line to allow air to be
displaced from the piping or the
drainer body as water runs in. The
balance line is connected above
the drain point, and should not be
upstream of it. See Fig. II-115
(page 140).

These form the all important link

between the compressor and the
points of usage. If they are undersized, the desired air flow will be
accompanied by a high pressure
drop. This necessitates extra
power input at the compressor.
For example, a pressure at the
compressor of 120 psi where a
pressure of 100 psi would have
sufficed without a high pressure
drop in the lines, needs an additional power input of 10%.
The correct size of compressed air lines can be selected
by using Fig. 66 on page 66.
Example: 1,000 cu. ft. of free air
per minute is to be transmitted at
100 PSIG pressure through a 4
line standard weight pipe. What
will be the pressure drop due to
friction?

1. Enter the chart at the top at

the point representing 100
psig pressure.
2. Proceed vertically downward
to the intersection with horizontal line representing 1,000
CFM.
3. Next proceed parallel to the
diagonal guide lines to the
right (or left) to the intersection with the horizontal line
representing a 4" line.
4. Proceed vertically downward
to the pressure loss scale at
the bottom of the chart. You
will note that the pressure
loss would be 0.225 psi per
100 ft. of pipe.
It is usual to size compressed
air lines on velocity, while keeping
a watchful eye on pressure drop.

SYSTEM DESIGN

Drainer Installation

Figure 64
Compressed Air System

Compressor
Cooling
Water Control

Instrumentation
and Control
System

Spray
Gun

Air
Operated
Hoist
Drain
Trap

Pneumatic
Tool
Line Separator

Water Cooled
Aftercooler

Drain Trap

Drain
Trap
Drain
Trap

Liquid
Drain
Trap

Receiver

Air
Gauging

Breathing
Mask

Machine Tool
Air Bearing
Drain
Trap

Pressure
Gauge

Drain Traps

Safety
Valve

Strainer

Separator

63

Compressed Air Systems

Table 20A: Pumped Circulation Water Storage Tanks

SYSTEM DESIGN

Compressor Capacity, cfm free air

Tank Capacity, gallons

25
50

50
100

100
180

150
270

200
440

300
550

450
850

600
1000

800
1200

Table 20B: Ratio of Compression

Gauge Pressure psi
Ratio of Compression

10
168

20
236

30
304

40
372

50
440

60
508

70
576

80
644

Gauge Pressure psi

Ratio of Compression

90
712

100
78

110
848

120
916

130
984

140
1052

150
112

200
146

Table 21: Cooling Water Flow Rates

Compressor operating at 100 psi
Single Stage
Single Stage with Aftercooler
Two Stage
Two Stage with Aftercooler

An air velocity of 20 to 30 ft/second or 1200 to 1800 ft/minute, is

sufficiently low to avoid excessive
pressure loss and to prevent reentrainment
of
precipitated
moisture. In short branches to the
air-using equipment, volocities up
to 60-80 ft/second or 3600-4800
ft/minute are often acceptable.

Checking Leakage Losses

Air line leaks both waste valuable
air and also contribute to pressure
loss in mains by adding useless
load to compressors and mains.
Hand operated drain valves are a
common source of leakage that
can be stopped by using reliable
automatic drain traps. Here is a
simple way of making a rough
check of leakage loss. First, estimate the total volume of system
from the receiver stop valve to the
tools, including all branches, separators, etc. Then with no
equipment in use, close the stop
valve and with a stop watch note
the time taken for the pressure in
the system to drop by 15 psi. The
leakage loss per minute is:
Cu. ft. of Free Air
Loss per Minute
=
Volume of System Cu. Ft.
Time in Minutes to Drop
Pressure 15 psi
64

Water Flow per

100 cfm free air
1.2
4.8
2.4
6

gpm
gpm
gpm
gpm

Compressor Cooling
Air cooled compressors, formerly
available only in the smaller sizes,
are now found with capacities up
to 750 cfm, and rated for pressures up to 200 psi. The cylinders
are finned and extra cooling is provided by arranging the flywheel or
a fan to direct a stream of air on to
the cylinder. Such compressors
should not be located in a confined space where ambient air
temperatures may rise and prevent adequate cooling.
Water cooled compressors
have water jackets around the
cylinders, and cooling water is circulated through the jackets.
Overcooling is wasteful and costly, and can lead to corrosion and
wear within the compressor.
Temperature control of the cooling water is important.

Pumped Circulation
Larger single-staged compressors may require a pump to
increase the water velocity when
thermo-siphon circulation is too
slow. The size of the water tank
should be discussed with the
compressor manufacturer, but in
the absence of information, Table
20A can be used as a guide for
compressors operating at up to
100 psi.

Single Pass Cooling

The hook-up shown in Fig. II-103
(page 135) is used where water
from the local supply is passed
directly through the compressor
to be cooled. With increasing
demands on limited water
resources, many water supply
authorities do not permit use of
water in this way, especially
where the warmed water is discharged to waste, and require the
use of recirculation systems.
When single pass cooling is
used, temperature controls will
help ensure consumption is minimized. To avoid the sensor control
being in a dead pocket if the control valve ever closes, a small
bleed valve is arranged to bypass
the control valve. This ensures a
small flow past the sensor at all
times.
Many compressor manufacturers suggest that the temperature of
the water leaving the cylinder jackets should be in the range of
95-120F. Typical water flow rates
needed for compressors are shown
in Table 21, but again, these should
be checked with the manufacturer
where possible.
The supply of cooling water can
sometimes be taken from the softened boiler feed water storage
tank. The warmed outlet water then
becomes a source of pre-heated
makeup water for the boiler.

Compressed Air Systems

Lubricant Coolers

Compressor Equipment Guide

Especially with large compressors, economies are obtained

when the cooling water is recycled in a closed circuit. This also
minimizes any scaling in the jackets and coolers. The heat may be
dissipated at a cooling tower or a
mechanical cooler, or sometimes
used for space heating in adjacent areas.
Usually with closed circuit cooling, it is preferable to use
three-way temperature controls.
Where cooling towers are used,
freeze protection of the tower
sump may be needed in winter
conditions. Often a steam heating
coil is installed in the sump with a
temperature control set to open
when the water temperature falls
to say 35F. A three-way temperature control diverts water direct
to the sump instead of to the top
of the tower in low temperature
conditions. Heat loss from the
sump itself then provides sufficient cooling.

On large reciprocating compressors, and especially on rotary

vane compressors, the lubricating
oil is usually cooled by passing it
through a heat exchanger. Here it
gives up heat to cooling water
and again the coolant flow should
be temperature controlled. See
Fig. 65.

Approx. CFM Air =

Compressor HP X 5
GPM Cooling Water =
42.5 X HP/Cylinder
8.33 X Temp. Rise
of Cooling Water

Bypass if
necessary

Strainer

SYSTEM DESIGN

Closed Circuit Cooling

Sensor

Reverse Acting
Temperature
Control

Figure 65
Temperature Control of Water to Oil Cooler

Case in Action: Air System Moisture Separation/Drainage

Air is a vital utility for all process plants, primarily to power
control valves, measurement devices and to drive tools,
pumps, machinery, etc. Outdoor facilities (i.e. refineries
and chemical plants) are faced with continual problems
related to water accumulation in the air system.
Free and compressed air carries varying volumes of
water at different pressures and temperatures. This affects
the amount of entrained water that must be drained in different parts of the system for effective operation.
Desiccant dryers critical for removing water from compressed air distributed to instruments and controls
become water-logged due to excess moisture entrained in
the free-air supplied. When this occurs, the dryers shut
down, curtailing air for distribution.
The heat transfer across the wall of distribution piping
creates additional condensing. Moisture, entrained in the air
flow, exceeds the capacity of the coalescent filters installed
at the point of use. The air-using equipment is then flooded
with water, affecting proper operation. This can ruin gauges
and instruments and affect control accuracy.

Solution
Over 30 separators with drain traps were installed in problem areas providing proper drainage of equipment.

Benefits
Continuous operation of desiccant dryers, assuring
uninterrupted air supply.
Working with dry air, instrument accuracy is more consistent.
Damage to gauges and other instruments, caused by
entrained water, is prevented, reducing maintenance
cost.
Air hose stations deliver dry air immediately eliminating
delay/inconvenience of having to manually drain water
from the hoses before use.

65

Compressed Air Line Pressure Drop

Figure 66: Compressed Air Line Pressure Drop

SYSTEM DESIGN

Gauge Pressure lb. per sq. inch

Abs. Pres. P.S.I.A.
100
400 300 200
20 10 5 01412 10 8 7 6 5
12
10000

10

6000
4000
3000

2000

5
1000
4
31/2
3

600
400
300
200

21/2
2

100

1 /2

60

11/4

40
30
20

1
/4

Cubic Feet Free Air per Minute

Nominal Pipe Sizes Std. weight pipe

10

/2

.03 .04

.2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .8 1.0 1.5 2
.06 .08 .1
Pressure Drop lbs per sq. inch per 100 feet

Figure 67: Expansion Chart for Mild Steam Pipe

Pipe Expansion

Temperature difference (F)

700
600
500
400

t = Temperature difference (F)

a = Expansion coefficient

Mild Steel
0.1-0.2% C

32
32
32
to
to
to
900 1100 1300

71 78

83

87

90

95

97

Alloy Steel
1% Cr. 1/2% Mo 77 80

84

88

92

96

98

Stainless Steel
18% Cr. 8% Ni 108 111 115 118 121 124 126 128
Expansion Coefficient a x 10-5 (inches)
Example 71 x 10-5 = 0.000071

66

Length of pipe (feet)

Expansion () = L0 x t x a (inches)
L0 = Length of pipe between anchors (ft)

32
to
750

200

300 400 500 600

700
800
900

300

Table 22: Calculation of Pipe Expansion

For Temp. Range 30 32 32 32

(F)
to to
to
to
32 212 400 600

100

200
150
125
100
75
50

25
16
1/2 3/4 1 11/2 2 3 4
6 8
Expansion of pipe (inches)

12 16 20 26 32 40
Temperature of
Saturated Steam
psi gauge Temp (F)
5
228
10
240
25
267
50
298
75
320
100
338
125
353
150
366
200
388
250
406
300
421
400
448
500
470

Heat Transfer
Table 25: Heat Loss from Open Tanks

Average Heat Loss from Oil in Storage Tanks and Pipe Lines

Liquid Heat Loss From Liquid Suface Heat Loss Through Tank Walls
Temp.
BTU/ft2 h
BTU/ft2 h
F
Evap.
Rad.
Total
Bare
Insulation
Loss
Loss
Steel
1"
2"
3"

Position

Oil Temperature

Unlagged*

Lagged*

Tank Sheltered

Up to 50F
Up to 80F
Up to 100F

1.2
1.3
1.4

.3
.325
.35

Tank Exposed

Up to 50F
Up to 80F
Up to 100F

1.4
1.5
1.6

.35
.375
.4

Tank In Pit

All Temperatures

1.2

Pipe Sheltered
Line

Up to 80F
80 to 260F

1.5
2.3

.375
.575

Pipe Exposed
Line

Up to 80F
80 to 260F

1.8
2.75

.45
.7

*Heat Transfer Rate in BTU/h ft2 F temperature difference

between oil and surrounding air
For rough calculations, it may be taken that 1 ton of fuel oil
occupies 36.4 ft3. The specific heat capacity of heavy fuel is
0.45 to 0.48 Btu/lb F.
Heat Transfer from Steam Coils
Approximately 20 Btu/h ft2 of heating surface per F difference
between oil and steam temperature.
Heat Transfer from Hot Water Coils
Approximately 10 Btu/h ft2 of heating surface per F difference
between oil and water temperature.

90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
200
210

80
160
240
360
480
660
860
1100
1380
1740
2160
2680
3240

50
70
90
110
135
160
180
210
235
260
290
320
360

130
230
330
470
615
820
1040
1310
1615
2000
2450
3000
3590

50
70
90
110
135
160
180
210
235
260
290
320
360

12
15
19
23
27
31
34
38
42
46
50
53
57

6
8
10
12
14
16
18
21
23
25
27
29
31

4
6
7
9
10
12
13
15
16
17
19
20
22

SYSTEM DESIGN

Table 23: Heat Transfer

Table 26: Heat Emission Rates from Pipes

Submerged in Water
Published Overall Heat Transfer Rates

Btu/ft2 h F

Tank Coils, Steam/Water

(Temperature difference 50F)

100 to 225

Tank Coils, Steam/Water

(Temperature difference 100F)

175 to 300

Tank Coils, Steam/Water

(Temperature difference 200F)

225 to 475

Reasonable Practical Heat Transfer Rates

Table 24: Heat Transmission Coefficients

In Btu per sq. ft. per hr. per F.
Water
Water
Water
Water
Water
Water
Air
Air
Steam
Steam
Steam
Steam
Steam
Steam
Steam

Cast Iron
Mild Steel
Copper
Cast Iron
Mild Steel
Copper
Cast Iron
Mild Steel
Cast Iron
Mild Steel
Copper
Cast Iron
Mild Steel
Copper
Stainless Steel

Air or Gas
Air or Gas
Air or Gas
Water
Water
Water
Air
Air
Air
Air
Air
Water
Water
Water
Water

1.4
2.0
2.25
40 to 50
60 to 70
62 to 80
1.0
1.4
2.0
2.5
3.0
160
185
205
120

The above values are average coefficients for practically still fluids.
The coefficients are dependent on velocities of heating and
heated media on type of heating surface, temperature difference
and other circumstances. For special cases, see literature,
and manufacturers data.

Tank Coils, low pressure with natural circulation

100

Tank Coils, high pressure with natural circulation

200

Tank Coils, low pressure with assisted circulation

200

Tank Coils, high pressure with assisted circulation

300

Table 27: Heat Emission Coefficients from

Pipes Submerged in Miscellaneous Fluids
The viscosity of fluids has a considerable bearing on heat transfer characteristics and this varies in any case with temperature.
The following figures will therefore serve only as a rough guide.
Immersed steam coil, medium pressure, natural convection.
Btu/ft2 h F difference
Light Oils
Heavy Oils
Fats*

30
15 to 20
5 to 10

Immersed steam coil, medium pressure, forced convection.

Light Oils (220 SSU at 100F)
Medium Oils (1100 SSU at 100F)
Heavy Oils (3833 SSU at 100F)

Btu/ft2 h F difference
100
60
30

* Certain materials such as tallow and margarine are solid at normal

temperatures but have quite low viscosities in the molten state.

67

Typical Steam Consumption Rates

Table 28: Typical Steam Consumption Rates

SYSTEM DESIGN

Operating
pressure
PSIG
BAKERIES
Dough room trough, 8 ft long
Proof boxes, 500 cu ft capacity
Ovens: Peel Or Dutch Type
White bread, 120 sq ft surface
Rye bread, 10 sq ft surface
Master Baker Ovens
Century Reel, w/pb per 100 lb bread
Rotary ovens, per deck
Bennett 400, single deck
Hubbard (any size)
Middleby-Marshall, w/pb
Baker-Perkins travel ovens, long tray (per 100 lbs)
Baker-Perkins travel ovens, short tray (per 100 lbs)
General Electric
Fish Duothermic Rotary, per deck
Revolving ovens: 8-10 bun pan
12-18 bun pan
18-28 bun pan
BOTTLE WASHING
Soft drinks, beer, etc: per 100 bottles/min
Mill quarts, per 100 cases per hr
CANDY and CHOCOLATE
Candy cooking, 30-gal cooker, 1 hour
Chocolate melting, jacketed, 24 dia
Chocolate dip kettles, per 10 sq ft tank surface
Chocolate tempering, top mixing each 20 sq ft active surface
Candy kettle per sq ft of jacket
Candy kettle per sq ft of jacket
CREAMERIES and DAIRIES
Creamery cans 3 per min
Pasteurizer, per 100 gal heated 20 min
DISHWASHERS
2-Compartment tub type
Large conveyor or roller type
Autosan, colt, depending on size
Champion, depending on size
Hobart Crescent, depending on size
Fan Spray, depending on size
Crescent manual steam control
Hobart Model AM-5
Dishwashing machine
HOSPITAL EQUIPMENT
Stills, per 100 gal distilled water
Sterilizers, bed pan
Sterilizers, dressing, per 10 length, approx.
Sterilizers, instrument, per 100 cu in approx.
Sterilizers, water, per 10 gal, approx.
Disinfecting Ovens, Double Door:
Up to 50 cu ft, per 10 cu ft approx.
50 to 100 cu ft, per 10 cu ft approx.
100 and up, per 10 cu ft, approx.
Sterilizers, Non-Pressure Type
For bottles or pasteurization
Start with water at 70F, maintained for 20 minutes at boiling at a depth of 3
Instruments and Utensils:
Start with water at 70F, boil vigorously for 20 min:
Depth 3-1/2: Size 8 X 9 X 18
Depth 3-1/2: Size 9 X 20 X 10
Depth 4: Size 10 X 12 X 22
Depth 4: Size 12 X 16 X 24
Depth 4: Size 10 X 12 X 36
Depth 10: Size 16 X 15 X 20
Depth 10: Size 20 X 20 X 24
LAUNDRY EQUIPMENT
Vacuum stills, per 10 gal
Spotting board, trouser stretcher
Dress finisher, overcoat shaper, each
Jacket finisher, Susie Q, each

68

10

Lbs per hr
In use

Maximum

4
7

10
29
58
29
29
29
44
58
58
13
29
20
58
29
58
87
5
310
58
70
46
29
29
29
30
75
15-75

60
100
310
232

10-30
29
58
29
58
30
10
15-20
40-50

58
58
117
310
186
248

60-70
102
3
7
3
6

40-50
29
21
16
40
51

69

27
30
39
60
66
92
144

27
30
39
60
66
92
144

40

100
16
29
58
44

Typical Steam Consumption Rates

Table 28: Typical Steam Consumption Rates

Air vacuum finishing board, 18 Mushroom Topper, ea.

Steam irons, each
Flat Iron Workers:
48 X 120, 1 cylinder
48 X 120, 2 cylinder
4-Roll, 100 to 120
6-Roll, 100 to 120
8-Roll, 100 to 120
Shirt Equipment
Single cuff, neckband, yoke No. 3, each
Double sleeve
Body
Bosom
Dry Rooms
Blanket
Conveyor, per loop, approx.
Truck, per door, approx.
Curtain, 50 X 114
Curtain, 64 X 130
Starch cooker, per 10 gal cap
Starcher, per 10-in. length approx.
Laundry presses per 10-in. length approx.
Handy irons, per 10-in. length, approx.
Collar equipment: Collar and Cuff Ironer
Deodorizer
Wind Whip, single
Wind Whip, double
Tumblers, General Usage Other Source
36, per 10 length, approx.
40, per 10 length, approx.
42, per 10 length, approx.
Vorcone, 46 X 120
Presses, central vacuum, 42
Presses, steam, 42
PLASTIC MOLDING
Each 12 to 15 sq ft platen surface
PAPER MANUFACTURE
Corrugators per 1,000 sq ft
Wood pulp paper, per 100 lb paper
RESTAURANT EQUIPMENT
Standard steam tables, per ft length
Standard steam tables, per 20 sq ft tank
Bain Marie, per ft length, 30 wide
Bain Marie, per 10 sq ft tank
Coffee urns, per 10 gal, cold make-up
3-compartment egg boiler
Oyster steamers
Clam or lobster steamer
Steam Jacketed Kettles
10 gal capacity
25 gal stock kettle
40 gal stock kettle
60 gal stock kettle
Plate And Dish Warmers
Per 100 sq ft shelf
Per 20 cu ft shelf
Warming ovens, per 20 cu ft
Direct vegetable steamer, per compartment
Potato steamer
Morandi Proctor, 30 comp., no return
Pot sink, steam jets, average use
Silver burnishers, Tahara
SILVER MIRRORING
Average steam tables
TIRE SHOPS
Truck molds, large
Truck molds, medium
Passenger molds
Section, per section
Puff Irons, each

Lbs per hr
In use
20
4

Maximum

100
248
310
217
341
465
100
7
13
29
44

SYSTEM DESIGN

Operating
pressure
PSIG

100
20
7
58
29
58
7
5
7
5
21
87
58
87
100
29
38
52
310
20
29
125

29

175
50
5-20

29
372
36
29
13
29
13
13
13
29

5-20
13
29
44
58

106
124
140
152

58
29
29
29
29
87
29
58

80
80

5-20

5
100

102
87
58
29
7
7

69

Specific Heats and Weights

Table 29: Specific Heats and Weights: Various Solids

SYSTEM DESIGN

Specific
Gravity
2.55-2.8

Material
Aluminum ....................................
Andalusite ...................................
Antimony .....................................
Aatite ...........................................
Asbestos .....................................
2.1-2.8
Augite ..........................................
Bakelite, wood filler .....................
Bakelite, asbestos filler ...............
Barite...........................................
4.5
Barium.........................................
3.5
Basalt rock ..................................
2.7-3.2
Beryl............................................
Bismuth .......................................
9.8
Borax...........................................
1.7-1.8
Boron...........................................
2.32
Cadmium.....................................
8.65
Calcite, 32-100F..........................
Calcite, 32-212F..........................
Calcium .......................................
4.58
Carbon ........................................
1.8-2.1
Carborundum ..............................
Cassiterite ...................................
Cement, dry ................................
Cement, powder..........................
Charcoal......................................
Chalcopyrite ................................
Chromium....................................
7.1
Clay .............................................
1.8-2.6
Coal.............................................
64-.93
Cobalt..........................................
8.9
Concrete, stone...........................
Concrete, cinder..........................
Copper ........................................
8.8-8.95
Corundum ...................................
Diamond......................................
3.51
Dolomite rock ..............................
2.9
Fluorite ........................................
Fluorspar .....................................
Galena.........................................
Garnet .........................................
Glass, common ...........................
2.4-2.8
Glass, crystal ..............................
2.9-3.0
Glass, plate ................................. 2.45-2.72
Glass, wool..................................
Gold............................................. 19.25-19.35
Granite ........................................
2.4-2.7
Hematite......................................
5.2
Hornblende..................................
3.0
Hypersthene................................
Ice, -112F ....................................
Ice, -40F ......................................
Ice, -4F ........................................

