Springs

removed the spring has set to desired free length. This is called set removal. The
permissible stress under "set removed condition is higher. Table 7.5 describes the
permissible stresses for materials described in Tables 7.1 and 7.3.
Table 7.5 : Permissible Torsional Shearing Stress for Statically
Compressed Helical Springs
Maximum Percent of
Tensile Strength

Material

Without Set
Removed
Cold drawn C-Steel

45%

Hardened and Tempered C and alloy steel

50%

Austenitic stainless steel

35%

Non-ferrous alloys

35%

With Set
Removed

65-75%

In tension springs the stress permitted in the ends is 5% less than that in the body of the
spring. The later is same as given in above table.
Example 7.1

A Rams-bottom type safety valve is loaded by a helical spring. The spring closes
the valve opening, which is 63.5 mm in diameter. The maximum pressure at which
the valve blows off freely is 0.71 MPa. The valve is lifted through a distance of
3.175 mm when pressure rises from 0.68 to 0.71 MPa. The permissible shearing
stress in the spring material is 550 MPa and spring may have an index of 6.
Assume modulus of rigidity as 8 1600 MPa. Remember that the spring in
Rams-bottom safety valve is loaded in tension. Calculate the diameter of spring
wire, coil diameter, number of coils and free length of the spring.
Solution

As a first step calculate, K,the Wahl's factor using Eq. (7.7) with C = 6

. . . (i)

K = 1.2525

The maximum axial force to pull the spring occurs when valve is fully open and
pressure at the valve opening is highest. This pressure is 0.71 MPa at valve
opening, which is 63.5 mm in dia.
Axial Pull P = ~ress;re

Area of valve opening

. . . (ii)
D

Use Eq. (7.5) with C = - = 6 , P and K from (ii) and (i) respectively and
d
t = 550 MPa

. . . (iii)
From Table 7.2 the next higher diameter is SWG 310, d = 9.49 mm
with d = 9.49 mm, D = mean coil dia. = 56.94 mm

Inside dia. = D, = D - d = 56.94 - 9.49 = 47.45 mm

1)csign of Mechanical
Elements

Outside dia. = Do = D + d

= 56.94

+ 9.49

= 66.43

. . (iv)

mm

The lift of valve of3.175 mm is the deflection of the spring from a force
corresponding to 0.68 MPa to a pressure of 0.7 1 MPa. Thus the force that causes a
deflection, 6 = 3.175 mm is

Using Eq. (7.9) for deflection and putting P = PI = 95 N, D = 56.94 mm,

6=3.175mm,G=81600

n = 14.98 say 15

. . . (v)

Nothing has been said about state of the coils in unloaded condition. It can be
assumed that coils touch each other when unloaded and that there is no presttess
in the coil.

:.

Free length = n

d = 15 x 9.49 = 142.35 mm

. . . (vi)

d = 9.49 mm, D = 56.94 mm, Di = 47.45 mm, D,= 66.43 mm

n = 15, free )length= 142.35 mm.
Example 7.2

At the bottom of an elevator shaft 9 helical coiled springs are placed in parallel to
absorb the shock in case the elevator falls freely due to failure. The elevator cage
weighing 27 kN falls freely through a height of 1.2 m from rest. Determine to what
stress level the spring is stressed if each spring is made from rod of 3 1 mm dia.
The spring index of each spring is 6 and number of turns is 16. G = 80 GPa.
Solution

When elevator falls freely from a height of 1.2 x 1o3mm, it causes a deflection
6 mm in each spring. Also assume if a static load P is applied on each spring it
will cause a deflection 6 mm. Thus P is the static equivalent load. The potential
energy of elevator cage at a height of 1.2 x 10) mm will be stored in 9 springs out
of which each will be subjected to static axial load of P N and deflect 6 mm,

or

P 6 - 6000 6 = 7200 x lo3

D
Using Eq. (7.9) and putting C = d

. . . (i)

Using

C = 6 , d = 3 1 mm,n= 1 6 , G = 8 0 x lo3

= 28.57 x 1 0' N

(negative value is ignored)

4 C - 1 --24-1
0.615
Wahl's factor, K = -x-- 1.2525
4C-4
24-4
6
Using Eq. (5.9,

In spring the wire is subjected to a stress of 569 N/mm2.

SAQ 1
(a)

Describe various applications of springs.

(b)

Mention carbon and alloy steels (with composition) used for making helical
spring.

(c)

What non-ferrous materials are used for springs and why?

(d)

What is meant by spring ends under compression load? What is the effect of
modified ends?

(e)

How is buckling of spring checked?

(f)

Describe ends used in tension springs.

(g)

A vertical spring loaded valve is required for a compressed air reservoir.

The valve is to start opening at a pressure of 1 N/mm2and must be fully
open with a lift of 4 mm at a pressure of 1.2 N/mm2.Diameter of port is
25 mm. The permissible shearing stress in the spring steel is 480 N/mm2
while spring index = 6. G = 8 x lo6 N/mm2.
4C - 1 0.615
For Wahl's factor use K = -+ -.
4C-4
C
Design a suitable close-coiled helical spring with round section wire and
spring is to have squared ground ends for compressive load. Also specify
material compression and free length of the spring.

Springs

Obv~ously2 x (n' - n) represents angular displacement of one end of spring relative to

other. i.e. 0 . which is also called angular deflection. Hence from (iv) (Figure 7.13)
M1 Prl
o=2n(n'-n)=-=EI
EI

... (v)

n
Substituting 1 = n n D, I = - d 4 , d being spring wire diameter,
64
0

64 Pr Dn 64 MDn
&.i4
ED^

. . . (7.15)

As the axial torque causes pure bending in the spring wire it will induce bending stress
in the spring cross-section, given by

M d
32 Pr
o=-x-or o = I
2
nd3
This stress is, however, modified due to curvature effect. Wahl has calculated the stress
concentration factor for round wire with spring index C for inner (k,)and outer (K,,)
fibres of the spring.

K, =

4c2 -C -1
4C (C - 1)

KO =

4c2 +C -1
4C (C + 1 )

And the modified bending stress is then written as

32 Pr
32 M
= K o = K nd3
nd3

. . . (7.17)

where K will be K, for inner fibres and K = K , for outer fibres. The spring constant
defined as torque per unit angular deflection from Eq. (7.1 5) is

~d~
Pr
k=-=0 64Dn

. . . (7.18)

The torque required to wind up the spring by one full turn is also some times defined as
spring rate. If the torque required to produce a deflection of 1 turn or 2n radian is K, then
Pr
k' = - 2n
0
But from Eq. (7.18)
Pr
=

I1

!
I

:
I

..

2~ m4
k1=2nk=64 Dn

or

k'

~d~
10.2 Dn

=-

Example 7.3
A helical torsion spring with short hook ends is required to twist through half turn
under application of a torque of 0.06 N-m. The spring is made of steel wire in
which per~nissiblebending stress is 1000 MPa. Assume a spring index of 10 and
modulus of elasticity of 200,000 MPa to calculate wire diameter, mean diameter
of spring number of turns and spring constant in N-mrntturn.

Ilesign of Mechanical

Solution

Elements

1Jse Eq. i7.16) to calculate K,, with C = 10

Assume that the torque is unwinding which will cause inside of coil to be
subjected to tensile stress.
Use Eq. (7.17).

o = K I - 32M
in which M = 0.06

10' N mm. o = 1000 ~/rnrn'

xd3

. . . (i)
'The nearest standard wire is 20 SWG with d = 0.914 mm

D = 9.14 mm

. ..(ii)

Use Eq. (7.15) to calculate number of turns, n.

. . . (iii)
To find spring constant in N mm/turn use Eq. (7.19)

. . . (iv)

7.10 LAMINATED SPRING

Leaf springs or laminated springs are very common shock absorbing devices used in
automobiles. Three different configurations of leaf springs are shown in Figure 7.2 as
used in automobiles. A laminated spring is made of number of strips, decreasing in
length from top to bottom or vice versa. The strips are clamped together tightly at least at
one section or they may be clamped at three or five sections if necessary (Figure 7.14).
Each leaf is designed to have same bending stress at any cross-section, which means the
quantity U/EI is kept constant all along the length. This can be achieved by giving initial
curvature to each leaf anal shaping ends in an isoceles triangle as shown in Figures 7.14
and 7.1 5(b).

used to arrlvc at Icngtl: if n u ~ n b e rof full-length spring is 2. In this case the third leaf and
each after this will be reduced by -- so that the length of smallest leaf will be
n-1
. Here 1 is the span between the centres of the eyes at the end of master leaf
( n - 1)

(Figure 7.1 7). Since the leaves are securely clipped in the middle the actual length will
2
be increased by
of distance between the centres of clip U bolts. Table 7.7 describes
3

the clip section and diameter of U-bolts.

Table 7.7 : Clip Section and Diameter of U-bolt
I

Width of Leaf
(nun)

llnder 50

/ 65.70.75 and 80 1

I
I
L

I
I!
t
a

Clip Section
( n ~ mx mm)

Dia. of the Bolt

(mm)

20 x 4

25 x 6

10

Referring to Figure 7.1 7. camber. the initial distance between the centre line of the eyes
and the lowest point on the inside curve of the master leaf is normally the maximum
deflection permitted under load. In such event the leaves of the spring will become
straight. Sometimes the springs with zero camber are also made.
In a moving carriage leaf spring is placed on the axle housing which as a seat for the
spring. Uclip holds the spring to the spring seat. The clip plates whose section is
described in Table 7.7 are rectangular plates. The one of them has four holes through
which ends of U-bolts are tightened. The same plate has a hole in the centre through
which the centre bolt passes across the leaves. The holes drilled in the leaves for centre
bolt weaken the leaves considerably but since all the leaves in the vicinity of hole are
tightly clamped by the U-clips the bending stress in this region is much reduced.
The rebound clips are used to keep the graduated leaves in contact with full length
leaves. This helps the load spread to all leaves during rebound rather than master leaf
alone taking it. Rebound clips also close access to dirt particles which if get between the
leaves may lead to fretting fatigue.
The leaves from master leaf to bottom are bent with decreasing radius of curvature. This
while helping attain the theoretical design as described in Section 7.9. also helps
maintain the contact between the ad.jacent leaves and does not permit dirt to enter. In fact
in respect of latter it helps rebound clips to serve their purpose.
Example 7.5
A semi elliptical laminated spring is required to carry a central load of 4500 N.
The span of the spring is 915 mm while the width and thickness of each leaf are
60 mm and 4.5 mm, respectively. Calculate the number of leaves and length of
each leaf if permissible bending stress is 475 ~ / m m and
' modulus of elasticity is
200 x 10' ~ i m m '

Solution
Bending stress in any leaf is given by
cJ=--

3 PI
2 nbt'

Here cr = 475 ~ l m m ' ,P = 4500 N, 1 = 9 15 mm, b = 60 mm, t = 4.5 mm

3
4500x915
n== 10.7 say 11
2 475 x 60 x (4.51~

Design of Mechanical
~lemests

915
The length of graduated leaves will bt: reduced by - from second to eleventh.
11
leaf. The lengths are listed in order below.
831.8, 748.6, 665.4, 582.3, 499.1, 415.9,332.7, 249.5. 166.4.83.2 rnm.

1 915
Check that the eleventh or last leaf is equal to - = -= 83.2 mm .
n
11
The deflection of the spring is calculated from

4500 x (9 15)'
3
8 I ] x 6 0 x (4.5)2 x 2

=-

I05

= 107.5 rnm

or
6 = 107.5 rnrn
since number of leaves has been modified. actual stress must be calculated.

Thus the stress is teduced.

Example 7.6

An automobile spring of semielliptic type is made of 12 leaves out of which two

are full length. The spring is clipped in the middle and clip width is 80 mrn while
the distance between end supports is 10 rn. The leaves are rectangular section
strips with width to thickness ratio of 4. The spring is required to carry a central
load of 5 kN with condition that deflection in full length leaves and graduated
leaves are equal. Calculate the width and thickness of each leaf is permissible
bending stress is 250 MPa. E = 200 GPa. Also calculate deflection.
Solution

For the condition of equal deflection in full length and graduated leaves, the stress
in full-length leaf is given by

The deflection ofthe spring is given by

.However, it must be understood (and you may look at Figure 7.17) that clipping
the central portion makes the clipped length ineffective, whereby the effective
span of the spring is reduced by an amount equal to clipped length. Te clipped
length is 80 mm.

..

I = 1000 - 80 = 920 mm
Also note that I = 4 t, nf = 2, n, = 12 - 2 = 10, P = 5000 N
With a,-=Permissible stress = 250 ~ l r n m ~

'The liedrest higher thickness is 10 mm

t=lOmm,I=4Omm
'The deflection,

. . . (i)

3
5000 x (920)'
6 .-- 4 2 0 0 x 1 0 ~x 4 0 x ( 1 0 ) ~( 3 x 2 + 2 . 1 0 )

'

6, = 14.04 mm

. . . (ii)

SAQ 2
(a)

How are the ends of helical springs made so that it can be subjected to axial
torque?

(b)

Sketch the leaves of a laminated spring in order of decreasing length. Show

the bending moment diagram for any leaf and explain how each leaf is
subjected to some bending stress.

jc)

Give the sketch of a laminated spring with central clip, full length leaves
and graduated leaves.

(d)

What are the two methods of calculating width and thickness of the leaves
in a laminated spring. Give expressions for stress and deflection in two
cases.

(e)

A helical springs is required to connect two coaxial shafts in a

I
fatigue-testing machine, which runs at 5000 rpm an.d requires - kW of
20
power. The permissible bending stress in the wire of the spring is 750 MPa
1
and angle of twist between two ends of spring is not to exceed - turn.
4
Assuming spring index of 8 and E = 200 GPa, calculate (a) diameter of
spring wire. (ii) coil diameter. (iii) number of turns and (iii) spring stiffness
in Nmlturn.

(f)

Calculate the width and thickness of leaves for the spring described in
Example 7.6, Section 7.14 assuming that stresses in full length and gradated
leaves are equal. Also calculate the force in clip bolt and stress in clip bolt
and amount of nip. All other data are same as in Example 7.6, Section 7.14.

7.11 SUMMARY
Helical coiled springs are used to transmit forces along their axes. They are preferred for
force transmitting elements as they avoid shocks and are capable of deforming much
more than a comparable rod or bar. When subjected to axial force, the wire of the spring
is twisted experiencing shearing stress. The deflection and stiffness are important
characteristics. The helical coiled springs are made in steel but in special cases they may
be made in non-ferrous materials like brass and phospher bronze. The same spring may
also be used under axial torque in which case the cross section of spring wire is
subjected to bending stress. Helical coiled springs are also used to absorb energy from a
falling mass or moving object. They are used in shock absorbeks and buffers because
they can deform considerably under a shock load, thus protecting the connected parts
from shock.

Design ut'hlcchrnical
Elements

A number of rectangular leaves placed over each other with decreasing length in
succession form another type of spring called laminated or leaf spring. The combination
is often used as a simply supported or cantilever beam and is capable of undergoing large
,deflection in comparison with solid beam. Each leaf is subjected to bending stress.
Leaves are normally bent in form of a circle yet the spring is referred to as semi-elliptic.
The leaves decreasing in length from the top full length are called graduated leaves.
Springs are often made with more than one in full length. For calculating the width and
thickness of the springs two assumptions are made and any one can be used. The
assumptions are :
(a)

equal stress in full and graduated leaves,

(b) equal deflection in full and graduated leaves.

The laminated springs are widely used in automobile to connect the body with axles of
wheels. They may be used in other vehicles also and also as support for machines that
may transmit a considergble dynamic force to the foundation. These springs are made in
silicon and manganese steel.

7.12 KEY WORDS

Springs

: Springs are the elastic elements that are employed

in machine to exert forces. A mechanical spring

may be defined as an elastic body whose primary
function is to deflect under load and which
recovers its original shape when released after
being distorted.
: Helical spring consists of a wire or rods wound

Helical Spring

about a mandrel to from a helix and is primarily

intended for axial direct compressor or tension
loads.
Resilience

: The resilience of a spring is equal to the energy

absorbed by it. which itself is equal to the work

done on it by the external force.
: The term flat spring is commonly applied to a

Leaf Spring

wide variety of shapes made out of a flat strip.

7.12 ANSWERS TO SAOs

SAQ 1
(g)

Force on the spring when pressure.in the reservoir is 1 ~ / r n m '

7t

= p x Port area = I x - = (25)* = 491 N

Force on the spring when pressure in the reservoir in 1.2 N.mm2

P, = 4 9 1 x 1.2= 589 N
The highkr force will cause higher stress, hence the wire diameter will be
calculated from higher force.
With spring index C = 6, Wahl's factor

".

. . . (i)

d 2 = 23.48 or d = 4.89 mm

The nearest standard diameter is 4.877 mm

..

Coil dia. D = 6 r d

. . . (ii)

= 29.262

For calculating number of turn, formula for deflection will be used,

a=- 8PD3 n

where n is effective number of turns. The lift of the value is

~d~
equal to the deflection of the spring and between two forces it is given as
4 mm. The force to cause this deflection is

With both ends squared and ground the actual number of turns with ben'

. . . (iii)

=9.2 + 2 = 11.2

(There is no need to make number of coils a whole number). The initial

compression of spring corresponds to an axial force P Iand the maximum
deflection is at P2. Remember the deflection of 4 mm is caused by a force of
98 N.
:.

Initial deflection at

49 1
98

= -x 4 = 20.04 mm

. . . (iv)

589
Maximum deflection at P2 = -x 4 = 24.04 mm
98
The difference is 4 mm.
In the state when the spring has deflected maximum. the coils are not
allowed to touch but a gap of 1 mm is desirable.
Hence the free length of the spring

I. = n'd

+ 6,,, + (n' - 1) x 1.0

Here n' is actual number of turns.

..

1, = 11.2 x 4.877 + 24.04 + 10.2 = 88.86 mm

. . . (v)

SAQ 2

(e)

The spring transmits torque from one shaft to other; hence the spring is
subjected to same torque as shaft.
Power = Torque x a = M w

p is the torque in Nm and a is the angular velocity in radl s. Power in Watt

50
= 0.0955 Nm
523.6

or 95.5 Nmm

lir,ign uC hlechnnieal
Elements

Assume that the torque is winding the spring so !hat outer fibres are
subjected to tensile stress.
Use

32M
cr=Ko-

With

C=8,K0=

xd3

4 c 2 + ~ - 1 4x64+8-1
- 0.91 3
4C (C + 1)
32 (9)

Permissible cr = 750 ~ / m mand

~ , p = 95.5 Nmm

The next higher standard diameter is 1.219 mm corresponding to 185 NG

..

d = 1.219mm

..

D = 9.752 mm

. . . (i)
. ..(ii)

The angular displacement between two ends

..

. . . (iii)

n z 1 1 . 6 4 say 12
x

With 12 turns the angle of twist will be less than - . The spring stiffness in
2

or

(0

k' = 0.37 Nmlturn

. . . (iv)

The stress in all leave is equalized in this case and stress is given by

Usep = 5000 N, 1 = 920 mm. b = 4 t. n = 12, cr = 250 ~ / m m ~

..

t3 = 575 or t = 8.3 16 say 9.0 mm

b = 36 mm say standard 40 mm
From Table 7.6 for b upto 65 mm, dia. of bolt = 8 mm
The force in clip bolt is given by

The stress in bolt,

. . . (i)
. . . (ii)

The nip

C =6 -6 "-

PI'

=PI^ -

3 8nht3~

PI^
8nbt3~

Example 9.1

A flat belt drive transmits power of 22 kW between pulfeys of equal diameters.

Each pulley is 400 mm iqdianieter and rotates at 400 rpm. The pulleys are made in
cast iron and will run dry. The belt will have cemented joint which will be made in
work place. Select an oak tanned leather belt to have a width of 220 mm. Take
factor of safety of 3.
Solution
Froni Table 9.1 for leather belt note, width available is from 20 to 300 mm, hence
220 nim can be selected. Ultimate tensile strength a,,= 20 N/nim2, Recommended
Dmin ratio - 35, hence the calculated thickness should not be less than
h
Dmin - 200 - 5.7 mm .
35
35
The problem requires calculation of thickness, since width is given. Specific
weight w = 9800 N/m3.
Coefficient of friction between oak tanned leather belt and cast iron pulley from
Table 9.3 is 0.25 for dry condition.
The efficiency of the joint (cemented at work place), may be taken as 85% from
Table 9.4. Modulus of elasticity of leather belt from Table 9.1, E = 125 N/mm2.
The power transmitted,

Here N1 and Dl are rpm and diameter of driving pulley. TI and T2 are the tensions
in belt in tight and slack sides such that T, = T I + T, and T, = T2 + T,.
From Eq. (9.6)

8 = 180" = x rad and y = 0.25, hence, ye = 0.25 .n = 0.7854

. . . (i)
Also,

H = 22 x lo3 = (q

T2)

400
60

lo-' = 8378 (q

400

T2) 1 0-3

..

(T, - T2) = (2.2 T2 - T2) = 22000 x 10' = 2.63 x 1o3

..

T2 = 2188 N and T, = 4814 N

8378

. . . (ii)

From Eq. (9.2)

Note w is the weight of 1 m length of belt and v is the belt speed in m/s,
g = 9.81 m/s2.
If b is width and h is thickness of the belt section in mm, then volume of 1 m
length of belt

Belt and
Chain Drives

D c s i g ~ul'
~ Power
Transmission Devices

The stress in the belt is caused by tensions T I and T, and due to belt bending over
pulley, i.e. bending stress o,,.
Front Eq. (9.12),
I

Now to calculate h we set up equation for stress on belt cross-section which should
of, x Joint eff . Takef: s. = 3.
not exceed -

f.s.

and stress in belt

. . . (iv)

Out of two values which one will you choose? Remember both answers are correct
and any value between 5.76 mm and 12.16 mm will be safe. Cost of the thinner
belt will be less and hence, it should be chosen. The nearest standard value is
7.5 mm of double ply belt (from Table 9.1). You may like to check if Eq. (iv) is
satisfied with h = 30 mm, i.e. the left hand side will be less than zero.

The other method of check is to see that stress is less than o,,,= 5.67 Nlmm2

which is less than 5.67 N h m 2 .

Hence, leather belt of b = 220 mm and h = 7.5 mm is selected.

SAQ 1
(a)

Enumerate methods of power .transn~ission.What are mechanical power

transmission systems?

(b)

What materials are used to make flat belt?

(c)

How do you calculate stresses in a flat belt?

(d)

A 150 mm wide belt drives a pulley of 1500 mm diameter at 300 rpm while
transmitting 33.5 kW of power. Calculate the thickness of a rubber belt of
ultimate tensile strength 37 MPa and modulus of elasticity is 100 MPa. Belt
runs dry on C.l pulley to ensure a coefficient of friction of 0.3. Use a factor
of safety of 10 to take care of overload and belt joint. The weight density.of
belt material 13750 N/m3. The angle of leap is 165'.

Design of Power
Transmission Devices

Suppose that we require a velocity ratio of 3 and creep is not considered then what will
be the diameter D2 for Dl = 200 mm.

If 2% creep is considered then

The actual diameter will be less.

Similarly, if the diameter D2 is calculated by neglecting S, then

In which case if driving palleyis running at 300 rpm, the driven pulley will run at
300
= 98.04 rpm
3.06
For convenience of calculation we denote various quantities by Dl, D2, NI and N2 when
no consideration of creep is done. With creep under consideration we denote them by Dl,
Dl2, N, and M2.

Dl
D2 = Dl N1 and N2 = N , N2
4

Then

1 and N; = D;=- N l 4 Nl DI 1
I+S 'N;
1 + S D;
It is again interesting to note that S = E~ - c2 =

5
- 5 andhence if difference between
E
E

TI and T2 is large coeficient of creep will be large.

Example 9.2
A leather belt is used to supply power from a 5.5 kW, 1440 rpm compensator start
electric motor to a reciprocating air compressor. The centre line between the
pulleys is inclined to horizontal at 60'. The driving pulley on motor shaft is made
of compressed paper and is 400 mm in diameter while the driven pulley 800 mm in
diameter is made in C.I. The belt is to be cemented at the site to join the two ends
and normal atmospheric and service conditions are maintained. Find what width of
a single ply oak tanned belt will be necessary. Calculate the factor of safety if
ultimate tensile strength of leather is 20 MPa and modulus of elasticity is
125 MPa. The weight density of oak tanned leather belt is 9800 ~ / mCalculate
~ .
dimensions of C.1 pulley. Find actual speed of driven pulley if S = 2%.

Solution
We will use tables to select belt.
The minimum centre distance, Eq. (9.18)
C=1.5(D,

+ D2)=1.5(400+800)=1800mm

. . . (i)

The belt velocity

=--n N I Q - n x 1 4 4 0 x 4 0 0 ~

60

60

=30.2 m/s or 1810 rntmin

. . . (ii)

For tight side below, small pulley diameter of 400 mm and centre distance of 1800
mm < 3048 mm, from Table 9.9

KO = 0.74

. . . (iii)

II
It

Belt and
Chain Drives

Service Factor
Table 9.6,

"

Normal atmospheric conditions

K I = 1.011

Paper pulley on motor

KZ = 0.833

Centre line inclined at 60' to horizontal

K3 = 1.111

Normal service
Compressor load

K4= 1 .OOO
K5= 1.250

Compensator start motor

K6 = 1.500

: .service factor, K = 1.011 x 0.833x1.111x1.000x 1 . 2 5 ~

1.50=1.754

~able'G.4,efficiency of belt joint made at work place, q = 0.85.

Belt Section
Table 9.7,
The belt velocity of 1800 d m i n is close to 1770 d m i n and hence at that
velocity the single ply belt can transmit 0.23 1 kW with h = 4.36 mm or
0.267 kW for h = 5.16 mm.