70

Specific Heat,
B.t.u. per Lb.
per F
.22
.17
.05
.20
.20
.19
.33
.38
.11
.07
.20
.20
.03
.24
.31
.06
.19
.20
.15
.17
.16
.09
.37
.2
.24
.13
.12
.22
.26-.37
.11
.19
.18
.09
.10
.15
.22
.22
.21
.05
.18
.20
.12
.12
.16
.03
.19
.16
.20
.19
.35
.43
.47

Specific
Gravity

Material
Ice, 32F .......................................
Iridium ......................................... 21.78-22.42
Iron, cast ..................................... 7.03-7.13
Iron, wrought ...............................
7.6-7.9
Labradorite ..................................
Lava ............................................
Lead ............................................
11.34
Limestone....................................
2.1-2.86
Magnetite ....................................
3.2
Magnesium..................................
1.74
Malachite.....................................
Manganese .................................
7.42
Marble .........................................
2.6-2.86
Mercury .......................................
13.6
Mica.............................................
Molybdenum................................
10.2
Nickel ..........................................
8.9
Oligloclose...................................
Orthoclose...................................
Plaster of Paris............................
Platinum ......................................
21.45
Porcelain .....................................
Potassium....................................
0.86
Pyrexglass...................................
Pyrolusite ....................................
Pyroxylin plastics.........................
Quartz, 55-212F..........................
2.5-2.8
Quartz, 32F .................................
Rock salt .....................................
Rubber ........................................
Sandstone ...................................
2.0-2.6
Serpentine...................................
2.7-2.8
Silk ..............................................
Silver ........................................... 10.4-10.6
Sodium ........................................
0.97
Steel ............................................
7.8
Stone...........................................
Stoneware ...................................
Talc..............................................
2.6-2.8
Tar ...............................................
1.2
Tallurium......................................
6.0-6.24
Tin ...............................................
7.2-7.5
Tile, hollow ..................................
Titanium ......................................
4.5
Topaz...........................................
Tungsten......................................
19.22
Vanadium ....................................
5.96
Vulcanite......................................
Wood...........................................
.35-.99
Wool ............................................
1.32
Zinc blend....................................
3.9-4.2
Zinc .............................................
6.9-7.2

Specific Heat,
B.t.u. per Lb.
per F
.49
.03
.12
.12
.19
.20
.03
.22
.16
.25
.18
.11
.21
.03
.21
.06
.11
.21
.19
1.14
.03
.26
.13
.20
.16
.34-.38
.19
.17
.22
.48
.22
.26
.33
.06
.30
.12
.20
.19
.21
.35
.05
.05
.15
.14
.21
.04
.12
.33
.32-.48
.33
.11
.09

Specific Heats and Weights

Table 30: Specific Heats and Weights: Various Liquids

1.02
1.20

1.16

.96
.91

Specific Heat,
B.t.u. per Lb.
per F
.51
.55
.65
.59
.60
1.10
1.16
1.29
1.48
1.61
.52
.42
.73
.43
.44
.46
.53
.53
.40
.44

Liquid
Fuel Oil........................................
Fuel Oil........................................
Gasoline ......................................
Glycerine .....................................
Kerosene .....................................
Mercury .......................................
Naphthalene................................
Nitrobenzole ................................
Olive Oil.......................................
Petroleum ....................................
Potassium Hydrate.....................
Sea Water ...................................
Sesame Oil .................................
Sodium Chloride .........................
Sodium Hydrate ..........................
Soybean Oil.................................
Toluol...........................................
Turpentine ...................................
Water...........................................
Xylene .........................................

Specific
Gravity
.86
.81
1.26
13.6
1.14
.91-.94
1.24
1.0235
1.19
1.27
.866
.87
1
.861-.881

Specific Heat,
B.t.u. per Lb.
per F
.45
.50
.53
.58
.48
.033
.41
.36
.47
.51
.88
.94
.39
.79
.94
.47
.36
.41
1.00
.41

SYSTEM DESIGN

Liquid
Acetone .......................................
Alcohol, ethyl 32F ......................
Alcohol, ethyl, 105F ...................
Alcohol, methyl, 40-50F.............
Alcohol, methyl, 60-70F.............
Ammonia, 32F ...........................
Ammonia, 104F .........................
Ammonia, 176F .........................
Ammonia, 212F .........................
Ammonia, 238F .........................
Anilin ...........................................
Benzol .........................................
Calcium Chloride.........................
Castor Oil ....................................
Citron Oil .....................................
Diphenylamine ............................
Ethyl Ether...................................
Ethylene Glycol ...........................
Fuel Oil........................................
Fuel Oil........................................

Specific
Gravity
0.790
0.789
0.789
0.796
0.796
0.62

Table 31: Specific Heats and Weights: Gas and Vapors

Specific Heat,
B.t.u. per Lb.
Gas or Vapor
per F
at Constant
Pressure
Acetone .......................................
.35
Air, dry, 50F ...............................
.24
Air, dry, 32-392F ........................
.24
Air, dry, 68-824F ........................
.25
Air, dry 68-1166F.......................
.25
Air, dry, 68-1472F ......................
.26
.45
Alcohol, C2H5OH.........................
Alcohol, CH3OH ..........................
.46
Ammonia .....................................
.54
Argon...........................................
.12
Benzene, C6H6 ............................
.26
Bromine.......................................
.06
Carbon dioxide ............................
.20
Carbon monoxide........................
.24
Carbon disulphide .......................
.16
Chlorine.......................................
.11
Chloroform ..................................
.15

Specific Heat,
B.t.u. per Lb.
per F
at Constant
Volume
.315
.172
.173
.178
.184
.188
.398
.366
.422
.072
.236
.047
.150
.172
.132
.082
.131

Specific Heat,
B.t.u. per Lb.
Gas or Vapor
per F
at Constant
Pressure
Ether............................................
.48
Hydrochloric acid ........................
.19
Hydrogen.....................................
3.41
Hydrogen sulphide ......................
.25
Methane ......................................
.59
Nitrogen.......................................
.24
Nitric oxide ..................................
.23
Nitrogen tetroxide........................
1.12
Nitrous oxide ...............................
.21
Oxygen........................................
.22
Steam, 1 psia
120-600 F ................................
.46
Steam, 14.7 psia
220-600 F ................................
.47
Steam, 150 psia
360-600 F ................................
.54
Sulphur dioxide ...........................
.15

Specific Heat,
B.t.u. per Lb.
per F
at Constant
Volume
.466
.136
2.410
.189
.446
.170
.166
1.098
.166
.157
.349
.359
.421
.119

71

Specific Heats and Weights

Table 32: Specific Heats and Weights: Foodstuffs

SYSTEM DESIGN

Specific Heat, Specific Heat,

B.t.u. per Lb.
B.t.u. per Lb.
Food
per F
per F
above freezing below freezing
Apples .........................................
.87
.42
Apricots, fresh .............................
.88
.43
Artichokes ...................................
.87
.42
Asparagus ...................................
.94
.45
Asparagus beans ........................
.88
.43
Avocados.....................................
.72
.37
Bananas ......................................
.80
.40
Barracuda....................................
.80
.40
Bass ............................................
.82
.41
Beef, carcass ..............................
.68
.48
Beef, flank ...................................
.56
.32
Beef, Loin ....................................
.66
.35
Beef, rib.......................................
.67
.36
Beef, round..................................
.74
.38
Beef, rump ..................................
.62
.34
Beef, shanks ...............................
.76
.39
Beef, corned................................
.63
.34
Beets ...........................................
.90
.43
Blackberries ................................
.87
.42
Blueberries ..................................
.87
.42
Brains ..........................................
.84
.41
Broccoli .......................................
.92
.44
Brussels sprouts .........................
.88
.43
Butter...........................................
.30
.24
Butterfish .....................................
.77
.39
Cabbage......................................
.94
.45
Carp ............................................
.82
.41
Carrots ........................................
.91
.44
Cauliflower ..................................
.93
.44
Celery..........................................
.94
.45
Chard ..........................................
.93
.44
Cherries, sour .............................
.88
.43
Cherries, sweet ...........................
.84
.41
Chicken, squab ...........................
.80
.40
Chicken, broilers .........................
.77
.39
Chicken, fryers ............................
.74
.38
Chicken, hens .............................
.65
.35
Chicken, capons..........................
.88
.44
Clams, meat only ........................
.84
.41
Coconut, meat and milk ..............
.68
.36
Coconut, milk only.......................
.95
.45
Codfish ........................................
.86
.42
Cod Roe......................................
.76
.39
Corn ............................................
.84
.423
Cowpeas, fresh ...........................
.73
.39
Cowpeas, dry ..............................
.28
.22
Crabs...........................................
.84
.41
Crab apples.................................
.85
.41
Cranberries .................................
.90
.43
Cream .........................................
.90
.38
Cucumber....................................
.98
.45
Currants ......................................
.97
.45
Dandelion greens ........................
.88
.43
Dates...........................................
.20
.007
Eels .............................................
.77
.39

72

Specific Heat, Specific Heat,

B.t.u. per Lb.
B.t.u. per Lb.
Food
per F
per F
above freezing below freezing
Eggs ............................................
.76
.40
Eggplant ......................................
.94
.45
Endive .........................................
.95
.45
Figs, fresh ...................................
.82
.41
Figs, dried ...................................
.39
.26
Figs, candied...............................
.37
.26
Flounders ....................................
.86
.42
Flour ............................................
.38
.28
Frogs legs ...................................
.88
.44
Garlic...........................................
.79
.40
Gizzards ......................................
.78
.39
Goose..........................................
.61
.34
Gooseberry .................................
.86
.42
Granadilla....................................
.84
.41
Grapefruit ....................................
.91
.44
Grapes ........................................
.86
.42
Grape juice..................................
.82
.41
Guavas ........................................
.86
.42
Guinea hen .................................
.75
.38
Haddoock ....................................
.85
.42
Halibut .........................................
.80
.40
Herring, smokes ..........................
.71
.37
Horseradish, fresh.......................
.79
.40
Horseradish, prepared ................
.88
.43
Ice Cream ...................................
.74
.40
Kale .............................................
.89
.43
Kidneys .......................................
.81
.40
Kidney beans, dried ....................
.28
.23
Kohlrabi .......................................
.92
.44
Kumquats ....................................
.85
.41
Lamb, carcass.............................
.73
.38
Lamb, leg ....................................
.71
.37
Lamb, rib cut ...............................
.61
.34
Lamb, shoulder ...........................
.67
.35
Lard .............................................
.54
.31
Leeks...........................................
.91
.44
Lemons .......................................
.91
.44
Lemon joice.................................
.92
.44
Lettuce ........................................
.96
.45
Lima beans .................................
.73
.38
Limes...........................................
.89
.43
Lime juice....................................
.93
.44
Litchi fruits, dried.........................
.39
.26
Lobsters ......................................
.82
.41
Loganberries ...............................
.86
.42
Loganberry joice .........................
.91
.44
Milk, cow .....................................
.90
.47
Mushrooms, fresh .......................
.93
.44
Mushrooms, dried .......................
.30
.23
Muskmelons ................................
.94
.45
Nectarines ...................................
.86
.42
Nuts.............................................
.28
.24
Olives, green ...............................
.80
.40
Onions.........................................
.90
.43
Onions, Welsh .............................
.91
.44

Specific Heat and Weights

Table 32: Specific Heats and Weights: Foodstuffs
Specific Heat, Specific Heat,
B.t.u. per Lb.
B.t.u. per Lb.
Food
per F
per F
above freezing below freezing
Rose Apple .................................
.89
.43
Rutabagas...................................
.91
.44
Salmon ........................................
.71
.37
Sand dab, California ...................
.86
.42
Sapodilla .....................................
.91
.44
Sapote.........................................
.73
.37
Sauerkraut...................................
.93
.44
Sausage, beef and pork..............
.56
.32
Sausage, bockwurst....................
.71
.37
Sausage, bologna .......................
.71
.37
Sausage, frankfurt.......................
.69
.36
Sausage, salami .........................
.45
.28
Sardines ......................................
.77
.39
Shad............................................
.76
.39
Shrimp.........................................
.83
.41
Spanish mackerel........................
.73
.39
Shad............................................
.76
.39
Shrimp.........................................
.83
.41
Spanish mackerel........................
.73
.39
Strawberries ................................
.95
.45
Strawberry juice ..........................
.79
.39
String beans................................
.91
.44
Sturgeon, raw..............................
.83
.41
Sturgeon, smoked .......................
.71
.37
Sugar apple, fresh.......................
.79
.39
Sweet potatoes ...........................
.75
.38
Swordfish ....................................
.80
.40
Terrapin .......................................
.80
.40
Tomatoes, red .............................
.95
.45
Tomatoes, green .........................
.96
.45
Tomato juice ................................
.95
.45
Tongue, beef ...............................
.74
.38
Tongue, calf.................................
.79
.40
Tongue, lamb...............................
.76
.38
Tongue, pork ...............................
.74
.39
Tongue, sheep.............................
.69
.36
Tripe, beef ...................................
.83
.41
Tripe, pickled ...............................
.89
.43
Trout ............................................
.82
.41
Tuna ............................................
.76
.39
Turkey..........................................
.67
.35
Turnips ........................................
.93
.44
Turtle ...........................................
.84
.41
Veal, carcass...............................
.74
.38
Veal, flank....................................
.65
.35
Veal, loin......................................
.75
.38
Veal, rib .......................................
.73
.37
Veal, shank..................................
.77
.39
Veal, quarter................................
.74
.38
Venison .......................................
.78
.39
Watercress ..................................
.95
.45
Watermelons ...............................
.94
.45
Whitefish .....................................
.76
.39
Yams ...........................................
.78
.39

SYSTEM DESIGN

Specific Heat, Specific Heat,

B.t.u. per Lb.
B.t.u. per Lb.
Food
per F
per F
above freezing below freezing
Oranges, fresh ............................
.90
.43
Orange juice................................
.89
.43
Oysters........................................
.84
.41
Peaches, Georgia .......................
.87
.42
Peaches, N. Carolina ..................
.89
.43
Peaches, Maryland .....................
.90
.43
Peaches, New Jersey..................
.91
.44
Peach juice, fresh........................
.89
.43
Pears, Bartlett .............................
.89
.43
Pears, Beurre Bosc .....................
.85
.41
Pears, dried.................................
.39
.26
Peas, young ................................
.85
.41
Peas, medium .............................
.81
.41
Peas, old .....................................
.88
.43
Peas, split....................................
.28
.23
Peppers, ripe...............................
.91
.44
Perch ...........................................
.82
.41
Persimmins..................................
.72
.37
Pheasant .....................................
.75
.36
Pickerel .......................................
.84
.41
Pickels, sweet..............................
.82
.41
Pickels, sour and dill ...................
.96
.45
Pickels, sweet mixed ...................
.78
.29
Pickels, sour mixed .....................
.95
.45
Pigs feet, pickled ........................
.50
.31
Pike .............................................
.84
.41
Pineapple, fresh ..........................
.88
.43
Pineapple, sliced or crushed.......
.82
.41
Pineapple joice............................
.90
.43
Plums ..........................................
.89
.43
Pomegranate...............................
.85
.41
Pompano .....................................
.77
.39
Porgy ...........................................
.81
.40
Pork, bacon .................................
.36
.25
Pork, ham....................................
.62
.34
Pork, loin .....................................
.66
.35
Pork, shoulder .............................
.59
.33
Pork, spareribs ............................
.62
.34
Pork, smoked ham ......................
.65
.35
Pork, salted .................................
.31
.24
Potatoes ......................................
.82
.41
Prickly pears ...............................
.91
.43
Prunes.........................................
.81
.40
Pumpkin ......................................
.92
.44
Quinces .......................................
.88
.43
Rabbit..........................................
.76
.39
Radishes .....................................
.95
.45
Raisins ........................................
.39
.26
Raspberries, black ......................
.85
.41
Raspberries, red .........................
.89
.43
Raspberry juice, black.................
.91
.44
Raspberry juice, red....................
.93
.44
Reindeer......................................
.73
.37
Rhubarb ......................................
.96
.45

73

Conversions
Table 33: Conversions
Into
Multiply by
A
Acres
sq. feet
43,560.0
Atmospheres
cms. of mercury
76.0
Atmospheres
ft. of water (at 4C)
33.90
Atmospheres
in. of mercury (at 0C)
29.92
Atmospheres
kgs./sq. cm.
1.0333
Atmospheres
pounds/sq. in.
14.70
B
Barrels (U.S. liquid)
gallons
31.5
Barrels (oil)
gallons (oil)
42.0
Btu
foot-lbs
778.3
Btu
grams-calories
252.0
Btu
horsepower-hrs.
3.931 x 10-4
Btu
kilowatt-hrs
2.928 x 10-4
Btu/hr.
horsepower
3.931 x 10-4
Btu/hr.
watts
0.2931
C
Calories, gram (mean)
B.t.u. (mean)
3.9685 x 10-3
Centigrade
Fahrenheit
9/5(C + 40) -40
Centimeters
feet
3.281 x 10-2
Centimeters
inches
0.3937
Centimeters
mils
393.7
Centimeters of mercury atmospheres
0.01316
Centimeters of mercury feet of water
0.4461
Centimeters of mercury pounds/sq. in.
0.1934
Circumference
radians
6.283
Cubic centimeters
cu. feet
3.531 x 10-5
Cubic centimeters
cu. inches
0.06102
Cubic centimeters
gallons (U.S. liq.)
2.642 x 10-4
Cubic feet
cu. cms.
28,320.0
Cubic feet
cu. inches
1,728.0
Cubic feet
gallons (U.S. liq.)
7.481
Cubic feet
liters
28.32
Cubic feet
quarts (U.S. liq.)
29.92
Cubic feet/min.
gallons/sec.
0.1247
Cubic feet/min.
pounds of water/min.
62.43
Cubic inches
cu. cms.
16.39
Cubic inches
gallons
4.329 x 10-3
Cubic inches
quarts (U.S. liq.)
0.01732
Cubic meters
cu. feet
35.31
Cubic meters
gallons (U.S. liq)
264.2
Cubic yards
cu. feet
27.0
Cubic yards
cu. meters
0.7646
Cubic yards
gallons (U.S. liq.)
202.0
D
Degrees (angle)
radians
0.01745
0.13714
Drams (apothecaries or troy) ounces (avoirdupois)
0.125
Drams (apothecaries or troy) ounces (troy)
Drams (U.S. fluid or apothecary) cubic cm.
3.6967
Drams
grams
1.772
Drams
grains
27.3437
Drams
ounces
0.0625
F
Fahrenheit
centigrade
5/9(F + 40) - 40
Feet
centimeters
30.48
Feet
kilometers
3.048 x 10-4
Feet
meters
0.3048
Feet
miles (naut.)
1.645 x 10-4
Feet
miles (stat.)
1.894 x 10-4
Feet of water
atmospheres
0.02950
Feet of water
in. of mercury
0.8826
Feet of water
kgs./sq. cm.
0.03045
Feet of water
kgs./sq. meter
304.8
Feet of water
pounds/sq. ft.
62.43
Feet of water
pounds/sq. in.
0.4335
Foot-pounds
Btu
1.286 x 10-3
Foot-pounds
gram-calories
0.3238
Foot-pounds
hp.-hrs.
5.050 x 10-7
Foot-pounds
kilowatt-hrs.
3.766 x 10-7
Foot-pounds/min.
Btu/min.
1.286 x 10-8
Foot-pounds/min.
horsepower
3.030 x 10-5
Foot-pounds/sec.
Btu/hr.
4.6263
Furlongs
miles
0.125

SYSTEM DESIGN

To Convert

74

To Convert
Furlongs
Gallons
Gallons
Gallons
Gallons
Gallons
Gallons
Gallons (liq. Br. Imp.)
Gallons (U.S.)
Gallons of water
Gallons/min.
Gallons/min.
Gallons/min.
Grains (troy)
Grains (troy)
Grains (troy)
Grains (troy)
Grains/U.S. gal.
Grains/U.S. gal.
Grains/lmp. gal.
Grams
Grams
Grams
Grams
Grams
Grams/liter
Gram-calories
Gram-caloories
Gram-calories
Gram-calories
Horsepower
Horsepower
Horsepower
Horsepower (metric)
(542.5 ft. lb./sec.)
Horsepower
(550 ft. lb./sec.)
Horsepower
Horsepower
Horsepower (boiler)
Horsepower (boiler)
Horsepower-hrs.
Horsepower-hrs.
Horsepower-hrs.
Inches
Inches
Inches
Inches
Inches of mercury
Inches of mercury
Inches of mercury
Inches of mercury
Inches of mercury
Inches of mercury
Inches of water (at 4C)
Inches of water (at 4C)
Inches of water (at 4C)
Inches of water (at 4C)
Inches of water (at 4C)
Inches of water (at 4C)
Joules
Kilograms
Kilograms
Kilograms/cu. meter
Kilograms/cu. meter
Kilograms/sq. cm.
Kilograms/sq. cm.

Into
feet
G
cu. cms.
cu. feet
cu. inches
cu. meters
cu. yards
liters
gallons (U.S. liq.)
gallons (Imp.)
pounds of water
cu. ft./sec.
liters/sec.
cu. ft./hr.
grains (avdp.)
grams
ounces (avdp.)
pennyweight (troy)
parts/million
pounds/million gal.
parts/million
grains
ounces (avdp.)
ounces (troy)
poundals
pounds
parts/million
Btu
foot-pounds
kilowatt-hrs.
watt-hrs.
H
Btu/min.
foot-lbs./min.
foot-lbs./sec.
horsepower
(550 ft. lb./sec.)
horsepower (metric)
(542.5 ft. lb./sec.)
kilowatts
watts
Btu/hr.
kilowatts
Btu
foot-lbs.
kilowatt-hrs.
I
centimeters
meters
millimeters
yards
atmospheres
feet of water
kgs./sq. cm.
kgs./sq.meter
pounds/sq. ft.
pounds/sq. in.
atmospheres
inches of mercury
kgs./sq./ cm.
ounces/sq. in.
pounds/sq. ft.
pounds/sq. in.
J
Btu
K
grams
pounds
pounds/cu. ft.
pounds/cu. in.
atmospheres
feet of water

Multiply by
660.0
3,785.0
0.1337
231.0
3.785 x 10-3
4.951 x 10-3
3.785
1.20095
0.83267
8.3453
2.228 x 10-3
0.06308
8.0208
1.0
0.06480
0.286 x 10-3
0.04167
17.118
142.86
14.286
15.43
0.03527
0.03215
0.07093
2.205 x 10-3
1,000.0
3.9683 x 10-3
3.0880
1.1630 x 10-4
1.1630 x 10-3
42.40
33,000.
550.0
0.9863
1.014
0.7457
745.7
33,520.
9.803
2,547.
1.98 x 106
0.7457
2.540
2.540 x 10-2
25.40
2.778 x 10-2
0.03342
1.133
0.03453
345.3
70.73
0.4912
2.458 x 10-3
0.07355
2.538 x 10-3
0.5781
5.204
0.03613
9.480 x 10-4
1,000.0
2.205
0.06243
3.613 x 10-5
0.9678
32.84

Conversions
Table 33: Conversions

Liters
Liters
Liters
Liters
Meters
Meters
Meters
Meters
Meters
Microns
Microns
Miles (statute)
Miles (statute)
Miles/hr.
Miles/hr.
Mils
Mils
Nepers
Ohms
Ohms
Ounces (avoirdupois)
Ounces (avoirdupois)
Ounces (avoirdupois
Ounces (avoirdupois)
Ounces (avoirdupois
Ounces (troy)
Ounces (troy)
Ounces (troy)
Ounces (troy)
Parts/million
Parts/million
Parts/million
Pounds (avoirdupois)
Pounds (avoirdupois)
Pounds (avoirdupois)
Pounds (avoirdupois)
Pounds (avoirdupois)
Pounds (avoirdupois)
Pounds (avoirdupois)

Into
inches of mercury
pounds/sq. ft.
pounds/sq. in.
atmospheres
feet of water
inches of mercury
pounds/sq. ft.
pounds/sq. in.
kgs./sq. meter
Btu
foot-pounds
hp-hrs.
kilowatt-hrs.
Btu
centimeters
feet
miles
Btu/min.
foot-lbs/min.
foot-lbs/sec.
horsepower
watts
Btu
foot-lbs.
horsepower-hrs
statute miles/hr.
L
cu. cm.
cu. feet
cu. inches
gallons (U.S. liq.)
M
centimeters
feet
inches
millimeters
yards
inches
meters
feet
kilometers
cms./sec.
feet/min.
inches
yards
N
decibels
O
megohms
microhms
drams
grains
grams
pounds
ounces (troy)
grains
grains
ounces (avdp.)
pounds (troy)
P
grains/U.S. gal.
grains/lmp. gal
pounds/million gal.
ounces (troy)
drams
grains
grams
kilograms
ounces
tons (short)

Multiply by
28.96
2,048
14.22
9.678 x 10-5
3.281 x 10-3
2.896 x 10-3
0.2048
1.422 x 10-3
106
3.968
3,088.
1.560 x 10-3
1.163 x 10-3
9.294 x 10-3
105
3,281.
0.6214
56.87
4.426 x 104
737.6
1.341
1,000.0
3,413.
2.655 x 106
1.341
1.151
1,000.0
0.03531
61.02
0.2642
100.0
3.281
39.37
1,000.0
1.094
39.37 x 10-6
1 x 10-6
5.280.
1.609
44.70
88.
0.001
2.778 x 10-5
8.686
10-6
106
16.0
437.5
28.35
0.0625
0.9115
480.0
31.10
1.09714
0.08333
0.0584
0.07016
8.33
14.58
256.
7,000.
453.59
0.454
16.0
0.0005

To Convert
Pounds (troy)
Pounds of water
Pounds of water
Pounds of water
Pounds of water/min.
Pounds/cu. ft.
Pounds/cu. ft.
Pounds/cu. ft.
Pounds/cu. in.
Pounds/sq. ft.
Pounds/sq. ft.
Pounds/sq. ft.
Pounds/sq. in.
Pounds/sq. in.
Pounds/sq. in.
Pounds/sq. in.
Pounds/sq. in.

Into
ounces (avdp.)
cu. feet
cu. inches
gallons
cu. ft/sec.
grams/cu. cm.
kgs./cu. meter
pounds/cu. in.
pounds/cu. ft.
atmospheres
feet of water
inches of mercury
atmospheres
feet of water
inches of mercury
kgs./sq. meter
pounds/sq. ft.
R
Radians
degrees
Revolutions/min.
degrees/sec.
Revolutions/min.
radians/sec.
Revolutions/min.
revs./sec.
S
Square centimeters
sq. feet
Square centimeters
sq. inches
Square centimeters
sq. meters
Square centimeters
sq. millimeters
Square feet
acres
Square feet
sq. cms.
Square feet
sq. inches
Square feet
sq. miles
Square inches
sq. cms.
Square inches
sq. feet
Square inches
sq. yards
Square meters
sq. feet
Square meters
sq. inches
Square meters
sq. millimeters
Square meters
sq. yards
Square millimeters
sq. inches
Square yards
sq. feet
Square yards
sq. inches
Square yards
sq. meters
T
Temperature (C) + 273 absolute temperature (C)
Temperature (C) + 17.78 temperature (F)
Temperature (F) + 460 absolute temperature (F)
Temperature (F) - 32
temperature (C)
Tons (long)
kilograms
Tons (long)
pounds
Tons (long)
tons (short)
Tons (metric)
kilograms
Tons (metric)
pounds
Tons (short)
kilograms
Tons (short)
pounds
Tons (short)
tons (long)
Tons of water/24 hrs.
pounds of water/hr.
Tons of water/24 hrs.
gallons/min.
Tons of water/24 hrs.
cu. ft./hr.
W
Watts
Btu/hr.
Watts
Btu/min.
Watts
horsepower
Watts
horsepower (metric)
Watts
kilowatts
Watts (Abs.)
B.t.u. (mean)/min.
Watt-hours
Btu
Watt-hours
horsepower-hrs.
Y
Yards
centimeters
Yards
kilometers
Yards
meters

Multiply by
13.1657
0.01602
27.68
0.1198
2.670 x 10-4
0.01602
16.02
5.787 x 10-4
1,728.
4.725 x 10-4
0.01602
0.01414
0.06804
2.307
2.036
703.1
144.0

SYSTEM DESIGN

To Convert
Kilograms/sq. cm.
Kilograms/sq. cm.
Kilograms/sq. cm.
Kilograms/sq. meter
Kilograms/sq. meter
Kilograms/sq. meter
Kilograms/sq. meter
Kilograms/sq. meter
Kilograms/sq. mm.
Kilogram-calories
Kilogram-calories
Kilogram-calories
Kilogram-calories
Kilogram meters
Kilometers
Kilometers
Kilometers
Kilowatts
Kilowatts
Kilowatts
Kilowatts
Kilowatts
Kilowatt-hrs
Kilowatt-hrs.
Kilowatt-hrs
Knots

57.30
6.0
0.1047
0.01667
1.076 x 10-3
0.1550
0.0001
100.0
2.296 x 10-5
929.0
144.0
3.587 x 10-6
6.452
6.944 x 10-3
7.716 x 10-4
10.76
1,550.
106
1.196
1.550 x 10-3
9.0
1,296.
0.8361
1.0
1.8
1.0
5/9
1,016.
2,240.
1.120
1,000.
2,205.
907.2
2,000.
0.89287
83.333
0.16643
1.3349
3.4129
0.05688
1.341 x 10-3
1.360 x 10-3
0.001
0.056884
3.413
1.341 x 10-3
91.44
9.144 x 10-4
0.9144

75

Flow of Water through Schedule 40 Steel Pipe

Table 34: Flow of Water through Schedule 40 Steel Pipe

SYSTEM DESIGN

Pressure Drop per 1,000 Feet of Schedule 40 Steel Pipe, in pounds per square inch
Dschg
Gals.
per Min.
1
2
3
4
5
6
8
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
60
70
80
90
100
125
150
175
200
225
250
275
300
325
350
375
400
425
450
475
500
550
600
650
700
750
800
850
900
950
1,000
1,100
1,200
1,300
1,400
1,500
1,600
1,800
2,000
2,500
3,000
3,500
4,000
4,500
5,000
6,000
7,000
8,000
9,000
10,000
12,000
14,000
16,000

76

Vel.
Ft. per
Sec.

Pressure
Drop

1"
.37
0.49
.74
1.70
1.12
3.53
1.49
5.94
1.86
9.02
2.24 12.25
2.98 21.1
3.72 30.8
5.60 64.6
7.44 110.5

Vel.
Ft. per
Sec.

Pressure
Drop

1-1/4"
0.43
.045
0.64 0.94
0.86 1.55
1.07 2.36
1.28 3.30
1.72 5.52
2.14 8.34
3.21 17.6
4.29 29.1
5.36 43.7
6.43 62.9
7.51 82.5

Vel. PresFt. per sure

Sec. Drop

1-1/2"
0.47
0.44
0.63
0.74
0.79
1.12
0.95
1.53
1.26
2.63
1.57
3.86
2.36
8.13
3.15 13.5
3.94 20.2
4.72 29.1
5.51 38.2
6.30 47.8
7.08 60.6
7.87 74.7

6"
1.11
1.39
1.67
1.94
2.22
2.50
2.78
3.06
3.33
3.61
3.89
4.16
4.44
4.72
5.00
5.27
5.55
6.11
6.66
7.21
7.77
8.32
8.88
9.44
10.00
10.55
11.10
12.22
13.32
14.43
15.54
16.65
17.76
19.98
22.20

0.39
0.56
0.78
1.06
1.32
1.66
2.05
2.36
2.80
3.29
3.62
4.16
4.72
5.34
5.96
6.66
7.39
8.94
10.6
11.8
13.7
15.7
17.8
20.2
22.6
23.7
26.3
31.8
37.8
44.4
51.5
55.5
63.1
79.8
98.5

Vel.
Ft. per
Sec.

Pressure
Drop

0.44
0.55
0.63
0.75
0.88
0.97
1.11
1.27
1.43
1.60
1.69
1.87
2.26
2.70
3.16
3.69
4.21
4.79
5.11
5.73
6.38
7.08
8.56
10.2
11.3
13.0
15.0
17.0
21.6
25.0
39.0
52.4
71.4
93.3

Pressue
Drop

Vel.
Ft. per
Sec.

Pres- Vel.
sure Ft. per
Drop Sec.

.57
.76
.96
1.43
1.91
2.39
2.87
3.35
3.82
4.30
4.78
5.74
6.69
7.65
8.60
9.56

0.46
.075
1.14
2.33
3.86
5.81
8.04
10.95
13.7
17.4
20.6
29.6
38.6
50.3
63.6
75.1

0.30
0.63
0.70
0.86
1.01
1.18
1.35
1.54
1.74
1.94
2.23
2.40
2.74
3.27
3.86
4.44
5.11
5.46
6.91
8.54
12.5
18.0
22.9
29.9
37.8
46.7
67.2
85.1

Pressure
Drop

Vel. PresFt. per sure

Sec. Drop

2-1/2"
.67
1.00
1.34
1.68
2.01
2.35
2.68
3.00
3.35
4.02
4.69
5.37
6.04
6.71
8.38
10.06
11.73

0.48
0.99
1.64
2.48
3.43
4.49
5.88
7.14
8.82
12.2
15.3
21.7
26.1
32.3
48.2
60.4
90.0

3"
.87
1.08
1.30
1.52
1.74
1.95
2.17
2.60
3.04
3.48
3.91
4.34
5.42
6.51
7.59
8.68
9.77
10.85
11.94
13.02

0.59
0.67
1.21
1.58
2.06
2.51
3.10
4.29
5.84
7.62
9.22
11.4
17.1
23.5
32.0
39.7
50.2
61.9
75.0
84.7

10"
1.93
2.04
2.24
2.44
2.65
2.85
3.05
3.26
3.46
3.66
3.87
4.07
4.48
4.88
5.29
5.70
6.10
6.51
7.32
8.13
10.18
12.21
14.25
16.28
18.31
20.35
24.42
28.50

Pres- Vel.
sure Ft. per
Drop Sec.

2"

8"
1.44
1.60
1.76
1.92
2.08
2.24
2.40
2.56
2.72
2.88
3.04
3.20
3.53
3.85
4.17
4.49
4.81
5.13
5.45
5.77
6.09
6.41
7.05
7.69
8.33
8.97
9.62
10.26
11.54
12.83
16.03
19.24
22.43
25.65

Vel.
Ft. per
Sec.

3-1/2"
.81
.97
1.14
1.30
1.46
1.62
1.95
2.27
2.59
2.92
3.24
4.05
4.86
5.67
6.48
7.29
8.10
8.91
9.72
10.53
11.35
12.17
12.97
13.78
14.59

0.42
0.60
0.79
1.00
1.21
1.44
2.07
2.71
3.53
4.46
5.27
7.86
11.3
14.7
19.2
23.1
28.5
34.4
40.9
45.5
52.7
60.7
68.9
77.8
87.3

12"
2.01
2.15
2.29
2.44
2.58
2.72
2.87
3.16
3.45
3.73
4.02
4.30
4.59
5.16
5.73
7.17
8.60
10.03
11.48
12.90
14.34
17.21
20.08
22.95
25.80
28.63
34.38

0.48
0.55
0.62
0.70
0.79
0.88
0.98
1.18
1.40
1.56
1.80
2.07
2.36
2.98
3.47
5.41
7.31
9.95
13.0
15.4
18.9
27.3
37.2
45.1
57.0
70.4
93.6

4"
.88
1.01
1.13
1.26
1.51
1.76
2.01
2.26
2.52
3.15
3.78
4.41
5.04
5.67
6.30
6.93
7.56
8.18
8.82
9.45
10.08
10.70
11.33
11.96
12.59
13.84
15.10

0.42
0.53
0.67
0.80
1.10
1.50
1.87
2.37
2.81
4.38
6.02
8.20
10.2
12.9
15.9
18.3
21.8
25.5
29.7
32.3
36.7
41.5
46.5
51.7
57.3
69.3
82.5

14"
2.02
2.14
2.25
2.38
2.61
2.85
3.09
3.32
3.55
3.80
4.27
4.74
5.92
7.12
8.32
9.49
10.67
11.84
14.32
16.60
18.98
21.35
23.75
28.50
33.20

0.43
0.48
0.53
0.59
0.68
0.81
0.95
1.10
1.19
1.35
1.71
2.11
3.09
4.45
6.18
7.92
9.36
11.6
15.4
21.0
27.4
34.7
42.9
61.8
84.0

16"
2.18
2.36
2.54
2.73
2.91
3.27
3.63
4.54
5.45
6.35
7.25
8.17
9.08
10.88
12.69
14.52
16.32
18.16
21.80
25.42
29.05

0.40
0.47
0.54
0.62
0.71
0.85
1.05
1.63
2.21
3.00
3.92
4.97
5.72
8.24
12.2
13.6
17.2
21.2
30.9
41.6
54.4

5"
1.12
1.28
1.44
1.60
2.00
2.41
2.81
3.21
3.61
4.01
4.41
4.81
5.21
5.61
6.01
6.41
6.82
7.22
7.62
8.02
8.82
9.62
10.42
11.22
12.02
12.82
13.62
14.42
15.22
16.02
17.63

0.48
0.63
0.80
0.95
1.48
2.04
2.78
3.46
4.37
5.14
6.22
7.41
8.25
9.57
11.0
12.5
14.1
15.0
16.7
18.5
22.4
26.7
31.3
36.3
41.6
44.7
50.5
56.6
63.1
70.0
84.6

18"
2.58
2.88
3.59
4.31
5.03
5.74
6.47
7.17
8.62
10.04
11.48
12.92
14.37
17.23
20.10
22.96

0.48
0.56
0.88
1.27
1.52
2.12
2.50
3.08
4.45
6.06
7.34
9.20
11.5
16.5
20.7
27.1

20"
3.45
4.03
4.61
5.19
5.76
6.92
8.06
9.23
10.37
11.53
13.83
16.14
18.43

0.73
0.94
1.22
1.55
1.78
2.57
3.50
4.57
5.36
6.63
9.54
12.0
15.7

24"
3.19
3.59
3.99
4.80
5.68
6.38
7.19
7.96
9.57
11.18
12.77

0.51
0.60
0.74
1.00
1.36
1.78
2.25
2.78
3.71
5.05
6.60

Friction Loss for Water in Feet per 100 ft. Schedule 40 Steel Pipe
Table 35: Friction Loss* for Water in Feet per 100 ft. Schedule 40 Steel Pipe

1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
5.0
6
7
8
9
10

Velocity
Ft/Sec.
3/8" PIPE
2.35
2.68
3.02
3.36
4.20
5.04
5.88
6.72
8.40
10.08
11.8
13.4
15.1
16.8

hf
Friction
9.03
11.6
14.3
17.3
26.0
36.0
49.0
63.2
96.1
136
182
236
297
364

2
2.5
3
3.5
4.0
5
6
7
8
9
10
12
14
16

1/2" PIPE
2.11
2.64
3.17
3.70
4.22
5.28
6.34
7.39
8.45
9.50
10.56
12.7
14.8
16.9

5.50
8.24
11.5
15.3
19.7
29.7
42.0
56.0
72.1
90.1
110.6
156
211
270

4.0
5
6
7
8
9
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28

3/4" PIPE
2.41
3.01
3.61
4.21
4.81
5.42
6.02
7.22
8.42
9.63
10.8
12.0
13.2
14.4
15.6
16.8

4.85
7.27
10.2
13.6
17.3
21.6
26.5
37.5
50.0
64.8
80.9
99.0
120
141
165
189

1" PIPE
2.23
2.97
3.71
4.45
5.20
5.94
6.68
7.42
8.17
8.91
9.65
10.39
11.1
13.0
14.8
16.7
18.6

3.16
5.20
7.90
11.1
14.7
19.0
23.7
28.9
34.8
41.0
47.8
55.1
62.9
84.4
109
137
168

6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
35
40
45
50

* Aging Factor Included

U.S.
Gal/Min.

Velocity
Ft/Sec.

hf
Friction

12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75

1-1/4" PIPE
2.57
3.00
3.43
3.86
4.29
4.72
5.15
5.58
6.01
6.44
7.51
8.58
9.65
10.7
11.8
12.9
13.9
15.0
16.1

2.85
3.77
4.83
6.00
7.30
8.72
10.27
11.94
13.7
15.6
21.9
27.1
33.8
41.4
49.7
58.6
68.6
79.2
90.6

16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100

1-1/2" PIPE
2.52
2.84
3.15
3.47
3.78
4.10
4.41
4.73
5.51
6.30
7.04
7.88
8.67
9.46
10.24
11.03
11.8
12.6
13.4
14.2
15.0
15.8

2.26
2.79
3.38
4.05
4.76
5.54
6.34
7.20
9.63
12.41
15.49
18.9
22.7
26.7
31.2
36.0
41.2
46.6
52.4
58.7
65.0
71.6

25
30
35
40
45
50
60
70
80
90
100
120
140
160

2" PIPE
2.39
2.87
3.35
3.82
4.30
4.78
5.74
6.69
7.65
8.60
9.56
11.5
13.4
15.3

1.48
2.10
2.79
3.57
4.40
5.37
7.58
10.2
13.1
16.3
20.0
28.5
38.2
49.5

35
40
45
50
60
70
80
90
100
120
140
160
180
200
220
240

2-1/2" PIPE
2.35
2.68
3.02
3.35
4.02
4.69
5.36
6.03
6.70
8.04
9.38
10.7
12.1
13.4
14.7
16.1

1.15
1.47
1.84
2.23
3.13
4.18
5.36
6.69
8.18
11.5
15.5
20.0
25.2
30.7
37.1
43.8

U.S.
Gal/Min.

Velocity
Ft/Sec.

hf
Friction

50
60
70
80
90
100
120
140
160
180
200
220
240
260
280
300
350

3" PIPE
2.17
2.60
3.04
3.47
3.91
4.34
5.21
6.08
6.94
7.81
8.68
9.55
10.4
11.3
12.2
13.0
15.2

.762
1.06
1.40
1.81
2.26
2.75
3.88
5.19
6.68
8.38
10.2
12.3
14.5
16.9
19.5
22.1
30

100
120
140
160
180
200
220
240
260
280
300
350
400
450
500
550
600

4" PIPE
2.52
3.02
3.53
4.03
4.54
5.04
5.54
6.05
6.55
7.06
7.56
8.82
10.10
11.4
12.6
13.9
15.1

.718
1.01
1.35
1.71
2.14
2.61
3.13
3.70
4.30
4.95
5.63
7.54
9.75
12.3
14.4
18.1
21.4

160
180
200
220
240
260
300
350
400
450
500
600
700
800
900
1000

5" PIPE
2.57
2.89
3.21
3.53
3.85
4.17
4.81
5.61
6.41
7.22
8.02
9.62
11.2
12.8
14.4
16.0

.557
.698
.847
1.01
1.19
1.38
1.82
2.43
3.13
3.92
4.79
6.77
9.13
11.8
14.8
18.2

220
240
260
300
350
400
450
500
600
700
800
900
1000
1100
1200
1300
1400

6" PIPE
2.44
2.66
2.89
3.33
3.89
4.44
5.00
5.55
6.66
7.77
8.88
9.99
11.1
12.2
13.3
14.4
15.5

.411
.482
.560
.733
.980
1.25
1.56
1.91
2.69
3.60
4.64
5.81
7.10
8.52
10.1
11.7
13.6

SYSTEM DESIGN

U.S.
Gal/Min.

77

Moisture Content of Air

Figure 68: Ashrae Psychrometric Chart No. 1

SYSTEM DESIGN
78

Friction Head Loss for Water

Table 36: Equivalent Length in Feet of New Straight Pipe for Valves and Fittings for Turbulent Flow Only
1/4
Screwed
Regular
90 ELL

Flanged
Screwed

Long Radius
90 ELL

Flanged
Screwed

Regular
45 ELL

Flanged
Screwed

Tee- Line
Flow

Flanged
Screwed

Tee- Branch
Flow

Flanged
Screwed

180
Return
Bend

Reg.
Flanged
Long Rad
Flanged
Screwed

Globe Valve

Flanged
Screwed

Gate Valve

Flanged
Screwed

Angle Valve

Flanged
Screwed

Swing Check
Valve
Coupling
or Union

Flanged
Screwed
Bell Mouth
Inlet
Square
Mouth Inlet
Re-entrant
Pipe
YStrainer
Sudden
Enlargement

Steel
C.I.
Steel
C.I.
Steel
C.I.
Steel
C.I.
Steel
C.I.
Steel
C.I.
Steel
C.I.
Steel
C.I.
Steel
C.I.
Steel
C.I.
Steel
C.I.
Steel
C.I.
Steel
C.I.
Steel
C.I.
Steel
C.I.
Steel
C.I.
Steel
C.I.
Steel
C.I.
Steel
C.I.
Steel
C.I.
Steel
C.I.
Steel
C.I.
Steel
C.I.
Steel
C.I.
Steel
C.I.

2.3

3/8 1/2 3/4

11/4 11/2

21/2

Pipe Size
3
4
5

3.1 3.6 4.4 5.2 6.6 7.4 8.5 9.3 11

9.0
.92 1.2 1.6 2.1 2.4 3.1 3.6 4.4
3.6
1.5 2.0 2.2 2.3 2.7 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.6 4.0
3.3
1.1 1.3 1.6 2.0 2.3 2.7 2.9 3.4
2.8
.34 .52 .71 .92 1.3 1.7 2.1 2.7 3.2 4.0
3.3
.45 .59 .81 1.1 1.3 1.7 2.0 2.6
2.1
.79 1.2 1.7 2.4 3.2 4.6 5.6 7.7 9.3 12
9.9
.69 .82 1.0 1.3 1.5 1.8 1.9 2.2
1.9
2.4 3.5 4.2 5.3 6.6 8.7 9.9 12 13 17
14
2.0 2.6 3.3 4.4 5.2 6.6 7.5 9.4
7.7
2.3 3.1 3.6 4.4 5.2 6.6 7.4 8.5 9.3 11
9.0
.92 1.2 1.6 2.1 2.4 3.1 3.6 4.4
3.6
1.1 1.3 1..6 2.0 2.3 2.7 2.9 3.4
2.8
21
22 22 24 29 37 42 54 62 79
65
38 40 45 54 59 70 77 94
77
.32 .45 .56 .67 .84 1.1 1.2 1.5 1.7 1.9
1.6
2.6 2.7 2.8
2.3
12.8 15 15 15 17 18 18 18 18 18
15
15 15 17 18 18 21 22 28
23
7.2 7.3 8.0 8.8 11 13 15 19 22 27
22
3.8 5.3 7.2 10 12 17 21 27
22
.14 .18 .21 .24 .29 .36 .39 .45 .47 .53
.44
.04 .07 .10 .13 .18 .26 .31 .43 .52 .67
.55
.44 .68 .96 1.3 1.8 2.6 3.1 4.3 5.2 6.7
5.5
.88 1.4 1.9 2.6 3.6 5.1 6.2 8.5 10 13
11
4.6 5.0 6.6 7.7 18 20 27 29 34

13
11
5.9
4.8
4.6
3.7
4.2
3.4
5.5
4.5
3.5
2.9
17
14
2.8
2.2
21
17
12
10
13
11
5.9
4.8
4.2
3.4
110
86
120
99
2.5
2.0
2.9
2.4
18
15
38
31
38
31
38
31
.65
.52
.95
.77
9.5
7.7
19
15
42

10

12

14

16

18

20

24

7.3 8.9 12 14
7.2 9.8 12

17
15

18
17

21
19

23
22

25
24

30
28

5.0 5.7 7.0 8.0 9.0 9.4 10 11

4.7 5.7 6.8 7.8 8.6 9.6 11

12
11

14
13

4.5 5.6 7.7 9.0 11 13

4.5 6.3 8.1 9.7 12

18
17

22
20

15
13

16
15

SYSTEM DESIGN

Fittings

3.3 3.8 4.7 5.2 6.0 6.4 7.2 7.6 8.2 9.6
3.1 3.9 4.6 5.2 5.9 6.5 7.2 7.7 8.8

15

18
15

24
20

30
25

34
30

37
35

43
39

47
44

52
49

62
57

7.3 8.9
7.2
5.0 5.7
4.7

12
9.8
7.0
5.7

14
12
8.0
6.8

17
15
9.0
7.8

19
17
9.4
8.6

21
19
10
9.6

23
22
11
11

25
24
12
11

30
28
14
13

150 190 260 310 390

150 210 270 330

3.1 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2
2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.9 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0

50

63
52

90 120 140 160 190 210 240 300

74 98 120 150 170 200 230 280

50

63
52

90 120 140
74 98 120

1.3 1.6
1.3
13 16
13
25 32
26
53 61

2.3
1.9
23
19
45
37

2.9
2.4
29
24
58
49

3.5
3.0
35
30
70
61

4.0
3.6
40
36
80
73

4.7
4.3
47
43
95
86

5.3
5.0
53
50
110
100

6.1
5.7
61
57
120
110

7.6
7.0
76
70
150
140

h = (V1 - V2)2 FEET OF LIQUID; IF V2 = 0 h = V1 FEET OF LIQUID

2g
2g
Reprinted from the STANDARDS OF THE HYDRAULIC INSTITUTE, Eleventh Edition.
Copyright 1965 by the Hydraulic Institute, 122 East 42nd Street, New York, New York 10017.