D 400
Choosing higher thickness - = -= 77.5, permissible
h 5.16
'

:.

b=
-

and

(kW transmitted) K
(kW/nim width) q KO
0.267 x 0.85 x 0.74

Eq. (9.30)

. . . (iv)

= 57.44 say 6O mm

. . . (v)

h=5.16mm

Factor of Safety
The service factors q and Ke tend to increase actual power or
Power =

KH
0.85 x KO

5'5 = 15-05 kW
0.85 x 0.75

Angle of contact on smaller pulley = 7~ or

D2 - D
800 - 400
I - 7~ C
1800

8 = 7~ - 0.222 = 2.92 rad

Table 9.3, coefficient of friction between oak tanned belt and compressed
paper pulley,
p = 0.33

:.
or

From (vi), T2 (2.64

T2 = 303.7 N,

- 1) = 498

q = 801.7 N

. . . (vii)

For b = 6 0 m m , h=5.16mm,
Weight perm, w = 9800 x 60 x 5.16 x

= 3.03 N/m

. . . (viii)

Design of Power
Transmission Devices

. . . (ix)
:.

Tensile stress in belt,

:.

Factor of safety = J = ----2o - 4.75

o
4.2125

Pulley, Cast Iron

Diameter D2 = 800 mm
Eq. (9.22), bJ = ' l . l b + 10 mm = 1.1 x 60 + 10 = 76 mm
Eq. (9.23), height of crown

Eq. (9.24)

6 = ( 5 4 +'3) mm = 5 x 0.8 + 3 = 7 mm

Eq. (9.3) with

T = 78

~ / m md~=, 36.5 ""):T(

or

d = 23.5 mm say 29 mm (increased by 25%)

Eq. (9.25)

do= 2.0 d = 58 mm

Eq. (9.26)

1 = 2.0 d = 58 mm

Eq. (9.27)

JD
40.8
n, = 10 = 10 -= 4.47 say 5.
2
2

M, = 5'05

75.4

Oo0 = 199.6 Nm = 2 x lo5 Nmm

Eq. (9.28) and ob = 30 ~ / m m ~

1

a = 21.5 mm

a , = 17.23 mm, CI = 34.4 mm

(Sketch pulley)
Eq. (9.33)

N, D, 1 = 1440 x 400
1
N; = x -= 705.9 rpm
1 + S D2
1.02
800

Belt and
Chain Drives

SAQ 2
(a)

The pulleys of diameter 200 mm and 800 mm are mounted on parallel shafts
separated by a distance of 2 m. Find angle of contact on smaller pulley and
on larger pulley. What is the minimum distance by which these pulleys can
be separated? In which case the tension in belt will be higher?

(b)

Sketch a pulley for flat belt and show various dimensions. How do you
calculate the arms of the pulley?

(c)

Mention factors that will affect power to be transmitted by leather belt. How
are the effects considered in selection of the belt?

(4

A prime mover running at 300 rpm drives a DC generator at 500 rpm by a

belt drive. Diameter of the prime mover pulley is 600 mm. Assuming a
creep coefficient of 3% determine the diameter of the generator pulley if belt
is 6 mm thick.

(4

A winch driven by a flat belt drive is to have a velocity ratio of 4. The

driving motor is 8 kW capacity and runs at 900 rpm. The load variation is
considerable. Belt centre line is to be horizontal. Calculate belt width of a
rubber belt. The belt carries a hook joint (wire hooks).

9.14 V-BELT DRIVES

Whereas flat belts, normally wide, run on wide faced pulleys with large centre distance,
the V-belt, in reality, have trapezoidal section and run in grooved pulleys, which are
better known as sheaves. The wedge section of a V-belt makes contact on two inclined
faces and thus generates high frictional force. The V-belts are made endless and are
available in fixed pitch lengths. The tensions TI and T2on two sides of a power

3= e"

. The
T2
difference is that C( in this case is enhanced because of inclined faces of contact in the
same way as coefficient of friction in case of Acme threads is enhanced in comparison
with the coefficient of friction in case of square threads. The groove angle and angle
between two sides of wedge section of belt is same and is normally 37". If coefficient of
friction between belt and pulley, as a property, is C( and the groove angle is 2 a , then
enhanced or effective coefficient of friction, per is
transmitting belt are related in the same way as for a flat belt, i.e.

Cc
Cc
Peff = -= = 3Cc
sln a sin 18.5

T .
Thus, the coefficient of friction in V-belt is quite high, which effectively increases T2
In most cases T2< < T I .Groove angle which is still smaller will further increase b f f b u ta
groove angle less than 20" is never used because the belt will be locked in the groove.
Even for a groove angle of 20, effective coefficient of friction will be 5.8 p. The higher

If

Belt and

Power transmitted, and

= Power

Chain Drives

capacity of one belt of a specified section.

Then numb$ of belts =

Ks H
K A SK , h

A few machines have been named in first column of Table 9.19. These machines
are driven by standard V-belts which are of five standard section and shown in
Figures 9.8(a) and (b). Soil compactors, paper shredders, rotary press, grinders,
extruders (plastic), cylindrical dryers, and CNC lathes use cogged belts as shown
in Figure 9,9(a). V-ribbed (Figure 9.9(b)) are used to drive franking machines,
hard copy printer, hand hold planes, lift door mechanisms, washing machine, floor
polishers, IC engine auxilliary units, etc. synchronous belts (Figure 9.9(c)) are
used in conjunction with camshaft drive, cultivators, weaving machines,
positioning drives, adhesive bonding equipment, etc. We will be concerned only
with standard or classic V-belts.

Example 9.3

t'

A single phase series wound AC motor drives a heavy blower through V-belt. The
rpm of motor is 1440 while the blower rotates at 482 rpm. The pitch diameters of
driving and driven sheaves are respectively 100 and 300 mm. The power of
electric motor is 7460 W. The blower works continuously for 8 hours. Select
V-belt and number of belts. The centre distance is 220 mm.
Solution
Use Eq. (9.20) to calculate pitch length of the belt

Here, D I= 100 mm, D2= 300 mm, C = 220 mm

L = 2 x 220 + 2 ( 3 0 0 + 100) + (300 - 1oo)2 = 440 + 673.75 = 11 13.5 mrn . . . (i)

2
4 x 220
For 8 hours operationlday I -phase series wound AC motor to drive a blower,
K, = 1.1 from Table 9.20.

..

Effective power, H = 1.l x 7460 = 8206 W

n DlN, The belt velocity = - xxlOOx1440 = 7540 mm/s = 7.54 m/s

60
60

. . . (ii)
. . . (iii)

Calculation of Belt Section Area

Since T, is proportional to v2, using o,corresponding to 457 d m i n , i.e. 7.62
m/s as 0.06 ~ l m m ' ,then corresponding to 7.54 m/s,

Using Eq. (9.36),

H = 8206 = A

(0,
- 0,)v =

A (2.245 - 0.0587) 7.54

Table 9.1 1 gives areas of several sections from A to E but it does not help in
choosing the section. If we select A section, then
497.8
Number of belts = -= 5.67 say 6
87.74

Design of Power
'Transmission Devices

If we choose B section, then

497.8
Number of belts = -= 4.19 say 5
118.71
However, we can draw upon Figure 9.1 1 to decide the section. from this
figure for power of 8.2 kW and small sheave rpm of 1440 a B section belt
can be chosen.

. A B section belt is chosen whose actual length is 1113.5 mm which is

not available in Table 9.17 for B section. The closest standard actual length
is 1 1 10 mm for which nominal length is 1066.6 mm or 42 in. Five 42 B belts
are to be used.
Selection of Belt Using Tabulated ~ a . l u e s
We can go for this procedure as an alternative to calculation method. The
calculation of length, service factor, effective power and decision to use
B section will still hold.
1440
For velocity or speed ratio of -= 3 from Table 9.16 the small diameter
482
factor is 1.14.

:.

Effective diameter of small pulley = 1.14 x 100 = 14 mm

Belt speed = 7.54 x 60 = 452.4 rnlmin

From Table 9.1 5 for B section belt for effective small sheave diameter of
1 17 mm (closest to 114 mm) and belt speed of 488 d m i n (closest to
452.4 d m i n ) the power capacity of one belt h = 1723 W.
From Table 9.18 for nominal length of 1066 is less than 1803 mm, so that
length correction factor KL= 0.9.
From Eq. (9.19) angle of contact on small pulley

300 - loo = 2.23 rad = 128 deg

220
From Table 9.17, the angle of contact correction factor for 0 = 130" (closest
to 128').

Use Eq. (9.37),

Number of B section belts

So seven 42 B belts are to be used.

Apparently the method of calculation could not consider K Aand
~ KL.If we
use both these factors on second of (iv). The number of belts by calculation

4.19
= 5.4 say 6.
0.86 x 0.9

It is advisable to use tables of manufacturers in practice.

Belt and

SAQ 3

C h 3 i 11 Drives

(a)

What are standard V-belt section? Give areas of cross-sections.

(b)

Describe structure of V-belt. What are different types of V-belts.

(c)

Show how should the V-belt be placed in pulley. Why should the angle of
groove not be less than 18".

(d)

Why a small length of belt should have lower KL?

(e)

In which case you can have a flat surface driven pulley.

(0

A V-belt drive with a velocity ratio of 4 has belt running at a speed of

600 d m i n and transmits I 1 kW. The prime mover is 3 cylinder IC engine
which with speed of 750 rpm runs the pulley on the shaft of a belt conveyor.
The operation has to be uninterrupted for 16 hours everyday. Make driven
pulley with flat surface. The coefficient of creep is 3%, hence, find diameter
of larger pulley to maintain velocity ratio of 4. Take minimum permissible
centre distance.

9.20 SUMMARY
Belt drives of flat and V-types provide power transmission system between parallel
shafts. Although variants for shafts at right angle in case of flat belts and with variable
speed ratio in case of V-belts are available, their applications are much restricted and
drives with parallel shafts and constant velocity ratios only have been discussed. The belt
is subjected to direct tensile stress due to driving and centrifugal tension and additive
bending stress due to bending over circumference of the pulley. All these stresses
together should not exceed the pernlissible tensile stress, becomes the governing equation
for calculating the dimensions of the belt section. In case of V-belt the effective
coefficient of friction becomes three times the basic property resulting much higher
tension in tight side than in slack side. The latter is neglected in comparison with former
and thus, equation used for calculating cross-section of V-belts which are classified as
five groups of sections A , B, C, D and E with increasing size becomes function of
T, and T,.
The manufacturers provide data for their products. In case of flat belts it is in terms of
power per mni width while in case of V-belt it is on the basis of per belt. The
recommendations for modification of power transmitted and belt power capacity
depending upon conditions of operation through correction/service factors have been
incorporated. Such factors when chosen judiciously can help attain a realistic design.
The methods of calculation of length, angle of contact, centre distance and creep
phenomenon in belt have also been introduced. The structure of belts and materials have
been discussed.

9.21 KEY WORDS

Flat Belt

: A belt of rectangular cross-section that connects

flat surface pulleys.

V-belt

: A belt of trapezoidal cross-section that connects

V-grooved pulleys.
Pulley

: Made up of a hub that sits on shaft and drum or

solid web connecting hub with cylindrical surface.

Idler Pulley

: A pulley which does not transmit power.

Design of Power
Transmission Devices

Sheave

: Grooved pulley.

Creep

: Small movement of belt on pulley either in

forward or backward direction.

Service Factor

: Numerical factor that multiplies nominal power to

take care of types of driving and driven machines.

9.22 ANSWERS TO SAQs

SAQ 1
(d)

165 x n
0 = 165" = ----- = 2.88 rad . Use p = 0.3.
180

.'.

= 2.37 T2

Power,

H = 33.5

1000 = 33500 W = (q

- T2) v

. . . (i)

= 2.37 x 1037.8 = 2459.6 N

Area of the belt section = b h mm2 = 150 h x

m2

:. Belt weight per meter = w = 13750 x 150h x

N = 2.06h N

2 n N , Dl- I .5 2~ 300 23.56 ds

Belt velocity, v = -. - - ------- =
60
2
2
60
Check that permissible belt velocity from Table 9.1 is 25 m/s.

.:

wv2 2.06h x 23.56' = 16.6h

Centrifugal tension, T, = -=
g
9.81

= 21.9

+ 15.3

h =37.23 or 6.6 mm
Choose

h = 6.6 mm

. . . (ii)

Belt and

Chain Drives

(a)

D l = 200 mm, Dz
0=n-

=.-

800 mm, C = 2 m

4 -4
C

800 - 200
6
= n -- = 2.84 rad = 162.8 deg
2000
20

8 is angle of contact on smaller pulley. On larger pulley it is

n

+ D2 -

+ 0.3 = 3.44 rad = 197.2 deg

Sum of two angles = 162.8

C,,,

Making

+ 197.2 = 360 deg

or 2n rad

=1.5(DI+ D2)=1.5x1000=1500mm
0=n-

800 - 200
= 2.74 rad = 157.1 deg
1500

TI resulting in lower value of T I .

This will reduce T2

(d)

N I = 300 rpm, N2 = 500 rpm, Dl

= 600

mm + 6 mm, D2 = ( D + 6 ) mm

Half of the thickness of belt on all sides of pulley is added to diameter to

obtain effective diameter.

. 300

I=-=

5 00

D +6
0 2 = (1.03) (1 + S ) Di
606

D+6=353
or
(e)

D = 353 - 6 = 347 mm, the diameter of driven pulley.

Nothing is said about driving pulley diameter the same may be calculated
from Savrin's formula, Eq. (9.29)
I

H i s to be in kW, i.e. 8, Nl = 900 rpm

Select a standard diameter of 254 mm.

For i = 4 ,

900
N2 = -= 225 rpm
4

. . (i)

Assume a creep coefficient of 2%

i = 4 = ( 1+ s ) ~ = I . o0 ~2 Dl
254

. . . (ii)
v = n N, D,= n x 900 x 254 x lop3 = 718.2 d m i n

m/s
From Table 9.9 we can select rubber belt for 254 mm diameter driving

Belt speed

= 12

pulley in 3 , 4 or 5 plies. The belt speed of 71 8.2 m falls between 670 and
730 d m i n . We select power capacity for lower speed so that larger width
will be obtained. The power capacities for 3 , 4 and 5 plies are : 0.87,O. 102
and 0.108 kWImm, respectively.

Design of Power
Transmission Devices

The centre distance should be at least

1.5 (0,+ D2) = 1.5 (254 + 996) = 1875 mm
The higher limit for centre distance is
2

(4 + D2) = 2 (254 + 996) = 2500 mm

Hence, from Table 9.10 choose a standard value for centre distance
as 2450 m.
The difference in pulley diameters is 996 - 254 = 74 2 mm.
This difference is close to 762 in Table 9.10.
The angle of contact correction factor for pulley diameter difference of
763 mm and centre distance of 2.45 m is 0.92.
Allowing for wire hinges hook joint the q = 0.45.
So the width of belt for 3 , 4 and 5 plies are calculated.
For 3-ply belt,

b3 =

8
= 222.1 mm
0.92 x 0.45 x 0.087

For 4-ply belt,

b, =

8
= 189.45 rnrn
0.92 x 0.45 x 0.102

For 5-ply belt,

b -

8
0.92 x 0.45 x 0.108

= 178.92 mm

As standard practice,
3 plies are recommended upto width of 100 mm.
4 plies are recommended upto width of 300 mm.
5 plies are recommended upto width of 350 mm.
Hence, a 4-ply rubber belt of 189.45 mm say 190 mm is chosen.
SAQ 3

(f)

Belt speed, v = 600 m/min = x D, N, = x Dl

750

Table 9.16, small diameter factor for i > 3.004 = 1.14

:.

Effective diameter of driving pulley = 1.14 x 254.6 = 290.24 mm

' 4 = 4'x 254.6 = 988.73 mm

Eq. (9.33), D2 = 1+S
1.03
The centre distance can be as low as

h is the height of belt section.

For 3 cylinder IC engine driving a belt conveyor for 16 hr/day operation,
from Table 9.19, Ksis between 1.2 to 1.6. Choose Ks= 1.5.

:.

Effective power = 1.5 x 11 = 16.5 kW

From Figure 9.1 1, for effective power of 16.5 kW and small sheave rpm of
750, a C section belt is chosen. h = 14 mm (Figure 9.20).

Belt and
Chain Drives

From Eq. (9.20), belt length,

I
k

The nearest standard C section belt has a length of 3713.5 mm = 146.2 in

with nominal pitch length of 144 in.
From Table 9.1 8, since this length lies between 2667 and 4013 mm the
length correction factor is KL = 1.O.
Angle of.contact on small pulley

=n

- 1.I = 2.036 rad = 116.6 deg

From Table 9.17, the angle of contact correction factor can be mean of 0.82
and 0.78, i.e. KAC= 0.8 (for flat-V combination).
From Table 9.15 power rating of one C section belt for 292 mm effective
diameter of small pulley and belt speed of 61 0 d m i n . is

:.

..

Number of belts =

Ks H
K L KAc h

115x11
= 2.93 say 3
1.0 x 0.8 x 7.042

Thus, 3 belts 144 Care selected.

81

Toothed Gears
- Spur Gears

P"Wplane
in diagonal
$ In

a.In vertical

plane

holizontal plane

Figure 10.18 :Forces Acting on the Tooth of a Helical Gear

Example 10.1
A pinion of 100 mm pitch diameter running at 1500 rpm transmits 6.25 kW of
power to gear whose pitch diameter is 300 rnrn. For straight tooth the angle of
pressure is

(a)

20"

(b)

1O
142

Determine the tangential force, the transverse or bending force on the shaft and
torques on driving and driven shafts for (a) and (b).

Solution
Use Eq. (10.10) to calculate tangential force P, and use for pinion H = 6.25 kW,
d, = 100 mm = 0.1 m, N, = 1500 rpm.

. . . (i)
P is same on pinion and wheel.

:.

Torque on driving wheel, M,p

=Px

d p 795.8 x 0.1
= 39.8 Nm
-=
2
2

. . . (ii)

The radial force P, = P tan a

:.

For 20' pinion and gear, P, = 795.8 x tan 20

= 795.8 x 0.364 = 289.65 N

. . . (iii)

1O

For 14- pinion and gear, P, = 795.8 x tan 14.5

2

. . . (iv)
300
Torque on wheel = M,,x i = 39.8 x -= 119.4 Nm
100
'

The forces that are transmitted to shaft are P and P, (Figure 10.19).

I
Figure 10.19

. . . (v)

Design of Power
Transmission Devices

The gears are in contact at A. Hence, P acts at A . Two fictions forces each equal to
P are applied parallel to P at centre. One of them makes a couple causing torque

P?

--

while other acts on the shaft. Thus, two transverse forces P and P, are

L
,

transmitted to shafts in two perpendicular planes.

Example 10.2

A helical spur gear of pitch circle diameter 294 mm and 30"helix angle is required
to transmit 10.0kW of power at 500 rpm. The pressure angle measured in a
transverse plane (plane! perpendicular to axis) is 20'. Calculate
(a)

driving force,

(b)

radial force acting as bending force on shaft, and

(c) the axial force on the shaft.

Also calculate pressure angle'in a plane normal to the tooth.
Solution

H = 10k ~N =
, 500 rpm, P = 30,a, = 20,d = 294 mm
19100 x 10 - 19100 x 10
= 1299.3 N
500
x
0.294
Nd

(a)

Driving force, P

(b)

Radial force, P, =

(c)

Axial force, P, = 19100

Nd

19100 H '
tan a, = 1299.3x tan 20
N-d -

tan

= 1299.3x tan 30 = 750 N

For finding a, use Eq. (1 0.17)from which

19100 tan a, tan a,

Pr =-.- 1299.3Nd
tanP
cos 30

..

tan a, 473 = 1299.3-- 1500.3tan a,

cos 30

473
tan a, = -= 0.315
1500.3

Example 10.3

The force P, on a tooth acts on the centre line of its section at a height "a" from the
bottom section which is "a" wide. The face width of the tooth is "b".Assuming
tooth to be a cantilever, develop expression for stress at the bottom section of the
tooth.
Solution

The figure shows the force P,,

P = P, cos a , P, = P, sin a
The bottom section is a rectangle. NA of the section passes from middle of side a,
parallel to b. the force P causes bending moment.

m.

M
=-- -

0..
=
-r

6 4 . a . c o s a - 6Pn cosa

p, -- P, sin a
ab

(cornor)
=

ab

:. Net stress (tensile) = oh - a,

Pn sin
a
--

6 Pn cos a

Figure 10.20

Since the analysis is applicable to the gear tooth

-n

N d cos a

:. Net tensile stress on the section (bottom of tooth)

P, [6 cos a - sin a ]
a =ab
1
- 19100 H [6 - tan a ] N d cos a
ab

For pressure angle of 20"

0=

19100 H .
N d b x 0.94

( )-

11.44 x lo4 H
Ndb

This is maximum tensile stress induced in the bottom section of tooth. The
compression is much higher but it does not cause failure.

SAQ 1

(a)

Classify gears.

(b)

What is the profile of gear tooth? How do you generate this profile?

(c)
(d)

Define and show on sketch (i) arc of contact, (ii) path of contact.

(e)

What are different methods of gear manufacture?

(f)

Describe materials in which gears are made. Which material is commonly

used in why?

Describe interference in gears.

'Toothed Gears
- Spur Gears

Design of Power
'Transmission Devices

(g)

A 20" pressure angle straight tooth spur pinion rotates at 1440 rpm. It has a
pitch circle diameter of 200 mm and meshes with the gear which rotates at
half the rpm.
Calculate torque on driving and driven shafts and forces on these shafts if
the power transmitted is 22 kW.

(h)

A 30" helical gear transmits 7.5 kW to a conveyor. The gear carries 64 teeth
whose transverse module is 4.6 mm. Calculate normal module, imaginary
number of teeth and three components of forces which are transmitted to the
shaft which rotates at 1000 rpm. Show them on the sketch. Assume that
pressure angle in transverse plane is 20".

10.12 DESIGN OF GEARS

Designing is deciding dimensions of gear. The defining dimensions are :
(a)

the pitch circle diameter,

(b)

face width or the length of the tooth,

(c)

the depth of the tooth, and

(d)

number of teeth.

The pitch circle diameter (6)and number of teeth (Z) are related through module (m)
which is a length measured in mm or m, hence number of teeth are often replaced by
module. Interestingly it can be noted that a single gear has nothing to do in a machine.
The gear exists in pair (consisting of a set of pinion and gear) hence the centre distance in
a pair (A) may also be a dimension to determine. Note that
Centre distance = A =

d p + dw
2

N
d
But the velocity ratio = i = 2= 2
Nw d,

and
Thus, two pitch circle diameters are correlated with single dimension of centre distance.
The input for design will be :
(a)

the power to be transmitted (H in kW),

(b)

the rpm of driving shaft or pinion (N,),

(c)

the rpm of driven shaft are gear (N,) or the velocity ratio i = 2= 3 ,

w:

Drsigu uf Power

Transmission Devices

where K,

= Fatigue

strength reduction factor due to surface finish, size effect btress

concentration, reliability of material and its properties. The stress
concentration is most important, and

n = Factor of safety.
The permissible compressive stress to be used in Eq. (10.32) will be calculated similarly.
Remember that the factor K, will be almost unity in this case because there is no stress
concentration on the surface so that
per

or

Ocper

- a0 1.4 a, - 0.7 a,,

_-_-n
n
n
- a',
-1.43 n

. . . (10.38)

Table 10.5 describes K, and n.

Table 10.5 : Fatigue Strength Reduction Factor and Factor of Safety

to be Used for Gears against Wand Bending
Material
Steel

Gear Blank
Heat Treatment
Normalised and hardened
Forge
Uniformly hardened
'surface hardened
Normalised and hardened
Cast
No treatment
No treatment

Cast Iron

Kt

1.8
2.0

1.O
1.8-2.0
1.8-2.0
1.5
2.0
2.5

1.2

1.8
2.0
1.2

If, however, the gear transmits power in both direction then a, = a, and
Ob =-

0,

2Ke n
l

and

acper

- acu
-2n

Example 10.4

A pair of gear made in medium carbon forged steel is required to transmit 25 kW

with pinion moving at 950 rpm and velocity ratio being 2.807. The sum of number
of teeth on pinion and gear $hall be 99. The gears are to be surface hardened to
hardness of 50 RC. Design the pinion and gear assuming that face width is
25 times module of the gear for medium power. Design against bending and check
for surface failure. For medium carbon steel hardened on surface take a, or
a,, = 26 RC.
Solution
Number of Teeth

5= 2.807, Z,,, + Zp = 99
ZP

+ Zp = 99

..

2.807 Zp

..

z,

=-- 99

and

Z,

= 73

3.807

- 26

a, = a, = 26 x 50 = 1300 MPa
For forged steel surface hardened from Table 10.4.