79

ANSI Flange Standards

Table 37: ANSI Flange Standards

SYSTEM DESIGN

All Dimensions are in Inches

Pipe Size

1/2

3/4

125 lb CAST IRON ANSI

Diameter of Flange
Thickness of Flange (min)1
Diameter of Bolt Circle
Number of Bolts
Diameter of Bolts

80

71/2
/4
6
4
5
/8

81/2
/16
7
8
5
/8

10

12

11

13

15

9
/16
71/2
8
5
/8

10
/16
81/2
8
3
/4

11
1
91/2
8
3
/4

131/2
11/8
113/4
8
3
/4

16
13/16
141/4
12
7
/8

19
11/4
17
12
7
/8

61/2
/8
43/16
5
8
5
/8

71/2
1
415/16
57/8
8
3
/4

81/4
11/8
511/16
65/8
8
3
/4

9
13/16
65/16
71/4
8
3
/4

10
11/4
615/16
77/8
8
3
/4

11
13/8
85/16
91/4
8
3
/4

121/2
17/16
911/16
105/8
12
3
/4

15
15/8
1115/16
13
12
7
/8

171/2
17/8
141/16
151/4
16
1

201/2
2
167/16
173/4
16
11/8

9
/16
71/2
8
5
/8

10
/4
81/2
8
3
/4

13

15

131/2
/16
113/4
8
3
/4

16
1
141/4
12
7
/8

19
11/16
17
12
7
/8

10
11/16
77/8
8
3
/4

11
11/8
91/4
8
3
/4

121/2
13/16
105/8
12
3
/4

15
13/8
13
12
7
/8

15

11

61/8
/16
39/16
41/2
4
3
/4
13

31/2
5
/16
23/8
4
1
/2

37/8
/32
23/4
4
1
/2
11

41/4
/8
31/8
4
1
/2
3

45/8
/32
31/2
4
1
/2
13

5
/16
37/8
4
1
/2
7

6
/2
43/4
4
5
/8
1

7
/16
51/2
4
5
/8
9

71/2
/8
6
4
5
/8
5

81/2
/16
7
8
5
/8
11

11

11
/16
91/2
8
3
/4

33/4
1
/2
25/8
4
1
/2

45/8
/32
31/4
4
5
/8
17

47/8
/32
31/2
4
5
/8
19

51/4
/8
37/8
4
5
/8
5

61/8
/16
41/2
4
3
/4
11

61/2
/4
5
8
5
/8
3

71/2
/16
57/8
8
3
/4
13

81/4
/32
65/8
8
3
/4
29

9
/32
71/4
8
3
/4
31

31/2

13/8
23/8
4
1
/2

37/8

111/16
23/4
4
1
/2

41/4
7
/16
2
31/8
4
1
/2

45/8
/2
21/2
31/2
4
1
/2
1

5
/16
27/8
37/8
4
1
/2
9

6
/8
35/8
43/4
4
5
/8
5

11

7
/16
41/8
51/2
4
5
/8

71/2
/4
5
6
4
5
/8

13

81/2
/16
51/2
7
8
5
/8

15

9
/16
63/16
71/2
8
5
/8

10
/16
75/16
81/2
8
3
/4

11
1
81/2
91/2
8
3
/4

131/2
11/8
105/8
113/4
8
3
/4

16
13/16
123/4
141/4
12
7
/8

19
11/4
15
17
12
7
/8

71/2
1
41/8
57/8
8
3
/4

81/4
11/8
5
65/8
8
3
/4

9
13/16
51/2
71/4
8
3
/4

10
11/4
63/16
77/8
8
3
/4

11
13/8
75/16
91/4
8
3
/4

121/2
17/16
81/2
105/8
12
3
/4

15
15/8
105/8
13
12
7
/8

171/2
17/8
123/4
151/4
16
1

201/2
2
15
173/4
16
11/8

71/2
11/8
41/8
57/8
8
3
/4

81/4
11/4
5
65/8
8
3
/4

9
13/8
51/2
71/4
8
7
/8

10
13/8
63/16
77/8
8
7
/8

11
11/2
75/16
91/4
8
7
/8

121/2
15/8
81/2
105/8
12
7
/8

15
17/8
105/8
13
12
1

171/2
21/8
123/4
151/4
16
11/8

201/2
21/4
15
173/4
16
11/4

81/4
11/4
5
65/8
8
3
/4

9
13/8
51/2
71/4
8
7
/8

103/4
11/2
63/16
81/2
8
7
/8

13
13/4
75/16
101/2
8
1

14
17/8
81/2
111/2
12
1

161/2
23/16
105/8
133/4
12
11/8

20
21/2
123/4
17
16
11/4

22
25/8
15
191/4
20
11/4

15

33/4

13/8
25/8
4
1
/2

45/8

111/16
31/4
4
5
/8

47/8
11
/16
2
31/2
4
5
/8

51/4
/4
21/2
37/8
4
5
/8
3

61/8
/16
2-7/8
41/2
4
3
/4
13

61/2
/8
35/8
5
8
5
/8
7

33/4
9
/16
13/8
25/8
4
1
/2

45/8
/8
111/16
31/4
4
5
/8
5

47/8
/16
2
31/2
4
5
/8
11

51/4
/16
21/2
37/8
4
5
/8
13

61/8
/8
27/8
41/2
4
3
/4
7

61/2
1
35/8
5
8
5
/8

400 lb steel flanges have a 1/4 raised face which is NOT included in the flange thickness dimensions.

600 lb STEEL ANSI

Diameter of Flange
Thickness of Flange (min)8
Diameter of Raised Face
Diameter ofBolt Circle
Number of Bolts
Diameter of Bolts
8

7
/16
51/2
4
5
/8

31/2

300 lb steel flanges have a 1/16 raised face which is included in the flange thickness dimensions.

400 lb STEEL ANSI

Diameter of Flange
Thickness of Flange (min)7
Diameter of Raised Face
Diameter of Bolt Circle
Number of Bolts
Diameter of Bolts
7

51/4
/4
31/16
37/8
4
5
/8

6
/8
43/4
4
5
/8

150 lb steel flanges have a 1/16raised face which is included in the flange thickness dimensions.

300 lb STEEL ANSI

Diameter of Flange
Thickness of Flange (min)6
Diameter of Raised Face
Diameter of Bolt Circle
Number of Bolts
Diameter of Bolts
6

47/8
/16
211/16
31/2
4
5
/8

5
/16
37/8
4
1
/2
9

21/2

300 lb bronze flanges have plain faces with two concentric gasket-retaining grooves between the port and the bolt holes.

150 lb STEEL ANSI

Diameter of Flange
Thickness of Flange (min)5
Diameter of Raised Face
Diameter of Bolt Circle
Number of Bolts
Diameter of Bolts
5

150 lb bronze flanges have plain faces with two concentric gasket-retaining grooves between the port and the bolt holes.

300 lb BRONZE ANSI

Diameter of Flange
Thickness of Flange (min)4
Diameter of Bolt Circle
Number of Bolts
Diameter of Bolts
4

45/8
/2
31/2
4
1
/2

11/2

250 lb flanges have a 1/16 raised face which is included in the flange thickness dimensions.

150 lb BRONZE ANSI

Diameter of Flange
Thickness of Flange (min)3
Diameter of Bolt Circle
Number of Bolts
Diameter of Bolts
3

41/4
/16
31/8
4
1
/2

11/4

125 lb flanges have plain faces.

250 lb CAST IRON ANSI

Diameter of Flange
Thickness of Flange (min)2
Diameter of Raised Face
Diameter of Bolt Circle
Number of Bolts
Diameter of Bolts
2

33/4
9
/16
13/8
25/8
4
1
/2

45/8
/8
111/16
31/4
4
5
/8
5

47/8
/16
2
31/2
4
5
/8
11

51/4
13
/16
21/2
37/8
4
5
/8

61/8
/8
27/8
41/2
4
3
/4
7

61/2
1
35/8
5
8
5
/8

71/2
11/8
41/8
57/8
8
3
/4

600 lb steel flanges have a 1/4 raised face which is NOT included in the flange thickness dimensions.

Pipe Dimensions
Table 38: Schedule 40 Pipe Dimensions

Size
Inches
1/8
1/4
3/8
1/2
3/4
1
11/4
11/2
2
21/2
3
31/2
4
5
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
24

External
Inches
.405
.540
.675
.840
1.050
1.315
1.660
1.900
2.375
2.875
3.500
4.000
4.500
5.563
6.625
8.625
10.750
12.750
14.000
16.000
18.000
20.000
24.000

Transverse Areas

Nominal
Internal Thickness
Inches
Inches
.269
.068
.364
.088
.493
.091
.622
.109
.824
.113
1.049
.133
1.380
.140
1.610
.145
2.067
.154
2.469
.203
3.068
.216
3.548
.226
4.026
.237
5.047
.258
6.065
.280
7.981
.322
10.020
.365
11.938
.406
13.125
.437
15.000
.500
16.874
.563
18.814
.593
22.626
.687

External
Sq. Ins.
.129
.229
.358
.554
.866
1.358
2.164
2.835
4.430
6.492
9.621
12.56
15.90
24.30
34.47
58.42
90.76
127.64
153.94
201.05
254.85
314.15
452.40

Internal
Sq. Ins.
.057
.104
.191
.304
.533
.864
1.495
2.036
3.355
4.788
7.393
9.886
12.73
20.00
28.89
50.02
78.85
111.9
135.3
176.7
224.0
278.0
402.1

Metal
Sq. Ins.
.072
.125
.167
.250
.333
.494
.669
.799
1.075
1.704
2.228
2.680
3.174
4.300
5.581
8.399
11.90
15.74
18.64
24.35
30.85
36.15
50.30

Length of Pipe
per Sq. Foot of
External
Surface
Feet
9.431
7.073
5.658
4.547
3.637
2.904
2.301
2.010
1.608
1.328
1.091
.954
.848
.686
.576
.442
.355
.299
.272
.238
.212
.191
.159

Internal
Surface
Feet
14.199
10.493
7.747
6.141
4.635
3.641
2.767
2.372
1.847
1.547
1.245
1.076
.948
.756
.629
.478
.381
.318
.280
.254
.226
.203
.169

Cubic Feet Weight

per Foot
per Foot
of Pipe
Pounds
.00039
.244
.00072
.424
.00133
.567
.00211
.850
.00370
1.130
.00600
1.678
.01039
2.272
.01414
2.717
.02330
3.652
.03325
5.793
.05134
7.575
.06866
9.109
.08840
10.790
.1389
14.61
.2006
18.97
.3552
28.55
.5476
40.48
.7763
53.6
.9354
63.0
1.223
78.0
1.555
105.0
1.926
123.0
2.793
171.0

Number
Threads
per Inch
of Screw
27
18
18
14
14
111/2
111/2
111/2
111/2
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8

SYSTEM DESIGN

Diameters

Table 39: Schedule 80 Pipe Dimensions

Diameters
Size
Inches
1/8
1/4
3/8
1/2
3/4
1
11/4
11/2
2
21/2
3
31/2
4
5
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
24

External
Inches
.405
.540
.675
.840
1.050
1.315
1.660
1.900
2.375
2.875
3.500
4.000
4.500
5.563
6.625
8.625
10.750
12.750
14.000
16.000
18.000
20.000
24.000

Nominal
Internal Thickness
Inches
Inches
.215
.095
.302
.119
.423
.126
.546
.147
.742
1.54
.957
.179
1.278
.191
1.500
.200
1.939
.218
2.323
.276
2.900
.300
3.364
.318
3.826
.337
4.813
.375
5.761
.432
7.625
.500
9.564
.593
11.376
.687
12.500
.750
14.314
.843
16.126
.937
17.938
1.031
21.564
1.218

Transverse Areas
External
Sq. Ins.
.129
.229
.358
.554
.866
1.358
2.164
2.835
4.430
6.492
9.621
12.56
15.90
24.30
34.47
58.42
90.76
127.64
153.94
201.05
254.85
314.15
452.40

Internal
Sq. Ins.
.036
.072
.141
.234
.433
.719
1.283
1.767
2.953
4.238
6.605
8.888
11.497
18.194
26.067
45.663
71.84
101.64
122.72
160.92
204.24
252.72
365.22

Metal
Sq. Ins.
.093
.157
.217
.320
.433
.639
.881
1.068
1.477
2.254
3.016
3.678
4.407
6.112
8.300
12.76
18.92
26.00
31.22
40.13
50.61
61.43
87.18

Length of Pipe
per Sq. Foot of
External
Surface
Feet
9.431
7.073
5.658
4.547
3.637
2.904
2.301
2.010
1.608
1.328
1.091
.954
.848
.686
.576
.442
.355
.299
.272
.238
.212
.191
.159

Internal
Surface
Feet
17.750
12.650
9.030
7.000
5.15
3.995
2.990
2.542
1.970
1.645
1.317
1.135
.995
.792
.673
.501
.400
.336
.306
.263
.237
.208
.177

Cubic Feet
per Foot
of Pipe
.00025
.00050
.00098
.00163
.00300
.00500
.00891
.01227
.02051
.02943
.04587
.06172
.0798
.1263
.1810
.3171
.4989
.7058
.8522
1.117
1.418
1.755
2.536

Weight
per Foot
Pounds
.314
.535
.738
1.00
1.47
2.17
3.00
3.65
5.02
7.66
10.3
12.5
14.9
20.8
28.6
43.4
64.4
88.6
107.0
137.0
171.0
209.0
297.0

Number
Threads
per Inch
of Screw
27
18
18
14
14
111/2
111/2
111/2
111/2
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8

81

82

Section 2

HOOK-UP
APPLICATION
DIAGRAMS

Figure II-1
Boiler Steam Header

From
Boiler

To Plant

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

Spira-tec
Loss
Detector

Boiler Steam Headers provide collecting vessels for the steam flowing from
one or more boilers, and distribute it to
as many mains as are needed to supply the plant. Often the flow may be in
either direction along the header
depending on which boilers and which
supply lines are being used. Selecting
the ideal location for the drip point is
thus complicated. It is recommended
to make the header of such an

ThermoDynamic
Steam Trap
with Integral
Strainer

ThermoDynamic
Steam Trap
with Integral
Strainer

increased diameter as to drop the

steam velocity through it to a low value
even with maximum flow in either
direction. The header can then act also
as a separator, and generously sized
steam traps can be fitted at each end.
The boiler header and the separator,
which should be fitted in the steam
take off from modern high performance packaged boilers, may
sometimes have to cope with carry-

Spira-tec
Loss
Detector

Supervised
Start-up
Valve

over from the boiler. These two locations form the exception to the general
rule that mains drip points rarely need
a steam trap as large as the 1/2" size
and can usually be fitted with 1/2" Low
Capacity traps. Instead, traps in 3/4"
and even 1" sizes are often used. The
potential for steam losses when these
larger traps eventually become worn is
increased, and the use of Spira-tec
steam trap monitors is especially valid.

LP Steam Main

Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap
Strainer

Spira-tec
Loss
Detector

Supervised
Start-up
Valve

Figure II-2
Draining End of Low Pressure Steam Main
84

Condensate
Return

In the case of low pressure mains,

the use of Float and Thermostatic
traps is recommended for the drip
stations. The introduction of F & T
traps with steel bodies, third generation capsule type or bimetallic
air vents, and operating mechanisms suitable for pressures up to
465 psi, means that F & T traps
can also be used on properly
drained lines where waterhammer
does not occur, even at pressures
which would formerly have excluded them. An auxiliary air vent is
recommended for the end of all
mains where the system is started
up automatically.

Drip points along the run of the steam

lines, and at the bottom of any risers,
should incorporate large diameter
collecting pockets. Equal tees are
useful in sizes up through 6" and larger size pipes can have pockets 2 or 3
sizes smaller than the main but not
less than 6". The terminal points of
the mains should have automatic air
vents, and equal tees again provide
convenient collecting pockets for both
condensate and air when installed as
shown.

Figure II-3
Draining and Air Venting Steam Lines
Balanced
Pressure
Thermostatic
Air Vent

Spira-tec
Loss Detector

Inverted
Bucket
Steam Trap
with Integral
Strainer

Supervised
Start-up
Valve

Condensate Main

Figure II-4
Draining Expansion Loops

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

Spira-tec
Loss
Detector

ThermoDynamic
Steam Trap
with Integral
Strainer

ThermoDynamic
Steam Trap
with Integral
Strainer

Spira-tec
Loss
Detector

Strainer
Supervised
Start-up
Valve

ThermoDynamic
Steam
Trap

Spira-tec
Loss
Detector
Condensate Return

Expansion loops are often fitted in

the vertical plane, with the loop either
below or above the line. When below
the line, condensate can collect in the
bottom of the loop. Above the line, it
will collect just in front of the loop, at
the foot of the riser. Drainage points
are necessary in each case, as
shown.

85

Both HP and LP mains often must be

drained to a condensate return line at
the same elevation as the steam line.
The best location for the traps is then
below the steam line, with a riser
after the trap to the top of the return
line.

Figure II-5
Draining Steam Mains to Return Main at Same Level

Condensate
Main

HP
Main

LP
Main

Thermo-Dynamic
Steam Trap with
Integral Strainer
Connector

Spira-tec
Loss
Detector

Spira-tec
Loss
Detector

Check
Valve

Check
Valve
Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

Supervised
Start-up
Valve

Spira-tec
Loss
Detector

Figure II-6
Trapping Hook-up for Start-up of Steam Main
For supervised startup of steam
mains, a manual bypass is fitted so
that condensate can be drained by
gravity while the line pressure is too
low for it to be handled by the trap at
an adequate rate. If a second trap is
fitted in the bypass line, a similar
hookup is obtained which is suitable
for automatic startup.

Strainer

Thermo-Dynamic Steam
Trap with Integral Strainer

Supervised
Start-up
Valve

Spira-tec
Loss
Detector

Thermo-Dynamic
Steam Trap
with Integral
Strainer

Condensate
Return

Check
Valve

Figure II-7
Hook-up with Condensate Return Line at High Level
Often the normal trap discharges to a
return line at higher elevation. The
startup trap must always discharge
by gravity so here it is separated from
the normal running trap. A
Thermoton is used so that it will close
automatically when the condensate
temperature shows that warm up of
the main is nearing completion.

86

Spira-tec
Loss
Detector

Liquid Expansion
Steam Trap
Drain

Thermo-Dynamic
Steam Trap
with Integral
Strainer

Figure II-8
Draining Steam Main where Trap
must be at Higher Level

Set down
about 2"

Steam
Main

Generous
Collecting
Pocket

Loop Seal
(where L
exceeds H)

ThermoDynamic
Steam Trap
with Integral
Strainer

Spira-tec
Loss
Detector

Condensate
Main

Figure II-9
Condensate Drainage to Reinforced Plastic Return Line, with Overheat Protection

On some extended sites,

steam distribution is underground and drip points are
inside steam pits. Steam
main drip traps should discharge into gravity return
systems, but at times it may be
necessary to connect them
directly to a pumped condensate line. To avoid failure of
plastic or fiberglass piping
caused by high temperature
from steam leakage when
eventually the trap becomes
worn, a cooling chamber and
control as shown can be used.
If the temperature of the condensate leaving the chamber
ever reaches the safe limit, the
control
valve
opens.
Condensate is discharged
above grade, where it can be
seen, until its temperature falls
again below the limiting value.

T44 Temperature Control

(set to open at temperature
limit of pipe)

High
Temperature
Drain

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

In some cases, the existence of other service or process

lines alongside the stream main is combined with the
need to lift the condensate from the drip point to higher
level. Without the loop seal, clearance of condensate from
length L and replacement with steam means that for
appreciable times steam passes up length H and holds
the trap closed, although condensate may be collecting in
the pocket. The arrangement shown minimizes this problem and gives most consistent performance of the trap.

Condensate
Return Pipe

Cooling
Chamber
Steam Main

Main Drip
Steam Trap
Diffuser
Check
Valve

Check
Valve

Spira-tec
Loss
Detector
Supervised
Start-up
Valve

87

Figure II-10 Typical Steam Tracer Trapping Arrangements

Insulation

Product Line

Product Line

Tracer

Tracer
Spira-tec
Loss
Detector

A. TD traps on high temperature tracing

application where tracer line must be
drained clear of condensate.
B. TSS300 traps on low temperature tracing
where product temperature is below 150F
and some of sensible heat in condensate
may be utilized to improve efficiency.

Strainer

ThermoDynamic
Steam Trap
with Integral
Strainer

Balanced
Pressure
Thermostatic
Steam Trap

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

To
Condensate
Return

Strainer

Steam
Main

Spira-tec
Loss
Detector

Condensate
Collection
Manifold

Steam
Distribution
Manifold

Ambient
Sensing
Temperature
Control

Steam Trap Station

with Test Valves

Condensate
from Tracers

Steam to
Tracers

Figure II-11
Steam Tracing System with
Preassembled Manifolds

Steam Trap Station

with Test Valves

Steam will automatically shut down

as ambient temperatures rise above
product solidification temperature.
Select self acting temperature control
for number of tracer lines.
To drain during supervised
startup or during shutdown

To Drain

Steam is uniformly distributed to tracers by forged steel manifold with integral piston valves. After supplying heat to tracer lines, condensate is collected in
fabricated manifold preassembled with steam trap stations. Three-way test valves
allow for startup purging, checking of lines for blockage, isolation of trap for maintenance, and visual testing of steam trap operation. Condensate manifold has an
internal siphon pipe to reduce waterhammer and provide freeze protection.

88

Figure II-12
Typical Pressure Reducing Valve Station
Safety
Valve

Steam
Supply

Moisture
Separator

Drip
Pan
Elbow

Strainer

Spira-tec
Loss
Detector

Strainer

Reduced
Steam
Pressure

Pilot Operated
Pressure Control Valve
Check
Valve

Select inlet piping for reasonable

velocity and expand downstream
for equal flow rate.

Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap

Parallel Operation of Pressure Reducing Valves

Safety
Valve
Pressure
Sensing Line
Strainer

Drip
Pan
Elbow

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

Figure II-13

Pilot Operated
Pressure Control Valve

Pressure
Sensing Line
Steam
Supply

Moisture
Separator

Strainer

Spira-tec
Loss
Detector

Strainer

Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap

Reduced
Steam
Pressure

Pilot Operated
Pressure Control Valve
Check
Valve

Set lead valve 2 psi above desired

set pressure and set lag valve 2 psi
below desired set pressure.

89

Figure II-14
Series Pressure Reducing Valve Station for High Turndown Rations

Pressure
Sensing
Line

Safety
Valve

Pressure
Sensing
Line

Drip
Pan
Elbow

Moisture
Separator

Strainer

Steam
Supply

Strainer
Pilot Operated
Pressure Control Valve
Pilot Operated
Pressure Control Valve

Spira-tec
Loss
Detector

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

Strainer

Reduced
Steam
Pressure

Check
Valve

Strainer

Float &
Spira-tec Thermostatic
Loss
Steam Trap
Detector

Check
Valve

Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap

Note: Intermediate pressure takeoff requires an additional safety valve.

Figure II-15
Hook-up for Remote Operation of 25 PRM Pressure Reducing Valve

Safety
Valve

5/16" Copper
Tubing or 1/4" Pipe
Moisture
Separator

Drip
Pan
Elbow

Noise Diffuser
(if required)
Strainer

Steam
Supply

Reduced
Steam
Pressure

Main
Control Valve
Remote
Pressure
Pilot
1/2" Pipe
Check
Valve
Strainer

Check
Valve

Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap

Limit pilot to 15 ft. drop below main

valve and drain all supply tubing. If
pilot is mounted above main valve,
pilot line drip traps can be eliminated.
For longer distance an air loaded
pilot should be used.

90

Check
Valve

Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap

Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap

Figure II-16

Safety
Valve

Installation of Pressure Reducing Valve in Tight Spaces

Drip
Pan
Elbow

Reduced
Steam
Pressure
Pilot Operated
Pressure
Control
Valve
Moisture
Separator

Ten Pipe
Diameters

Strainer

Steam
Supply

Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap

Noise Diffuser
(if required)

Strainer

Check
Valve

Check
Valve

Strainer
Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap

Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap

Figure II-17
Low Capacity Pressure Reducing Station

Direct
Operated
Pressure
Reducing
Valve

10 Pipe
Diameters
Minimum

Pressure
Sensing Line
Pitch Down

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

Check
Valve

Strainer

Safety
Valve

Drip
Pan
Elbow

Strainer
Reduced
Steam
Pressure
Thermo-Dynamic
Steam Trap
Strainer

Spira-tec
Loss
Detector

91

Figure II-18
25 BP Back Pressure Controls used to Restrict Supply to Low Priority Uses at Times of Overload
Pilot Operated
Pressure Reducing
and Back Pressure
Valve

Pilot Operated
Back Pressure Valve

Safety
Valve
Drip
Pan
Elbow

Strainer
Steam to
Non-essential
Service

Reduced Steam
Pressure to
Non-essential Service

Strainer

Steam Supply
from Boiler

Steam to
Priority Use

Header

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

ThermoDynamic
Steam Trap
with Integral

At times of peak draw off, boilers which have sufficient

capacity to meet average load conditions may become overloaded. This can cause carryover and priming, or even
lockout of boilers on low water. The pressure in the steam
lines falls and essential services may be interrupted. The
use of back pressure controls in the supplies to non-essential loads allows these to be automatically shut down, in
order of priority, at peak load times while maintaining supply
to more important loads.

Spira-tec
Loss
Detector

Figure II-19
Reducing Steam Pressure Using 25PA Control Valve with Remote Air Valve
10 Pipe Diameters
Minimum from
Valve Outlet
Air Loaded
Pilot

Steam
Supply

Moisture
Separator

Safety
Valve

Pressure
Sensing Line
Pitch Down

Drip
Pan
Elbow

Strainer
Reduced
Steam
Pressure
Air Operated
Control Valve
Filter/Regulator
Air
Supply

Spira-tec
Loss
Detector

Check
Valve

Strainer
Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap

92

Depending on pilot selected, reduced

steam pressure will be approximately 1:1,
4:1 or 6:1 times the air loading pressure
sent to the pilot.

Figure II-20

Controller

Typical Pneumatic Single Stage

Pressure Reducing Valve Station

Safety
Valve

Moisture
Separator

Steam
Supply

Drip
Pan
Elbow

Supply
Air

Control
Signal
Strainer

Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap
Strainer

Reduced
Steam
Pressure

Noise Diffuser
(if required)

Pneumatic
Control
Valve

Check
Valve

Controller
Control Signal
Supply Air

Supply Air
Vacuum
Breaker

Moisture
Separator

Strainer

Steam
Supply

Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap

Sensor
Strainer
Heat Exchanger
Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap

Spira-tec
Loss
Detector

Check
Valve

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

Pneumatic
Control Valve
with Positioner

Strainer

Liquid in/out

Figure II-21

Check
Valve

Spira-tec
Loss
Detector

Pneumatic Temperature Control of Heat Exchanger

Figure II-22
Hook-up for 25 TRM Temperature Control Remotely Mounted (within 15 ft. of Main Valve)
5/16" Copper Tubing
or 1/4" Pipe
Steam
Supply

Moisture
Separator

Main
Control Valve

Strainer

Regulated
Steam to
Process

Check
Valve

Strainer

Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap

Remote
Temp.
Pilot

1/2" Pipe

Sensor

Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap

Check
Valve

93

Figure II-23
Pressure Reducing Valve for Pressure Powered Pump Motive Steam
Steam
Supply

Safety
Valve
Direct or Pilot Operated
Pressure Reducing Valve
Drip
Pan
Elbow
Strainer
Pressure Surge Reservoir
1-1/2" or 2" diameter, 6 long
with eccentric fittings on ends

Motive
Steam
to Pump

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

Strainer
ThermoDynamic
Steam Trap

Figure II-24
Heat-up, Pressuring and Shutdown of Steam Mains
using On/Off Control Valves and Programmer
Automatic
Time
Switch

Steam
Supply

Power

Steam to
System

Strainer
Hand Valve
to adjust
flow rate

Pilot Operated
On/Off Control Valve
(for heatup only)

Adjustable
Pressurestat
(with N.O. Switch)

Steam
Main

Strainer

Pilot Operated
On/Off Control Valve
(for maximum flow)

Spira-tec
Loss
Detector

ThermoDynamic
Steam Trap
with Integral

94

Spira-tec
Loss
Detector

ThermoDynamic
Steam Trap
with Integral

Figure II-25
Moisture
Separator

Steam
Supply

Complete Condensate
Drainage from Air Heater
Coil under Stall with
Combination Pump/Trap
in a Closed Loop System

Strainer

Steam Trap Station

Spira-tec
Loss Detector

Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap

Direct or
Pilot Operated
Temperature
Control

Strainer

Temperature
Control
Sensor
Air
Inlet

Coil

Check
Valve
Motive
Steam
Supply

Condensate
Return

Thermostati
c

Drain to
Safe
Place

Reservoir
Strainer
ThermoDynamic
Steam Trap

Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap

Pressure
Powered
Pump

When the steam pressure within the

coil is high enough to push condensate through the steam trap, against
any back pressure from a lift to higher level or into a pressurized line, the
pump is inoperative. If the action of
the temperature control lowers the
coil pressure sufficiently, the condensate flow stalls. Water backing up into
the PPP body brings it into operation
and the pump uses motive steam to
push the condensate through the trap
to the return line.
At the end of each discharge stroke,
the motive steam in the pump body is
exhausted through a balance line to
the top of the liquid reservoir. A thermostatic air vent on the balance line
vents air under startup conditions,
even if the pump/trap is fully flooded
with condensate at this time.

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

See Fig. II-25A for the

preassembled
Process Condensate
Removal Module

Heated
Air
Outlet

Figure II-25A
Process Condensate Removal Module
A preassembled modular pumping system
provides a sole source solution for air
heater coil applications.

95

Figure II-26

Steam
Supply

Steam
Supply

Controlling and Draining Preheat and

Reheat Coils in Vented Condensate
System with Freeze Resistant Piping
for Makeup Air

Vacuum
Breaker

Vacuum
Breaker

Pilot Operated
Temperature
Control Valve

Thermostati
c

Pilot Operated
Temperature
Control Valve
Drain to
Safe
Place

ThermoDynamic
Steam Trap
with Integral
Strainer

Drain to
Safe
Place

ThermoDynamic
Steam Trap
with Integral
Strainer

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

Thermostati
c

Temperature
Control
Sensor
Outdoor
Air

Temperature
Control
Sensor

Heated
Air

Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap
Liquid
Expansion
Steam Trap

Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap

Spira-tec
Loss
Detector

Liquid
Expansion
Steam Trap

Spira-tec
Loss
Detector
Motive
Supply

Vented Receiver

Condensate
Return
Strainer
Spira-tec
Loss
Detector

Each coil must be individually drained

to provide for proper and accurate
control. Strainers are not fitted in front
of the traps in case they become partially blocked. Freeze resistant coils
must have vacuum breaker, traps
sized for full load with 1/2 psi differential and unobstructed piping to an
atmospheric return system.

96

Pressure
Powered
Pump

Strainer

Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap

Steam
Supply

Pilot Operated
Temperature
Control Valve

Strainer

Vacuum
Breaker

Temperature
Sensor
Vertical
Air Coil

Vent

Vacuum
Breaker

Thermostati
c

*
*
Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap

Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap
Spira-tec ThermoDynamic
Loss
Detector Steam Trap
with Integral
Strainer

Condensate
Return

Motive
Supply

Packaged
Pressure
Powered
Pump Unit

Strainer

Figure II-27

Pressure
Powered
Pump

* To preclude accidental closing, these valves

should be chain locked in open position, or
they may be omitted.

ThermoDynamic
Steam Trap

Safety
Valve
Pilot Operated
Pressure
Control Valve

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

Freeze Proof Piping of

Large Vertical Air Heater Coil to
Atmospheric Condensate Return System

Air
Vent

Drip
Pan
Elbow

Moisture
Separator

Drain to
Safe
Place

Steam
Supply

Air
Heating
Coils

Pilot Operated
Back Pressure
Control Valve
Strainer
Vent
Low Pressure Steam
Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap

Safety
Valve
Drip
Pan
Elbow

Strainer

Flash
Recovery
Vessel

Condensate Return
Pitch Down

Figure II-28
High Pressure Steam
Coils Trapped for
Flash Recovery to LP
Steam System

Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap

Strainer

Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap
To Condensate
Return

Spira-tec
Loss
Detector

Check
Valve

97

Fail safe protection against excess temperatures is provided by a separate control valve, normally latched wide open. If the 130 self-acting control system
detects a temperature overrun, or if the control system itself is damaged, a powerful spring is released in the HL10 unit and the high limit valve is driven closed.
A switch is available as an extra to provide electrical warning that the device has
been actuated.

Figure II-29
Storage Cylinder with
High Limit Protection

Moisture
Separator

Strainer Valve

Self Acting
Temperature
Control

Vacuum
Breaker

Hot Flow

Steam
Supply

HL10
Overheat
Protection

High Limit
130 Sensor

Spira-tec
Loss
Detector

Temperature
Control
Sensor

Strainer

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap

Storage
Tank

Check
Valve

Circ.
Return

Spira-tec
Loss
Detector

Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap

Cold
Supply

Strainer

Figure II-30
Condensate Drainage from Unit Heater
Steam
Supply

Note: The Liquid Expansion

Steam Trap will automatically
drain unit heater during periods of shutdown which will
prevent damage due to corrosion.

Unit
Heater
To
Overhead
Return
Float &
Spira-tec
Loss Thermostatic
Detector Steam Trap
Check
Valve

Strainer
Liquid Expansion
Steam Trap
Alternate
Location

Liquid Expansion
Steam Trap

To
Condensate
Return
To Drain

98

Drain condensate
by gravity where
possible
especially to vac.
return system

Figure II-31
Temperature Control of Warm-up and Running
Loads at Storage Tank
A control valve suitably sized to supply the start up
load on a tank is often very much oversized for the
running load, and this oversizing can lead to erratic
control. In such cases, a large control valve may be
used to meet the warm up load, arranged to close
at a temperature perhaps 2 below the final control
temperature. The smaller control valve meets the
running load, and the supply is supplemented
through the start up valve, only when the capacity of
the smaller valve is exceeded.
Moisture
Separator

Running
Temperature
Control
Valve

Run
Temperature
Sensor
Low
Temperature
Sensor

Warm Up
Temperature
Control
Valve

Strainer

Steam
Supply

Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap

Strainer

Thermostatic
Steam Trap

Condensate
Return

Storage
Tank

Spira-tec
Loss
Detector

Check
Valve

Strainer

Figure II-32
P1

Draining Heat Exchanger under Constant Stall

Condition with Pumping Trap in Closed Loop System

Pilot Operated
Temperature
Control Valve

Moisture
Separator

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

Spira-tec
Loss
Detector

Strainer

Steam
Supply

Sensor
Heat Exchanger

Strainer

Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap

Spira-tec
Loss
Detector

Hot

Check Valve

Cold
Pressurized
Return
System

Drain to
Safe
Place

Motive
Steam
Supply

Thermostatic
Air Vent

P2
Strainer
ThermoDynamic
Steam
Trap

Draining L.P. Heat Exchanger to

Overhead Return. Pressure at pump
outlet P2 always exceeds supply
pressure P1 to Heat Exchanger.
Completely immerse control sensor
without well, right at hot outflow.
To prevent overheating, the sensor
must not see a dead flow.

Reservoir

Pressure
Powered
Pump

99

Figure II-33

Safety
Valve

Strainer

Moisture
Separator

Vacuum
Breaker

Combined Pressure
and Temperature
Control of Heat
Exchanger

Drip Pan
Elbow

Pilot Operated
Pressure/Temperature
Control Valve
Steam
Supply

Note: scensor must

not see a
dead flow.

Sensor

Heat Exchanger
Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap

Spira-tec
Loss
Detector

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

When the pressure of the steam supply is higher than the

heat exchanger can withstand, or is at a higher value
than necessary to allow for fouling of the heat exchange
surfaces, a pressure reducing valve is required. This can
economically be combined with a temperature control by
using pressure sensing and temperature sensing pilots
to operate a common main valve. Sensor bulb must be
fully immersed right at hot outflow and use of a separable well should be avoided.

Steam
Supply

Cold
Water
Supply

Spira-tec
Loss
Detector

Strainer
Gravity
Return

Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap

Self Acting
Temperature
Control

Moisture
Separator

Thermostatic
Air Vent
Vacuum
Breaker

Strainer

Drain to
Safe
Place

Steam Trap Station

Strainer
Float &
Spira-tec
Thermostatic
Steam Trap Loss Detector

Temp.
Control
Sensor

Liquid
In/Out
Flow

Multiple Loads
Connected to
Vented Receiver

Note: scensor must

not see a
dead flow.
See Fig. II-34A for
the preassembled
Condensate
Recovery Module

Condensate
Return

Strainer

Heat Exchanger

Steam Trap Station

H

Strainer
Float &
Spira-tec
Thermostatic
Steam Trap Loss Detector

Receiver

Figure II-34
Draining Small Heat Exchanger and
Other Loads to Pressure Powered Pump
ThermoDynamic
Steam Trap

100

Pressure
Powered
Pump

Arrangement of Small Steam/Liquid Heat

Exchanger where steam space pressure may fall
below back pressure and trap has gravity drain.
Note: Head H must be enough to give trap
capacity needed when steam space pressure
falls to zero.

Controller

Pneumatic
Control
Valve

P1
Moisture
Separator

Steam
Supply

Control
Signal

Supply
Air
Note: To prevent
overheating,
the scensor
must not see
a dead flow.

Strainer

Steam Trap Station

Sensor
Strainer
Float &
Spira-tec
Thermostatic
Steam Trap Loss Detector

Hot
Flow

Heat Exchanger

Cool
Return

Elevated or
Pressurized
Return

Drain to
Safe
Place

Thermo
-static
Air Vent

Figure II-35
Draining Equipment to Pressurized
Return with Closed Loop
Pump/Trap Drainage System

See Fig. II-35A for

the preassembled
Process Condensate
Removal Module
Reservoir Pipe
Strainer
ThermoDynamic
Steam Trap

Spira-tec
Loss Detector

Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap

Pressure
Powered
Pump

Liquid Expansion
Steam Trap

Drain

P1 exceeds P2 except when partial

loads stall the exchanger. With this
hook up, the reservoir pipe is always
connected to, and at the same pressure as, the heat exchanger steam
space. Condensate drains to it freely.
The pump body is connected in the
same way, except during the discharge
stroke when the inlet check valve and
the exhaust valve are closed. After discharge, the residual steam in the pump
body is exhausted to the heater and its
latent heat can then be recovered.
Steam trap functions at full load and
Thermoton drains at shutdown.

Figure II-34A

Figure II-35A

Condensate Recovery Module

Process Condensate Removal Module

A preassembled modular pumping system can be used

to recover and reuse the condensate.

A preassembled modular will remove condensate from the

heat exchanger under all operating conditions.

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

P2

Motive
Steam Supply

101

Figure II-36
Low Pressure Steam Absorption Chiller
Check
Valve

To
Condensate
Return

Thermostatic
Air Vent
Motive
Steam Supply

Drain to
Safe Place
Steam Supply
(15 psig or less)

Absorption
Chiller

ThermoDynamic
Steam Trap
with Integral
Strainer

Reservoir Pipe

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap

Pressure
Powered
Pump

Figure II-37
High Pressure Steam Absorption Chiller

Vent

Steam Supply
(normally 45
psig or higher)

Motive
Steam Supply
To
Condensate
Return

Absorption Chiller

Packaged
Pressure
Powered
Pump

Thermo-Dynamic
Steam Trap
with Integral
Strainer

102

Note: Depending on chiller manufacturer, a steam trap

may not be required or it may be supplied with the chiller.
Other specialties needed may include a steam pressure
reducing valve on the inlet, steam separator with trap,
steam safety valve or inlet strainer.

Figure II-38 Automatic Control of Batch

Processor with Electrical Time Sequence
Programmer

Electric
Operator

Power

Safety
Valve

Steam
Filter
Pressure
Sensing Line
Pitch Down

Moisture
Separator

Drip
Pan
Elbow

Steam
Supply

Strainer
Pilot Operated
Pressure/Temperature
Control Valve
with Solenoid
Spira-tec
Loss
Detector

Drain to
Safe Place
Thermostatic
Air Vent

Strainer

Autoclave

Spira-tec
Loss
Detector

Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap

Strainer
Strainer

Float & Thermostatic

Steam Trap

Spira-tec
Loss Detector

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap

Balanced
Pressure
Thermostatic
Steam Trap

Figure II-39
Controlling Temperature of Open Tank
for Plating, Dyeing of Process Work
Pilot
Operated
Temperature
Control Valve

Moisture
Separator

Strainer
Steam
Supply

Small
Bore
Riser

Strainer

Strainer
Float &
Spira-tec Thermostatic
Loss
Steam Trap
Detector

Spira-tec
Loss
Detector

Gravity
Return

Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap

Loop
Seal

103

Electric
Operator

Power

Safety
Valve

Moisture
Separator

Strainer

Steam
Supply
Spira-tec
Loss
Detector

Strainer

Figure II-40

Drip
Pan
Elbow

Pressure
Sensing Line
Pitch Down

Thermo-Dynamic
Steam Traps with
Integral Strainer

Pressure Reducing
Control Valve
with Solenoid

Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

Controlling Platen Press Temperature

with Pressure Regulator and Electric
Programmer. Indicating Pilot Permits
Fast Temperature Changes

Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap
Strainer

Spira-tec
Loss Detector

Condensate Return

Figure II-41
Controlling Temperature of Pressurized Boiler Feed Water Tank
Safety
Valve

Thermostatic
Air Vent
Vacuum
Breaker

Moisture
Separator

Drain to
Safe Place

Strainer

Steam
Supply
(125 psi
or less)

Strainer
Pilot Operated
Back Pressure
Control Valve

Pilot Operated
Pressure/Temperature
Control Valve

Condensate
Return
Make up
Water
Supply

Float &
Spira-tec Thermostatic
Loss
Steam Trap
Detector
Pack Heat
Compound
in Bulb Well

Perforated
Heater Tube

Note: When supply pressure is above 125 psi, install an additional

Spirax Sarco pressure control valve ahead of pressure/temperature
control valve to reduce pressure to 125 psi.

104

Pump
Suction

Figure II-42
Controlling Temperature of Vented Boiler Feed Water Tank
Vent
Head

Condensate
Return

Condensate
Return
Temperature
Control Valve

Vacuum
Breaker

Strainer

Make up
Water

Sensor
Perforated Heater Tube

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

Steam
Supply

To B.F. Pump
Suction

Figure II-43
Controlling Temperature of Large Open Tank Heated by Direct Steam Injection

Vacuum
Breaker

Moisture
Separator

Strainer

Steam
Supply
Pilot Operated
Temperature
Control Valve

Open
Tank

Spira-tec
Loss
Detector

Strainer

Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap
Steam
Injector
Provide suitable support
and protection for
capillary tubing and
temperature bulbs

105

Figure II-44
Controlling Temperature of Small Open Tank, Heated by Direct Steam Injection

Strainer

Vacuum
Breaker

Open Tank

Steam
Injector/
Thermoton

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

Figure II-45
Controlling Temperature of Water Supplied
to Spray Nozzles of Egg Washing Machine

Moisture
Separator

Strainer

Pilot Operated
Temperature
Control Valve

Vacuum
Breaker

Vent

Steam
Supply

Gravity
Return
from
Washer

Cold
Water
Supply
Spira-tec
Loss
Detector

Strainer

Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap

Float Operated
C.W. Valve

Pack Sensor Well with

Heat Conducting
Compound
Steam Injector

Centrifugal
Pump

106

Warm
Water
Supply
to Washer
Spray
Nozzles

Figure II-46
Controlling Temperature of Greenhouse or Other Similar Buildings

Room
Thermostat

Strainer

Moisture
Separator

Fin-Tube
Radiation

Steam
Supply
Liquid
Expansion
Steam Trap

Pilot Operated
On/Off Control Valve

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

Strainer

Spira-tec
Loss
Detector

Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap

Figure II-47
Steam Radiator

Radiator
Valve

Supply

Thermostatic
Radiator Trap

Return

107

Figure II-48
Thermostatic
Air Vent

Trapping and Air Venting Hospital

Sterilizer with Dry Steam Supply
Ball Valve
Moisture
Separator

Filter

ThermoDynamic
Steam Trap

Strainer

Steam
Supply
Balanced
Pressure
Thermostatic
Steam Trap

Drain to
Safe Place
Thermostatic
Air Vent

Spira-tec
Loss
Detector

Strainer

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap

Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap

Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap

Moisture
Separator

Strainer
Heating
Coil

Self Acting
Temperature
Control

Steam
Supply

Spira-tec
Loss
Detector

Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap

Figure II-49
Control and Drainage Hook-up for
Hospital Blanket and Bedpan Warmer

108

ThermoDynamic
Steam Trap
with Integral
Strainer

Small size trap

is required

Spira-tec
Loss
Detector

Figure II-50
Trapping Small Utensil Sterilizer

Balanced Pressure
Thermostatic
Steam Trap

Strainer

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

Steam
Supply

Figure II-51
Condensate Drainage from
Hospital Mattress Disinfector
Thermostatic
Air Vent
Strainer

Steam
Supply

Drain to
Safe Place
Spira-tec
Loss
Detector

Strainer

Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap

Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap
Strainer

Spira-tec
Loss
Detector

109

Vacuum
Breaker

Figure II-52
Float & Thermostatic Trap
Freeze Resistant Hook-up

Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap

Liquid Expansion
Steam Trap

Figure II-53
Thermoton Controlling Temperature
of Large Storage Tank

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

Strainer
Storage
Tank

Steam
Supply

Strainer
Liquid
Expansion
Steam Trap

Figure II-54
Equipment Drained with Permanent Connector Thermo-Dynamic Steam Traps
that fit into both Horizontal and Vertical Pipework

Steam Main

ThermoDynamic
Steam Trap
with Integral
Strainer

ThermoDynamic
Steam Trap
with Integral
Strainer

Condensate
Return

110

ThermoDynamic
Steam Trap
with Integral
Strainer

Floor

Figure II-55
Draining and Air Venting
Flatwork Ironer

Balanced
Pressure
Thermostatic
Air Vent

Drain to
Safe Place

Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap

Sight
Glass with
Check Valve

Steam Beds

Strainer

Gravity
Return

Steam Main

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

The steam traps are often located at

one end for ease of maintenance,
with long pipes connecting them to
the drainage points. If steam-locking
is a problem in these long pipes,
then a Float / Thermostatic steam
trap with a steam-lock release is the
best selection. The beds should be
air vented at points remote from the
steam entry. Steam supply lines to
ironers should be drained, ideally
using a separator.