K, = 1.2 and n = 1.9

Gh

G~

1.43 K e n

Toothed (;cars
- Spur Gears

1300
= 399 MPa
1.43 x 1.2 x .I9

Use Eq. (10.36) with K = 1.5, H = 25 kW, and for pinion N,, = 950 rpm, Z,?= 26,
o h = 399 x l 0 9 a . Y is calculated for 26 teeth of pinion from Eq. (10.34),

Thus, from Eq. (10.36)

1

r-

7-

The nearest higher module from Table 10.3 is 2.25 inm

. . . (i)

..

rn = 2.25 nim

..

d, = m Zp = 2.25 x 26 = 58.3 mm

. . . (ii)

d,

. . . (iii)
. . . (iv)

=m

Z,

= 2.25 x

73 = 164.25 mm

b = m w,,, = 2.25 x 25 = 56.25 nim

Zp = 26 , Z , = 73

. . . (v)

Eqs. (i) to (v) are designed values for pinion and gear.
Let us check if the design is safe under wear (or compressive stress). We will
calculate o,,, froin Eq. (10.28). But we will first establish permissible compressive
stress from Eq. (1 0.38)
- ocz, Ocper - -

1.43n

From Eq. (1 0.38)

For medium power,

27 RC 350 = 497 MPa = 497 x lo6 Pa

1.43 x 1.9 !.43 x 1.9

Desig~lof Power
Transmission Devices

o,.> o,,, hence design is not safe against wear. Thus, designing against bending
normally gives dimensions which are not safe against wear.
We can increase module from 2.25 mm to 3.00 mm so that b = 3 x 25 = 75 mm,
d,,=3 x 2 6 = 7 8 m m , d M , = 3x 73 =219mm.

= 715

MPa

which is again greater than the permissible compressive stress of 497 MPa.
As a next step we can further increase the value of module to say 4. But as an
alternative we use the Eq. (10.3 I) and calculate A and other dimension and m.

d
99.82
-m = 2= 3.84 mm
Z~
26

Standard value 4.0 mm

We, thus, see that a design based bending stress is not safe against wear, if the
compressive strength and tensile strength are calculated from same formula.
The design dimensions in this problem are yet to be calculated based upon
m = 4.0 mm. Remember it is m which we have finally standardised.
dl, = m Zp = 4 x 2 6 = 104 mm, d, = 4 x 7 3 = 2 9 2 m m

These five dimensions are required when we design a gear. We should like to give
a little consideration to the use of Eq. (10.3 1) and Eq. (10.36). In these equations
we have to assume factor t y ~or factor \~r,,,. Both these factors define face width. It
means that we decide about b in advance either as a multiple of centre distance, A
or a multiple of module, m. Larger values of these factors are going to result in
smaller A hence in smaller d, and d,. A judicious choice is a must which will
depend upon initial data. We will further discus with Kc.

Toothed Gears

SAQ 2

- Spur Gears

(a)

State what compressive stress is induced in two curved surfaces when they
are pressed against each other. Explain its dependence on modulii of
elasticity of materials of two surfaces and on their radii of curvature.

(b)

State Buckingham and Lewis equations for design of gear.

(c)

The velocity ratio in a single stage gear reduces is 2.571 and sum of teeth on
pinion and gear is 200. Find Z, and Z,. If gear module is 3.00 mm find
centre distance and pitch circle diameters of pinion and gear.

(d)

Design a p$ir of gears to transmit 15 kW with a velocity ratio of 2.094 and

total number of teeth on pinion and gear being 99. Both pinion and gear are
made in medium carbon steel but steel of pinion has an ultimate tensile
strength of 2228 MPa whereas steel of gear has an ultimate tensile strength
of 1556 MPa. The width of the gears may be taken as 15 times module. The
pinion rotates at 500 rpnl. Use Lewis formula with a design load factor
K = 1.5

10.15 SUMMARY
Spur gears on parallel shafts with straight teeth (parallel to axis of shaft) and helical teeth
(inclined to shaft axes) are used commonly. The former works at lower speed. The gears
are made in steel in general but other materials can be used in special cases. The gear
teeth have involute profile commonly and pressure angle of 20". While transmitting
power teeth of mating gears are pressed together whereby surfaces of both teeth are
subjected to compressive force. The surface stress of compressive type is thus induced.
Individually a tooth is bent by the same force making tooth a cantilever and causing
bending stress at the bottom section of the tooth. Since the load on tooth varies from zero
to maximum and then to zero in each revolution, the gear is subjected to fatigue stress
cycle and hence permissible stress is calculated accordingly. Both surface stress and
bending stress are used to design gears.

10.16 KEY WORDS

Spur Gears

Gears on parallel shafts.

Straight Tooth Gears

Gears with teeth parallel to shaft axis.

Helical Gear

Gears with teeth inclined to shaA axis.

Speed Ratio

RPM of pinion to RPM of gear.

Rack

Gear with infinite pitch circle diameter.

Module

Ratio ofpcd to number of teeth.

Involute Profile

The gear tooth profile corresponds to involute

curve.

Cycloidal Gear

The tooth profile is cycloid.

Interference

The top of addendum of gear cuts into bottom

region of dedendum of pinion.

Gear Manufacture

The gears are made by from cutting or teeth

generation.

Gear Failure

The tooth fails to perform.

Tooth Fracture

The tooth breaks at bottom section.

Dcsig~lof Poatrr
Transmission Devices

Tooth Wear

: The gradual removal of niaterial from surface of

tooth.

Pitting

: Creation of tiny pits on tooth surface.

Surface Stress

: Compressed surfaces are subjected to compressive

stress on surface.

Beam Strength

: The bending stress in tooth.

10.17 ANSERS TO SAQs

SAQ 1
(g)

d,,=200mm,a=20, N,= 1440rpm,N,,=720rpm, H = 2 2 kW

Torque on driving shaft

Torque on driven shaft

MI=iM,

..

M,! = 2 x 146 = 292 Nm

The forces on shafts P and Pr

2
Pr = P tan a
= 1460 x tan 20 = 1460 x 0.364

Pr = 531.4 N
P and Pr will act on shafts in perpendicular planes (Figure 10.23)

Driven Shaft
Figure 10.23

(h)

Z = 64, t11, = 4.6 mm, p = 30'

Toothed Gears
- Spur Gears

m, = normal module = m, cos p

= 4.6

cos 30'

= 3.984,

say 4 mm

Virtual number of teeth Z, = --

COS~

64
C O S ~300

= 98.53

PCD = d = m, Z = 4.6 x 64 = 294.4 mm

Torque on gear, MI

= -=

7.5 x 1000
= 71.6 Nm
2n x 1000

71.6 71.6 x 1 O'

Driving force, P = -=
d
294.4

= 486.4

From Eq. (10.17)

Pr =

P tan a, - 486.4 tan a, - 561.65 tan a,

cos p
cos 30'

From Eq. (10.19)

Pr = P tan a, = 486.4 tan 20'

= 177N

1 1 1

tan a, = -= 0.3 152

56 1.65

Axial force on shaft Po = P tan

p = 486.4 tan 30'

Figure 10.24

PA CB

: Horizontal

OADE

: vertical

OA

: Tangent to gear pitch circle

OE

: Radial to gear

OB

: Parallel to shaft

OF

: Direction of resultant reaction between teeth

SAQ 2

(c)

i=2.571,Zp+Zw=200,Zw=iZp

..

Z, (1 + i) = 200

. . . (i)

Design of Power
l'ransmission Devices

d w = m Z,,. = 3 x 144= 432 mm

. . . (ii)

. . . (iii)
(d)

Z,

+ Zw = 99

Z,, = 67

1.23 3.38
+-~0.154
32
1024

Yp =0.154 --

- 0.038 + 0.0033 =0.1193

Assuming both pinion and gears are made in forged steel, and surface
hardened to respective strengths of 2228 MPa and 1556 MPa. So K, = 1.2
and n = 2 for both.

.:

For pinion o,,=

1.4 x o, - 1.4 x 2228 = 650 MPa

Ken
1 . 2 ~ 2 ~ 2

:.

For gear ob =

1556 = 454 MPa

1.2 x 2

Since

y~ O

~ W
< yp Ohp

Hence, design will be based on gear.

Use Lewis equation

= 0.23

mm

Nearest standard module is 0.3 mm

d , = m Z p = 0.3 x 32 = 9.6 mm

Design of Power
Transmission Devices

peripheral velocity. Then find v, and corresponding value of Kc fi-om Table 1 1.3 and
value of Kd from Tables 11.1 or 1 1.2, respectively for straight tooth and helical spur
gears. Thereafter the product of Kc and Kd is checked to be less than 1.5 or equal to 1.5. If
this product turns out to be greater than 1.5 then module is increased to next step and
calculations redone to find the product of Kc and Kd. The procedure may be repeated until
we obtain K l 1.5.
The AGMA procedure of design starts from assumption of suitable value of module.
Such values can be selected from experience. Then bending stress is calculated with Kd
alone. The factor Kc is taken care of by limiting face width as
9 . 4 m < b < 15.7m
The calculated bending stress must be less than permissible stress of Eq. (1 1.13). This
takes care of fatigue loading. If calculated stress comes out to be greater than permissible
bending stress then the value of module is increased and calculation is repeated to find
fresh value of stress. If o < 06 then design is checked for surface stress.
Example 11.1
A 20 tooth pinion is required to transmit 20 kW of power to a 100 tooth gear. The
pinion and gear are held in a rigid housing with bearings arranged symmetrically
near them. The pinion is driven by an electric motor through a coupling at
950 rpm. Choose a steel which can be surface hardened to 350 BHN and assume
width to centre distance ratio of 0.6 and a factor of safety of 1.6 for surface stress.
Design straight tooth spur gear and helical gears of 30" helix assuming total design
load factor of 1.5 for straight tooth gear and 1.4 for helical gear. Also assume
pressure angle of 20" of straight tooth spur gear and in the plane normal to teeth for
helical gear.
Solution
Straight Tooth Spur Gear
Use centre distance formula

100
Substitute i = -= 5, K = 1.5, H = 20 kW, N j = 950 rpm,
20

Using nearest standard value m, = 3.5 mm = 3.5

b, = 0.6 Al = 0.6 x 210 = 126 mm

= 0.6

. . . (ii)
(iii)

'

Helical, Bevel and

Worm Gears

Clieckfbt. Bellding Stress

0.7 o,
, o, = 3.3 BHN

K, x n

= 3.3 x 350 = 1155 MPa

For calculating bending stress use

1.23
Y, =0.154--+20

3.38
202

o3 Pa = 62.2

= 62 193 x 1

for pinion

MPa

which is much smaller than o h = 1 155 MPa.

Helical Gear
Use Eq. (1 1.8) for centre distance

--I

Use K = 1.4, and all other values same as in case of straight tooth spur gear
1

..

m, =

2A2 cos P
Z, (1 + i)
2 x 174.2 x cos 30
= 2.9 x 0.866 = 2.51 1 mm
20 (1 + 5 )

Next higher value of m, is chosen as 2.75 mm or 2.75 x 1 o

- m~

. . . (iv)

. . . (v)

Dcsigtl of Power
Transmission Devices

. . . (vi)

or

Y2=0.1176

The bending stress in tooth is calculated from Eq. (1 1.I 1)

or

o=45x10"a

or 45MPa

a is much less than a

b=

1155 MPa.

We will compare the two solutions for H = 20 kW.

Dimensions of straight tooth and helical gear for transmitting same power,
same material and hardness.

Helical
Note all dimensions for helical gear are smaller than corresponding values
for straight tooth spur gear. The working bending stress is also less.

SAQ 1
(a)

Show forces acting on a tooth of helical spur gear and write their
magnitudes in terms of power transmitted (kW).
Explain factors Kc and Kd.
Define normal and transverse modules and give relation between them.
A closed helical gear drive has been designed to transmit 7 kW of power.
Following are details of gears :

Material of pinion and gear - carbon steel heat treated to a,

RPM of pinion, N,

= 620 MPa

= 950

Face width of pinion and gear, b = 70 mm

Number of teeth, Z,

= 35, Z, =

1 12

Normal module, m,, = 3 mm

Angle of helix, /3 = 16" 30'
Gears are normalised.
Calculate working stresses on surface and in bending and check if design is
safe.

dPnl
2, ms
d will be replaced by dpe = ----COSW,
cosyl,

b will be replaced by m, W,

where W, is a factor which varies between 8 and 10.

Hence,

oh =

19100 K H j Z c o s W p

n cos 20 i Np 2, m: W, Y

It can be shown that cos v p =

,/z1Hence,

The permissible stress obis in Pa and in, in m. The form factor, Y, is obtained
corresponding to Z,.

Example 11.2
An open bevel gear drive is required to transmit 3.5 kW of power. The pinion
having 18 teeth and made in steel rotates at 200 rpm. The gear made in C.1 rotates
I
at - of the speed of pinion. The ultimate tensile strengths of pinion and gear
4
materials are respectively 480 MPa and 230 MPa. Assume total design load factor
K = 1.5, W L = 4 and W, = 8. Calculate mean pitch diameters, pitch diameters, face
width, mean module and maximum module of the pinion and gear. Also calculate
the driving force, radial force and axial force on the pinion and gear.
Solution

For open drive the design will be based on bending strength. Eq. (1 1.30) will, thus
be used. However, this equation will be applied to either pinion or gear, depending
upon which one is weaker. The comparative strength will be determined by
comparing the product Y oband the one for which this product is smaller will be
regarded as weaker.
I

The permissible stresses are calculated from

Steel

0.7 o,
ob =n Ke

and

C.1- ob =

1.4 x 0.4 o,
n Ke

From Table 10.15, for uniformly hardened steel

n = 1.8, K,= 1.2
From the same table for C.1 which is untreated,
n

= 2.5,

K,

..

o, (steel) =

and

ob ((2.1) =

1.2
0.7 x 480
= 155.6 MPa
1.8 x 1.2

1.4 x 0.4 x 230 = 43 Mpa

2.5 x 1.2

Helical, Bevel and

Worm G e a r s

Design of Power
Transmission Devices

1.23 3.38
Tooth from factor, Y = 0.154 - -+ -

For pinion,

Y, =0.154

z2

3.38
--1.23 = 0.096
+

18

1 8 ~

For C.1,

..

Yp crb (steel) = 0.096 x 155.6 = 14.9

Yw ob (C.1) = 0.1376 x 43 = 6

Hence, design will be based on wheel. Use Eq. (1 1.3)

-I

The maximum module at the bigger end of the tooth corresponds to pitch diameter.
Use Eq. (11.19)

..

m,,

5.8
0.875

= -= 6.63 mm

. . . (i)

The standard module next higher than 6.68 is 7.0 mm.

:.

Pitch circle diatneter, dw= 7 x 72 = 504 mm

Pinion pitch circle diameter, d,,

Since,

=7 x

18 = 126 mm

. . . (ii)
. . . (iii)

i=tanyw=4

y w= tan,' = 76'

Cone distance from Eq. (1 1.22)

L =L
2

= 259.75 mm

L
259 75
Face width b = -= -= 65 mm
4
WL

. . . (iv)

. . . (v)

The mean diameters of pinion and gear from Eqs. (1 1.18) and (1 1.19)

. . . (vi)
. . . (vii)

Helical, Bevel and

Worm Gears

The driving force fro111Eq. (1 1.3)

e v

19100 H 19100x 3.5 = 3032 N

N , d,,,, 50 x 44 1 x lo-'

evr= P,,, 'tan a sin y~,,

. . . (viii)

(Eq. (1 1.25))

= 3032 x tan 20 x sin 76

= 3032 x 0.364 x 0.97 = 1070.5 N

P,,,= P,,, tan a cos y~,,

(Eq. (1 1.24))

= 3032 x 0.364 x 0.242 = 267 N

Note

. . . (ix)

pp = p,.,ppr = pWO,ppo= pWr

. . . (x)
. . . (xi)

(a)

Show forces acting on bevel gear.

(b)

On a sketch show face width, cone distance, pitch radius and mean pitch
radius. Give relationships between mean pitch diameter and pitch diameter,
mean module and maximum module.

(c)

In a closed bevel gear drive pinion with 29 teeth rotates at 1000 rpm and
transmits 25 kW of power to gear of I00 teeth. Both pinion and gear are
made in medium carbon steel which is normalised and hardened to
350 BHN. The design load factor is 1.5 for gears of pressure angle of 20".
~ J=
L 5. Determine

(i)

the cone distance L,

(ii)

face width, b,

(iii)

mean pitch diameters, and

(iv)

module of teeth.

11.10 WORM AND WORM GEARS

Transmission of power and motion between two intersecting shafts is a common
occurrence in industry. If these shafts lie in the same plane, then bevel gears provide the
best solution. However, such shafts may lie in two parallel planes and if angle between
them is 90" then they may be connected with worm and worm wheel.
Worm and worm wheel drive are used between shafts and cross in the space at right
angle and offer many advantages.
The worm and worm wheel drives are quiet in operation. Very high speed ratios can be
transmitted by these drives while occupying very small volume. Worm and worm gear
drives have smallest weight and are costlier than only V-belt and flat belt drives. The
worm gear drives can have large velocity ratios often varying between 5 and 500.
However, in most mechanical engineering applications where powei transmission is

I>esigo uf Power

Example 11.3

'Transmission Devices

An 80 mm pitch diameter worm rotating at 950 rpm transmits 4.5 kW of power.

The worm is supported in bearings which are 350 mm apart. Calculate maximum
bending moment, the bending stress and the shearing stress in the worm shaft.
Helix angle = 7", coefficient of friction between worm and gear = 0.078. The
pressure angle in the axial section, a, = 20".
Solution

H = 4.5 kW, NI = 950 rpm, d = 80 mm, a = 7", a, = 20, p = 0.078

tan

4 = 0.078, 4 = tan-'

0.078 = 4.46'

. . . (i)

From Eq. (1 1.49,

tan a, = cos a . tan a, = cos 7'
or

. tan 20'

tan a, = 0.9925 x 0.364 = 0.3612, a, = 19.86'

tan ( a

+ 4) = tan (7 + 4.46) = 0.203

. . . (ii)
. . . (iii)

The axial force on worn,

P

19100 H
N p d tan ( a

+ 4)

from Eq. (1 1.41)

Use NI = 950 rpm, d = 80 mm, H = 4.5 kW, tan ( a + 4) = 0.203

. . . (iv)
The driving force on worm is given by Eq. (1 1.43)
tan a
19100 H
= N, d
tan ( a + 4)

. . . (v)

= P tan a =5571 tan 7 =684 N

Radial force on worm shaft,

R=

19100 H
N, d

tan a,
tan ( a + 4)

from Eq. (1 1.44)

= P tan a, = 5571 tan 20 = 2027 N

. . . (vi)

P, Q and R are three faces acting upon the shaft of the worm in three
perpendicular directions. Figure 11.1 1 shows these forces schematically on shaft
supported in bearings 350 mm apart. P (horizontal) and R (vertical) act in vertical
plane passing through the axis of the worm while Q acts in horizontal plane. P and
d
Q act on the shaft at a distance of - form the axis. Thus, P will &use a bending
2
d
moment P - on shaft in vertical plane and an axial force. Q will cause a torque
2
d
and a transverse force Q on the shaft.

Q,

The reader must calculate the reactions on right and left hand supports by taking
moments about left and right hand supports respectively and ascertain the values
shown in Figure 11.11.

:.

Rl P d
Maximum BM (at mid section) in vertical plane, M y = - + 4
4

Helical, Bevel and

Worm Gears

= (177.4

+ 111.4) 10'

= 288.8 x 10' Nmm

. . . (vii)

Q1
Maximum BM (at mid section) in horizontal plane, M H = 4
. . (viii)
The torque on the worm shaft,

. . . (ix)
The resultant BM at mid section,

or

= \/288.g2

+ 59.g2 x lo3 = 295 x lo3 Nmm

Vertical Plane

. . . (x)

Horizontal Plane

Figure 11.11 :Forces on Shaft of Worm Shown Schematically

The area that resists bending stress due to M and shearing stress due to M,is the
core section of the worm whose diameter is the dedendum diameter of worm. This
is found from second of Eq. (1 1.37),
tan a = -ZI
4
From Eq. (1 1.36) in which a = 7' and zl

..

1
tan 7' = 0.123 = 4

so that

q = 8.144

d
m =4

:.

d d = worm

Core area,

= 1.

from Eq. (1 1.35)

dedendum diameter = d - 2.4 m = 80 - 23.6 = 56.4 mm

...

(xi)

= 2
A, = dd = 7 (56.4)2 = 2498.32 mm2
4

P
5571
Compressive stress, a, = - =
= 2.23 ~ / m m ~
A,
2498.32

. . . (xii)

Design of Power
Transmission Devices

3 2 M 32x295x103
Bending stress, ob = -= 16.75 N/mm2
x d:
x (56.41~
Shearing stress,

T=

. . . (xiii)

16M
1 6 x 1 3 . 7 x 1 0 ' = ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
=
(xiv)
nd
x (56.4)3

o(,and o, are direct stresses, hence, they may be added. The tensile stress
The state of stress with tensile stress is shown in Figure 1 1.12.

Figure 11.12

11.13 DESIGNING OF WORM WHEEL

The modes of failure discussed in respect of gears are applicable to worm and worm
wheel also. However, since sliding between worm andwheel occurs the possibility of
seizure is much higher in this case. Particularly if speed is high the oil tends to be
squeezed out from contact and seizure may occur. To reduce sliding friction the worm
wheels are often made in softer material like bronze while the worm is made in steel.
Softer material has greater tendency to stick to the harder material. Good finish of worm
and the combination of materials to have lowest coefficient of friction are used to reduce
seizure occurrence. As in other toothed gears varying load causes pitting of worm wheel
teeth surfaces and if seizure is avoided then pitting will finally cause the failure of gear.
The wear of both worni and worm wheel is a life long process particularly if the drive is
often stopped and started. The lubricating oil must be kept cleaned because dirty oil
causes wear.
Seizure is difficult to analyse and hence no formula is developed for design based on
seizure. The compressive surface stress is calculated form Hertz equation. The worm is
assumed to be made in steel for which El = 2.1 x lo5 N/mm2 and worm wheel is made
in bronze for which E2 = 0.9 x 10' N/mm2 so that rationalised modulus of elasticity

E = 1.26 x 10' ~ / m m We
~ . will not go into details of developing equation for surface
stress, instead we will directly use the equations for surface stress and bending stress.
These equations are described below.

The design equation is

a, is in MPa.

Design of Power
Transmission Devices

Table 11.4 :Permissible Surface Stress (a,) and Bending Stress (ab)
Material

Condition

all

(MPa)

1
Tin Bronze

Tin Free
Bronze
Cast Iron

a, with Worm
Surface Hardness

I
Loam cast
Chill cast
Centrifugal cast

Permissible Stress a, and ab

(MPa)

Rc<45
180
250
240

145
200
230

Loam cast
Chill cast

400
1 5 0 0 1

Loam cast

120
150
180

Rc>45
145
243
278

1 - 1

Reversed
Bending
stress, a b *
36
52
57

80
88

26
30
34

1
-

Tabulated value is for reversed bending. In case of worm and worm wheel drive
the stress is pulsating. Hence, tabulated values are multiplied by 1.3, 1.2 and
1.4, respectively for 1 , 2 and 3.

Example 1 1.4
A worm and worm wheel drive is required to transmit 4.5 kW of power with

velocity ratio of 35. 'The driving shaft rotates at 950 rpm. The worm is made in
medium carbon steel which is heat treated to 50 R,. The wheel rim is made in tin
bronze with o,, = 250 MPa. Design worm wheel for zl = 1.

Solution

From Table 1 1.4, o, = 250 MPa is for tin bronze chill cast for which o, is read as
243 MPa for worm hardness of 50 R, > 45 R,. Also obfor reversed bending is read
as 52 MPa which will be 1.3 x 52 = 67.6 MP for pulsating bending.
Let us design worm gear for surface strength by using Eq. (1 1.47). We substitute
o, = 243 MPa, Hz= 4.5 kW, Z2= 35, K = 1.5, N2 = 27.143. Note that o is in MPa
in Eq. (1 1.47). Let us choose q = 10 (it can be chosen between 8 and 13).

Using Eq. (1 1.39)

m=-

2A = 2 x 2 0 2 = 8.97 say 9
q + Z 2 10+35

Hence, A is modified as

. . (i)

Then from Eq. (1 1.35),

. . . (ii)
The pitch diameter of wheel from

Helix angle a = tan-'

from Eq. (1 1.36)

1
a = tan-' - = 5.71'
10

. . . (iv)

For checking bending stress first calculate Y

. . . (iv)
or

ob = 59.4 MPa

The permissible bending stress is 67.6 MPa. Hence, the gear is safe.
I

SAQ 3

(a)

Discuss Kcand Kdfor worm and worm gear combination.

(b)

What materials would you recommend for worm and worm wheel?

(c)

Solve Example 1 1.2 of Section 1.8 for zl = 2 and q = 10, zl = 2 and q = 8.

(d)

A worm and worm wheel drive with a velocity ratio of 25 transmits 10 kW

of power. The worm rotates at 1250 rpm. The worm wheel is made in tin
bronze, cast centrifugally to have following properties. o,= 3000 MPa,
06 = 81 MPa, o,= 279 MPa. Assume double start worm, and number of
module in worm pitch diameter, q = 10. Apply a factor of safety of 1.7 on
surface strength. Calculate centre distance, A , axial module, m, worm pitch
diameter, d, worm wheel pitch diameter, D and check if design is safe in
bending.

tlelical, Revel and

Worm Gears

Design of Power
Transmission Devices

11.14 SUMMARY
Helical, bevel and worm gears have been considered for designing. Helical gear design IT
extended from previous unit. However, design load factor which is the product of load
concentration factor and dynamic load factor has been explained in detail. It is easier to
assume K = 1.5 at the initial stage and calculate dimensions of gear and then calculate
peripheral velocity and find Kc and Kd. The design will be acceptable if Kc x Kd is less
than 1.5. The bevel gear design formulae, like those for straight tooth and helical spur
gears have also been developed for surface strength (compressive) and against bending.
The permissible bending stress is consideration, fatigue strength reduction factor for
stress concentration and a factor of safety which depends upon material and heat
treatment. These factors have been tabulated. The ultimate surface strength which is
compressive is related to surface hardness like the ultimate tensile strength. A factor of
safety of 1.7 should be applied on surface strength calculated from hardness.
The geometrical difference between worm and worm wheel and other gears has been
discussed. The various loads that act upon worm and worm wheel have been calculated.
The worn1 is designed as shaft of diameter which is core diameter, dd. On the shaft the '
direct, bending and shearing stresses are considered. The worm gear is designed as other
gears.
The design of gear is made such that it is safe both under surface strength and against
bending. The load on gears is varying hence fatigue considerations are must. We can
calculate centre distance and then module from consideration of surface strength anld then
check if gear is safe under bending. Or we can calculate module from consideratiorl of
bending stress, then centre distance and check for surface stress. American Gear
Manufacturer's Association (AGMA) recommends to assume module and check against
both surface and bending strengths.

11.15 KEY WORDS

: Bevel gears are used to connect two intersecting

Bevel Gears

shafts with any given speed ratio.

Pitch Cone

: The pitch surface of a bevel gear in a gear pair is

called pitch cone.

Back Cone

: It is an imaginary cone the elements of which are

perpendicular to the elements of the pit.ch cone at
the larger end of the tooth.

Length of the Worm

: The length of the toothed part of the worm

measured parallel to the axis on the reference
cylinder.

Lead Angle

: Lead angle is the angle between a tangent to the

pitch helix and the plane of rotation of the worm.

11.16 ANSWERS TO SAQs

SAQ 1
(d)

From Eq. (1 1.10)

3
A =- m, Z p + ,Zw . 3 5 + 1 1 2 = 230 mm
cos p '
2
cos '
6 30'
2

. . . (i)

Peripheral speed v

2n N p

Helical, Bevel and

Worm Gears

dp

-60

'

. . . (iii)

Assume that bearings are arranged symmetrically near gears. Then from
Table 11.3 Kc for vP= 0.64 is found by interpolation between vP= 0.6 and

w,,= 0.8.
. . . (iv)
Using o,.= 3.3 BHN MPa

BHN

620
3.3

= -= 187.8

which is less than 350.

From Table 11.2 for BHN < 350 and v between 3 and 8 m/s

K(,= 1.0

...

. . . (v)

K = Kc x Kd = 1.036

Use Eq. (1 1.7),

in which i = 32, H = 7 kW, K

omax = 28.4 x

1.036, Np= 950, A = 230 x

'

I!

lo6 ['4.2'3
x"036 " " lo9Pa = 197.6 MPa . . . (vi)
950 x 3.2 x (230)~x 0.3

The surface strength = 2.6 BHN = 2.6 x 187.7 = 488.28 MPa working
surface stress in less than surface strength giving a factor of safety

. . (vii)
From Eq. ( I 1.1 1) bending stress in tooth

Design of Power

Transmission Devices

o = 4790.3

1.036 x 7
950 x 39.7 x 23.3 x (0.003)'

x-

I pa
0.125

= 1 1552969.72 Pa = 1 I .5 MPa

Permissible bending stress,

oh =

0.7 x o, =
0.7 620 = 160.7 MPa
Ken
1.8x1.5

(K,

1.8 and n = 1.5 found from Table 10.15)

:.

160.7
Factor of safety in bending = -= 14
11.5

Design is safe.
SAQ 2

(c)

Ultimate tensile strength,

o,, = 3.3 BHN = 3.3 x 350 = 1155 MPa
Surface strength,
o,,, = 2.6 BHN = 2.6 x 350 = 910 MPa
Permissible bending stress,

From Table 10.15 for forged, normalised arid hardened steel n = 1.5,
K, = 1.8.

Permissible surface strength,

= =
1.67

545 MPa

Velocity ratio of the drive

i=tanvw=5

:.

. . . (i)

y ~ , = t a n - ' 5 = 7 8 . 7 ~ , y ~ , 90-78.7=11.3
,

We propose to design gears on surface strength and check its safety in

bending. Hence, use Eq. (1 1.30)

:.

'[

L = 10.9 x lo4 x 5 (25 + I)?

1.5 x 25
5 x 1000 (4.5)' (54q2 x 1 0 ' ~

= 278 x lo4 x lo-' [0.01 I] = 0.3058 m or 305.8

dm

. . . (ii)

The pitch diameter of wheel and cone distance are related (Figure 1 1.3)
d
2

2= L

sin W , = 305.8 sin 78.7' = 300

d,, = 600 mm

or

The maximum module or module at the bigger end is calculated from

- d,
mrnax

- 600
- --= 6.00

z,,

100

. . . (iii)

mm

which is standard.
d , = nz ,, Z p = 6.00 x 20 = 120 mm

:.

d,,,

= d,

d,,,, = d

i I:
[ ]

. . . (iv)
. . . (v)

1 - - = 6.00 1 - - = 540 mm
O f ,

I--

=I20 I--

Of::

. . . (vi)

=108mm

. . . (vii)
The design is checked against bending stress through

Y for 20 teeth,

= 67.3 x

lo6 Pa or 67.3 MPa

oh is less than 298 MPa, hence gear is safe in bending.

SAQ 3

(b)

Follow Example 1 1.2 of Section 1.8 and find following

d(mm) D(mm)

ub(MPa)

ZI

m (mm)

A(mm)

10

6.0

240

60

420

103.3

6.5

253.5

32

455

101.8

Note that in both cases bending stress is greater than permissible value of
67.2 MPa. Hence, these designs are not safe. You may increase m to say
7.0 mm and recalculate oh.If ohis safe then calculate other dimensions.

tlelical, Bevel and

Worm Gears

Design ol' Power

Transmissio~~
Devices

(d)

1250
Z2=izl=25x2=50,q=10,K=1.5,N2=-=50,H2=10kW
25
(3,

=-278 = 163.5 MPa

1.7

Use Eq. (1 1.47)

2A
2x294
Axial module, m = -= -- 9.8 mm say 10 mm
q + Z 2 10+50
Hence,

...

A = m (9 + 22) - 10 (10 + 50) = 300 mm

. . . (ii)

First check for bending using Eq. (1 1.49)

Ob =

7410 x 1.5 x 10
Pa
10 x 50 x (0.01)~50 x 0.131

= 34

MPa

which is less than permissible bending stress of 8 1 MPa. Hence, safe.

d =rnq=lOxl0=100mm

D = 2 A - d = 2 x 300- 100 = 500 mm

. . . (iii)
. . . (iv)

FURTHER READING
Vallence and Doughtie (1943), Design of Machine Members, McGraw-Hill Company.
Movnin and Goldziker (1966), Machine Design, Mir Publishers.
Dobrovolsky, Zablonsky, Mak, Radchik, Erlikh (1966), Machine Design, Foreign
Language Publishing House, Moscow.
Norton (2000), Machine Design, Pearson Education.
Shigley (1986), Mechanical Engineering Design, McGraw-Hill Con~pany.
Abdul Mubeen (2005), Machine Design, Khanna Publishers.

Design of Bearings,
Clutches, Brakes
and CAD

The experiments by McKee investigatedf on both sides of ordinate AB. It is seen that on
left hand side a slight increase in temperature would decrease C( and hence the quantity

PN will also decrease. The point of operation will shaft to left and up, resulting in
P
higher value off: This higher value off will further increase temperature and reduce

'

-,resulting shifting of point of operation in upward direction. Thus, this region of

P
operation is unstable as the coefficient of friction keeps increasing and heating of oil film
and bearing continues. The region ECD is transition in which the value of C( has reduced
to make metal to metal contact possible. Thus, if point C has been reached then bearing
will finally end up with bearing seized. For maintaining operation in stable zone proper
cooling of bearing has to be maintained so that C( does not reduce to the level of C.
Example 12.1
A full journal bearing (full journal bearing is a complete cylinder enveloping

cylindrical journal around 360") has following specifications, load on journal,

W = 3000 N, diameter of journal, D = 40.0 mm, length of bearing, L = 52 mm,
speed of rotation of journal, N = 2000 rpm, viscosity of lubricant, Z = 27.3 cp.
Calculate power loss by Petroff's method, and effective coefficient of friction,
assuming uniform oil film is 0.04 mm thick. The density of oil, p = 860 kg/m3and
its specific heat is 1760 J/kgC. Find at what rate the oil should flow through the
bearing if the temperature should not rise more than 8C.
Solution

Use W = p L D
3000
p=-=1.44~/mm20r1.44x106Pa
52 x 40

Sothat

Use Eq. (12.13)

in which p = 1Ow' Z Pa.s

f = 0.0063

or

Hf=190.5 W

or

. . . (i)

. . . (ii)

(Remind yourself that 1 W = 1 Nmls = I Jls).

If Q is the volume of lubricant flowing through bearing per s then heat carried
'

=QpCHATJ/s

Hence, in this bearing for AT= rise in temperature of lubricant = 8".

Q x 860 x 1760 x 8 = 190.5

or

Q = 9.44 m3/min

. . .(iii)

Siiding Contact Bearing

and Lubrication

L
A journal bearing has - = 1 and journal runs at 100 rpm. The lubricant is SAE oil
D
to operate at a temperature of 40C. If bearing diameter is 25 mm and the clearance
is 0.05 mm, calculate the power loss in friction. If the speed of the shaft is likely to
change by 5%, find by what amount frictional power will change.

Use Eq. (12.10) for power loss in friction

From Figure 12.3 read for SAE oil at 40C that Z = 80 cp,

n3 x (2513 x 1o - ~
x 0.025 x loo2 x
3600 x 0.05 x
=

80

. . . (i)

5383 W or 0.054 W

If speed is 95 rpm (5% less than 100 rpm

. . . (ii)
If speed is 105 rpm (5% greater than 100 rpm)

. . . (iii)

(a)

What are different types of friction that may occur in a journal bearing?

(b)

How does absolute viscosity40fan oil change with temperature and

pressure? Show typical variation of asb vis. with temperature.

(c)

What is the main assumption of Petroff s equation? Discus stable and

unstable lubrication. Which region is given by Petroff s equation?

(d)

A full journal bearing is loaded by a radial load of 2750 N and the shaft runs
at 1500 rpm. With diameter ofjournal as 35 mm the bearing length is 20%
more and clearance is 0.1% of diameter. The absolute viscosity of oil is
0.085 Pa.s at a temperature of 35C. Calculate coeffkient of friction and
volume of oil to flow per minute through bearing if temperature of oil is not
to exceed 42C. Take p for oil = 865 kg/m3 and CH= 1700 J/kg.CO.

Design of Bearings,

Clutches, Brakes

The finite integral results are taken from standard text.

and CAD

n2 p r3 N
5c2

2&
(2 + E2)

per unit length

$7

. . . (12.20)

The result is known as Harrison-Sommefeld equation and expresses ideal load capacity
of a journal bearing. The same can be written as

where

(E) =

Nr
10

($r

f (E) per unit length

(2

+ E2) Jl+E2

Since p, N, Djand c are constants in a given bearing, E and f (E) adjust to meet load.
E

e
= - = 0 means E = 0 which is the condition of two centers being coincident or the
C

journal and bearing being concentric. It is noted from Eq. (12.2 1) that such a bearing will
e
have zero load carrying capacity. This capacity is infinite when E = - = 1 which
C

coincides with complete squeezing out of the oil from between the journal and bearing.
The minimum oil film thickness, ho will be zero as evidenced from Eq. (12.18).
The pressure in the oil film in bearing as given by Eq. (12.17) is purely ideal in which
leakage through the ends, or loss of pressure due to presence of a hole or change of
viscosity of oil due to rise in temperature is not permitted. However, in an actual bearing
all these factors are present and hence load carrying capacity of bearing is reduced as
compared to that given in Eq. (12.20). This reduction may be taken as reduction in f (6).

An ideal bearing may be visualised as one for which - is infinite, but as this ratio

reduces f (E) is shown plotted against E in Figure 12.10 for infinite

Figure 12.10 :f (6) Plotted against E Showing Two Extremes off

and E = 1, Respectively

(E)

L
ratio.
D

=O andf ( E ) =a, for E = 0

Example 12.3

A 36 mm diameter journal rotates in a bearing at 1750 rpm. The bearing is

lubricated with SAE 10 oilwhose absviscosity in Saybolt universal seconds at
40C is 200. The maximum and minimum oil film thicknesses are respectively
0.0375 mm and 0.033 mm. Calculate the load carrying capacity of the bearing.

Sliding Contact Bearing

and Lubrication

where .s is Saybolt universal seconds

or

p = 0.043 1 Pa.s

From Eqs. (12.18) and (12.19)

And from Eq. (12.18)

From Eq. (12.22)

Use Eq. (12.21)

W = 44.4 kN per unit length.

SAQ 6
(a)

Explain what do you understand of a hydrodynamic bearing. What

assumptions are made in deriving pressure distribution in a hydrodynamic
bearing?

(b)

Define eccentricity and eccentricity ratio. On a sketch show the variation of

pressure in oil film between inner boundary of a hydrodynamic bearing and
journal rotating in it.

(c)

How do you calculate the load carrying capacity,of g hydrodynamic

bearing? Explain with the help of a sketch.

Design of Bearings,
Clutches, Brakes
and CAD

(d)

A journal bearing develops hydrodynamic pressure in oil film whose

absolute viscosity is 0.07 Pas. The diameter of journal is 50 mm,

L
ratio is
D

c
1
1.3 and - =. A minimum oil film thickness of 0.045 mm is
D 1000
maintained when bearing is rotating at 2000 rpm. Calculate

(i)

maximum oil film thickness,

(ii)

load on journal,
..

(iii)

effective coefficient of friction by Petroff s method, and

(iv)

power lost in friction.

12.9 HEATING OF BEARING

Remember that we have already introduced the idea that bearing will be heated due to
friction. We have calculated the power lost in friction which is heat that will raise the
temperature of oil film and bearing. Since rise in t'emperature will reduce viscosity which
will further cause heating, hence the bearing temperature is maintained constant. It is
allowed to rise above ambient temperature by such amount that viscosity reduces only
slightly. The heat from bearing is dissipated through all three modes af heat transfer, viz.
conduction, convection and radiation. The oil is also cooled by taking it out and cooling
in a heat exchanger and re-feeding into bearing. In large journal bearings used in power
generating machines such as turbines and generator oil coolers are integral parts. We will
consider three modes of heat transfer and simplifying assumptions.
The most conservative method will be to assume that bearing heat is carried away by the
oil flow Q. Thus, if heat generated per s (equivalent of power lost in friction, in heat
units) is H, then

where CHis specific heat, p is density and AT is rise in temperature of oil. Average
values of CHand p are 1760 J/kgC and 861 kg/m3, respectively. These values maybe
used for calculation. You would realise that we have already calculated Q, the oil flow
through bearing in Example 12.1 of Section 12.7.
The heat dissipated through the conduction is usually very sniall as the parts attached to
bearing are not at much lower temperature.
Yet another formula for calculating heat dissipation, taking both convective and radiation
modes of heat transfer has been proposed. In this case, the heat dissipation is
approximated as

where H

= Heat

dissipated in W,

C = Combined coeffioient of radiation and convection, w / m 2 . ~ ,

A

= Area

of housing surface, m2,

Tb= Temperature of housing, K, and

& = Temperature of air surrounding the housing, K.

Sliding Contact Bearing

and Lubrication

Figure 12.20 :Correction Factor for Coefficient of Friction, KF, Plotted

B
"0
as Function of - for several Values of L
C

Figure 12.21 : Correction Factor for Flow, K@ Plotted as Function of

- for several Values of

L

S
-

Example 12.4
A 40 mm diameter full journal bearing supports a load of 3000 N. The length of
the bearing is 52 mm and clearance is 0.038 mm. The viscosity of lubricating oil is
0.03 Pa.s at operating temperature. The shaft rotates at 2000 rpm. Compare power
loss in friction from Petroff s method and that calculated from characteristic
numbers of bearing. Also find minimum oil film thickness and calculate rise in oil
temperature assuming 70% of heat is carried in lubricant. Use p = 861 kg/m3,
CH= 1760 JikgCO. -

Solution
p = 0.03 Pas, N=2000rpm, D = 4 0 mm, L = 52 rnm, c=0.038 mm

W
3000
p=-=-------=1.44~/mm~
LD 5 2 x 4 0

=1.44x106 Pa

Design of Bearings,
Clutches. Brakes
and CAD

Use Eq. (12.13)

PN D = 0.33 0.03 x 2000

f = 0.33 -

40
= o.oo7
1.44 x lo6 2 x 0.038

P 2c

- 0.007 x 3000 x 20n x 2000

30
Using bearing characteristic numbers

= 88

10-3

. . . (i)

. . . (ii)

For full journal bearing P = 360".

From Figure 12.15 matk 1 1.54 on S axis (horizontal), raise an ordinate to cut the
curve for p = 360" and read

f = 4.
C

or

. . . (iii)

Hf=95.5 W or Jls

Apparently Petroff s method underestimates f and hence, Hf From Figure 12.16

ho corresponding to S = 11.4 from curve for P = 360" read - 0.9, hence,
C

ho = 0.9 x 0.038 = 0.0342 mm

. . . (iv)

Again from Figure 12.17 corresponding to S = 1 1.4 s/min read from curve for

p = 360, the value of

Q 3.125.
rcNL
=

Using values of r c N L,
Q = 3.125 x 20 x 0.038 x 2000 x 52 x

or

Q = 247 x

m3/min

Use Eq. (12.23), heat carried by lubricant = Q p CHAT

70% of heat produced is carried by lubricant

SAQ 7
(a)

There are two mehods of lubricating a journal bearing, viz. oil ring and oil
bath. In which case the oil will be cooler?

(b)
(c)

What are different ways through which bearings cool?

Define non-dimensional characteristic numbers for bearing. Show the
variation of thesenumbers with sommerfeld number.

(d)

For S = 15 slmin and r = 25 mm, c = 0.052 mm, findf and h,.

P = 360".

viscosity of oil to be used. Determine coefficient of friction and power loss.

12.13 BEARING MATERIALS

A bearing material must possess properties as outlined below
(a)

High compressive and fatigue strength,.the stress on journal bearing is

normally not high.

(b)

High thermal conductivity so that it does not heat rapidly.

(c)

Coefficient of friction in contact with steel should be low.

(d)

Its wear rate should be low to have long life.

(e)

It should be workable in foundry.

(f)

It should permit foreign particles to embede rather score.

If bearing and journal are of the same material coefficient of friction and hence wear is
high. Such combinations are very rare in practice.
Cast iron is used as bearing material with steel journal but non-ferrous materials are
much preferred. Bronzes, babitts and Cu-Pb alloys are largely used as bearing materials
in service. Brass was earlier used and is lately finding more frequent use because of its
cheapness.
Bronzes are alloys of Cu and Sn with small additions. Bronzes can take heavy loads and
impact and as such are used in locomotives and rolling mills. However, bronzes have
poor heat conductivity.
Babitt provides better antifriction properties then bronzes. It absorbs impact and vibration
well and serves well under speed and pressure. Babbit has a good property to fuse with
steel and tinned bronze backing and in this state it provides good compressive strength.
Babitt does not fuse with C.1 and hence with this backing it has to be anchored in
dovetail slots or drilled holes (Figure 12.20). Copper alloys (75% cu, 25%) typically have
melting point of 980C as compared to 200C melting point of babbit. AI-Sn alloys also
retain strength at high temperatures. These materials are described in following tables.

Table 12.4 :Bearing Bronzes

Bronzes and
SAE
Number

Leaded gun
metal 63
Phosphere
bronze 64

Bronze
backing 66
Semi-plastic
bronzes, 67

Composition, %

Cu, 86-89; Sn, 9- 1 1;

Pb, 1-2.5; P, 0.25 max;
impurities, 0.5 max.
Cu, 78.5-81.5;
Sn, 9-1 1; Pb, 9-1 I;
P, 0.05-0.25;
Zn, 0.75 max;
impurities, 0.25 max.
Cu, 83-89, Sn, 4.5-6.0;
Pb, 8- 10; Zn, 20;
impurities, 0.25 max.
Cu, 76.5-79.5, Sn, 5-7;
Pb, 14.5-17.5; Zn, 4.0
max.; Sb, 0.4 max;
Fe, 0.4 max;
impurities, 1.9 max.

Mechanical Properties
Yo
UTS, YS,
MPa MPa Elongation

Applications

Bushing
200

80

167

10

80

80

167

Heavy loads,
high hardness,
lathes, pumps,
home
appliances
~ronzebackin~
Soft and
antifriction

Removable shells, often of bronze or cast iron, are provided in more important bearings.
These shells are Babbitt lined. The endwise location of shells is ensured by providing
flanges at the ends while a shim, pin or screw may be used to prevent turning. One such
construction with oil grooves is illustrated in Figure 12.27.

Figure 12.27 : Flanged Bearing Sllell with Chamfered Edges. Oil Groove also be seen

12.14.1 Oil Grooves

The oil, which is introduced in the bearing clearances in the region of minimum pressure,
is distributed in the space properly through oil grooves. Figure 12.28 illustrates one such
oil groove in the longitudinal direction. Such oil groove should be 3 to 4 mm less than
the bearing length and equidistant from its ends. The oil groove is never made in the high
pressure region. If the length of the bearing is greater than 200 mm then two oil grooves
may be cut with same restrictions as described above. Spiral grooves are provided in such
bearings where clearance is large. This leads the oil to the centre of bearing length
without allowing it to s q u e w out from ends. Such groove must be'located 40 degrees
ahead of the highest p r d u r e region.

Figure 12.28 : Typical Groove Patterns lo Developed View

In the pressure fed bearing the circumferential groove would help reduce the

L
ratio of

the bearing. Such bearings will have increased load carrying capacity because with
increase in oil flow they would run cooler which in turn would not cause much reduction
in 'the viscosity.

The d l grooves must not be permitted to scrap off the oil from the journal and therefore
they are chamfered along the edges as the edges of the split bearings are made
(Figure 12.26). Figure 12.27 described several groove patterns in developed views that
are commonly employed.
(a)

What criteria are considered for bearing material?

(b)

Distinguish between bronze and Babbitt as bearing material. Give

compositions of these two non-ferrous materials.

(c)
-

Describe properties of non-metallic bearing material and mention their

applications.

(d)

With the help of sketch describe some bearing construction.

(e)

What purpose is served by groove in a bearing? Give example.

Sliding Contact Bearing

and Lubrication

Design of

Bearings,

Clutches, Brakes

12.15 SUMMARY

and CAD

A sliding contact bearing has a Journal moving in a cylindrical shell. A thin oil layer is
present between the surfaces of moving journal and stationary bearing. The viscosity of
oil, a property due to which the lubricant resists shearing plays an important role in
deciding coefficient of friction between journal and bearing. Petroffs simplifying
assumption that oil film thickness is uniform and equal to radial clearance helps calculate
coefficient of friction but it is ufiderestimated. The hydrodynamic theory of bearing
considers the equilibrium of forces on a small element due to shearing stress and
pressure. It calculates the load chrrying capacity of bearing as a function of eccentricity
ratio. This theory also predicts radial pressure variation and shows that maximum
pressure leads the line of load. It coincides with line of centers and minimum film
thickness.

Non-dimensional characteristic numbers for bearing are derivable from hydrodynamic

theory. They have been clearly defined and their use for calculating minimum film
thickness, coefficient of friction and oil flow through bearing has been demonstrated.
The friction in bearing results in heating. The amount of heat represents power loss. The
bearing has to be cooled. The outer surface is cooled by radiation and convection which
may cool the oil. Yet the oil floys out of bearing and thus cooled. The temperaiure of oil
is controlled by controlling flow of oil.
Materials for bearing are normally bronze and Babbitt or copper alloys. These are
non-ferrous alloys and have adequate properties for bearing. Some non-metallic materials
like plastics are also found to have good properties.
Several bearing construction and oil grooves have been described.'

12.16 KEY WORDS

Bearing

: Bearing may be defined as a machine member

whose function is to support and retain a moving
member.

Slider Bearing

: A slider bearing is a bearing in which the surfaces

are parallel or nearly parallel to each other.

Viscosity

: Viscosity is a measure of the internal friction of a

fluid.

Hydrostatic Bearings

: Hydrostatic bearings are pressurized from an

external source.

Hydrodynamic Bearings

: Hydrodynamic bearings develop pressure in

lubricating film entirely due to relative motion
between moving and stationary elements.

12.17 ANSWERS TO SAQs

L

SAQ 1

(d)

W=2750N,N=1500rpm,D=35mm,L=1.2x35=42mm

0.1
100

c = -x 35 = 0.035 rnrn

From Eq. (12.13),

Sliding Contact Bearing

and Lubrication

. . .(i)

. . . (ii)
SAQ 2
I

(d)

Eqs.(12.18)and(12.19)arewrittenhere

h
ho
D
By subtraction 1= 2 - - in which c = -= 0.05 rnm ,h, = 0.045 rnrn
C
C
loo0

. . . (i)
In Eq. (1 2.18), use h, = 0.045 and obtain,

Use Eq. (12.22) with above value of s and obtain f (s)

C

or

f(~)=0.05

Use this value off (E),values of p = 0.07 P.s, N = 2000 rpm,

D= 1
r = -50 x 10-3 m , andL= 1.3 x50=65mm=65 x 1 0 - ~ m i n
2
c loo0
Eq. (12.21)

Design of Bearings,
Clutches, Brakes
and CAD

W = 173 kN per unit length.

With

:.

L
= 1.3, L =1.3 x 50= 65 mm
D

For bearing, W = 65 x 10-)

173 x 10) N = 11245 N

. . . (ii)

Effective coefficient of friction by Petroff s method, Eq. (12.13)

or

or

W
LD

FND where p = -=
= 0.33 p

2~

11245
= 3.45 x lo6 Pa
50 x lo-) x 65 x lo-)

. . . (iii)

f= 0.007

Hf=412W

SAQ 3
(a)

Look at Eq. (12.25) and Table 12.3 and conclude that bearing with oil bath
lubrication will run cool.