Drain to
Safe Place

Balanced
Pressure
Thermostatic
Air Vent
Rotating
Cylinder

Strainer
Air
Reservoir

Figure II-56
System Units for Condensate Removal
and Air Venting of Rotating Cylinders
(for surface speeds below 800 FPM)
The Spirax Sarco units (Strainers,
Float & Thermostatic Steam Traps with
SLR feature, Sight Glass, Air Reservoir
with Air Vent) provides for the best
drainage of condensate and noncondensibles from rotating cylinders.

Sight
Glass

Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap
with SLR
feature

Gravity
Condensate
Return

111

Figure II-57 Draining High Speed Paper Machine using Cascading or Blow-through Systems
Thermo-Dynamic
Steam Trap
with Integral
Strainer

Spira-tec
Loss Detector

Dryer
Cans

Check
Valve

Safety Valve
with Drip
Pan Elbow
Blow through
Separator

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

Paper Machines running at higher

speeds in modern plants usually have
a cascading or blow-through system. Condensate is swept by the flow
of blowthrough steam, up the dryer
can dip pipe and into a manifold leading to a blowthrough separator.
Control of the blowthrough steam may
be at the separator outlet or on indi-

vidual cylinders or banks of cylinders.

The blow-through steam may pass on
to sections of the machine operating
at lower pressures. The blowthrough
separator is drained by an FT trap,
unless the return is pressurized in
which case a closed loop combination
pressure powered pump/trap is
required.

Check
Valve

Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap

Condensate
Return

Figure II-58 Draining High Speed Paper Machine using Thermal-compressor or Reused Steam Systems
H.P. Steam
Thermal Compressor

L.P. Steam
Steam Thermo-Dynamic
Trap
Steam Trap
Station
with Integral
Strainer

Spira-tec
Loss Detector

Dryer
Cans

By-Pass

L.P.
Steam

See Fig. II-58A for

the preassembled
Condensate
Removal Module
Safety Valve
with Drip
Pan Elbow

Figure II-58A Condensate Removal Module

High speed paper machines can be fitted with
a preassembled module that incorporates the
separator and condensate removal equipment.

Separator
Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap Condensate
Return

Modern paper machines also use Thermal-compresor systems. Condensate is swept by the flow of
blow-through steam up the dryer can dip pipe and
into a manifold leading to a separator. The L.P. steam
from the separator is then reused through an H.P.
steam driven thermal compressor or by-passed. The
separator is drained like Fig. II-57 or engineered systems package, Fig. II-58A.

112

Figure II-59
Air Venting and Condensate Drainage at Jacketed Kettle

Balanced
Pressure
Thermostatic
Air Vent

Steam
Supply

Drain to
Safe
Place

ThermoDynamic
Steam Trap
with Integral
Strainer
Float &
Spira-tec Thermostatic
Loss
Steam Trap
Detector

Strainer

Condensate
Return

Figure II-60

Figure II-61

Draining Tire Mold

Steam Trapping High Pressure Coil (up to 600 psig)

Balanced
Pressure
Thermostatic
Air Vent

Steam
Supply

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

Spira-tec
Loss
Detector

Strainer

HP
Heating
Coil

Drain to
Safe
Place

Air

Steam
Supply

ThermoDynamic
Steam Trap

Flexible
Quick
Disconnect
Lines

Strainer

Strainer
(Air supply temp. not lower than 32F)

Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap
Condensate Return

113

Figure II-62
Draining High Pressure Reboiler
Steam
Supply

Balanced
Pressure
Thermostatic
Air Vent
Reboiler

Drain to
Safe
Place

Strainer

Strainer

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

ThermoDynamic
Steam Trap

Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap
Condensate Return

Figure II-63
Draining Condensate to Vented Receiver and
Lifting Condensate to Overhead Return Main
Return Line
Pressure Gauge
Steam
Space

Condensate
Return Main
Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap

Vent to
Atmosphere

Motive
Supply

Strainer

Spira-tec
Loss Detector
Total
Lift
H

Vented
Receiver

Strainer
Filling
Head

Total back pressure is the height (H)

in feet x .0433 plus PSIG in return
line, plus downstream piping friction
pressure drop in PSI (Determined by
the maximum instantaneous discharge rate of the selected pump.)

114

Pressure
Powered
Pump

ThermoDynamic
Steam Trap

Check Valve
Balanced
Pressure
Thermostatic
Air Vent

Drain to
Safe
Place

Evaporator
Pressure
Evaporator

Return
Main

Motive
Steam
Supply

1" Equalizer Line

Reservoir

Strainer
ThermoDynamic
Steam Trap

Figure II-64
Pressure
Powered
Pump

Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

Draining Evaporator when

Evaporator Steam Pressure
can fall from Above to Below
Back Pressure

Back
Pressure

Figure II-65
Draining Condensate from vacuum Space to Return Main or Atmosphere Drain
1" Equalizer Line
Return
Main

Vacuum
Space
Steam
Supply
Total
Lift
H

Elevated
Discharge
Connection

Reservoir
Strainer
Filling
Head

Pipe to
Drain

ThermoDynamic
Steam Trap

Pressure
Powered
Pump

1/8"
Antisyphon
Hole

Pipe to
Drain
30"
Water
Column

Drain to
Atmosphere

115

Figure II-66

Check Valve

Lifting Fluids from Low Pressure Source

to Higher Pressure Receiver

Balanced
Pressure
Thermostatic
Air Vent

Drain to
Safe
Place

Check Pressurized
Valve Receiver
Tank

Low Pressure
Space
1" Equalizer Line
Steam
Supply
Reservoir

Total
Lift
H
Strainer

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

Total back pressure

is the height (H) in
feet x 0.433 plus
PSIG in receiver, plus
downstream piping
friction pressure drop
in PSI (Determined
by the maximum
instantaneous discharge rate of the
selected pump.)

Drain to
Safe Place

ThermoDynamic
Steam Trap

Pressure
Powered
Pump

Figure II-67
Draining Equipment with Condensate Outlet Near Floor Level using a Pump/Trap Combination in a Pit
Check Valve

Condensate
from
Equipment

Balanced
Pressure
Thermostatic
Air Vent

To
Pressurized
Storage Tank

Drain to
Safe
Place
Motive Gas or
Steam Supply

Equalizer Line

Reservoir Pipe
Check
Valve
Check Valve
Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap
Strainer

ThermoDynamic
Steam Trap

Pressure
Powered
Pump
Plug

116

Figure II-68
Installation of Pump/Trap Combination
when Vertical Space is Limited

Check
Valve
Drain to
Safe
Place

Return
Main

Balanced
Pressure
Thermostatic
Air Vent

Condensate
from Process
Equipment

Motive
Supply

Reservoir

Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap

Strainer
Check Valve

Check Valve

ThermoDynamic
Steam Trap

Pressure
Powered
Pump

Figure II-69
Multiple Pressure Powered Pump Hookups
for Staged Operation and Standby Duty

Vent

Condensate
Supplies

Drain to
Safe
Place

When multiple pumps in parallel

are used to meet the load, Pump
#1 fills first and Pump #2 operates
at full load. Supply piping is
arranged to reduce simultaneous
discharge. Better staging occurs
when Pump #2 is elevated 3 to 6
above the floor.
Intake pipe to Pump #3 is located
above the Filling Head required
by Pump #1 & #2 so it will function
as a Standby and only operate
on peak loads or in the event of
primary pump failure.

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

PPF-Top

Receiver
Exhaust

Return

Return

Pressure
Powered
Pump #3

Pressure
Powered
Pump #1

Pressure
Powered
Pump #2

117

Figure II-70
Drain

Pressure Powered Pump Draining Water from Sump Pit

Pump Exhaust
Piped to Safe Place

Covering Grate

Total back pressure is the

height (H) in feet x .0433 plus
PSIG in return line, plus
downstream piping friction
pressure
drop
in
PSI
(Determined by the maximum
instantaneous discharge rate
of the selected pump.)

Motive
Supply

Height
H
Strainer

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

ThermoDynamic
Steam Trap
Strainer

Operating
Water
Level
Pressure
Powered
Pump

15
Swing
Check

Figure II-71
Pressure Powered Pump Discharging to Long Delivery Line
(Air Eliminator needed above return main wherever
elevation changes form a water seal.)

Vacuum
Breaker
Float Operated
Air Vent

Line Size
Check Valve

Condensate

Line Size
Check Valve

Return
Main

See Fig. II-72 for

hook-up option with
Lift at Remote End

Receiver

Water
Seal

Receiver

Figure II-72
Pressure Powered Pump Discharging to
Long Delivery Line with Lift at Remote End

Motive
Supply

Pressure
Powered
Pump

118

Line Size
Check Valve

Return
Main

Line Size
Check
Valve Receiver

Sub Atmospheric Line

Equalizer
Line

Figure II-73

Inlet Open to
Atmosphere

Draining Small Condensate Loads from

Vacuum using Atmospheric Pressure
Pressure
Powered
Pump

Check valve should be vacuum

tight and water sealed. Larger
drop reduces emptying time.
Minimum
Drop 3"

Swing
Check
Valve

To Drain

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

Vent to
Atmosphere
Condensate from
Low Pressure
System

Pump
Discharge

Electric
Condensate
Pump

Figure II-74
Typical Electric Pump Hook-up
for Subcooled Condensate
Floor

Vent
Head

Figure II-75
Electric Pump Lifting Condensate
from Vented Receiver to Higher
Pressure or Elevation

H. P.
Condensate

Vent

Receiver

Pump
Discharge
Strainer

Electric
Condensate
Pump

Gate &
Check Valves

Drain

119

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

Condensate from high pressure loads releases steam by flashing as it passes to the lower pressures, downstream of the high
pressure traps. The mixture of steam and condensate is readily separated in Flash Vessels of appropriate dimensions and
proportions. A supply of Low Pressure steam then becomes
available for use on any application which can accept steam at
this low pressure, or the separated steam may simply be taken
into the LP steam mains, where it is supplemented through
pressure reducing valves, for general plant use.
Where the supply of flash steam may at times exceed the
demand from the LP system, the surplus flash steam can be
discharged through a back pressure control valve. This is set
at a few psi above the normal LP steam pressure, but below
the setting of the LP safety valve. See Figure II-77.
The condensate leaving the flash recovery vessel is at low pressure. Usually it is handled by a float-thermostatic steam trap and
is delivered to the receiver of a condensate pump for return to
the boiler house. Any residual flash steam from the low pressure
condensate is vented from the pump receiver. (Figure II-78.)
In some cases, pressures are sufficiently high that the flash
can be taken off at an intermediate pressure and the condensate leaving the flash vessel still contains a useful
amount of sensible heat. It can then be taken to a second
flash vessel working at low pressure, so that the maximum
heat recovery is effected. The use of two flash vessels in
series, or cascade, means that these vessels may be
installed generally as Figure II-76 and II-77.
Alternatively, it may be desirable to use the recovered flash
steam at a low pressure, below that in the condensate return
line or perhaps the de-aerator tank. The arrangement adapted may then be either as Figure II-78 or as Figure II-79. This
latter system uses a steam powered pump, with the bottom
of the flash recovery vessel serving as the pump receiver.
Power steam used by the pump is vented to the LP steam
line, so that pumping is achieved at virtually zero cost and the
use of unsightly or wasteful vents is avoided.

Figure II-76
Drain to
Safe Place

Typical Flash Steam

Recovery Hook-up

Thermostatic
Air Vent

Safety
Valve

L. P. Steam Main

Drip
Pan Elbow
Flash
Recovery
Vessel

H. P. Condensate

Spira-tec
Loss
Detector
L. P.
Float & Condensate
Thermostatic
Steam Trap

Strainer

Drain to
Safe
Place

Thermostatic
Air Vent
Vent

Strainer
Pilot Operated
Back Pressure
Control Valve

Strainer

Moisture
Separator

H. P.
Steam
Supply

L. P.
Steam
Spira-tec
Loss
Detector

Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap

Pilot Operated
Pressure
Control Valve

Safety
Valve
Drip
Pan
Elbow

Strainer
H. P. Condensate

H. P. Condensate

Figure II-77

Flash
Recovery
Vessel

Strainer

Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap

Flash Steam Recovery with Live Steam Make up

and Back Pressure Surplussing Valves
Spira-tec
Loss Detector

120

Check
Valve

L. P.
Condensate

Figure II-78
Flash Steam Recovery at Pressure above Atmospheric with L.P.
Condensate Returned by Packaged Pressure Powered Pump Unit
Vent

Strainer
Safety
Valve
Drip
Pan
Elbow

Moisture
Separator

Strainer

High Pressure
Makeup Supply

Pilot Operated
Pressure
Control Valve

Pilot Operated
Back Pressure
Control Valve

Low Pressure
Steam System
Steam Trap Station
Spira-tec Loss
Detector

H. P. Condensate

Flash
Recovery
Vessel

Strainer

Vent to
Atmosphere

Check
Valve

Strainer

See Fig. II-78A for

the preassembled
Condensate
Recovery Module

Strainer

Condensate
Return

Packaged
Pressure
Powered
Pump

Pressure
Powered
Pump

Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

Steam Trap Station

Float &
Spira-tec Thermostatic
Loss
Steam Trap
Detector

Strainer

L.P.
Condensate
Inlet

ThermoDynamic
Steam Trap

Figure II-78A
Condensate Recovery Module
A preassembled modular pumping
system provides a sole source
solution for condensate recovery
applications.

121

Figure II-79
Flash Steam Recovery at Pressure Above or Below Atmospheric
in ASME Coded Receiver of Packaged Pump Unit

Pilot Operated
Pressure Reducing
Valve (for makeup)

Safety
Valve

Vent to
Atmosphere
Pilot Operated
Back Pressure
Control Valve

Moisture
Separator

Strainer

Drip
Pan
Elbow

H. P.
Makeup
Supply

Strainer

L. P.
Makeup
Supply

Steam Trap Station

Float & Thermostatic
Steam Trap

Strainer

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

Motive Steam
Supply
H. P.
Condensate
(from traps)

Packaged ASME
Code Stamped
Pressure Powered
Pump Unit

Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap

Strainer
Overflow
to
Drain
Pressure
Powered
Pump
See Fig. II-79A for the preassembled
Condensate and Flash Steam
Recovery Module

Figure II-79A
Condensate and Flash Steam
Recovery Module
A preassembled modular pumping
system will recover condensate and
direct flash steam to a low pressure user.

122

To
Condensate
Return
Main

Figure II-80
Heating Water using Recovered Flash Steam with Packaged
Pump Unit Also Handling Other Condensate
Pilot Operated
Back Pressure
Control Valve

Safety
Valve

Thermostatic
Air Vent
Drip
Pan
Elbow

Vacuum
Breaker

Pipe to
Safe Place

Heated Water

Heat Exchanger
Cold Water Inlet
Flash
Recovery
Vessel

Float & Thermostatic

Steam Trap
Steam Trap Station
Float & Thermostatic
Steam Trap

Strainer

Motive
Steam
or Gas

Strainer
Steam Trap Station

Condensate
Return

Vent to
Atmosphere

Pump
Exhaust

Condensate from high pressure steam sources is

collected in a flash steam recovery vessel. Flash
steam is separated from the condensate which drains
through an F & T trap set to the vented receiver of a
condensate pump. The flash steam is condensed in a
heat exchanger, giving up its heat content to the
water which is to be heated (or preheated).
Condensate from the exchanger also drains through
an F & T trap set to the pump receiver. Non-condensibles are discharged at the receiver vent.

Strainer

Pressure
Powered
Pump

See Fig. II-80A

for the
preassembled
Condensate
Recovery
Module

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

H.P.
Condensate
& Flash

ThermoDynamic
Steam Trap

Figure II-80A
Condensate Recovery Module
A preassembled modular pumping system can be used
to recover and reuse the condensate.

123

Figure II-81
Heating Water using Flash Steam Recovered in ASME Coded
Receiver of Packaged Pressure Powered Pump Unit

Safety
Valve

Vent to
Atmosphere
Pilot Operated
Back Pressure
Control Valve

Thermostatic
Air Vent

Drip
Pan
Elbow

Strainer

Pipe to
Safe Place

Heated Water
Heat Exchanger

Cold Water Inlet

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS
124

H.P.
Condensate
& Flash
Pump
Exhaust
Strainer
Packaged
ASME Code
Stamped Unit

ThermoDynamic
Steam
Trap
Pressure
Powered
Pump

Condensate
Return

Figure II-82
Recovery of Flash Steam and Pump Power Steam on Preheater (Steam in the Shell)

To
Vent

Pilot
Operated
Back
Pressure
Valve

Safety
Valve

To
Vent
Drip
Pan
Elbow

Motive Steam Supply

Check
Valve
Air
Vent

Vacuum
Breaker
Pipe to
Safe
Place

Strainer

Air
Vent
Pipe to
Safe
Place

Moisture
Separator

Strainer

Temperature
Control
Valve

Sensor

Steam
Supply

Heated
Outlet
Heat Exchanger
Pre-Heater
Check
Valve

Cool
Return

Flash
Recovery
Vessel

Strainer

Pressure
Powered
Pump

Condensate from the main heat

exchanger flows to a flash Steam
Recovery Vessel. The flash steam is
separated and led to the Preheater
where it is condensed as it preheats
the incoming cool water or other liquid.
Any
incondensibles
are
discharged to atmosphere through
the thermostatic air vent.

Strainer

Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap

Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap
To
Condensate
Return

Thermo-Dynamic
Steam Trap

Residual condensate from the flash

vessel, with that from the preheater,
falls to the inlet of the Pressure
Powered Pump. Pump exhaust steam
is taken to the Flash Steam line and
its heat content recovered in the preheater.

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

Check
Valve

A Packaged Pump Unit with ASME

coded receiver can be used in place
of the component flash vessels and
Pressure Powered Pump.

125

Figure II-83
Recovery of Flash Steam and Pump Power Steam in Preheater (Steam in Tubes)
Temperature
Control
Valve

Moisture
Separator

Vacuum
Breaker

Heated
Outlet

Strainer
Heat
Exchanger

Strainer

Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap

Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap

Spira-tec
Loss
Detector

Strainer

Pipe to
Safe
Place
Air Vent

To
Vent
Safety Valve
with Drip
Pan Elbow

Back
Pressure
Control
Valve

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

Strainer

Strainer

Pre-Heater

Cool
Return

Flash
Recovery
Vessel

Sight
Glass

Condensate
Return

Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap

Check
Valve

126

To
Vent

Pressure
Powered
Pump

Figure II-84
Flash Steam Condensing by Spray
(Alternate)
Temperature
Control Sensor
Vent

Self Acting
Temperature
Control
Cooling
Water
Flash
Condenser

Strainer

H.P. Condensate

Waste
Overflow

Boiler
Makeup
Tank

Residual flash steam for which no

use can found often causes a nuisance if vented to atmosphere, and of
course carries its valuable heat content with it. This steam may be
condensed by spraying in cold water,
in a light gauge but corrosion resistant chamber fitted to the receiver

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

Condensate Receiver

Centrifugal
Pump

tank vent. If boiler feed quality water

is used, the warmed water and condensed flash steam is added to the
condensate in the receiver and
reused. Condensing water which is
not of feed water quality is kept separate from the condensate in the
receiver as shown dotted.

A self-acting, normally closed temperature control with sensor in the

vent line can control the coolant flow.
This minimizes water usage, and
where condensed flash steam is
returned, avoids overcooling of the
water in the receiver.

127

Figure II-85
Clean Steam Drip Station
Clean
Steam
Supply

Sanitary Diaphragm
Valve with Inlet
Drain Boss

1:120 min.

Product/Media
Line

B
Stainless Steel
Thermo-Dynamic
Steam Trap

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

Stainless Steel
Ball Valve

1:120 min.
Condensate Manifold
must be free draining

Install valve A close to

product/media line.
Close-couple valves A and B

Figure II-86
Culinary/Filtered Steam Station
Steam Filter
with a 2.8 micron
absolute filter
element
Plant Steam
Inlet

Moisture
Separator

Sanitary
Check Valve

Strainer with a
Fine Mesh Screen

Stainless Steel
Ball Valve
Stainless Steel
Ball Valve
Stainless Steel
Thermo-Dynamic
Steam Trap

Spira-tec
Loss
Detector

Strainer

A All piping, fittings, valves, etc. downstream

of this point shall be of austenitic stainless
steel and of sanitary design
B Recommended position of plant steam
pressure reducing valve if required
Pressure gauges, fittings, valves, etc., are not
shown for clarity.

128

Cooling
Water
Outlet

Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap

Sample
Cooler

Cooling
Water
Inlet
Cooled
Sample

Figure II-87 Tank Sterilization

Stainless Steel
Thermostatic
Steam Trap
installed as
Air Vent

Clean
Steam
Supply

Diaphragm
Valve

Stainless Steel
Ball Valve

Stainless Steel
Ball Valve

Stainless Steel
Thermo-Dynamic
Steam Trap
Stainless Steel
Ball Valve

Diaphragm
Valve

Diaphragm
Valve

Product Outlet

Stainless Steel
Thermostatic
Steam Trap
Stainless Steel
Ball Valve

Condensate

Figure II-88

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

Diaphragm
Valve

Clean
Steam
Supply

Block and Bleed Sterile Barriers

Sanitary Diaphragm
Valve with inlet Drain Boss

Aseptic
Process
Line

A
Sanitary
Diaphragm
Valve

Aseptic
Process
Line
Sanitary
Diaphragm
Valve
Stainless Steel
Thermostatic
Steam Trap

Stainless Steel
Ball Valve

1:120 min.
Condenate Manifold
must be free draining

A Close-couple valves

129

Clean
Steam
Supply

Product/
Media
Line

Sanitary Diaphragm
Valve with inlet Drain Boss

Sanitary
Pressure
Regulator

Stainless Steel
Steam Separator

A
Sanitary
Diaphragm
Valve

See Fig. II-85

for proper Clean
Steam hook-up
to product/media
line

Stainless Steel
Thermostatic
Steam Trap

1:120 min.