(d)

r
25
- = -= 480.8
c 0.052
For full journal bearing (P = 360") from Figure 1 2.1 5 read

i f = 7 for S=15s/min.
C

For full journal bearing (P = 360") from Figure 12.15 read

ho = 0.92
-

for S = 15 slmin.

p = 0.0225 Pa.s

. . .(i)

Use Petroff s equation for f

Sliding Contact Bearing

and Lubrication

. . . (iii)

Rolling Contact Bearing

Example 13.1
An SKF 6208 Z bearing has 9 balls each of 12 mm diameter. The single row
beatjng has following dimensions. Outer diameter, Do= 80 mm, inner diameter,
Di=I40 mm. If the bearing is required to carry a radial load, F, = 4.5 kN and an
axial load of F, = 1.8 kN, calculate static radial equivalent load and static load
capacity of the bearing.
Solution
From Table 13.4 for a radial ball bearing of single row

X = 0.6, Y = 0.5
The radial static equivalent load is calculated from Eq. (13.2)

Using Fr = 4500 N and F,

1800 N in above equation

F, = 0.6 x 4500 + 0.5 x 1800 = 2700 + 900

. . . (i)
The basic static capacity of bearing is calculated from Eq. (13.1)
C, = fo in r 2 cos a

from Table 13.3 for radial bearing.

Using

i = I , n = 9 , r = 6 x 1 0 - ~m and a = O

In above equation.

15889 N

. . . (ii)

Example 13.2
If the coefficient of friction referred to bore diameter of the bearing in
Example 13.1 is 0.0015, calculate the power lost in friction if the shaft supported
in the bearing rotates at 2000 rpm.
Solution

Friction torque,

:.

Power loss H = Mu o = 0.135 x 209.5

Example 13.3

A roller bearing having a mean diameter of 65 mm carries a radial load of 4500 N

and rotates and 10,000 rpm. Calculate the frictional power loss if bearing is
m2/s.
lubricated by an oil bath having a kinematic viscosity of 20 x

49

Design of Bearings,
Clutches, Brakes

and CAD

Solution

The power loss H = Md w, W ,where Mfis the frictional torque given by

Eq. (13.9).
The two components of M f will be calculated by using Eq. (13.5) and one of
Eqs. (1 3.7) and (13.8).
For roller bearing axial load component is zero.
Hence, from Eq. (13.3)

. . . (i)

F, = F, = 4500 N

The factorf; for cylindrical roller bearing from Table 13.6, choosing higher value
is 0.0006.
. . . (ii)
Using F, from Eq. (i),f; from Eq. (ii) and dm= 65 mm in Eq. (13.5).
The friction torque due to load
1
M,=?j;
i.e.

Fed* : .'

M,/ = 0.0003 x 4500 x 65 x

= 0.08775

N-m

(iii)

For the lubricant

v = 20 x

m2/s

..

vN=20x10~

Since,

V N> z x

the viscous torque will be calculated from Eq. (13.7)

From Table 13.7,

(For single row cylindrical roller bearing with oil bath lubrication-higher value has
been chosen).
3
Substituting& = 3.0, v =.20 x

m2/s, N =+04rpm, dm= 65 mm in Eq. (13.7)

= 0.2822 N-m

Using MS.(iii) and (iv) the total frictional torque

. . . (iv)

Rolling Contact Bearing

SAQ 2
(a)

Define basic static capacity and static equivalent load for a rolling contact
bearing.

(b)

How do you calculate power loss in a roller bearing?

Example 13.4
A deep groove ball bearing has following geometrical properties.
Outer diameter Do = 85 mm, Inner diameter, Di = 45 mm, Diameter of ball,
2r = 12 mm, Number of Balls, n = 10, Number of rows i = 1.
The bearing corresponds to SKF 6209 Z whose static load capacity described by
manufacturer is 17860 N.
The bearing supports a radial load of 4500 N and an axial load of 1500 N while the
shaft runs at 5000 rpm. The bearing is lubricated by an oil bath with kinematic
m2/s. Calculate the static capacity of the bearing and
viscosity of 20 x
compare with the catalogue value. Also calculate the power lost in friction.
Solution

Use Eq. (13.1) to calculate static capacity, C,

Cs = fo i n r 2 cos a

a, the angle of contact in deep groove ball bearing is zero, i = 1, n = 10, r = 6 mm,
fo = 49.04 x 1o6 from Table 13.3.

..

Cs = 49.04 x lo6 x 1 x 10 x 36 x

= 17654.4 N

. . . (i)

The catalogue figure for C, = 17860 N is 1.2% higher than that calculated from
Eq. (13.1).
The static equivalent load on bearing, F, is calculated from Eq. (13.2)

Fs = X F ,

it

+ YF,

For radial ball bearing, from Table 13.4

..

X = 0.6, Y = 0.5
F, = 0.6 x 4500 + 0.5 x 1500 = 2700 + 750

or

F, = 3450 N

L.

. . . (ii)

The factorf; or coefficient of friction is calculated by using Eq. (13.6)

From Table 13.5 for a deep groove ball bearing

. . . (iii)
Friction torque due to load will be calculated from Eq. (13.5)

Design of Bearings,
Clutches, Brakes
and CAD

F, from Eq. (13.3),

F, = 0.9 x 1500 - 0.1 x 4500 = 900 N

F, from Eq. (13.4)
F, = 4500 N
Higher value of F,, i.e. 4500 N will be used for calculation of MIL.

= 0.108

. . . (iv)

N-m

The kinematic viscosity of oil, v = 20 x

m2/sand rpm of the shaft, N = 5000.

which is greater than 2 x

Hence, friction torqua due to viscous flow of oil will be calculated using Eq. (13.7)

',

Usef2 = 2.0 x lo3 from Table 13.7, v N = 10- d,, = 0.065 m

= 0.118 N-m

. . . (v)

Hence, total friction torque

:.

Frictional power loss

H=M,/.(I.)

118.5 W

. . . (vi)

Eqs. (i) and (vi) are Answers.

Example 13.5
A single row cylindrical roller bearing has bore diameter of 100 rnm and outside
diameter of 180 mm. Its basic static load capacity is 154 kN.The bearing cames a
load of 50 kN while shaft rotates at 500 rpm. Calculate the power loss due to
friction and viscous churning of oil if the bearing is lubricated by jet lubrication,
m2/s.
with oil whose kinematic viscosity is 15 x

Solution
For roller bearing axial load component is zero.
Hence, F,

= F, = 50000 N

from Eq. (13.4)

Also the friction torque due to load is given by Eq. (13.5), i.e.

fi is read from Table 13.6, for cylindrical bearing

Rolling Contact Bearing

1; = 0.0006

= 2.1

. . . (i)

N-m

From Table 13.7 for single row cylindrical bearing under the conditions ofjet
lubrication

f2 = 6.0 x 1o3
Also
I

vN = 15 x

(higher value)
x 5000= 75x

which is greater than 2 x 1O-3.

Hence, the frictional torque due to viscous flow, Eq. (1 1.7)

..

= Power lost'in friction = M N o

= 5 x 523.67 = 2.62 kW.

13.9 HEATING OF ROLLER BEARING

The frictional power loss in rolling contact bearings is similar to that discussed in case of
sliding contact bearings. The temperature level in this case depends upon :
(a)
(b)

bearing load,
'

bearing;,speed,

(c)

bearing friction torque,

(d)
(e)

type of lubricant and its viscosity,

bearing housing, and

(f)

environment of operation.

Most rolling element bearing in practice operate at temperature levels that are cool and
therefore do not require any special consideration regarding thermal adequacy. Under
circumstances such as light load and low speed and placement of bearing assembly under
stream of air the bearing temperature will not rise. External cooling in many cases of
bearing applications may sufficiently keep the bearing cool, although there are examples
in which it is not possible to keep the temperature within limits unless detailed analysis
of rise of temperature due to each of the reasons stated above is performed and specific
measyres taken.
The heat from the rolling bearings is removed through all the three modes of heat
transfer, vis. conduction, convention and radiation.

uniformly deformed and this situation would not be very much harmhl. Still it is
customary to apply a factor of safety on the basic static capacity of a bearing, so as to
avoid any permanent deformation. In Section 13.4, static equivalent load, F, was defined
by Eq. (13.6). The factor of safety, n', is defined as

n r =-cs
-

For different types of services, the factor n' must exceed certain minimum as described
by Table 13.1 1 .

Table 13.11 : Factors of Safety

Type of Service

I
1

Minimum n'

Smooth shock free operation

0.5

Ordinary service

1 .O

Sudden shocks and high requirements for

smooth running

2.0

Basic static load rating is often used by the manufacturers to characteris'e the bearing and
is a means for bearing selection. However, for very small bearings such as a needle
bearings or those used in instruments, this criterion is difficult to apply because the
quantity 0.01% of D becomes extremely small. For such bearings the load for fracture
with a factor of safety is used for selection.

Example 13.6
If for the SKF 6208 Z bearing which has a balls placed in a single row, each of
diameter 12 mm the inner and outer raceway diameters are di = 47.998 m, and
do = 72.0019 mm, respectively and groove radii are r, = ro = 6.25 mm calculate the
static load capacity. The outer and bore diameter of bearing are Do = 80 mm,
Dl = 40 mm. The radial load F, = 45 kN and gxial,load, F, = 1.8 kN.Assume ball
hardness is 65 RC. Calculate the factors of safety.

Solution.
(This problem is same as Example 13.1 with additional data about the raceways
Example 13.1 was solved using Eq. (13.5) and C, = 15889 N was obtained).

di = 47.98 mm and D
Use do = 72.001Vinm,
'$
radial clearance
q

12.00 mm in Eq. (13.1 1) to obtain

3 3

C = 72.0019 - 47.998 - 2 x 12 = 0.0038 mm

From Eq. (13.14)

From Eq. (13.16)

= cos-' 0.9962

or

a = 4.9965'

Use Eq. (13.20) to calculate y

Y=

Dcosa - 1 2 ~ 0 . 9 9 6 ~ 2
dm
(72.0019 + 47.98)

Rolling Contact

Design of Bearings,
Cluteba, Brakes

Since

dm = do

..

y = 0.1992

and CAD

dl

. . . (i)

From Eq. (13.38) the static capacity of the bearing

I

wherei= 1 , n = 9 , D = 12 mm,r=6.25 mm, y =0.1992

= 3665.088 x 4.474 x 0.9962 = 16336.64 N

. . . (ii)

While using Eq. (13.38) negative sign before y has been taken so that lower value
of Cswill be obtained. Apparently value of Csat Eq. (ii) is 3.2% higher than that
obtained in Example 13.1.
The radial static equivalent load Fsis calculated from Eq. (13.6) and using
Table 13.6. The value was obtained as

F, = 3600 N in Example 13.1

Factor of safety from Eq. (1 3.4 1 )

. . . (iii)
From Table 13.11 it can be seen that this factor of safety is high even' for shock
loading.
Eqs. (ii) and (iii) are the Answers.

SAQ 3
(a)

How a rolling contact bearing kept cool in practice?

'(b)

Describe geometry of rolling bearing by a sketch.

(c)

Write expression for stress in a ball of ball bearing and in a roller of roller
bearing under a load P.

(d)

Show by sketch how are the bearings on shaft preloaded axially and
radially.

13.14 FATIGUE OF ROLLING BEARING

Fatigue is a very important consideration in designs of rolling contact bearing. The life of
described in number of revolution it can make before failure.
a bearing is generally
Bearing manufacturers generally describe the life of a bearing in number of hours. The
bearing life would be governed by the life of the weakest of its elements. From
Section 13.8 it can be seen that inner raceway contact is stressed to higher stress level
than outer. Therefore, failure of inner race way contact is a general trend. In case ofball

I
t

For roller bearings and for bearing with line contact

The geometric characteristics of the bearing have already been defined. The upper signs
are used for inner raceway while lower signs for outer raceway. The hardness of material
must lie between 61.7 and 64.5 RC. Apparently dynamic capacity of the inner raceway
will be lower and hence it would decide the life of bearing.
This must be understood here that definition of Cdis related to the single element and
what will be desired is the dynamic load capacity of the whole bearing. Call this capacity
as Cd. The situation is similar to that existed for Eq. (13.25) in which P,,, was load on
one rolling element whereas F, was the radial load on the whole bearing. Therefore,
Eq. (13.25) can be used to correlate Cd and Cd.

n cos a
Cd = C i 5

Thus.

Example 13.7
A heavy duty bearing required to cany a radial load of 19 kN has following
dimensions
Do=215, D i = lO0,ri=ro= 18.161, D=34.925,di= 122.556,
do = 192.434 (all in mm), n = 8
Calculate basic static capacity and dynamic capacity of the bearing.
Solution

Use do = 192.434 mm, di = 122.556 mm and D = 34.925 mm in Eq. (13.1 1) to

obtain radial clearance

C = 192.434 - 122.556 x 34.925 = 0.028 mm

From Eq. (13.14)
A=ro+ri-D
=2 x

18.161 - 34.925 = 1.397 mm

From Eq. (13.16)

a = cos-I (1 = c o s (1 -

or

&)
)

0.028
= c o s (0.99)
2 x 1.397

a = 8.12"

Use Eq. (1 3.20) to calculate y

v =

dm =

Y=

D cos a
92'434

22'556

= 157.495

34.925 x 0.99
= 0.22
157.495

[Eq. (1 3.1O)]

Design of Bearings,
Clutches, Brakes
and CAD

U s e i = l , n = 8 , D = 3 4 . 9 2 5 m m , r = 18.161 mm,y=0.22inEq.(13.39)to
calculate basic capacity.

= 2.828 x 8 x (34.9251~

2 x 18.161 (1 - 0.22)
2 x 18.161 - 34.925

1'

cos a

. . . (i)

123027.6 N

Use Eq. (13.49) to calculate dynamic capacity of one rolling element

. . . (ii)

= 47515.4 N

Use n

= 8, cos a = 0.99

Cn from (ii) in Eq. (13.5 1)

n cos a
C, = ci -=

475 15.4

8 x 0.99
5

In Eq. (13.49) upper sign between 1 and y relates to inner raceway. Apparently if
lower sign (which relates to outer raceway) is used the magnitude of Cdwill be
higher. Hence, the dynamic capacity of bearing will be taken as 75264.4 N.
(i) and (ii) are the Answers.

Example 13.8
A certain ball bearing is characaterised as N l o= 10' revolutions. It is desired that
the bearing should have 95% reliability. What life may be expected for this
reliability?
Solution

Reliability is often used an alternative to probability of survival. Thus, Nlo = I 08,

p, = 0.9. The problem is what will be NS forp, = 0.95. From Eq. (13.44)

. . . (i)
q = 1.1 1 1, substitutep,

= 0.9, N, =

10' in (i)

Rolling Contact Bearing

or

In K = - 2.25 - 20.465 = - 22.175

or

K = 1.365 x lo-''

Now substitutep,

= 0.95,

q = 1 .l11 and K from (ii)

. . . (iii)

N5 = 0.523 x 10'

13.15 SELECTION OF BEARING

The analyses of stresses and deflections of rolling element given so far by no means are
complete and conclusive. It is expected that by this time the reader must have realised
that rolling contact bearings are subjected to a vei;f large number of applications of
contact stresses and varying deformations. Such analyses are useful for designers of
bearings. The design of rolling contact bearing has become a specialised branch whereas
a general designer has to choose a bearing for his design of a machine from available
stock and line of manufacturer. The bearing manufacturers publish data about their
products and also suggest methods for selection of bearings for any desired purpose.
These methods of selection may differ in detail from manufacturer to manufacturer, yet
the general approash remains same.
Bearing ratings are described in terms of either the radial or thrust load for a specified
number of hours of life, based upon certain inner race rpm. All the bearing manufacturers
do not seem to be agreeable for a particular standard for hours of life or for inner race
rpm. Some base the life of a bearing in number of hours at an arbitrary rpm (e.g. a
bearing will have a life of 300 hours at 500 rpm) while other fix the life at some level and
specify the load rating at various speeds. For example, SKF bearing catalogue describes
that life of a bearing will be 100 hours at 200 rpm when bearing loading ratio will be
1.05, while if loading ratio is 1.03 then life will be 200,000 hours at same rpm. The
loading ratio in this case is the bearing index and is defined as the ratio of dynamic load
capacity to radial bearing load.
Another point of disagreement among the manufacturers is the life expectancy of
probability of survival. Some base the lives of their bearings on 10% survival probability
while others base on 50% probability of survival, (Nloand NSoin Figure 13.17). There are
other manufacturers who use other probabilities of survival but majority of them lies
between Nloand NSo.SKF bearings are designated to have N10 life and it may be
calculated from Eq. (13.48). With slight difference Eq. (13.48) is written again as
3

and

[%)

(%)

for ball bearings

N=

N=

(s$

for roller bearings

is defined as bearing loading ratio.

The procedure of bearing selection described here is based upon recommendations made
in SKF catalogue No. 2000 EIII and the tables of bearing are also from SKF (India)
manufacture range. The bearing manufacturers prodide the students with the bearing
catalogue on request.

(c)

the width, B, and

(d)

the comer radius, r

Rolling Contact Bearill

The AFBMA recommends a four digit code for bearing. The last two digits represent a
number which is one fifth of the bore diameter of the bearing in mm for this number
being 04 or greater. Thus, for a 0205 bearing the inner diameter is 25 mm. It may be
understood that the bearing may have different outside diameters and widths for the same
inside diameter. The first digit in the code represents the relative with while the second
digit represents the relative outside diameter. Seven widths in increasing order are
represented by digits 0, 1, 2, 3,4, 5 and 6. Seven outside diameters in increasing order
are represented by digits 8,9,0, 1,2,3, and 4. Figure 13.18 shows the dimensions codes
for a bore of 75 mm. The first two digits in the figure are only indicative of increasing
width and outside diameters.

Figure 13.18 : AFBMA Bearing Number Code Illustrated for Ball Bearings of Bore of 75 mm

IS0 has modified the scheme of dimension. Outside diameter is designated by a number
series 7,8,9,0, l , 2 , 3 and 4 (in order of ascending diameter) for a standard bore size.
Within each diameter series different widths are designated by number series 8,0, 1,2,3,
4 , 5 , 6 and 7 (in order of increasing width). Most manufacturers have now started
designating their bearings according to IS0 dimension plan.
Example 13.8

An SKF 6205 ball bearing has dynamic capacity Cd = 10.8 kN. This bearing is
used to support a shaft which rotates at 300 rpm and cames a radial load
F, = 3600 N and an axial load of F, = 1500 N. Calculate the expected life of
bearing in hours. Static capacity of bearing C,= 6.95 kN. Assume rotating inner
race.
Solution

The equivalent load on bearings is calculated by using Eq. (13.2).

P = X F r +YFa
Fa has to be checked
Factors X and Yare read from Table 13.14. First the ratio -

F,

1500 - 0.4167
3600

(I-

Fr

Fa is between 0.13 and 0.25. Even for first value

It is seen from Table 13.14 that 7
of 0.13, e = 0.3 1 and thus 2~for the bearing is greater than e. Hence, X and Y will

F,
be selected from second column of Table 13.14. Thus, X = 0.56, but Y will have to
be interpolated between 1.4 and 1.2. To be on the safer side the higher value of
Y = 1.4 can be chosen. Now using Eq. (13.6)

Design o l Bearings,
Clutches, Brakes

=2016+2100=4116N

and CAD

Now use Eq. (13.52) to calcdlate number of revolution in millions to failure

N =

(-1

= 18.065 million revolutions

The expected life in number of hours from Eq. (13.57)

L, =

N x lo6 - 18.065 x lo6

60 x (rpm)
60 x 300

Example 13.9
A belt driven shaft can have journal diameter d such that 25 I d I30 mm. The
radial load, F, = 4000 N while axial, load, F, = 1000 N . The bearing is required to
last for 1500 hours at 350 rpm. Check if any of the following bearing is suitable.
Bearing

SKF 6305
SKF 6406

Bore, d
25 mm

30 mm

cs
11.4 kN
29.85 kN

c d

17.3 kN
33.5 kN

Solution
(a)

Check for the bearing 6305 whose d = 25 mm

Fu lies between 0.07 and 0.13 for which corresponding Fa values are 0.27
-

cs

F,

Fa < e so that X and Y values will be

and 0.3 1 in Table 13.14. Hence, Fr
selected from first column.
X=1.0, Y=O
Hence, equivalent bearing load from Eq. (1 3.6)
P=Fr=4000N
The effective load on bearing in a belt drive is calculated fiom Eq. (13.55)
pe,=fxP
The factorf is chosen from Table 13.13. Assuming V-belt
f=2

..

P,,

= 2 x 4000 = 8000 N

Using above value for P and Cd = 17300 N from given table, in Eq. (13.53)
the expected life of bearing in million revolutions

= 10.113 million revolutions

Rolling Contact Bearing

The expected life in number of hours, Eq. (13.57)

or

L,, = 48 1.57 hours

The life in number of hours is much less than the desired life of 1500 hours.
. . . (i)
Hence, bearing 6305 is not suitable.
(b)

Check for the bearing 6406 whose d = 30 mm

5 ---loo0 - 0.25
F,.

4000

Fa lies between 0.25 and 0.04 and corresponding e

From Table 13.14, -

cs

Fa > e and hence Xand Y values will be

values are 0.22 and 0.24 so that Fr
selected from second column in Table 13.14.
Fa - 0.025 and Fa - 0.04
By interpolation between -

cs

..

= 2 x 4 128

c.7

(takingf = 2 as in first case)

= 8256 N

From Eq. (1 3.52) with Cd= 33500 N

(~~~~~

N = - = 66.81 million cycles.

Hence, from Eq. (13.57), expected life in hours.
L, =

66.81 x lo6
= 3181.4 hours
60 x 350

This is greater than required life of 1500 hours. Hence, the bearing 6406 is
suitable,
d=30mm

. , . (ii)

(i) and (ii) are Answers.

Example 13.10
It is required to select bearings for the pinion shaft of a gear drive shown in
Figure 13.19. Strength calculation of shaft resulted in journal diameter, on left
hand side of the shaft of 28.5 mm and shoulder filled radius of 2.0 mm. The load
calculation due to power transmission result in a radjal load of 2000 N on the

Design of Bearings,
Clutches, Brakes
and CAD

bearing. There is dead axial load of 750 N on the shaft. The shaft rotates at
1000 rpm. Select the bearing for LHS journal and comment if same could be used
for RHS journal also. The drive is running a pump.

Figure 13.19 :Pinion Shaft

Solution

The effective load is calculated by using Eq. (13.54). Assuming that gear is
precision finished so that error in pitch and form is less than 0.025 mm, factorsfk
andfJ are read from Table 13.12 as
For reciprocating pump.

It must be noted that drive correction factor has been applied on the gear tooth load
coming upon the bearing. Since the axial dead load is not derived from the gear,
the drive correction factors are not applied upon F, which remains as 750 N. If
however, axial load were effected from gear drive the correction factorsh andfd
would have been applied on the equivalent bearing load.

At this stage since the bearing has not been selected, the basic static capacity, C, is
unknown. The radio

Fa
cannot be calculated and hence values of X and Y from
cs

Table 13.14 cannot be chosen. The X and Y values are tentatively chosen as
X = 0.56 and Y = 1.8.
Hence, using Eq. (1 3.6), the equivalent load on bearing

. . . (i)

P = 0 . 5 6 ~ 3 3 0 0 +1,8x750=3198 N

From Table 13.1 a single row deep groove ball bearing can take load in axial
direction to the extent of 70% of radial load. A deep groove ball bearing in the
present case will be a good proposition.
Assume that the unit runs for eight hours per day but not fully utilised. From
Table 13.15 against item 5, the bearing is required to have life of
12000-20000 hours. Choosing the lower value and using Eq. (13.58)

N = 60 I2O0
1o6

O0 = 720 million cycles

. . . (ii)

Rolling Contact Bearing

Using Eqs. (i) and (ii) in Eq. (1 3.52)

I

Cd = P ( N ) 3
I

or

. . . (iii)

Cd = 3 198 (720): = 28662 N

Tables 13.I 6 and 13.1 7 describe SKF bearings of 64,62 and 63 series. The bearing
of 6406 will have bore of 30 mm and will be nearest to 28.5 mm which is iournal
diameter required from strength calculations. The dynamic capacity of 6406
bearing from Table 13.16 is 33550 N which is in excess of required Cd at (iii)
corresponding static capacity of 6406 bearing is 23200 N, so that

It is seen from Table 13.14 that the value of 2 lies between 0.025 and 0.04. Also

cs

Fa
Fu is nearly
been calculated as 0.227. By observation it appears that Fr
Fr
equal to e and hence from first columns of Table 13.14, X = 1 and Y = 0 can be
used.
- has

Hence, equivalent bearing load

P = F,= 3300 N
Hence, using Eq. (13.53)
I

C, = 3300 (720)j = 29571 N

. . . (v)

which is less than Cdof 6406 bearing which from Table 13.16 is 33350 N.
Hence, SKF 6406 bearing will be chosen for LHS journal of the shaft. The
symmetric positions of LHS and RHS journals with respect to the pinion will
most advantageous in which case the load on RHS bearing wil1 be same as that on
LHS bearing. Hence, the identical bearings can be used on RHS journal.
The dimensions of 6406 bearing from Table 13.16 are :
Inner diameter or bore, d = 30 mm
Outer diameter, D = 90 mm
Width, B = 23 mm

. . . (vi)

Radius at comers, r = 2.5 mm

Permissible speed = 800 rpm
The bearing comer radius of 2.5 mm is also suitable as the radius of 2.0 mm at the
fillet in the shaft was prescribed.

13.21 SEATING BEARING ON SHAFT

The fillet radius must be less than bearing comer radius as shown in Figure 13.20(a). If
two radii are equal than contact at the fillet will occur which is highly undesirable for
the fillet radius is less than bearing comer radius than the
st the shoulder and it will have a tendency to ride over the
situations are not permissible and alternative is shown in

Design of Bearings,
Clutches, Brakes
and CAD

Table 13.21 :Deep Groove Ball Bearing IS0 Designation

(100 rnrn to 160 rnrn Bore)
Designation

61820
6 1920
16020
6020
6220
6320
61821
61921
16021
602 1
622 1
632 1

d
mm

D
mm

B
mm

100

125
13
20
140
150
16
24
150
180
34
215
47
105
130
13
145
20
1 60
18
160
26
190
36
225
49
6 1822
110
16
140
6 1922
20
150
16022
19
170
6022
28
170
6222
200
38
50
240
6322

Basic Capacity
Dynamic
N
19900
42300
44200
60500
124000
174000
20800
44200
52000
72800
133000
182000
w

Speed Limit rpm

with

Fatigue
Load
Limit

Static
Grease
011
N
N
18300
950
4800
5600
4 1500
4500
1630
5300
44000
1700
5000
4300
54000
2040
4300
5000
93000
3400
3350
4000
140000
4750
3000
3600
19600
4500
1000
5300
44000
5000
1700
4300
5 1000
4800
I860
4000
4800
65500
4000
2400
104000
3200
3650
3800
3400
153000
2800
5100
-

28100
43600
57200
8 1900
143000
203000

26000
45000
57000
73500
118000
180000

1250
1660
2040
2400
4000
5700

4300
4000
3800
3800
3000
2600

5000
4800
4500
4500
3600
3200

61824
61924
16024
6024
6224
6324

120

150
165
180
180
215
260

16
22
19
28
40
55

29100
55300
60500
85200
146000
208000

2800
570000
64600
80000
118000
186000

1290
2040
2200
2750
3900
5700

3800
3600
3400
3400
2800
2400

4500
4300
4000
4000
3400
3000

6 1826
6 1926
16026
6026
6226
6326

130

18
24
22
33
40
58

37700
65000
79300
106000
156000
229000

43000
67000
81500
1000
132000
216000

140

18
24
22
33
42
62
20
28
24
35
45
65

39000
66300
80600
111000
165000
251000
48800
88400
92300
125000
174000
276000

46500
72000
86500
108000
150000
245000
6 1000
93000
98000
125000
166000
285000

1660
2280
2700
3350
4150
6300
1660
2280
2700
3350
4150
7100
1960
2900
3050
3900
4900
7800

3600
3400
3200
3200
2600
2200

61828
61928
16028
6028
6228
6328
61830
61930
16030
6030
6230
6330

165
180
200
200
230
280
175
190
210
210
250
300
190
210
225
225
270
320

3400
3200
3000
3000
2400
2000
3000
2800
2600
2600
2000
1900

4300
4000
3800
3800
3200
2800
4000
3800
3600
3600
3000
2600
3600
3400
3200
3200
2600
2400

61 832
61932
16032
6032
6232
6332

160

200
220
240
240
290
340

20
28
25
38
48
68

49400
92300
99500
143000
186000
276000

64000
98000
108000
143000
186000
285000

2000
3050
3250
4300
5300
7650

2800
2600
2400
2400
1900
1800

3400
3200
3000
3000
2400
2200

150

'

SAQ 3
(a)

(b)

A certain ball bearing has single row in which 12 balls of 16 mm diameter

are arranged. Calculate the basic statics capacity. From Table 13.16 find out
the bearing closest to the given bearing.
If in the bearing of Example 13.1 the diameter of grooved surface on inner
raceway di= 58.986 mm and that of outer raceway do= 91.014 mm and
radius of grooves on both raceways ro = r, = 8.32 mm, calculate the basic
static capacity. If a factor of safety of 2 is to be provided what radial load
the bearing can carry?

(c)

Calculate the dynamic capacity of the bearing in above two problems.

(d)

A shaft driven by a V-belt drive is supported in two end bearings, each

being SKF 6418. The reaction at both ends is 15200 N and shaft additionally
carries an axial load of 3650 N. What life in hours the bearings is expected
to have if shaft rotates at 100 rpms.

(e)

If the shaft in above problem is driven by a gear which has error in pitch and
form between 0.025 and 0.125 mm while the reactions at ends and axial load
remain same, what bearing life is expected? Assume that shaft drives a
rotary machine in a shock free operation.

(f)

A shaft of diameter 75 mm is supported in bearings which are 1 m apart.

The shaft carries a flat pulley on which runs a flat rubber belt. The drive is
used for conveyor belt which works intermittently. The sum of the belt
tensions on two sides is 10000 N in horizontal plane while pulley weighs
1000 N. The shaft runs at 100 rpm. The journal diameter can be close to
60 mm. Calculate reactions at the bearing ends, effective load on bearing
life, in million cycles and dynamic capacity of the bearing required. Choose
a proper bearing and calculate its factor of safety. Check if this factor of
safety is within limits.

(g)

(i)

Out of four elements of a rolling contact bearing the one subjected to

highest stress level for same number of cycles is
(a)

Outer race

(b)

Inner race

(c)

Cage
Rolling element

(d)
(ii)

Which of the following causes of failure cannot be avoided by proper

design practice?
(a)

Fatigue

(b)

Inadequate, lubrication

(c)

Ingress of dust

(d)

Corrosion of bearing elements

13.20 SUMMARY
Roller bearings have very low friction as compared to sliding contact bearings. Inner
race, outer race and rolling elements of rolling bearings are made of steel. There are
several types of bearings, which are used to carry radial and thrust loads. Single row deep
groove ball bearings are most common in use. Under load all three elements (the two
races and rolling element) will deform. If the load is increased beyond certain limit the
deformation in one of the three elements may turn plastic. The bearing is required to
carry both radial and axial force components and a load which takes care of both the
components is known as static equivalent load. Rolling contact bearings do not require
any lubrication. Lubrication is mainly used to keep the bearings cool. The total load
carried by a bearing is shared by a few rolling elements at a time. Fatigue is a very
important consideration in designs of rolling contact bearing. The life o f a beanng is
generally described in number of revolution it can make before failure. Bearing is
normally specified by four digit number.

Rolling Contact Bearing

Design of Bearings,
Clutches, Brakes

13.21 KEY WORDS

and CAD

Rolling Contact Bearing

: Rolling contact bearing is an assembly of balls or

rollers which would physically maintain the shaft
in radially spaced apart relationship with respect to
a usually stationary supporting structure called a
housing in which bearing itself is supported.

Static Equivalent Load

: The static equivalent load may be defined as static

radial load (in case of radial ball or roller bearings)
or axial load (in case of thrust or roller bearings)
which, if applied, would cause the same total
permanent deformation at the most nearly stressed
ball (or roller) and race contact as that which
occurs under the actual conditions of loading.

Life of a Bearing

: The life of an individual ball (or roller) bearing

may be defined as the number of revolutions (or

hours at some given constant speed)
. - which the
bearing runs before the first evidence of fatigue
develops in the material of one of the rings or any
of the rolling elements.

Reliability of Bearing-

: The reliability is defined as the ratio of the number

of bearings which have successfully completed L
million revolutions to the total number of bearings
under test.

13.22 ANSWERS TO SAQs

SAQ 1
(a)
(b)

C,

(c)

945.27 hours

(d)

3890 hours

(e)

= 38540 N,

19270 N

Cd=24165 N

5099 N, 25495 N, 48 million cycles, 92536 N, SKF 6413, d = 65 mm,

= 15.

D = 160mm, B = 3 7 m m , r = 3 . 5 mm,f:s.

I
1

Clutches and Brakes

Example 14.1
For transmitting 15 kW of power at 4000 rpm a single plate clutch with both sides
effective is to be designed such that the outer radius is 1.5 times the inner radius.
Calculate the size of the clutch for following combinations :

(a)

C.I. on C.I. (dry and in oil)

(b)

Asbestos based lining on C.I. (dry)

(c)

Powder metal on C.I. (dry and in oil).

Solution

For solving the probiem the uniform wear condition will be assumed, hence
Eq. (14.9) for single plate clutch with both sides effective will give the friction
torque. This friction torque will be equal to the torque transmitted by the shafts.
If M, is the torque in N-m transmitted at 4000 rpm, then
M, o = power in Watts
MI 2n 4000

M, =

= 1 qnnn

15000 x 60
= 35.81 N-m
2x x 4000

. . . (i)

Hence, from Eq. (14.19), the friction torque

. . . (ii)

MI = 2 . 5 p P r ; :

The permissible pressure on friction surface is given by Eq. (14.10) which gives
the value of pressure at inner radius under uniform wear condition. Usingp for
permissible pressure, the axial force
P=27cpr;,2 (1.5-1)=7cpr;, 2
(a)

C.1 on C.I.
(i)

'
Table 14.1
In dry condition p = 9.15, p = 0.3 ~ l m m from
Using Eq. (iii),

P = 0.3 7c c2. N
I

= 0.943 r,2,N

Using this value in (ii)

M,/

= 2.5 x

0.15 x 0.943 r;3

= 0.354

1;'

N-mm

Equating this value of MffwithM, from (i)

0.354 $ = 35.81 x lo3
Y

. . . (iii)

Design of Bearings,
Clutches, Brakes
and CAD

(ii)

When running in oil C( = 0.06, p

= 0.7

~ / m m from
'
Table 14.1

Using Eq. (iii),

P = 0.7 sr: 1;3 N

Hence form Eq. (ii)

= 0.33 1;3 N-mm

Equating this value with M, from (i)

(b)

or

ri = 47.7 mrn

..

r0=71.55 mm

Asbestos Based Lining on C.I.

I-

In dry condition p = 0.35, p = 0.25 ~ / m m '

Using (iii)

Hence from (ii)

Equating this value of Mflwith M, from (i)

(c)

or

ri = 37.33 mm

..

ro = 56.0 mm

. (vi)

Powder Metal on C.I.

(i)

In dry condition, y = 0.4, p = 0.3 ~ / m r from

n ~ Table 14.1
Using (iii)
P = 0 . 3 n r ;2 , N
= 0.943 rj2, N

Hence from (ii)

Equating this value of Mfwith M, from (i)

. . . (vii)
102

(ii)

Clutches and Brakes

When running in oil, p = 0.1, p = 0.8 ~ / m m ~

Using (iii)
P=0.87Tr;:2 , N

Hence from (ii)

Equating this value of Mu.with MI from (i)

. . . (viii)
Result is tabulated below for quick comparison.
SI. No.

1.

2.
3.

Material and Condition

C.I. on C.I.
dry
in oil
Asbestos on C.I.
dry
Powder metal on C.I.
dry
in oil

ri (mm)

r,

(mm)

46.6
47.7

69.9
7 1.54

37.33

56.00

33.61
38.44

50.41
57.67

Example 14.2

A multiple disc clutch, steel on bronze is required to transmit 4 kW at 750 rpm.

The inner radius of contact is 40 mm and outer radius of contact is 70 mm. The
clutch runs in oil with p = 0.1. The permissible pressure between the plates is
0.35 ~ / m m ' .Calculate number of discs of bronze and steel and axial force
required to keep the plates in contact. Compare the average pressure and maximum
pressure. Is there any advantage of using a lower value for permissible pressure?

Solution
Section 14.6 describes the essential features of a multiple plate disc clutch and
Eq. (14.22) gives the friction torque developed by a clutch of this type. In this
equation the term (n, + nz - 1) represents the number of effective surfaces. This of
course assumes a condition of uniform wear.
If M, be the torque transmitted by the clutch at 750 fpm (M, in N-m), then

. . . (i)
The Eq. (14.10) is used to calculate the axial force

Substituting ri = 40 mm, r,= 70 mm, p

= 0.35

P = 271: x 40 (70 - 40) 0.35

~ / m m ~

Design of Bearings,
Clutches, Brakes
and CAD

This value of P will be used in Eq. (14.22) along with p = 0.1, r,= 70 mm and
ri = 30 mm to calculate friction torque.

M g = (n, + n2 - 1) - p P (r, + 5 )
2

= 14516.2 (n,

+ n2 - 1) N-mm

Equating this value of torque with that in (i)

(n,+ n2 - 1) =

..

n,

5 1000
= 3.5
14516.2

+ n2 = 4.5 say 5

The total number of plates being 5, will produce 4 effective or pairs of surfaces.
. . . (ii)
Let there be 3 steel plates and 2 bronze plates.
Since the number of required effective surface pairs was a fraction it has been
changed from 3.5 to 4, and hence the value,of P a n d p will now change.
Going back to Eq. (14.22) and substituting (nl + n2 - 1) = 4

. . . (iii)
Using this value of P in Eq. (14. lo), the actual value of maximum pressure is
calculated,

. . (iv)
The average pressure intensity
Pave

--

P
r( r

-)

23 18.2
7~ (702 - 40')

0 224 = 0.72
Pave = Pmax

...

0.3 1

By using a lower value of permissible pressure the size of the clutch will be larger.
This is helphl in dissipating heat generated during slipping.

SAQ 1
(a)

Distinguish between a dog clutch and friction clutch.

(b)

Sketch a single plate friction clutch and state how axial force is applied?

(c)

Is there any advantage of using multiple plate clutch. Where is it used?

(d)

Discuss two conditions of uniform pressure and uniform wear in friction

clutch. Which condition is assumed in design and why?

driving side is not considered. With the notations already used in previous section, the
work performed by the friction torque, M, when driven shaft rotates through a differential
angle of rotation do,
dW = M, d e
If the angular speed of driving machine is oland rotation de takes place in time dt, then
dW

= M,

oldt

. . . (i)

Also the torque M, accelerates the driven machine, say by angular acceleration a , so that
. .
. . . (ii)
MI = 1 2
Using (ii) in (i)
dW = I, a o ldt

. . . (iii)

Clutching operation is complete when the driven machine begins to rotate at a velocity of
olradians per second, i.e. when o = ol.
Hence total work done by M, during clutching,

During this period the kinetic energy is also imparted to the driven machine. This kinetic
energy is given by,

Hence energy dissipated in form of heat during clutching

E=W-KE

If time required for completing clutching operation is tl.

Substituting for a from (ii)

The angle turned through by the driven shaft during tl

Example 14.3
An electric motor rotating at 300 rpm drives a machine through a plate clutch
whose both sides are effective. When the clutch is engaged it takes 2.6.sec. for the
driven machine to attain the speed of motor. The moment of inertia of driven.
machine reduced to driven shaft is 4.78 kg-m2. Calculate the torque produced by
the motor and its power.

Clutches

Bearings,
Brakes

The permissible pressure on clutch lining is 0.07 MPa and its outer radius is 1.6
times its inner radius. Determine the size'of the lining and axial force required.
Assume p = 0.25.

Solution
Use Eq. (14.35), the torque applied by motor on clutch,
M, =-12 01
t1

Here

I, = 4.73 kg-m 2 ,ol= 2n x 300 = 3 1.42 radlsec

60
t, = 2.6 sec

..

M, =

4.73 x 3 1.42
2.6

= 57.2 N-m

Power =Mi o
= 57.2 x
=

31.42

1797.22 W or 1.8 kW

Assume uniform wear condition, hence from Eq. (14.10)

P = 2 n p 1 ; . (r, -I;.)
= 2n x 0.07 I;.~(1.6 - 1)
= 0.264 I ; . ~N

(ro and ri in mm)

The friction torque on the clutch from Eq. (14.19)
Mg = P P (r, + G )
= 0.25 x 0.26 I;.~(1.6

for both sides effective

+ 1)

=0.1691;.3 N-mm
Equating Mqand Mi from Eqs. (iii) and (i), respectively.
0.169 I;.~= 57.2 x lo3
ri = 69.7 mm
r,= 111.52 mm
Also

. . . (iv)

P = 0.264 (69 ,?')'

=

. . . (v)

1282.5 N

(i), (ii) (iv) and (v) are Answers.

SAQ 2

(a)

Describe the functioning of a centrifugal clutch.

(b)

In a centrifugal clutch the ball rotates at a radius r from the axis of a shaft
and hinged at a distance of a. If the lever is required to press the presser
plate with a force P, what should be its length? If coefficient of friction is p,
what power can be transmitted at N rpm? .

(c)

An electric motor drives a machine at 300 rpm with plate clutch. The
moment of inertia of electric motor is 1.2 kg m2 and that of driven machine
with respect to shaft axis is 4.78 kg m2. The driven machine starts from rest
and in 1.5 sec attains motor speed. With both sides effective the plate can
~ . outer diameter of plate is 1.6 times its
carry a pressure of 0.07 ~ / m mThe
inner diameter. Calculate motor torque, axial force, r, and ri, power of motor
and energy dissipated.

14.10 THE BAND BRAKE

A band brake is shown in Figure 14.13. It is made of a band of belt or a steel band lined
with brake lining lapping a part of brake drum. The ends of the band are connected to
pins at points B and D of a lever AC.The lever is pivoted at fulcrum C.The drum is
shown to rotate in anticlockwise direction with points B and C falling on two sides of
fulcrum C.A force P applied on the lever at A will tighten the belt on the drum whereby
the friction between belt and drum will produce the braking torque on the drum. If r is
the radius of the drum and TI and T2 are the tensions in the belt in the tight side and slack
side, then the braking torque.

M =(7; -T2)r

.-

. . . (i)

Figure 14.13 :The Arrangement of a Band Brake

Let a and b be the perpendicular distances of tensions T2 and TI, respectively from
fuIcrum. Considering the equilibrium of the lever ABCD under three forces P, TI and Tz,
the moments about the fuIcrum should add up to zero. Hence
Pd + T 2 a - T , b = O

. . . (ii)

If 8 is the angIe of contact between the band and drum and p is the coefficient of friction
between the band and the drum. then

. (iii)
Using (iii) in (i)

Clutches and Brakes

Design of Bearings,
Clutches, Brakes
and CAD

and
Using (iv) in (ii)

. . . (v)

for a given value of 8 for any combination of belt and drum P will depend upon b and
a
ratio - . Following cases may be considered.
b
(a) The slack side of the belt or band may be attached to fulcrum pin in which
case a = 0, and

It means that downward force P will produce a tightening effect on the band
to produce the frictional torque M.
(b)

lfa=b

or

a
-=I
b

In this case displacement of B and D being equal the band will slide on the
surface of the drum when P is applied. This will not permit any tightening
effect in the band.

But
This is a situation that any effort P on the lever in the direction downward at
point A will cause the belt to loosen on the drum. However, if the rotation of
drum reverses in the clockwise direction the belt tensions will interchange or
the tight side will become slack and vice-versa. Under this condition the
band will tighten on the drum on its own. This is known as a self locking
brake. Such self locking brakes are fitted on hoisting machine drums such as
cranes and winches in which a load lifted during the counter-clockwise
motion of the drum will tend to move down when power is cut. As soon as
the load tends to move down causing the drum to move clockwise the band
tightens on the drum and braking torque is applied, thus holding the load in
the raised state. To unlock the brake a slight downward push on the lever at
A is required.

(d)

It is also possible that the tight side of the band is attached to the hlcrum
instead of pin at B. In this case b = 0, and hence from Eq. (14.38)

This means that if the drum rotates in clockwise direction this arrangement
will be able to apply a braking torque.

14.10.1 Pressure between the Band and Drum

The pressure hetween the band and the brake drum will decide the width of the belt or
band if the pem~issiblevalue of the pressure is known. The expression for the pressure
between the band and the drum can be derived by the help of the Figure 14.14 wherein a
small element of the band subtending a small angle dB at-the centre b f the drum is shown
in equilibrium. The tension in the element due to friction between the belt and the drum
varies in the direction of the rotation of the drum from TI (the tight side tension) to T2
(the slack side tension). Let the tensile forces on two sides of the element be T + d T and T
along with a no]-ma1force dN. The algebraic sum of components of the forces keeping the
element in equilibrium must be equal to zero along the horizontal and vertical directions
separately summing up components along vertical direction.

Figure 14.14 : A Small Element of Band in Equilibrium

de
de
(T + dT) sin - + T sin -= dN
2
2
d e dO
de
Since d e is small angle, sin - = - and d T - is negligible,
2
2
2

..

Tde=dN

. . . (i)

Let w be the width of the band so that the area of contact between the band and the drum.

I f p is the pressure on the contact surface, then

dN=pd A=pwrde

. . . (ii)

Using (ii) in (i)

T=pwr

This pressure intensity will vary with T and will become maximum where T is highest.
Hence, the maximum pressure intensity

Clutches and Brakes

Design of Bearings,
Clutches, Brakes
and CAD

If the thickness of the band o'r belt ist, the area of cross-section

And then,

. . . (14.42)

II;=wta,

where a, is the allowable tensile stress in the band. Using Eq. (14.42) in Eq. (14.43) and
replacing p,, by permissible pressure pa

Eq. (14.43) may be used to calculate the thickness of the belt while either Eq. (14.41) or
Eq. (14.42) may be used to determine, width of the belt or band.

14.10.2 Average Pressure

For calculating the heat generated between the band and the drum it is necessary that the
average value of pressure along the total arc of contact be known. It is of course
understood that the maximum pressure occurs at the end of the band where tension is
highest. For calculating the average pressure reference is made to Figure 14.13 and the
forces acting on the band element in the horizontal direction are equated to zero to satisfy
yet another condition of equilibrium (the vertical components of forces were equated to
zero in the last section). It may be remembered that a force of friction will be induced at
the contact surface to oppose sliding of band on the drum and the net force on the band
element will be equal to the force of fiction which will be equal to p dN, where p is the
coeficient of friction between the contact surfaces.
Thus,

de
do
And since - is small, cos
= 1,
2
2

Ifp,,, represents the average pressure intensity over the arc of contact subtending at
angle 8 at the centre

or

II; - 7'2

= CL

w r Pave 0

w and r are width of the band and radius of the drum respectively. The effective radius of
the drum will of course be r u - .
2
1

i1
t

i
ii

Clutches and Brakes

14.10.3 Heat Generation and Dissipation

The braking action will indeed cause generation of heat due to friction. This heat will be
dissipated mainly by radiation through exposed surface of belt and drum. However,
radiation heat dissipation will not be large enough to remove all the heat that is
generated. The design has to take care of heat dissipation in proper amount either by
providing large exposed area for heat radiation or by providing a cooling medium like oil
to take away the heat. The design is based upon the maximum temperature which can be
pernlitted for the band lining which may be burnt and become useless if the temperature
exceeds the permissible limit. Permissible temperatures vary from one lining material to
other. Table 14.2 describes such temperature limits along with coefficient of friction and
maximum permissible pressure for different brake lining materials.

Table 14.2

There is yet another way of controlling temperature rise of brake lining by limiting the
product ofpaveand rubbing velocity V. This philosophy is dependent upon the fact that
heat generation depends upon work done against friction which is proportional to
pavex V. The limiting values are described in Table 1 4 . 3 , is~ taken
~ ~ ~in ~ / m and
*
V in d s e c .
Table 14.3 : Limiting Values ofpavex V
Condition

Pave X

Continuous load and poor heat dissipation

9.8

Intermittent load, long rest periods and poor

heat dissipation

1.93 x lo6

Continuous load and good heat dissipation

2.9 x lo6

lo5

The heat is produced in the brake during braking operation due to rubbing between the
band and the drum. In fact this heat is nothing but the work done against the friction. If
A, is the area of contact between band and drum, then

I
I

Normal force on contact surface =pavex A,

:. Frictional force between band and drum

F = P pave x Ac
Let V = peripheral velocity of drum in m/s
= Rubbing

velocity between band and drum

Hence, work against friction or heat generated during braking operation

Hf=F V
1.e.

H = P Pave A, V

. . . (14.45)

Design of Bearings,
- . . . -brakes
.
clutenes,

Using Eq. (14.44) in Eq. (14.45)

- T2) A, v

H/ = (T

and CAD

wr0

But

Ac=wrO

..

Hf =(q

- T2) V

. . . (14.46)

The heat "

generated due to friction is dissi~atedbv radiation from ex~osedsurfaces. If the
area of all radiating surfaces is A, while C is the coefficient of heat transfer in w/m2 K,
the heat dissipated from heated surface to surrounding with a temperature difference of
At will be

This may also be calculated as work done by net force in band, i.e. (T1- T2)against drum
moving with a velocity V.
The coefficient of heat transfer in radiation is a function of At, it being higher if At is
~ At = 40 K and C may be as high as 44 w / m 2 for
~
high. C is about 29.5 w / m 2 for
At = 200 K.
Example 14.4

A band brake is operated by a lever of length 500 mm (between effort and

fulcrum). The brake drum has a diameter of 500 mm and the maximum torque on
2
the drum is 1 kN-m. The band wraps over - of the circumference. One end of
3
band is attached to a pin on the lever right of the fulcrum at a distance of 100 mm.
The other end is attached to another pin on the lever below the fulcrum at a
distance of 80 mm. The braking effort is applied at the end of lever to the left. The
lever is so shaped that the band is perpendicular to lever at both ends. The steel
band is lined with asbestos fabric with C( = 0.3. Determine the width and the
thickness of the band an4 the heat generated when the drum is making 50 rpm. The
permissible stress in the band is 70 MPa.

Figmre 14.15 : Brake in Example 14.4

Solution
Referring to Figure 14,15 assume direction of rotation counterclockwise. The lever
has its fulcrum at C, The tension TIwill be in the end of the band attached to pin at
D and tension T2 at point B. The angle of contact on drum
2
0 = - (27~)=t 1.33 x radians
3

. . . (i)

Clutches and Brakes

The braking torque M = (T, - T2) r

M =(T, - T 2 ) r

..