Product/Media
Process Line Sterilization

Reduced
Steam
Pressure

Pure
Steam
Supply
Stainless Steel
Ball Valve

Stainless Steel
Ball Valve

Figure II-89

Stainless Steel
Ball Valve

Stainless Steel
Ball Valve

Stainless Steel
Ball Valve
Condenate
Manifold
must be free
draining

Stainless Steel
Thermo-Dynamic
Steam Trap

Figure II-90

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

Pressure Regulating Station

for Pure Steam Service

A Close-couple Diaphragm Valves

Figure II-91

Stainless Steel
Thermostatic
Steam Trap
installed as
an Air Vent

Sterilizer Utilizing High Purity Steam

Sanitary
Pressure
Regulator

Stainless Steel
Ball Valve
Stainless Steel
Ball Valves

Stainless Steel
Steam Separator
Stainless Steel
Ball Valve

A
Pure
Steam
Supply
Stainless Steel
Ball Valve

Stainless Steel
Ball Valve

Stainless Steel
Thermo-Dynamic
Steam Trap

Stainless Steel
Thermostatic
Steam Trap
installed as
an Air Vent
Stainless
Steel
Ball Valve

Stainless Steel
Thermo-Dynamic
Steam Trap
Sterilizer

Stainless Steel
Ball Valves

Stainless Steel
Thermostatic
Steam Traps
Stainless Steel
Ball Valves

Note: Provide over pressure protection for

chamber and jacket with properly sized
safety valve(s) or rupture disc(s).

130

Figure II-92
Spiraflo Saturated Steam
Compensated) Metering System

Thermostatic
Air Vent
Pipe to
Safe
Place

(Density

Flow
Computer

Signal
Conditioning
Unit

Steam
Separator
Steam
Supply
Isolating
Valve

Spiraflo
Steam Meter

Check
Valve

Strainer

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

Float &
Thermostatic
Steam Trap

Check
Valve

Figure II-93
Typical Superheated Steam (Density Compensated) Metering System
Temperature
Transmitter
Gilflo Meter

Steam
Supply

Pressure
Transmitter

Isolating
Valve

Isolating
Valve

3-Valve
Manifold

Differential
Pressure
Transmitter
Flow
Computer

Note: The same configuration is

suitable for the Standard Range Gilflo,
Gilflo ILVA and Orifice Plate Systems.

131

Figure II-94
Typical Saturated Steam
or Liquid Metering System
(No Density Compensation)

Orifice Plate

Steam
or Liquid
Supply

Isolating
Valve

Isolating
Valve

3-Valve
Manifold

Flow
Indicator

Differential
Pressure
Transmitter

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

Note: The same configuration is

suitable for the Gilflo, Standard Range
Gilflo, and Gilflo ILVA Systems.

Figure II-95
Typical Saturated Steam
(Density Compensated)
Metering System

Gilflo ILVA
Temperature
Transmitter
Steam
Supply

Isolating
Valve

Note: The same configuration is

suitable for the Gilflo, Standard Range
Gilflo, and Orifice Plate Systems.

Differential
Pressure
Transmitter

Gilflo ILVA

Figure II-96
Steam
Supply

Pressure
Transmitter

Note: The same configuration is

suitable for the Gilflo, Standard Range
Gilflo, and Orifice Plate Systems.
For Saturated Steam, Density
Compensation is achieved by the flow
computer accepting a signal from
either a Pressure Transmitter (as
shown here) or a Temperature
Transmitter (see Fig. II-95)

132

3-Valve
Manifold

Flow
Computer

For Saturated Steam, Density

Compensation is achieved by the
flow computer accepting a signal from
either a Temperature Transmitter
(as shown here) or a Pressure
Transmitter (see Fig. II-96)

Typical Saturated Steam

(Density Compensated)
Metering System

Isolating
Valve

Flow
Computer

Isolating
Valve

Isolating
Valve

3-Valve
Manifold

Differential
Pressure
Transmitter

Figure II-97

Figure II-98

Hand Operated Rotary Filter

Motorized Rotary Filter with Single Blowdown Valve

Electric Supply
to Motor

Hand Operated
Rotary Filter

Motorized
Rotary Filter

Dirty
Media

Filtered
Media
Filtered
Media

Dirty
Media

Reservoir
Pipe
Hand
Operated
Blowdown
Valve

Electric Supply to
Motorized Valve
Full Port
Quarter Turn
Motorized Valve

Removed
Solids

Removed
Solids

Figure II-99
Control Panel Hook-up for One Valve Blowdown VRS-2 Rotary Filter System
Motor
Wiring

Inlet
Pressure
Line

P1

P2

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

Control of rotor and blowdown

valve is made with user supplied timers. The blowdown
valve should stay open for
approximately 10 seconds to
purge filtered dirt and debris
from reservoir pipe. Interval
and duration of the rotor and
blowdown valve will vary
depending on the nature and
quantity of the dirt and debris.

Outlet
Pressure
Line

Model VRS-2
Rotary Filter

Model VRS
Control Panel

Main
Power

Full Port
Quarter Turn
Motorized
Valve

Reservoir
Pipe

Valve
Wiring
D.P.
Switch

The Control Panel with user

adjustable timers controls interval
and duration of the rotor and blowdown valve operation. The blowdown
valve opens for approximately 10

Removed
Solids

seconds to purge the reservoir pipe

of filtered dirt and debris. The Control
Panel is shown with optional cycle
counter and differential pressure
switch which will activate rotor opera-

tion if excessive pressure drop

occurs. This hook-up illustrates an
automatic filtration system, providing
continuous production flow with minimal product loss.

133

Figure II-100
Control Panel Hook-up and Operation of Two Valve Blowdown VRS-2 Rotary Filter System
Figure II-100A

Figure II-100B

Motor
Wiring

Outlet

Inlet
Pressure
Line

Model VRS
Control Panel

Motor
Wiring

P1

Model
VRS-2
Rotary Filter

P2 Pressure
Line
Model VRS
Control Panel

Main
Power

Outlet

Inlet
Pressure
Line

P1

P2 Pressure
Line

Main
Power

CV1

D.P. Valve
Switch Wiring

Reservoir
Pipe

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

Full Port
Quarter Turn
Motorized
Valve

CV1

D.P.
Switch Valve
Wiring
Full Port
Quarter Turn
Motorized
Valve

CV2

The Control Panel operates rotor and

blowddown valves CV1 and CV2
automatically. Fig. II-100A shows the
normal running mode with CV1 valve
open and CV2 valve closed, to allow
reservoir to fill with dirt and debris. As

Reservoir
Pipe

CV2
Removed
Solids

Removes
Solids

the reservoir pipe fills, valve CV1

closes and valve CV2 opens purging
only material held in the reservoir leg,
Fig. II-100B. CV2 closes and CV1
reopens returning system to normal
running mode with no stoppage of

flow. This hook-up illustrates an automatic filtration system, providing

continuous product flow with virtually
no loss of usable fluid.

Figure II-101
Motor
Wiring

Motorized Rotary Filter with

Three Valve Blowdown System
for Viscous FLuids

Inlet
Pressure

P1

P2
Model VRS-2
Rotary Filter

Line

Model VRS
Control Panel

Main
Power

CV3

CV1

D.P.
Switch

See Fig. II-100A and II100B for sequence of

operation. In addition to
the blowdown valves on
the reservoir pipe, a third
valve CV3 has been added
for a high pressure purge
fluid or air should the
debris in the reservoir pipe
prove to be too viscous to
flow by gravity.

134

Model
VRS-2
Rotary Filter

High
Pressure
Purge

Reservoir
Pipe

Full Port
Quarter Turn
Motorized
Valves

Valve
Wiring

CV2
Removed
Solids

Outlet
Pressure
Line

Cooling
Control

Figure II-102
Freeze Proof Safety Shower
with Antiscalding Protection

Overheat
Drain
Strainer
Spring Closed
Valve To
Shower Head

#8 set
@ 40F

Water
Supply

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

Fit T-44 control (with

bypass closed), 85F
to 135F range, in 11/4 or larger pipe.
Flow crosses sensor
to shower, to cooling
valve inlet ending at
the #8 that opens
when ambient drops
below 40F. Line flow
prevents both freeze
up and solar overheating.

Figure II-103
Automatic Contol of Smaller Compressor
Cooling with Overheat Protection
The T-44 control valve incorporates a bypass needle valve to keep a minimum flow of water past the sensor even when the main valve has closed.
A float-type drainer is preferred for the separator rather than a TD drainer,
to ensure immediate and complete drainage of the separated liquid.
Larger compressors or low pressure cooling water supplies may call for a
separate supply of water to the aftercooler, with a solenoid valve or
similar, to open when the compressor runs.

Cooling
Water

Strainer

Float
Operated
Air Vent

Cooling
Control

Moisture
Separator
Warmed
Coolant

Air Line
Compressor
Jacket

After
Cooler

Strainer
Liquid
Drain
Trap
Drain

135

Figure II-104
Condensate Cooling System

To
Vent

Flash Tank

Vacuum
Breaker

Condensate
Return

Sparge Pipe
Cooling
Control
Valve

Sensor

Cooling
Water

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

To Drain
140F
Max.

Figure II-105
Condensate Cooling and Flash Knockdown System
To
Vent

Cooling
Control
Valve
Cooling
Water
Vacuum
Breaker

Spray Nozzle
Condensate
Return
Sensor

Flash Tank

To Drain
140F
Max.

136

Figure II-106

Vent
Head

Continuous Boiler Blowdown

Cooling System

Vacuum
Breaker

To
Vent

Blowdown
Vessel

Continuous
Boiler
Blowdown

Sparge
Pipe

Cooling
Control
Valve

Cooling
Water

Sensor

Figure II-107
Controlling Coolant Flow to Vacuum Still
Condenser and Draining Evaporator

Self Contained
Temperature
Control

Steam Main

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

To Drain
140F
Max.

Strainer
Condenser

Evaporator
Thermo-Dynamic
Steam Trap
with Integral
Strainer

Cold
Water
Supply

Waste Water
Sight Drain

Spira-tec
Loss
Detector
Distillate
Spira-tec
Loss
Detector

Strainer

Float & Thermostatic

Steam Trap

Gravity
Condensate
Return

137

Cooling
Control Valve

Strainer

Cold
Water
Supply

Figure II-108
Controlling
Temperature
of Ball Grinding
Mill Jacket

Grinding Mill
Sight
Drain

Temperature
Control
Sensor

Self Contained
Cooling Control

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

Strainer

Cold
Water
Supply

Water
Jacket

Cool Oil

Oil Cooler
Sight
Drain

Figure II-109

Hot Oil

Controlling Temperature of Oil Cooler

Self Contained
Cooling Control

Strainer

Cooling
Water
Out

Cooling
Water
Discharge

Check
Valve
Filter

Sight
Drain

Cooler
Hot Solvent

Cold
Water
Supply

Figure II-110
Controlling Temperature of Horizontal Solvent Condenser
138

Drain

Cooled
Solvent

Figure II-111
Controlling Temperature
of Vertical Solvent Still

Self Contained
Cooling Control

Strainer

Solvent to
Equipment

Pipe Waste
Water
To Drain

Cooler

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

Cold
Water
Supply

Check
Valve
Filter
Drain

Solvent

Drain

Cold
Water

Float
Operated
Air Vent

Drain

Mixing Tank

Perforated Pipe
Holes Pointing Down
Self Contained
Cooling Control

Strainer

Centrifugal
Pump

Flow
Balancing
Valve

Cooling
Water
Discharge

Roll

Figure II-112
Cooling Water Economizer
for Multiple Rolls

Roll

Roll

139

Figure II-113
Alternate Methods of Draining Compressed Air Receiver

Balance Line

Air Receiver

Strainer
Liquid
Drain
Trap

Liquid
Drain
Trap

Strainer

HOOK-UP DIAGRAMS

Small air receivers are often

drained through a manual valve at
low level on a once per day basis.
Continuous drainage helps to maintain better quality in the air supplied

but small receivers may be mounted

so low as to preclude the use of the
CA14 or FA pattern drainers. The
drain point may be in the center of the

dished end of even on top, with an

internal dip pipe to reach the collected liquid. The only possible option is
the TD drainer.

Figure II-114

Figure II-115

Draining Compressed Air

Dropleg to Equipment

Draining Riser in Compressed

Air Distribution Line

Main
Balance
Line
Main Supply
Equipment Supply

Strainer

Liquid
Drain
Trap
Drain

140

Branches are best taken

off the top of main lines.
Condensation
swept
along the lines when air
tools are used may overload the filter of the air
set at the take-off point,
so a drainer is provided
at the bottom of the supply leg to remove as
much as possible of this
condensation.

Strainer

Liquid
Drain
Trap

Drain

Balance lines are not

always necessary on
Air Drainers. They
become necessary
when the trap location
is more remote from
the line being drained
and when condensation quantities are
greater. It is preferred
to connect balance
lines downstream of
the
point
being
drained.

141

142

Section 3

PRODUCT
INFORMATION

Product Information
Condensate Recovery

PRODUCT INFORMATION

Pressure Powered Pumps

Packaged Pressure Powered Pumps
High Capacity Pressure Powered Pump Electric Pumps
Spirax Sarco offers the solutions to maintaining efficiency in all areas of
condensate recovery. For the total system solution, Spirax Sarcos non-electric
pumps drain and return condensate and other liquids from vacuum systems,
condensers, turbines, or any other steam condensing equipment. The Pressure
Powered Pump can handle liquids from 0.65 to 1.0 specific gravity and capacities up to 39,000 lb/hr. Available in cast iron or fabricated steel (ASME code
stamped) with stainless steel internals and bronze or stainless steel check
valves, the rugged body allows a maximum pressure of 125-300 psig and a maximum temperature of 450F. This system solution saves energy and provides
optimum system efficiency with low maintenance.
For easy installation, Pressure Powered Pump packaged units are prepiped and combine any Pressure Powered Pump, up to 3" x 2" with a receiver.
Spirax Sarcos electric pumps are packaged units completely assembled,
wired and tested. Electric condensate return pumps are available in simplex
units with an integral float switch or a mechanical alternator on the duplex units.

Controls & Regulators

Automatic Control Valves

Direct Operated Temperature Regulators
Direct Operated Pressure Regulators
Pilot Operated Temperature Regulators
Pilot Operated Pressure Regulators
Safety Valves
Maximum productivity requires delivering the steam at its most energy
efficient pressure and temperature resulting in optimum energy usage, and a
safe, comfortable environment. Spirax Sarco has a complete range of controls to
efficiently provide the right heat transfer for any process or heating application.
Ranging in sizes from 1/2" to 6", operating pressures up to 600 psi, and
capacities up to 100,000 lb/hr, the complete range of controls and regulators
provide steam system solutions industry wide. Available in iron, steel, stainless
steel, and bronze, Spirax Sarco controls and regulators are suitable for virtually
all control applications.

Service Capabilities
Steam Trap Surveys
Model VRS Control Panel
Steam System Audits
Steam System Management
Contracted Site Management
When the question is steam the answer is Spirax Sarco. Strategic alliances with Spirax
Sarco have benefited many of the worlds largest steam users through energy savings, process
improvement and out sourcing of non-core activities.

144

Product Information
Steam Traps

Liquid Drain Traps

Many industrial processes involve the removal of a liquid from a pressurized
gas. Spirax Sarco Liquid Drain Traps are ideally suited for this purpose as well
as removing condensate from compressed air lines. The float operated design
instantly and automatically adjusts to variations in liquid load and pressure.
The traps can handle liquids with a specific gravity as low as 0.5. Liquid
Drain Traps have a maximum operating pressure to 465 psi and range in size
from 1/4" to 4" with capacities of up to 900,000 lb/hr. Construction is cast iron,
ductile iron, carbon steel or 316L stainless steel bodies with NPT, socket weld or
flanged connections.

PRODUCT INFORMATION

Balanced Pressure Thermostatic

Bimetallic
Float & Thermostatic
Inverted Bucket
Thermo-Dynamic
Liquid Expansion
Steam Trap Fault Detection Systems
Steam Trap Diffuser
Spirax Sarco designs and manufactures all types of steam traps in a variety
of materials. Whether it be for steam mains, steam tracing, or heating and processing equipment, Spirax Sarco has the knowledge, service and products to
improve your steam system.
Mechanical steam traps are available in iron and steel with NPT, socket
weld, or flanged connections in sizes ranging from 1/2" to 4". Thermostatic types
are available in brass, forged steel, stainless steel, cast alloy steel with stainless
steel internals with NPT and socket weld connections and are available in sizes
1/2" to 1-1/2". The kinetic energy disc types are available in stainless, alloy and
forged steel and range in sizes from 1/2" to 1" with NPT, Socket Weld and ANSI
connections.

Pipeline Auxiliaries

Flash Vessels
Strainers - Pipeline and Basket
Air Handling Equipment
Radiator Valves
Ball Valves
Steam Injectors

Steam Separators
Sight Glasses/Checks
Trap Diffusers
Vent Heads
Vacuum Breakers

The Spirax Sarco line of Pipeline Auxiliaries complete the steam system and are
available in a variety of materials and sizes to suit your needs.

145

Product Information
Stainless Steel Specialty Products
A comprehensive range of stainless steel products:
Steam Traps
Separators
Hygienic Ball Valves
Pressure Controls
Filters
Sample Coolers
The use of clean or pure steam to reduce the risk of product or process
contamination spans many industries and applications, including pure steam for
sterilization of equipment in the biotechnology and pharmaceutical industries,
culinary steam for direct cooking and heating of foods, clean steam for humidification of clean rooms, and filtered steam for hospital sterilizers. Spirax Sarcos
range of stainless steel specialty products have been designed and manufactured to the highest standards and specifications required to withstand the rigors
of service in clean steam and other aggressive process fluids.

PRODUCT INFORMATION

Engineered Systems
Complete modular solutions for steam users worldwide:
Preassembled Steam Trap Stations
Steam Distribution and Condensate Collection Manifolds
Forged Steel Manifolds
Process Condensate Removal Modules
Condensate and Flash Steam Recovery Modules
From institutional condensate recovery applications to draining critical process
heat transfer equipment, Spirax Sarcos modular pumping systems are the most
cost effective and provide the lowest total installed cost. The conventional method
of individually specified and procured components with on-site assembly is labor
intensive and not conducive to todays competitive plant standards.
The Engineered Systems Advantage expedites the installation process and
delivers a quality solution to numerous types of steam users. Each modular
pumping system utilizes reliable Pressure Powered Pump technology and
saves 25% over the conventional method. Spirax Sarco backs each unit with a
sole source guarantee and unequaled expertise in steam system technology.

Training
Years of accumulated experience has enabled the development and nurturing of in-depth expertise for the proper control and conditioning of steam.
Experienced field personnel work closely with design, operations, and
maintenance engineers, continuously evaluating ways to improve productivity.
Often, these solutions pay for themselves many times over.
The four U.S. training centers located in Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles,
and Blythewood, SC, have on-site steam systems providing hands-on training.
Education programs include the theory of steam, the application of steam
products, and plant design and system efficiency, to name just a few. Programs
also can be tailored to meet individual needs. Thousands of engineers complete
Spirax Sarco training programs each year and return to continue broadening
their knowledge of steam systems.

146

147

Subject Index
Page
Absorption Chiller .............................................................................................................................................................................36, 102
After Coolers ...........................................................................................................................................................................................135
Air Compressor .........................................................................................................................................................................................62
Air Compressor Cooling....................................................................................................................................................................62, 135
Air Eliminators on Liquid Service............................................................................................................................................118, 135, 139
Air Heating Coils .................................................................................................................................................30-37, 95, 96, 97, 98, 113
Air Leakage from Comp. Air System.........................................................................................................................................................64
Air Drainer Traps .......................................................................................................................................................................62, 135, 140
Air Venting (see Vents, Air for Steam Spaces)
Autoclaves...............................................................................................................................................................................................103
Back Pressure Control (see Pressure Control Valves)
Back Pressure, Effect on Trap Cap.......................................................................................................................................................9, 46
Balance Valves..........................................................................................................................................................................................30
Baseboard Radiation ..............................................................................................................................................................................107
Batch Processor, Automatic Control .......................................................................................................................................................103
Blenders and Three-Port Valves ...................................................................................................................................................28, 29, 30
Blowdown, Continuous............................................................................................................................................................................137
Boiler Feed Water Heating......................................................................................................................................................104, 105, 127
Boiler Steam Header Drainage.......................................................................................................................................................8, 84, 92
Boiler Working Pressure .........................................................................................................................................................................2, 9
Clean Steam
Characteristics ..................................................................................................................................................................................51
Definitions .........................................................................................................................................................................................50
Distribution ........................................................................................................................................................................................51
Generation ........................................................................................................................................................................................50
Requirements....................................................................................................................................................................................52
System Design.............................................................................................................................................................................52-53
Clean Steam Applications
Block and Bleed Sterile Barriers...............................................................................................................................................53, 129
Condensate Drainage .......................................................................................................................................................................54
Drip Stations ...................................................................................................................................................................................128
Filtered Steam Stations ............................................................................................................................................................55, 128
Pressure Regulation .......................................................................................................................................................................130
Process Line Sterilization ...............................................................................................................................................................130
Tank Sterilization.............................................................................................................................................................................130
Sterilizers ........................................................................................................................................................................................129
Hospitals ...................................................................................................................................................................................54
Using Pure Steam...................................................................................................................................................................130
Closed Loop System.................................................................................................................................................................................35
Co-efficients, Heat Transfer.................................................................................................................................................................33, 67
Coils,
Air Heater ................................................................................................................................................................30-37, 95, 97, 113
Fan Coil Unit .....................................................................................................................................................................................98
High Pressure, Draining .....................................................................................................................................................35, 97, 113
Pre-heat and Re-heat .................................................................................................................................................................32, 96
Combination Pump/Traps.............................................................................................................35, 49, 95, 101, 102, 112, 115, 116, 117
Compressed Air Drainers .........................................................................................................................................................62, 135, 140
Pipe Sizing............................................................................................................................................................................63, 64, 66
Services ......................................................................................................................................................................................62, 63
Compressor Cooling ....................................................................................................................................................................64-65, 135
CondensateCalculating Loads ....................................................................................................................................................9, 10, 24
Collecting Legs .......................................................................................................................................................................8, 11, 38
Coolers....................................................................................................................................................................................136, 137
Discharge into Plastic or Fiberglass Line .........................................................................................................................................87
Lifting to Main at Same Level ...........................................................................................................................................................86
Lifting from Trap to High Level ..........................................................................................................................................................86
Lifting to Trap at High Level ..............................................................................................................................................................87
Loads from Steam Mains..............................................................................................................................................................9, 10
Pumped Returns..........................................................................................................................................................................47-49
Sizing Return Lines .....................................................................................................................................................................43-47
Condenser, Solvent Control ............................................................................................................................................................138, 139
Controls
Back Pressure or Surplussing (see Pressure Control Valves)
Combination, Pressure Reducing/Electric ......................................................................................................................................104
Combination, Pressure Reducing/Temperature......................................................................................................................100, 104
Combination, Pressure/Temperature/Electric .................................................................................................................................103
Definitions ...................................................................................................................................................................................23, 28
Pilot Operated Electric ..............................................................................................................................................................94, 107
Pressure Reducing (see Pressure Control Valves)