. . (ii)

T, - T2 = 4000 N

Substituting for TI = 4000 + T2 from (ii) in (i)

and

. . . (iii)

TI = 5600 N

Taking moment about'fulcrum C

P x 5 0 0 + T2 x 8 0 = T, x 100
Substituting for TI and T2 from (iii)

P=

5600 x 100 - 1600 x 80

= 864
500

Assuming that the brake lining runs in oil, from Table 14.2, p,,
asbestos lining on metal drum running in oil.

. . . (iv)
= 0.34

MPa for

From Eq. (14.41)

'r

Substituting TI = 5600 N from (iii) and r = 250 mm

Width of the band,

. . . (v)
The thickness of the band will be determined from higher tension TI

T, = w t o, [from Eq. (14.42)]

Substituting w from (v), o,= 70 MPa and TI from (iii)

. . . (vi)

Substitute N = 50 rpm, r = 250 mm = 0.25 m

From Eq. (14.46) the heat generated per sec.

= 5240 N-m

. . . (vii)

117

Design of Bearings,
Clutches, Brakes

From Eq. (14.44), the average pressure between the band and drum

and CAD

Pave =

T, 4 2
pwr0

Substituting TI and T2 from (iii), p = 0.3, w from (v)

r = 250 mm, 8 = 1.33 n.

= 0.194 MPa or 0 . 1 9 4 ~lo6 Pa

From Table 14.3 it can be seen that the product pave x V is safe for all conditions
of operation. Thus, the heat generation is within permissible limits.
(iv), (v), (vi) and (vii) are Answers.

14.11 BAND AND BLOCK BRAKE

A band and block brake as shown in Figure 14.16 has on its drum several block of wood
attached to metallic band or belt. The bottom of each block is shaped to make contact
with drum surface. The angle subtended by each wooden block at the centre of drum is
28. While each block will have tension on two sides which will decrease in the direction
of rotation, the whole band will develop tensions Toand Tn on tight and slack side. Towill
be the tension in band just before the block 1, and Tnwill be the tension just after the nth
block. The blocks are numbered 1,2,3, . . . ,n from tight side to slack side. Thus, tension
in the band between the first and second blocks is TI,that between the second and third
block is T2 and between less but one and last block the tension is T,,- ,.

~ i ~ u14.16
r i :A Band and Block Brake
Consider the equilibrium of the first block. This block is under the action of following
forces (Figure 14.16) :
(a)

tension in the band (tight side) To to the left,

(b)

tension in the band between block 1 and 2, to the right,

(c)

reaction on the block N, assumed acting radially, and

(d)

force of friction pN acting tangentially to the drum, this force is in direction

of the motion of the drum.

Resolve these forces tangentially to the drum

(To - T ) c o s O = p N

. . . (i)

Clutches and Brakes

Resolve the force radially

(To

+ T,) sin 8 = N

. . . (ii)

From (i) and (ii)

To - 7; cos 8
T, + 7; sin 8 - CI
To-7i - p tan 8
To

7;

i.e.

To (I - p tan 0) = 7; (1 + p tan 8)

..

To ,1 + p tan 0
1; 1 - p t a n 8

. . . (iii)

Following same procedure it can be shown that for each block, ratio of tension in tight
side to that in slack side is given by (iii). Thus, n equations can be written

1; - 1+ptan8
T2 1 - p tan 8
1 + p tan 8
T2 & 1-ptan8

And finally

1+ptan8
1-ptan8

-=

Tn

If all the left hand side terms are multiplied together, the right hand side term is
multiplied by itself n times,
% x 3 x 5 x . . . x - - Tn-l -[I

TI

T2

T,

+ tan
1 - p tan 9

Important fact that while deriving Eq. (14.48) a basic assumption that has been made is
that the frictional force between each block and drum has been considered constant over
the contact surface, must be kept in mind. This assumption may be justified only when
angle 28, i.e. the angle subtended by the block at the drum centre is very small. If angle
of contact is less than 60" than the normal reaction and the force of friction between the
block and drum may be assumed to be acting at the mid point of the contact. In case of
band and block brake this condition is ensured by having at least six blocks.

(a)

Explain the function of a brake and give example of a self locking band
brake.

(b)

Distinguish between a band brake and a band and block brake. What
materials are used for band and block and what angle a block should subtend
at centre?

(c)

A band brake as shown in Figure 14.17 is required to balance a torque of

980 N-m at the drum shaft. The drum is to be made of 400 mm diameter and
is keyed to the shaft. The band is to be lined with ferodo lining having
p = 0.25. The maximum pressure between lining and drum is not to exceed
0.5 ~ / m m *Design
.
the steel band, shaft, key on the shaft, brake lever and
fulcrum pin, when all these elements are made in steel for which permissible
tensile stress is 70 MPa and that in shear is 50 MPa.

Design of Bearings,
Clutches, Brakes
and CAD

Figure 14.17 : Brake and Brake Drum in SAQ 3(c)

(d)

A band and block brake has a brake drum of 1.0 m diameter and is fitted
with 24 blocks, each having a contact angle of 10". The radial thickness of
each block, measured from centre line of the band to the rim of the wheel is
70 mm. The band is designed to sustain a maximum force of 2000 N. The
lever is arranged as shown in Figure 14.16 with I = 800 mrn, a = I00 mm
and b = 80 mrn. Calculate the force P required to be applied at the end of the
lever if p = 0.4. Calculate the power loss due to friction if drum rotates at
240 rpm.

14.12 BLOCK BRAKE

A block brake schematic is shown in Figure 14.18. It consists of a block or shoe normally
made of a softer material riding on a metallic brake drum keyed to the shaft. To obtain
braking action the block is pressed against the drum under a force obtained from a lever.
This action generates a reaction between the shoe and the drum and hence a tangential
fiiction force on the drum to cause retardation of the drum. A condition of uniform
pressure on the contact surface is assumed if the angle of contact between the block and
drum is less than 60". However, if the angle of contact is greater than 60" then the
condition of uniform wear exists.
Uniform Pressure Condition, 8 S 60"
A small element of shoe, at an angle o f + from the central radial line of the shoe,
subtending an angle d+ at the centre is shown in Figure 14.18(b). Normal pressure
on this element is p, and the area of the element is w r d where w is the width of
the shoe (perpendicular to the plane of the paper). The pressure on the element in
the direction of the force N (vertical), where N is the vertical force pressing the
shoe against the drum,
pn = pr COS 8

+,

120

Figure 14.18 :(a) A Block Pressing against the Brake Drum under a Force N, @) Element
under Uniform Pressure, and (c) Element bavlng Uniform Wear

Clutches and Brakes

Taking force due t o p on the element and integrating it between the limits of

= 2pr wr sin
I

4'

i
i

For small values of 0 = sin

-8= = +8
. . . (i)

=pr wr8
The f r i ~ t i ~ nforce
a l due to N is pNand frictional torque on the drum

. . . (ii)

M,=pNr

=p

:.

pr wr2 8

. . . (14.49)

Also from (ii)

uniform Wear Clopflition, 0 > 6Q.9

of pontact is @eater than 60, the pressqre at the eeds will be less than
If the
that ~ lthg
t genwg. Uniform wear ~pnditionon khe shoe will pbtain. In fact, it is the
wear occurri~gin the d i ~ e ~ofl applied
i ~ ~ force N that will remsin uniform.
Figure 14.18 shows W,is the wear in the direction of N. Its radial component

W, = W, cos I$
I

. . . (iii)

The wear taking place in the radial direction will be proportional to rubbing
velocity, V where

and

wr

= rpm of

drum

P, v

i.e.

Here K, W,,V and C are constants.

Pr=K

w,,cos 4 = C cos 4

. . . (v)

Design of Bearings,
Clutches, Brakes
and CAD

From Figure 14.18(c), the area of the element is w r d 4, hence radial force on the
element is p, w r d = C w r cos d 4. Vertical component of this force can be
integrated to obtain force N on the block.

N=- C w r (0 +sin 8)
2
The frictional torque due to force on the element is
p c w r 2 cos

+ d+

0
M, = 2 p C w r 2 sin 2
From Eq. (14.5 1)
or

C=

. . . (14.52)

2N
w r (8 + sin 0)

Substituting this value of C in Eq. (14.52)

M, =

4pNr
0
sin 0+sin0
2

14.12.1 Pivoted Lever with Rigidly Mounted Shoe

Figure 14.19 shows a rigidly mounted shoe on lever which is pivoted at one end and
actuating effort acts at the other end of the lever. Let this effort be P and the drum rotates
in clockwise direction dragging the shoe. The friction force thus acts to the right on the
shoe, as shown in Figure 14.19. The equal and opposite force will act on the drum to
retard its motion. Consider equilibrium of the shoe-lever assembly under the action of
following forces :
(a) effort P acting downwards at free end of the lever,
(b) friction force F a t the centre of the shoe to the right or in the direction of
rotation, and
(c) the normal reaction between the shoe and the drum acting upwards at the
centre of the shoe.

Figure 14.19 :The Sboe Mounted Rigidly on a Pivoted Lever

Figure 14.19 shows that the fulcrum is at a horizontal distance a and vertical distance c
from the centre of the block and lever arm is 1. As shown in the Figure 14.19 fulcrum
being below the central point of the shoe contact, the frictional force is helping the effort.
However, contribution of F will vanish if fulcrum is on the line of action of F, and F will
have its effect opposing the effort P if the fulcrum of the lever is above the line of F. In
the former case c = 0 while in the latter case c is negative. Thus, for considering
equilibrium of the lever-shoe assembly three distinct conditions exist.
Taking moment about the fulcrum

. . . (i)
But

where, p'

F =plN
= Effective coefficient of

friction.

If angle of contact between shoe and drum 0 I 60, p'

of uniform pressure.

=p

from Eq. (14.50), i.e. condition

If angle of contact between shoe and drum 0 > 60"

8
4p sin -

p1=

0 + sin 0

from Eq. (14.53)

Hence (i) can be written as

N (a

- p1c) = PI
a-p'c

. (iii)
(iii) can be used to calculate the braking torque either from Eq. (14.50) or from
Eq. (14.53) depending upon whether 8 I 60" or 0 > 60".

14.12.2 Shoe Pivoted on Lever

1
I

The braking torque on the brake drum calculated in Section 14.12 given by Eq. (14.53) is
equally applicable to the pivoted shoe shown in Figure 14.20. However, in the case of
pivoted shoe a situation may arise that the friction force may tend to rotate the shoe about
its pivot and in such a case the shoe line will tend to wear unevenly since the tendency to
rotate will cause greater pressure at the toe of the shoe. This tendency may also result in
excessive heat generation and shoe chattering. To avoid this situation the location of the
shoe pivot takes precedence in design and requires that pivot be so located that turning
moment of frictional force about the shoe pivot must vanish. The problem resolves into
determination of distance i between the drum centre and the shoe pivot so that frictional
turning moment about the shoe is zero (Figure 14.20).
In Figure 14.20 a small element subtending an angle d4 at the centre has been chosen and
there acts a normal force dN on this element resulting into a frictional force d F tangential
to the shoe inner surface. This situation has already been considered in Section 14.12 and
presented in Figure 14.17. Assuming uniform wear,

where

dN = p, wr d$ = C w r cos 4 d 4

(W= width of the shoe)

p,

[(v) of Section 14.12;)]

= C cos 4,

C being a constant

Clutches and Brakes

Desigq of Bearings,
Clutches, Brakes
and CAD

Figure 14.20 :A Pivoted Shoe on a Brake Dryq

Figure 14.20 shows that the distance between line of dF qpd tbg centre ~fpivot is
( L cos - r) where L is the radial distance between drum ceqpe and pivat cerltw. Henoo,
the turning moment on the shoe due to F

wr

cos

( L cos2 - r cos 4 ) d+

- -e

= C p wr

+ ( L cos 4 - r )
+

8
--

, , , (i)

4 r sin 2
L=
sin 8 + 8
Thus, if the shoe is pivoted at a distance L given by Eq. (14.54) the fii~tisntorque will
pivot.
not cause rotation of the shoe about t h i ~

A brake &urn with 1.OO m diameter is fitted with double shoe brakes acting upon
outer drum surface is shown in Figure 14.2 1, wherein all relevant dimensions have
been marked. It is desired that a friction torque of 3 kN-m must be kept applied on
the drum by closing shoes on it by a spring force at D. If the coefficient of friction
between drum surface and brake lining is 0.3, calculate the spring force.

Clutches and Brakes

ii

I
!

Figure 14.21 : Brake in Example 14.6

Solution

The spring force already acting upon left hand lever at D is transmitted to right
hand lever through link DC and link ABC which is pivoted to right hand lever a
The link ABC will have to be supported at A by a vertical reaction P.
The free body diagrams of links DC and ABC are shown at (i) and (ii) of
Figure 14.21, respectively and forces acting at points D, C and A , B and C are
marked there.
From (i) of Figure 14.21 considering equilibrium of link DC,with spring force,

From (ii) of Figure 14.21 considering equilibrium of link ABC

F=P+V=P+-

S
2

Taking moment about A

. . . (ii)

. . . (iii)

Now consider the equilibrium of left hand lever.

This lever is in eauilibrium under t8er&ien of Eorces :
V=

downwards at D

S towards right at D

NL towards left at middle of the shoe

p' NL upwards tangential to the inner shoe surface in the middle.
Reaction at the pivot E

Design of Bearings,
Clutches, Brakes
and CAD

8
4p sin 2
(where effective coefficient of friction p' =
8 + sin 8
From Eq. (14.53) because 8 > 60".

8 = 70" = 1:.22radians

The pivot E of the left hand lever is directly below point D, hence, no moment is
caused by V about E. Taking moments about E,

..

NL = 2.4 S

. . . (iv)

The right hand arm is in equilibrium under the action of forces :

S upwards at B along the vertical line FB
S towards left at B

NR towards right at middle of the shoe

p1 NR downwards tangential to the inner surface of the shoe in the middle
and reaction at pivot F.
Taking moment about the pivot F

..

N R = 1.84 S

. . . (v)

The friction torque on the drum due to p' NL and p' NR

or

S = 4422.2 N

. . . (vi)

SAQ 4
(a)

Sketch a shoe block brake with method of applying force on shoe.

(b)

What assumptions are made for pressure between shoe and drum? Describe
condition for each assumption.

(c)

What is effective coefficient of friction in a shoe block and drum?

(d)

An 1800 mm diameter brake drum rotating at 150 rpm clockwise is acted

upon by two brake shoes as shown in Figure 14.22. A single vertical force
of 1350 N acting at the end A of link ABC is applied to stop the drum.
Calculate the normal reactions and frictional forces acting upon left and
right shoes and also the torque acting upon the drum if p = 0.3. Also
calculate the power consumed in braking.

Clutches and Brakes

Design of Bearings,
Clutches, Brakes
and CAD

Figure 14.24 :An Internally Expanding Brake

The brake shown in Figure 14.23 is kept closed in which friction torque remains applied
upon the drum all time except when the drum is required to move. The spring 2 is kept
compressed between retainer 4 and brake shoe lever 3. The spring thus forces shoe on
lever 3 to press against the drum. The displacement of arm 3 causes the pivot 9 to move
to right whereby the link 7 rotates upwards about 9 pulling rod 5 to the left and the right
hand lever 8 is pulled towards left, pressing its shoe on the drum. Thus, both the shoes
pressed against the drum cause it to remain stationary even if the lift or hoist is loaded.
When the machine is required to operate moving up or down, an electric current is
allowed to flow through the electric motor coupled with the drum. At the same time the
current flows through M which houses an electromagnet. The current flow energises the
electromagnet in M and pulls down the rod 6 resulting into rotation of arm 7 about pivot
9, forcing the levers 3 and 8 apart and causing spring 2 to compress further. This releases
the brake drum from friction torque and motor can rotate it. As soon as the current is cut
through the circuit, the magnet releases the rod 6 and spring force brings levers 3 and 8
closer to press the shoes on the drum to create friction torque on the drum. This brake is
thus positive action in nature in the sense that its operatyon permits motion rather than
hinders.
In earlier versions of automobiles band brakes working on outside surface of drums fitted
on axles carrying wheels were used. Such brakes were abandoned in favour of internally
expanding shoe brakes as they were easily affected by dirt and water and had poor heat
dissipation characteristics. Internally expanding shoe brakes are v e j little affected by
dirt and water and can dissipate heat at wheel. The brake shoes 3 and 5 are pivoted on
pin 2 carried in axle casing. A cam 9 is placed between other ends of brake shoes 3 and 5.
A force P pulling the free end of arm 6 can cause the cam to rotate about its axis, thus
causing the shoes to move apart while rotating about pivot 2. The movement of shoes
will bring them in contact with the inner surface of the rotating brake drum and retard the
motion. The retarding torque on the drum will tend to generate reacting torque tending to
rotate the shoes in the direction of its motion. But this action is prevented because pivot
pin 2 is rigidly connected to the axle housing and to the body of automobile. Due to this
anchorage, the pivot pin 2 is also called anchorage pin.

14.14 INTERNALLY EXPANDING SHOE BRAKE

Schematic of internally expanding shoe brake of the type depicted in Figure 14.22 with
one shoe. The shoe is anchored at A while a force P is applied at B. the vertical distance
between A and B is b while theanchor pin A is situated at a radial distance a from the
centre of the drum. The drum is rotating clockwise. The lining on the shoe subtends an
angle 8 at the centre and its nearest edge is at an angle 81 from the anchor A.
As the force P tends to close the shoe on the inside of the drum, a force of reaction is
applied by the drum on the shoe causing the shoe to mtatt about its anchor A. This force
obviously will be perpendicular to any line joining A with the element of shoe
considered. For this purpose a Small element of shoe lining subtending an angle d$ at the
128

centre and at an angle of 4 from the radial line of anchor A is chosen. The pressure on
this element at point C due to rotation about anchor A is perpendicular to the radius from
A and proportional to the radius AC = e. Let this pressure bep,. The radial pressure on
the small element r d 4 is denoted by p,. p,, andp, are represented on left side in
Figure 14.25 by triangle pqs such that sq = p, and pq = p,. With angle spq being right
angle, angle psq is denoted by P.

But

p,, = Ke

(K being a constant)

..

p, = Kesin

With 0 as centre of the drum, OC is the radius of the drum, and OA is distance between
0 and the shoe anchor A., denoted by a. Triangle OAC presents geometrical orientation
of OA = a, OC = r and AC = e. AD is the perpendicular on OC from A. Then
AD = e sin

P = a sin 4

. . . (ii)

Using (ii) in (i)

. . . (iii)

p, = Ka sin 4

Figure 14.25 :An Internally Expanding Sboe Brake

If the width of the shoe lining is w, the area of element

dA = w r d

Thus, the normal force on the elemental area

dN=p, dA=K warsin+d+
The shoe will be in equilibrium under following forces :

(a)

Reaction at anchor,

(b)

Normal force on shoe,

(c)

Frictional force on shoe, p

(d)

Applied force, P.

dN ,

dN,

The condition of equilibrium requires that moments of these forces about anchor must
vanish when summed up algebraically, i.e.

Clutches and Brakes

Design of Bearings,
Clutches, Brakes

or

and CAD

Here, M, is the moment of normal force

anchor A.

dN and Mfis that of friction, p

If P is equal to zero which corresponds to the condition

dN about

5 = I ,the brake is self

Mn

Mf > 1 in which case P will be negative.

locking. It is still called self locking when M,
The friction torque that is applied on the brake, or the torque capacity of brake is
calculated as integration of p d N,,i.e. the moment of fiiction force about the centre of
the drum. Call this friction torque M.

= CL

war^ (cos9,-cos

. . . (v)

02)

It should be remembered that pressure lining made of any material will have a maximum
permissible pressure, p,, already described in Table 14.2. From (iii) it can be seen that
p, will become maximum when sin @ = 1 or

X
4 =.

Substituting this value of K in Bq. (v)

The maximum pressure p,

at 4 =

occurs at @ = - if
2

= .:

However, if 0 - - ,p,
-2

occurs

and in that case

pwr2
M = ~ m a xcos I2 (COS0, - cos 02)

14.14.1 Leading and Trailing Shoes

In an actual brake there are two shoes as shown in Figure 14.26. These shoes have been
marked as L and R for left and right. The shoe on left, which is same as analysed above
and shown in Figure 14.25 is known as the leading shoe while that on the right is called
trailing shoe. If the same force acts on both the shoes at the free end, the maximum
pressure developed in trailing shoe is less than that developed in leading shoe. This will
result in a smaller friction torque on trailing shoe.
In case of leading shoe the friction moment (Mf) and moment due to actuating force (Pb)
are in the same direction about anchor pin, A. Contrarily in case of trailing shoe the
fiiction force moment (Mj) and normal force moment (M,') are in the same direction and
oppose the moment due to actuating force about A. (iv) of Section 14.14 will modify in
case of trailing shoe as,

. . . (i)

Clutches and Brakes

Figure 14.26 :Two Shoes in an Internally Expanding Shoe Brake

The alteration of Mf to Mj and M, to M,' is due to change of maximum pressure from

pmaxtop',,.
Comparison of (iv) and (v) for same value of P will show that

. . . (ii)

Mh+Mj=M,-Mf

Also M,, Mfi M,' can be calculated by usual consideration of small shoe element upon
which the normal force dN is acting. From previous section

- pmax wr sin 4 d 4
M, =

I dN (AE) (for shoe marked L in Figure 14.26)

Substituting AE = e sin f! = a sin 4 from triangle ACE, Figure 14.26

M, = pmax war

sin2 4 d+

'4

- Pmax war

[t

sin 24

e2

01

[02 8,
M, = p m a xwar ---

sin 28,
4

+-I

sin 28,
4

The right or trailing shoe has same geometry as leading shoe but the maximum pressure
is different. This pressure is p',
M A = p & , war

I
I

[%
--- 0,

sin 28,
4

-I

sin 28,
4

Also for leading shoe

Mf =

p dN (EC)

(for shoe marked R in Figure 14.24)

Substituting EC = ( r - a cos 4) from triangle OAE, Figure 14.24

..

M/. = Pmax p wr

sin $ ( r - a cos 4) d4

01

a
- r cos 24 + - cos 4
4

1:

Design of Bearlngs,
Clutches, Brakes

or

a
2
- cos O2 + r cos el - (COS e2
2

MI = ~ m a xP wr

and CAD

And for trailing shoe

cos e2 + r cos 0,

a
2
-(COS e2 -

It may be noted that the leading shoe becomes trailing and vice-versa when the direction
of rotation reverses.
The friction torque capacity of Wailing shoe from Eq. (14.55),
M ' = pkaXm wr2 (COS0,

- cos e 2 )

. . . (14.61)

Hence, total friction torque capacity of the brake

M, = M + M 1

el,

= P wr2 (COS - cos 02 (~max+ ~ h a x

. . . (14.62)

From Eqs. (14.57) and (14.58)

M, =-Pmax Mn
Pmax
From Eqs. (14.60) and (14.61)

..
Pmax
I

Pmax
MA + M j =(Mn + MI)-Pmax

. . . (iii)

From (i), (iii) and (iv) of Section 14.14

..

Pmax
-(Mn
Pmax

+Mf)=Pb

~ k a x= Pmax

. . . (14.63)

Pb
Mn + M y

Having calculated M,, and Mfi Eq. (14.63) can be used to obtainp',,
can be used to calculate the torque capacity of the brake.

and then Eq, (14.62)

Example 14.7
Figure 14.27 shows two internally expanding shoes applying braking torque on a
drum of radius r. Calculate braking torque on the drum under following conditions.
(a)

The actuating force on left shoe is PLand that on the right shoe is PR.

The angle of contact between shoe and drum is small.

For values of dimensions given in Figure 14.27 compare three values of torque
when
I

I
I
I

132

(d)

PL= 670 N, PR= 200 N

(e)

PL= 435 N, PR= 435 N

(f)

PL=~~ON,P~=O

(g)

PL= 200 N, PR= 670 N

Clutches and Brakes

. . . (i)

. . . (ii)

. . . (iii)

~ e s i of
~ nBearings,
Clutches, Brakes
and CAD

M=
(d)

2pPrl
a-pb

. . . (v)

b=r-c=l00-30=70mrn

PLand PRbeing unequal, use (iii)

. . . (vi)
(e)

PLand PRbeing equal, use (iv)

= 2314.2 x

0.03 N-m

. . . (vii)

= 68 N-m

(f)

PR=0,PL=870N

(g)

179.74 N-m
PL and PRare unequal, use (iii)
=

= 5320 [3.88

. . . (viii)

+ 6.71 N-mrn

= 56.4 N-m

For easy comparison the results are tabulated.

Table 14.4

14.14.2 Both Shoes Leading

An interesting modification of design of brake is achieved by making both shoes leading
as shown in Figure 14.28.1feqGal actuating forces, each equal to P, are applied at the
free ends of shoes, the normal reaction Nand friction force pN will act upon each shoe.
Apparently the torque capacity of such a brake will be twice that of left or right brake.
This torque will be higher than that in case of one leading and one trailing shoe with
equal actuating forces. From Figure 14.27 by taking moments about anchor of shoe L,

N, = p Nb + PI

..

N = - PI
a-pb

and

P = N (a - C1 b)
1

...

. . . (ii)

Clutches and Brakes

6
Figure 14.28 : A Brake with Two Leading Shoes

The torque capacity of brake, for two leading shoes

M = 2p Nr
-

where r = Radius of drum.