148

Subject Index
Safety ................................................................................................................................................................................................98
Sizing...................................................................................................................................................................................3, 4, 23-30
Temperature (see Temperature Control Valves)
Convectors ..............................................................................................................................................................................................107
Conversion Tables...............................................................................................................................................................................74, 75
Coolers............................................................................................................................................................................................135, 138
Corrosion ..................................................................................................................................................................................................32
Culinary Steam (see Filtered Steam)
Cv ........... .....................................................................................................................................................................................23, 25, 29
Cylinders, Rotating..........................................................................................................................................................................111, 112
Direct Injection
Steam .................................................................................................................................................................27, 28, 104, 105, 106
Water ..............................................................................................................................................................................136, 137, 139
Drain Traps, Air and Gases.......................................................................................................................................................62, 135, 140
Dryers
........................................................................................................................................................................................111, 112
Dyeing Equipment...................................................................................................................................................................................103
Elevating Condensate by
Electric Pump..................................................................................................................................................................................119
Non-electric Pump...........................................................................................................................114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 121-126
Line Pressure........................................................................................................................................................................................
EngineJacket Temperature Control .....................................................................................................................................................135
Evaporators.....................................................................................................................................................................................115, 137
ExchangerHeat ...............................................................................................................................93, 99, 100, 101, 123, 124, 125, 126
Expansion Loops, Draining .......................................................................................................................................................................85
Expansion of Pipes ...................................................................................................................................................................................66
Filtered Steam...................................................................................................................................................................................50, 103
Filtration (Rotary Filters) .................................................................................................................................................................133, 134
Flash Steam.....................................................................................................................................................................................3, 41-47
Flash Steam, Recovery Hookups ............................................................................................97, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127
Flowmeters (see Steam Meters)
Freeze Resistant Hookups........................................................................................................................................................96, 110, 135
Gilflo (see Steam Meters)
Gilflo I.L.V.A. (See Steam Meters)
Grinding (Ball) Mill Jacket Temperature Control .....................................................................................................................................137
Heat Exchangers (see Exchangers)
Heaters, Air.......................................................................................................................................................................36, 37, 95, 97, 98
Heaters, Hot Water Storage................................................................................................................................................................98, 99
High Limit Overheat Protection .................................................................................................................................................................98
Hospital Equipment.........................................................................................................................................................................108, 109
Hot Water Blending.......................................................................................................................................................................28, 29, 30
Ironer, Flatwork .......................................................................................................................................................................................111
Kettle, Jacketed.......................................................................................................................................................................................113
Lift Fitting ................................................................................................................................................................................................103
Liquid Flowmeters (see Steam Meters)
Low Pressure Steam Main Drainage ........................................................................................................................................................84
Mains
Air .............................................................................................................................................................................................62-66
Condensate Return (see Condensate)
Piping Sizing ...............................................................................................................................................................................3, 4, 6
Steam
Air Venting (see Vents, Air for Steam)
Automatic Heatup .................................................................................................................................................................9, 94
Collecting Leg Sizing ................................................................................................................................................................11
Condensate Loads................................................................................................................................................................9, 10
Draining ........................................................................................................................................................................11, 38, 45
Draining End of HP Lines .........................................................................................................................................................85
Draining End of LP Lines..........................................................................................................................................................84
Draining Boiler Header .........................................................................................................................................................8, 92
Draining Expansion Loops........................................................................................................................................................85
Draining Mains to Return to Same Level..................................................................................................................................86
Draining Main, Automatic Startup.....................................................................................................................................8, 9, 86
Draining Main, Supervised Startup ......................................................................................................................................8, 86
Draining Main, with Trap at Higher Level ............................................................................................................................86, 87

149

Subject Index
NPSH Calculations ...................................................................................................................................................................................48
Oil CoolerTemperature Control............................................................................................................................................................138
Orifice Plate Flowmeters (see Steam Meters)
Overheat Protection of HW Storage Cylinder ...........................................................................................................................................98
Overheat Protection of Reinforced Plastic Condensate Lines..................................................................................................................87
Paper Machines ......................................................................................................................................................................................112
Parallel Operation of Pressure Reducing Valves ................................................................................................................................21, 89
Pipe & Flange Dimensions .................................................................................................................................................................80, 81
Platen Press....................................................................................................................................................................................104, 110
Plating Tanks...........................................................................................................................................................................................103
Preheat and Reheat Coils.........................................................................................................................................................................96
Presses, Laundry............................................................................................................................................................................110, 111
Pressure Drop
in Steam Mains.......................................................................................................................................................................2, 3, 4, 5
in Water Lines .............................................................................................................................................................................76, 77
in Air Lines ........................................................................................................................................................................................66
in Water Fittings ................................................................................................................................................................................79
Pressure Powered Pump
Closed System .......................................................................................................................35, 49, 95, 99, 101, 102, 112, 116, 117
Discharging to Long Delivery Line............................................................................................................................................47, 118
Discharging to Long Delivery Line with Lift at Remote End ...........................................................................................................118
Draining Air Heater Coil........................................................................................................................................................95, 97, 98
Draining Condensed Flash Steam with Other LP Condensate ........................................................................................48, 123, 125
Draining Evaporator as Pumping Trap ............................................................................................................................................115
Draining Equipment Near Floor Level.....................................................................................................................................116, 117
Draining Flash Steam Recovery Vessel ...........................................................................................................97, 121, 123, 125, 126
Draining Large Heater ..............................................................................................................................................................97, 101
Draining LP Heater to Overhead Main .............................................................................................................................................99
Draining Condensate from Vacuum ........................................................................................................................................115, 119
Draining Water from Sump Pit ........................................................................................................................................................118
Hookup for Staged & Standby Operation .......................................................................................................................................117
Lifting Atmospheric Condensate to Overhead Main .......................................................................................................................114
Lifting from LP Source to HP Receiver...........................................................................................................................................116
Modules ....................................................................................................................................................95, 101, 112, 121, 122, 123
Pumping Condensate from Small Heater & Other Loads...............................................................................................................100
Pumping Preheater & Reheater Condensate ...................................................................................................................................96
Vented System .....................................................................................................................49, 96, 97, 100, 101, 102, 114, 117, 121
Pressure Reducing Valves
Back Pressure ...............................................................................................................................................22, 92, 97, 104, 120-126
Combined Pressure/Temp. Control of Heat Exchanger ..................................................................................................................100
Control of Batch Processor with Electric Programmer ...................................................................................................................103
Controlling Boiler Feed Water Temp. Using Pressure/Temperature Control ...................................................................................104
Controlling Live Steam Makeup to Flash Steam Recovery ............................................................................................120, 121, 122
Controlling Platen Press. ................................................................................................................................................................104
Direct Operated Valves ...............................................................................................................................................................19, 91
Installation in Tight Spaces ...............................................................................................................................................................91
Low Capacity PRV Station................................................................................................................................................................91
Noise Considerations........................................................................................................................................................................19
Parallel PRV Station .......................................................................................................................................................20, 21, 22, 89
Pilot Operated Valves ............................................................................................................................................19, 94, 97, 120-122
Pneumatically Operated Valves ..................................................................................................................................................19, 93
PRV for Motive Steam ......................................................................................................................................................................94
PRV Station Components .................................................................................................................................................................20
Remote Air Pilot Control of PRV.......................................................................................................................................................92
Remote Operation of PRVs........................................................................................................................................................90, 92
Sizing............................................................................................................................................................................3, 4, 23, 24, 25
Two-Stage PRV Station ........................................................................................................................................................20, 22, 90
Typical Pressure Reducing Valve Station ...................................................................................................................................20, 89
Pressure/Temperature Control (see controls)
Programmers
On Supply to Platen Press .............................................................................................................................................................104
Mains Heatup, Pressurizing and Shutdown..................................................................................................................................9, 94
Batch Processor Sequencing .........................................................................................................................................................103
Psychrometric Chart .................................................................................................................................................................................78
Pumping Trap (see Pressure Powered Pump)
Pumps, Electrical ................................................................................................................................................................47, 48, 119, 127
Pumps, Packaged Units ...........................................................................................................97, 100, 101, 102, 112, 121, 122, 123, 124
Pure Steam ...............................................................................................................................................................................................50
Pyrometers................................................................................................................................................................................................55

150

Subject Index
RadiationBaseboard Fin Tube, Hot Water and Steam ........................................................................................................................107
Reboiler, Draining HP Condensate.........................................................................................................................................................114
Receiver, Compressed Air, Drainage......................................................................................................................................................140
Reducing Valves (see Pressure Reducing Valves)
Reheat-Preheat Coil .................................................................................................................................................................................96
Remote Opertion of Controls........................................................................................................................................................90, 92, 93
Return Lines, Hot Water .....................................................................................................................................................................45, 47
Rotating Cylinders...................................................................................................................................................................................111
Running Load, Steam Main ..................................................................................................................................................................9, 10
Safety Factors for Steam Traps.............................................................................................................................................................9, 39
Safety Relief Valve Sizing .........................................................................................................................................................................20
Safety Showers .......................................................................................................................................................................................135
Scrubber, Natural Gas, Drainage............................................................................................................................................................116
Separators
Air ................................................................................................................................................................................................135
Steam .............................................................................................8, 19, 60, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 95, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 103, 104,
105, 107, 108, 120, 121, 122, 125, 128, 130, 131
Series Opertion of Reducing Valves .........................................................................................................................................................90
Sight Glasses............................................................................................................................................................................................55
Sizing
Air Lines................................................................................................................................................................................63, 64, 66
Compressed Air Drainers .................................................................................................................................................................62
Condensate Lines...........................................................................................................................................................43, 45, 46, 47
Control Valves.......................................................................................................................................................................23, 24, 25
Flash Steam Recovery Vessels ..................................................................................................................................................42, 43
Sparge Pipes ..............................................................................................................................................................................27, 47
Steam Mains.........................................................................................................................................................................2, 3, 6, 11
Steam Traps................................................................................................................................................................9, 16, 38, 39, 40
Vent Lines ...............................................................................................................................................................................3, 42, 43
Water Lines.....................................................................................................................................................................45, 76, 77, 79
Solvent CoolerTemperature Control ....................................................................................................................................................138
Sparge Pipe Sizing ...................................................................................................................................................................................27
Specific Heat of
Solids ................................................................................................................................................................................................70
Liquids...............................................................................................................................................................................................71
Gases................................................................................................................................................................................................71
Foodstuffs ...................................................................................................................................................................................72, 73
Spiratec Leak Detector System ..........................................................................................................................................................56, 58
Standard Range Gilflo (SRG) (see Steam Meters)
Stall Chart ...........................................................................................................................................................................................33, 34
Steam Consumption Rates.................................................................................................................................................................68, 89
Steam Injection...........................................................................................................................................................27, 28, 104, 105, 106
Steam Mains (see Mains)
Steam Meters
Accuracy ...........................................................................................................................................................................................59
Density Compensation......................................................................................................................................................................60
Installation.........................................................................................................................................................................................60
Liquid Metering System ..................................................................................................................................................................132
Meter Location ..................................................................................................................................................................................61
Repeatability .....................................................................................................................................................................................59
Steam Conditioning...........................................................................................................................................................................60
Spiraflo Saturated Steam Metering System ...................................................................................................................................131
Saturated Steam Metering System.................................................................................................................................................132
Steam Conditioning Station ..............................................................................................................................................................60
Superheated Steam Metering System............................................................................................................................................131
Turndown ..........................................................................................................................................................................................59
Steam Lines, Draining...............................................................................................................................................................................85
Steam Needs Analysis Program (SNAP)..................................................................................................................................................39
Steam Purity .............................................................................................................................................................................................51
Steam Quality ...........................................................................................................................................................................................51
Steam Tables ..............................................................................................................................................................................................7
Steam Tracing ................................................................................................................................................................................12-18, 88
Steam Traps (see Traps, Steam)
Sterilizer Hookup.............................................................................................................................................................................108, 109
Sterilizer, Trapping and Air Venting .........................................................................................................................................................108
Still Condensers, Cooling Control ...........................................................................................................................................................137
Storage Tank Heating .................................................................................................................................................................98, 99, 110
Sump Pit Drainage..................................................................................................................................................................................118
Superheated Steam ....................................................................................................................................................................................6
Surplussing Valve (see Back Pressure Control)
System Stall..................................................................................................................................................................................33, 34, 35

151

Subject Index
Tanks
Boiler Feed Water ...........................................................................................................................................................104, 105, 127
Flash (sizing) .........................................................................................................................................................................42-44, 49
Flash Steam Recovery (see Flash Steam, Recovery Hookups)
Hot Water Storage ......................................................................................................................................................................98, 99
Open .......................................................................................................................................................................................103, 105
Plating, Dyeing & Process ..............................................................................................................................................................103
Product Storage ..............................................................................................................................................................................110
Temperature Control Valves
Cooling Service .........................................................................................................................................................87, 127, 135-139
Direct Operated ......................................................................................................26-29, 87, 88, 105, 127, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139
Heating Service (liquid).....................................................................................................................................................................26
Heating Service (steam)......................................................26, 27, 28, 88, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 103, 104, 105, 106, 108, 125, 126
Installation.........................................................................................................................................................................................27
Pilot Operated ..........................................................................................................................26, 95, 96, 97, 99, 100, 103, 105, 106
Pneumatically Operated ...............................................................................................................................................27, 28, 93, 101
Remote Setting .................................................................................................................................................................................93
Sizing ...........................................................................................................................................................................................23-30
Three-Port (blending, diverting) ............................................................................................................................................28, 29, 30
Two-Port Direct Acting (heating) .....................................................................................................................26-29, 88, 98, 105, 108
Two-Port Reverse Acting (cooling) .............................................................................................28, 87, 127, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139
Testing Steam Traps ............................................................................................................................................................................55-58
Thermostatic Air Vents (see Vents, Air, for Steam Spaces)
Three Port Valves .........................................................................................................................................................................28, 29, 30
Tire Mold Hookup....................................................................................................................................................................................113
Tracer Lines,
Control ............................................................................................................................................................................16, 17, 18, 88
Trapping ....................................................................................................................................................................15, 17, 18, 38, 88
Tracer Systems ........................................................................................................................................................................12-18, 38, 88
Trap Diffuser..............................................................................................................................................................................................47
Traps, Drain...............................................................................................................................................................................47, 135, 140
Traps, Steam
Discharge Modes ..............................................................................................................................................................................56
Location ..........................................................................................................................................................................11, 17, 32, 38
Sanitary Clean Steam Systems .........................................................................................................................52, 53, 128, 129, 130
Selection and Sizing...................................................................................................................................................9, 16, 38, 39, 40
Steam Loss Estimates ......................................................................................................................................................................57
Testing of .....................................................................................................................................................................................55-58
Unit Heater Drainage ................................................................................................................................................................................98
Vacuum Breakers ............................................................................31, 93, 96, 97, 98, 100, 104, 105, 110, 118, 123, 125, 126, 136, 137
VacuumDraining Condensate from .............................................................................................................................................115, 119
Valves
Accuracy (droop)...............................................................................................................................................................................23
Balancing ..........................................................................................................................................................................................30
Cv 23, 25, 29
Definitions ...................................................................................................................................................................................23, 28
Pressure (see Pressure Control Valves)
Proportional Band.......................................................................................................................................................................23, 26
Sizing...................................................................................................................................................................................3, 4, 23-30
Temperature (see Temperature Control Valves)
Velocity,
Steam Mains...........................................................................................................................................................................3, 4, 6, 8
Water Mains................................................................................................................................................................................76, 77
Air Lines......................................................................................................................................................................................63, 64
Vents, Air, for Steam Spaces ................................................11, 31, 60, 85, 95, 96, 97, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 108, 109, 111, 113
114, 115, 116, 117, 120, 123, 124, 125, 126, 129, 130, 131
Vortex Flowmeters (see Steam Meters)
Warmup Loads, Steam Main ................................................................................................................................................................9, 10
Warmers, Blanket and Bedpan, Hospital ................................................................................................................................................108
Washers, Egg..........................................................................................................................................................................................106
Water For Injection (WFI)..........................................................................................................................................................................50
Water Hammer......................................................................................................................................................................................8, 32
Water Logging.....................................................................................................................................................................................31, 35

152

Group Companies and Sales Offices

Argentina
Spirax Sarco S.A.
Ruta Panamericana Km. 24,900
1611 Don Torcuato
Buenos Aires, Argentina
Australia
Spirax Sarco Pty. Limited
P.O. Box 6308
Delivery Centre
Blacktown
N.S.W. 2148, Australia
Austria
Spirax Sarco Ges.m.b.H.
Eisgrubengasse 2/PF 41
A-2334 Vosendorf-Sud.
Austria
Belgium
Spirax Sarco N. V.
Industriepark Zwijnaarde 5
9052 Gent - Zwijnaarde
Belgium
Brazil
Spirax Sarco Ind. E Com Ltda
Rodovia Raposo Tavares Km. 31
Caixa Postal 143
06700-000. Cotia S.P.
Brazil
Canada
Spirax Sarco Canada Limited
383 Applewood Crescent
Concord
Ontario L4K 4J3, Canada
China
Spirax Sarco Engineering (China) Ltd.
No. 107 Gui Qing Road
Caohejing Hi Tech Park
Shanghai, China
Postcode 200233
Colombia
Spirax Sarco Internacional Ltda
Apartado Aereo 32484
Cali (Valle)
Colombia, South America
Czech Republic
Spirax Sarco Spol. s. r. o.
V korytech (areal nakladoveho nadrazi CD)
100 00 Praha 10 Strasnice
Czech Republic
Denmark
Spirax Sarco Limited
Birkedommervej - 31
2400-Copenhagen N.V., Denmark
East Africa
Spirax Sarco Limited
3rd Floor (above Gilanis)
ABC Place, Waryaki Way
Westlands, Nairobi
Kenya
Finland
Spirax Oy
Sorvaajankatu 9
00810 Helsinki, Finland
France
Spirax Sarco S.A.
B P 61
F 78193 Trappes
Cedex, France
Germany
Spirax Sarco GmbH
Postfach 10 20 42
D-78420 Konstanz, Germany

Hygromatik Lufttechnischer
Apparatebau GmbH
Lise-Meitner-StraBe 3
D-24558 Henstedt-Ulzburg
Germany
Great Britain
Spirax Sarco Limited
Head Office
Charlton House, Cheltenham
Gloucestershire, GL53 8ER
Great Britain
Hong Kong
See Singapore
Hungary
Spirax Sarco Ltd.
11-1143 Budapest
Zszls u. 18.
Hungary
India
Spirax Marshall Limited
P.B. No. 29
Bombay Poona Road
Kasarwadi
Pune 411 034, India
Indonesia
See Singapore
Italy
Spirax Sarco Srl
Via Per Cinisello, 18
20054 Nova Milanese
Milano, Italy
Japan
Spirax Sarco (Japan) Limited
2-37, Hamada, Mihamaku
Chiba 261-0025
Japan
Korea
Spirax Sarco Korea Limited
3rd-5th Floor, Jungwoo Building
1552-8 Seocho-dong
Seocho-ku
Seoul 137-070, Korea
Lebanon
Spirax Sarco Resident Engineer
P.O. Box 11-3052
Beirut, Lebanon
Malaysia
Spirax Sarco Sdn Bhd
25, Jalan PJS 11/1
Bandar Sunway
46150 Petaling Jaya
Selangor Darul Ehsan
West Malaysia
Mexico
Spirax Sarco Mexicana S.A. de CV
Apartado Postal 5287-K
Monterrey NL
64000 - Mexico
New Zealand
Spirax Sarco Limited
P.O. Box 76-160
Manukau City
Auckland, New Zealand
Nigeria
Spirax Sarco Sales Representative
Cakasa Company Ltd.
96 Palm Ave.
P.O. Box 871
Mushin, Lagos, Nigeria
Norway
Spirax Sarco Limited (Norge)
P.O. Box 47
1483 Skytta, Norway

Pakistan
Spirax Sarco Sales Representative
2-C Gulistan-E-Zafar P.R.E.C.H.S.
Near SMCHS Block B
Postal Code 74400
Karachi, Pakistan
Poland
Spirax Sarco Sp. z o.o.
Fosa 25
02-768 Warszawa, Poland
Portugal
Spirax Sarco-Equipamentos
Industrias Lda.
Rua da Quinta do Pinheiro, 8
Portela de Carnaxide
2795-653 Carnaxide, Portugal
Russia
Spirax Sarco Ltd.
(Room 1401)
4 Vozrozhdenija Str.
198097 St. Petersburg, Russia
Singapore
Spirax Sarco Pvt. Limited
464 Tagore Avenue
Upper Thomson Road
Singapore 787833
South Africa
Spirax Sarco (Pty) Ltd.
P.O. Box 925
Kempton Park 1620
Transvaal, South Africa
Spain
Spirax Sarco S.A.
Sant Josep, 130
Poligon El Pla
08980 Sant Feliu de Llobregat
Spain
Sweden
Spirax Sarco AB
Vstberga All 60
S-126 30 Haegersten, Sweden
Switzerland
Spirax Sarco A. G.
Gustav-Maurer-Str.9
8702 Zollikon, Switzerland
Taiwan
Spirax Longbridge Limited
6th Floor
No. 8, Lane 94, Tsao Ti Wei
Shen Keng Hsiang
Taipei County
Taiwan, Republic of China
Thailand
Spirax Boonyium Limited
9th Floor, Benjaporn Building
222 Krungtep-kreetha Road
Bangkapi
Bangkok 10240, Thailand
U.S.A.
Spirax Sarco, Inc.
Northpoint Park
1150 Northpoint Blvd.
Blythewood, SC 29016
Watson-Marlow Bredel Inc.
220 Balladvale Street
Wilmington, MA 01887
Venezuela
Spirax Sarco S.A.
Apartado 81088
Caracas 1080A, Venezuela

153

Regional Offices

NORTHEAST
Nigel Sewell
Columbus, Ohio, Hub Office
7760 Olentangy River Road
Suite 120
Columbus, OH 43235
Phone: (614) 436-8055
Fax: (614) 436-8479

MID-ATLANTIC
Ed Beedle
4647 Saucon Creek Road
Suite 102
Center City, PA 18034
Phone: (610) 807-3500
Fax: (610) 317-3279

SOUTHEAST
Bruce Moninghoff
200 Centre Port Drive
Suite 170
Greensboro, NC 27409
Phone: (336) 605-0221
Fax: (336) 605-1719

MIDWEST
Pierre Schmidt
2806 Centre Circle Drive
Downers Grove, IL 60515
Phone: (630) 268-0330
Fax: (630) 268-0336

SOUTHWEST
Jon Lye
203 Georgia Ave.
Deer Park, TX 77536
Phone: (281) 478-4002
Fax: (281) 478-4615

WEST
Mike Gillick
1930 East Carson Street,
Suite 102
Long Beach, CA 90810
Phone: (310) 549-9962
Fax: (310) 549-7909

154