2p PI r
a-pb

. . . (iii)

This may be compared with the torque capacity of brake having one leading and other
trailing shoe. It has been shown in Example 14.7, that torque capacity of such a brake is,
(see (iv) of Example 14.7),

Thus, it is seen that torque capacity of a brake with both leading shoes under equal
actuating forces is greater than that of a brake having a leading and a trailing shoe under
equal actuating forces. The amount by which former exceeds the latter depends upon
b
ratio - and coefficient of friction.
a

The advantage of the above fact is taken in automobiles by designing brakes having both
shoes as leading and equal actuating forces are made to fact on both shoes by use of
pivoted hydraulic cylinders. One such brake is shown in Figure 14.29. It must be
recognised that if drum reverses its rotation, as is the case when automobile is moving in
back gear, the torque capacity of brake will reduce tremendously as both shoes will
become trailing shoes. Calling the torque in this situation, i.e. when both shoes act as
trailing M', than

. . . (vi)
Comparing (vi) and (iv)

M' - a - p b
---=I--

~b

. . . (vii)

Design of Bearings,
Clutches, Brakes
and CAD

Figure 14.29 :An Automobile Bake with Both Shoes Leading

This shows M' will reduce as compared to MRLand thus braking capacity of car brakes
will reduce considerably in the back gear. To avoid such loss, in automobiles front brakes
have both shoes as leading but rear brakes have one leading shoe and other trailing shoe.
I

In a simple design of brakes as shown in Figure 14.28 and 14.29 where angle of contact
is small the pressure may be assumed to be distributed uniformly. If angle of contact is 8
and width of the shoe (or lining on shoe) is w, then the pressure on lining under a normal
force N will be,
(vii)
Yet another advantage of having both shoes leading is that they are subjected to equal
pressure and hence equal wear. The trailing shoe will be subjected to lesser pressure in
leading-trailing shoe combination and hence lining on leading shoe will wear faster
needing more frequent replacement. Following example will demonstrate how the
pressure on the shoes will vary for several conditions of forces.
Example 14.8

In a brake with internally expanding shoes as shown in Figure 14.27, the

dimensions are as under :

The coefficient of frictiori between shoe lining and brake drum is 0.4. Calculate
brake torque capacity and pressure on each of leading and trailing shoes if
following actuating forces are applied. (PR and PLdenote forces respectively on
trailing and leading shoes). The width of shoe lining is 45 mm. 8 = 25"
(a)

PL=700N,PR=300N

Discuss the results, comparing with the situation when both shoes act leading
under equal actuating forces as in (c).
Solution

Refer Figure 14.28 and note the direction of normal forces NL,NRand friction
forces p NL and p NRon shoes.
Taking moments of PL,NP and p NL about anchor pin of leading shoe,

Similarly by taking moments of PR,NRand p NRabout anchor pin of trailing shoe

. . . (ii)
Substituting 1 = 150 mm, a = 80 mm, b = 100 - 0 = 100 mm and p = 0.4

. . . (iii)
. (iv)
(a)

Substituting PL
= 700 N and PR= 300 N in (iii) and (iv)
*-*
,

NL = 3.750 x 700 = 2625 N

NR = 1.25 x 300 = 375 N
Hence, braking torque MLand MRon leading and trailing shoes
ML = p r NL = 0 . 4 x 2625x 100=105 N-m

:.

Total brake torque

M = ML + M R = 105 + 15 = 120N-m

. . . (v)

The area of shoe lining bearing normal force

A = wr 0

. . (vi)
Hence, the pressure intensitiespLand pR

. . . (vii)
(b)

Substituting PL= 300, PR= 700 N in (iii), (iv)

NL = 3.75 x 300 = 1125 N

Hence, braking torque MLand MRon leading and trailing shoes

I
t

ML = p NLr=0.4x1125x100=45N-m
MR = p N R r =0.4x875 x l 0 0 = 3 5 N-m

:. Total brake torque

M

= ML

+ MR = 45 + 35 = 80 N-m

. . . (viii)

The pressure intensitiespLand pR

. . . (ix)

Clutches and Brakes

Design of Bearing,
Clutches, Brakes

(c)

Substituting PL PR= 500 N

and CAD

NL = 3.75 x 500 = 1875 N

NR = 1.25 x 500 = 625 N
Hence, braking torque MLand MR

M L= p NLr=0.4x1875x100=75N-m
M R = p NRr = 0.4x 625 x 100 = 25 N-m

:.

Total brake torque

The pressure intensities p~and p,

. . . (xi)
(d)

When both shoas act leading with PL= PR= 500 N

NL = NR = 3.75,PL = 3.75x 500 = 1875 N

M L= M R = p NLr =0.4x 1875x 100= 75 N-m

Also pL = pR =

875= 0.96~ / r n m ~
1962.5

The results are tabulated below for comparison

Table

From the above table it comes out very clearly that the case of both shoes leading
is advantageous in terms of brake torque, although the pressure intensity on shoes
lining is quite high. It may be compensated by having a wider lining.
Case (a) is the worst in which p~is 7.05times as large as p ~ .
Case (c) also is not very good because

a is quite high at 3.
PR

This will cause leading shoe to wear three times faster than trailing shoe.
slightly higher than I, though brake torque in

Case (b) has to advantage of

PR
this case is vtry low.

Clutches and Brakes

SAQ 5
(a)

Where do you use internally expanding shoe brakes? Distinguish between

leading and trailing shoe brakes.

(b)

Show forces acting on a pair of leading and trailing shoe brakes. How do
you arrange shoe brakes in an automobile?

(c)

Sketch shoe brake arrangement in a car.

(d)

Show that braking capacity of a brake with both shoes leading is greater
than that of a brake having a leading and a trailing shoe if same actuating
force is applied. Find the ratio of torque if the force on both leading shoes is
20% greater and distance of anchor pin from centre of contact is 20%
smaller than distance force from centre of contact.

14.15 SUMMARY
A clutch is a machine member used to connect a driving shaft to a driven shaft so that the
driven shaft may be started or stopped at will, without stopping the driving shaft. Jaw and
friction are two kinds of clutches used in different machines.
A brake is a machine element which is used to either bring a machine to rest or retard the
motion when driving force has either caused to act or is still acting. In the process of
performing this function, the brake absorbs either kinetic energy of the moving member
or potential energy given by objects being lowered by hoists, elevators, etc. The energy
absorbed by brakes in dissipated in the form of heat. This heat is dissipated in the
surroundings air (or water which is circulated through the passages in the brake drum) so
that excessive heating of the brake lining does not take place.

The major functional difference between a clutch and a brake is that a clutch is used to
keep the driving and driven member moving together whereas brakes are used to stop a
moving member or to control its speed.

14.16 KEY WORDS

Clutch

: A clutch is a device which is used to connect or

disconnect the driving and driven shafts at will

without stopping the driving shaft.
Centrifugal Clutch

: Centrifugal clutches have been designed and

produced with an objective to have an automated
clutch which will engage when the speed of
driving shaft increases to certain predetermined
value and will disengage when speed reduces to
the same value.

J a w Clutch

: The jaw clutch permits one shaft to drive another

through a direct contact of interlocking jaws.

Friction Clutch

: Friction clutch is used to connect the engine to the

drive shaft.

Brakes

: A brake is a device to stop a moving member or to

control its speed.

Band Brake

: Band brake is made of band of belt or steel band

limited with brake lining lapping a part of brake
drum.

Design of Bearings,
Clutches, Brakes

14.17 ANSWSERS TO SAQs

and CAD

SAQ 2

(c)

Call this as Case 11.

Use Eq. (14.28) to calculate motor torque,

Here I, = 1.2 kg-m2, I2 = 4.73 kg-m2, ol= 3 1,42 radlsec, t l = 1.5 sec.

. . . (i)

= 20.05 N-m

Now equating (iii) of Example 14.4 with (i)

Also

P = 637.5 N

Power of motor = M, o = 20.05 x 3 1.42 = 0.63 kW

. . . (ii)
. . . (iii)
. (iv)

From Eq. (14.3 1) energy dissipated in Case 11

. . . (v)

= 472 J

From Eq. (14.34) energy dissipated in Case I

. . . (vi)
(vii)
(i) to (vii) are answers.
SAQ 3

(c)

The torque on the drum

M , = 980 N-m = (T, - T2)

400 x 1o
2

-~
. . . (i)

3= e n 0 , 0 = 3 6 0 - 12O= 240'
T2

= 1.33 nrad

Clutches and Brakes

Substitute T I = 2.84 Tz in (i)

T2 = 2636 N and

or

. . . (ii)

= 7563 N

To determine the perpendicular distance between line of TI and hlcrum use

triangle BCD in which BC = 80 mm and CD is the required distance

To cause tension T I ,P will act upward. Taking moments about the

fulcrum B

. . . (iii)
Steel Band
From p,,,

6
=wr

T I = 7563 N , r = 200 mm, p,,,

where

-= 0.5

Nlmm 2

. . . (iv)
From TI = w t ol

T, = 7563 N, o, = 70 MPa, w = 75.63 rnm

where

. . . (v)
Shaft and Key
Shaft will be designed only for torque. Refer to Section 14.7 of this
unit.
Torque

M,

= 0.75

nd3
16

--=.v

Here d = Diameter of shaft,

T, = Permissible

shearing stress

= 50 MPa

M,

= 980 x

10) N-m

Substituting above values in the expression for torque

..

d=51.035 say52mm

. . . (vi)

A square section key will be used with

(vii)
Lengthofkey=[= 1 . 8 d = 1.18 x 52 =61.36mm

. . . (viii)

141

Design of Bearings,
Clutches, Brakes

Lever
Lever is designed to sustain bending moment caused by the force P at
the fulcrum.

and CAD

BM = P x L = 582 x 520 = 302640 N-mrn

The section of the arm is taken as rectangular with depth = D and
width = B, such that D = 2 B.
BM

Thus,

(31

6(BM) --- 3 (BM)

BD'
2 B~

Substituting o,= 70 ~ l r n r nBM

~ , = 302640 N-mm

..

B = 18.64 mmand D = 37.3 mm

. . . (ix)

Fulcrum Pin
Vertical force on the pin
= T, sin 30

+ T2 + P

Horizontal force on the pin

=

:.

cos 30 = 7563 x 0.87 = 6549.75

Resultant force, V = d(7026.5)~+ (6549.75)' = 9605.8 N

The pin is in double shear. If diameter = dl

x
9605.8 = 2 x - x d: x 50
4

i.e.

(iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix) and (x) are answers.
(d)

From Eq. (14.48)

Put

p = 0.4,8 = 5' hence tan 5' = 0.0875, n = 24

. . . (i)
Refemng to Figure 14.15, take moments about C,

Clutches and Brakes

Substitute To = 2000 N, a = 100 mm, b = 80 mm, 1= 800 mm

and

. . . (iii)

Going back to (ii) and substituting for P, To, I, b and a,

2 1 2 . 8 ~ 8 0 0 +Tn x 80- 2000x 1 0 0 = 0

..

. . . (iv)

T,, = 732 N

This may also be calculated from (i)

L

Effective diameter of brake drum

D, = Diameter of brake drum + Radial thickness of block

= (1.0

+ 0.7) = 1.07 m

The braking torque

= (2000 - 372)

= 871 N-m

The angular velocity

Power loss = Braking torque x o

. . . (v)
(iii) and (v) are answers.

(d)

i
I

On the left in Figure 14.22 is shown free body diagram of link ABC. The
forces acting in horizontal direction (H) and vertical direction (V) at points
A, B and C have been marked at points A, B and C. Applying conditions of
equilibrium,

Now consider the equilibrium of link CD whose free body diagram is shown
on the right in Figure 14.22,

. . . (ii)
1300 Vc = 200 He = 200 x 5062.5
or

Vc = 778.9 N = VD
V, = 1350 + 778.9 = 2128.9 N

. . . (iii)
. . . (iv)

Design of Bearings,
Clutches, Brakes
and CAD

Figure for SAQ 4(d)

If NL denotes the normal force on the left hand shoe, then remembering that
following forces act on the lever pivoted at F ,

H B = 5062.5 N

+,V,

= 2128.9 N

&, NL t and 0.3 NL ?,

take moments about F,

H B x (875 + 800) + VB x 150 - NL x 800 + 0.3 NL x 200 = 0

..

NL =

5062.5 x 1675 + 2128.9 x 150

=
740

890.6

. . . (v)

Similarly considering equilibrium of right hand shoe and lever under forces;
HD= 5062.5 N t,VD= 778.9 N ?, NR+ and p NR4, taking moments about
pivot E,

. . . (vi)
Hence, the braking torque on the drum, since 8 = 60"

M,= 0.3 (NL + N R ) x 0.9 N-m

i.e.

M, = 5860.5 N-m

. . . (vii)

Power consumed in braking = M, o

. . . (viii)
(v), (vi), (vii) and (viii) are answers.

CHAPTERS
Home

Chapter 1 : Flat and V-Belts

Topics
Chapter 1 : Flat & V-Belts
Chapter 2 : Chains & Ropes
Chapter 3 : Spur and Helical
Gears

1.1 INTRODUCTION:

Chapter 4 : Sliding and Rolling

Bearing
Chapter 5 : Bevel and Worm
Gears

Chapter 6 : Flywheel

Chapter 7 : Springs
Chapter 8 : Clutches and Brakes
Chapter 9 : Lubrication &
Cooling

Chapter 10 : Basics of CAD

Power can be transmitted either by flexible or nonflexible

type of machine elements.
In flexible elements, the center distance can be changed
conveniently and in nonflexible type of machine elements, the
centre distance cannot be changed.
The flexible type of elements are: belts, chains, and ropes.
The nonflexible type of elements are : gears, clutches,
couplings, and power screws.
Flexible elements are used for power transmission over long
distances and non flexible type over short distances.

1.1.1 Factors for Selection of Belt Drive:

The following factors must be considered while selecting a belt
drive:
1. Speed of driving and driven shaft.
2. Speed reduction ratio.
3. Power to be transmitted.
4. Centre distance of hafts.
5. Space available.
6. Layout of shaft.
1.1.2 Factors on which Coefficient of Friction Depends:
The coefficient of friction between belt and pulley depends upon the
following factors1. Belt material.
2. Pulley material.
3. Belt slip.
4. Belt speed.
1.1.3 Classification of Flat Belt Drives:

Flat belts can be used for horizontal, vertical, quarterturn, right

angled, crossed and reversed drive. Flat belt drives are classified
as:

1.1.4 Slip in Flat Belt drive:

Slip is the relative motion between the belt and the pulley rim. The
slip is given by, s = total percentage slip on the pulleys

1.1.5 Crowning of pulley rim:

A convex curvature (called crowning) is given to the pulley rim

to make the belt run in the middle of the pulley width.
The crowning depends upon the diameter and width of the
pulley rim.

1.1.6 Selection of FlatBelts from Manufacturers Catalogue:

The following information is required to select the flatbelt from

manufacturers catalogue:
1. Power to be transmitted

2. Input and output speeds.

3. Centre distance available.
The basic procedure for belt selection from the catalogue of the
Dunlop Rubber Co. (India) Ltd. is as follows:
1. Calculate the maximum power transmitted by the belt from the
rated power:

The rated power is based on 180 angle of arc of contact. For

this angle less than1800the belt is required to carry additional
tension.

2.For this purpose a factor called arc of contact factor Fd is used to

calculate the corrected power to be transmitted be the belt:

3. Calculate the corrected power rating for the belt:

Where v = belt velocity, rn/s

4. Calculate the product of (width x number of plies):
Width x number i of plies = corrected power/corrected kW rating

5. Select the standard belt width and number of plies

1.1.7 Creep in Belts

Elastic creep in belt drive.

The tension on the tight side of a belt drive is more than the
tension on the slack side.
As a result of this, the belt is stretched more on the tight side
as compared to the slack side.
Therefore, the driver pulley receives more length of the belt
and delivers less. Hence, the belt creeps (jumps) forward.
The reverse occurs on the driven pulley, which receives less
length of the belt and delivers more.
Thus the belt creeps backward. This phenomenon is called
creeping of belt;

Creep = (F1 F2)/(btE)

Where F1, F2 = tensions on the tight and slack sides respectively b,
t = width and thickness of belt respectively
E = Youngs modulus of elasticity of belt material.
Example 1.1
It is required to select a flatbelt drive for a compressor
running at 720 rpm, which is driven by a 25 kW, 1440 rpm
motor. Space is available for a centre distance of 3 m. The
belt is open type.
Solution

Example 1.2
A leather belt is used in a flat- belt drive to transmit 15 kW
from a motor pulley running at 1440 rpm to another pulley
running at 480 rpm. The centre distance between the pulleys
is twice the diameter of the bigger pulley. The belt should
operate at a velocity of 20 nls approximately. The maximum
stress in the belt should not exceed 2.25 MPa, The density of
3
leather is 950 kg/m and the coefficient of friction is 0.35.
The belt thickness is 5 mm. Calculate the length and width of
belt.
Solution

1.2 V-BELTS
1.2.1 Characteristics of VBelt Drive The characteristics of V belt
drive are:

1. It requires a grooved pulley.

2. The belt comes into contact with the sides of the pulley groove
only.
3. The belts are endless.
4. It gives more positive drive than flat belts.
5. The slip of thebelt is less as compared to flat belts.
6. The wedging action of the belt in the pulley groove offset the
decrease in the arc of contact.
7. V- belts are used as a matched set.
8. The pulley groove angle is 40.
9. They are suitable for speed ratio upto 7 and belt speed upto 25
rn/s.
10. The size of a V belt is specified by the crosssection followed
by inside length.
1.2.2 Equivalent coefficient of friction
Fig. 1.1 shows a V - belt in a grooved pulley. The normal force on
the belt face is,

Example 1.3 Design a V- belt drive to transmit 7.5 kW from

an induction motor running at

1440 rpm to a fan running approximately at 480 rpm. The

serviceis for 24 hours per day. Centre distance is 1.25 m

Solution.

Example 1.4 A pulley of 0.5 m diameter revolving at 200 m is

to transmit 4.52 kW. Find the width of leather belt if the
maximum tension is not to exceed 145 N in 10mm width. The
tension in tight side is twice that in slack side. Determine the
diameter of shaft and the dimension of various parts of the
pulley assuming it to have six arms. Maximum shear stress is
not to exceed 63 MPa.

Solution.

Example 1.5 A centrifugal blower is to be belt driven around

600 r.p.m. by a 15 KW, 1450 r.p.m. electric motor. It has
been decided to use minimum possible centre distance to
make the system compact. Select suitable flat leather belt
for the purpose.
Solution.

Example 1.6 A Vbelt drive transmits 25 HP frotiia 250 mm

diameter V-pulley, operating at 1800 r.p.m. to a 900 mm
diameter pulley. The centre distance is im and the groove
angle is 40. Take = 0.2. If the weight of the belt is
0.O1N/cm3 and allowable stress is 2N/mm2 for belt
material, what will be the number of belts required if C-size
2
V belts having 2.3cm cross-sectional area are used.

10

Example 1.7 What is power rating of a belt?

Solution.
It is the power transmitting capacity of a belt based on 180 angle
of arc of contact and a speed of 1440 rpm of the faster pulley.

11

Example 1.8
Design a V-belt drive to connect a 7.5 kW, 1440 rpm
induction motor to a fan, running at approximately 480 rpm,
for a service of 24 hrs. per day. Space is available for a
centre distance of about 1 m

Solution.

Exampie 1.9 Are the angles of groove in a V-belt pulley equal

to angle of V-belt? If not, why?
Solution.

No, because the V-belt contracts while transmitting power,

therefore the pulley groove angle is made a little smaller than
the angle of belt.
If this is not done then the belt will start touching the bottom of
the pulley groove in a very short period of operation and no
allowance will be available after some wear of the belt.

Example 1.12 List at least four materials for flat belt?

12

Solution.
1,
2.
3.
4.

Leather
Fabric
Balata
Rubber

Example 1.13 List the advantages and disadvantages of Flat

belt, V-belt, rope and chain?
Solution.

Advantages:
1. Can be used for short as well as long centre distances.
2. A number of shafts can be driven in the same or opposite
directions from a single driving sprocket.
3. More compact drive as compared to belt and rope drives.
4. High efficiency.
5. More positive drive, i.e. less slip.
6. No fire hazards and temperature effects.

7. Can be easily replaced.

Disadvantages
1. Unsuitable for precise motion due to polygonal effect and wear of
joints.

2. Require precise alignment of shafts.

3. Require proper maintenance, lubrication and slack adjustment.

Example 1.14 What do you understand by V-flat pulley?

Solution.
It is a flat pulley used to transmit motion by means of a V-belt.

Example 1.15 Select a suitable flat belt and pulley for

transmitthig 30 kW at 100 rpm from one
shaft to another shaft running at 250 rpm. Also design both
driver and driven shaft
considering that the weight of pulley is 1.3 times that of the
weight of the rim. The
driver pulley is located at the centre of the two bearing
300mm apart. The driven pulley
is overhung by 100 mm.

Solution.

13

14

15

16

Example 1.16 Two shafts whose centres are 1 Metre apart

are connected by a V-belt drive. The driving pully is supplied
with 95 kW power and has an effective diameter of 300 mm.
It runs at 1000 r.p.m. while the driven pulley runs at 375
r.p.m..The angle of groove on the pulley is 400. Permissible
tension in 400 mm2 cross-sectional area belt is 2.1 MPa. The
material of the belt has density of 1100 kg! m3, The driven
pulley is overhung, the distance of the centre from the
nearest bearing being 200 mm. The coefficient of friction
between belt and pulley rim is 0.28. Estimate: (a) The
number of belts required; and (b) Diameter of driven pulley
shaft, if permissible shear stress is 42 MPa.
Solution.

17

Example 1.17 Design a belt drive to transmit 110 kW for a

system consisting of two pulley of diameters 0.9 m and 1.2
m, centre distance of 3.6 m, a belt speed 20 m/ s, coefficient
of friction 03, a slip of 1 2% at each pulley and 5% friction
loss at each shaft, 20% over load

18

19

Machine Design 2

CHAPTERS
Home

Chapter 2 : Chains & Ropes

Topics
Chapter 1 : Flat & V-Belts
Chapter 2 : Chains & Ropes
Chapter 3 : Spur and Helical
Gears
Chapter 4 : Sliding and Rolling
Bearing
Chapter 5 : Bevel and Worm
Gears

2.1 CHAINS
2.1.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of chain drive over belt
and rope drives.

Chapter 6 : Flywheel
Chapter 7 : Springs
Chapter 8 : Clutches and Brakes
Chapter 9 : Lubrication &
Cooling
Chapter 10 : Basics of CAD

Advantages
1. Can be used for short as well as long centre distances.
2. A number of shafts can be driven in the same or opposite
directions from a single driving sprocket.
3. More compact drive as compared to belt and rope drives.
4. High efficiency.
5. More positive drive, i.e. less slip.
6. No fire hazards and temperature effects.
7. Can be easily replaced.

Disadvantages
1. Unsuitable for precise motion due to polygonal effect and
wear of joints.
2. Require precise alignment of shafts.
3. Require
adjustment.

proper

maintenance,

4. Generates noise.

2.1.2 Types of Chains

The chains are classified as:
(a) Transmission chains.
(b) Hoisting and hauling chains.

lubrication

and

slack

The transmission chains are used for power transmission

and hoisting and hauling chains are used for lifting of load.
The hoisting and hauling chains are of the following two
types, as shown in Fig. 2.1.

1. Chain with oval links:

The links of this chain are oval in shape. The cross-Section

of the link is generally circular.
The Joint should be perpendicular to the line of action of the
load where the stress is minimum.
The joint is generally welded.
The sprockets for these chains have receptacles to receive
the links.
These chains are used at low speeds such as chain hoists.

2. Chains with square links:

The links of this chain are of square shape. Such type of

chains are used in hoists, and cranes.

2.1.3 Chordal (or polygonal) Effect in Chain

The chain passes around the sprocket as a series of chordal

links.
This action is similar to that of a non-slipping belt wrapped
around a rotating polygon.
The chordal action on a sprocket having only four teeth is
shown in Fig. 2.2.
In Fig. 2.2(a), the chain link AB Is at a distance of (D/2)
from the center of the sprocket wheel.
Its linear velocity is given by,

As the sprocket rotates through an angle

the chain link AB is shown in Fig. 2.2(b).

the position of

In this case, the link is at a distance of (D/2) cos

from
the center of the sprocket and its linear velocity is given by

Therefore, the linear speed of the chain is not uniform but

varies from VmaxtoVminduring every cycle of tooth
engagement.
This results in a pulsating and jerky motion.
The variation in velocity is given by

In order to decrease the velocity variation, the number of

teeth on the sprocket should be increased.
For smooth operation at moderate and high speeds, it is
considered a good practice to use a driving sprocket with at
least 17 teeth.
From durability and noise considerations, the minimum
number of teeth on the driving sprocket is 19 or 21.
It is better to use odd number of teeth on the driving
sprocket with an even number of chain links for more
uniform wear.
This also ensures that the same link does not come into
contact with the same sprocket teeth in every rotation.
The maximum number of teeth recommended on the
sprocket wheel are 100 to 120.

2.2 ROPES

Basically there are two types of ropes: fiber ropes and

metallic ropes.

Fiber ropes are made of hemp: Cotton, sisal, manila, jute,

nylon, poly-propylene and coir.
Metallic ropes are made of steel, aluminum alloys, copper,
bronze and stainless steel.
Fiber ropes are generally used where flexibility is a utmost
importance, low power transmission, as in instrument
devices.
Metallic ropes are generally made of steel wirewith either
fiber core or metallic core.

2.2.1 Steel Wire Ropes

A wire rope is made up of strands and a strand is made up

of one or more layers of wires.
The number of strands in a rope denotes the number of
groups of wires that are laid over the central core.
For Example:- A 6 x 19 wire iope construction means that
the rope has 6 strands and each strand is composed of 19
(12/6/1) wires.
It means that there are 114 wires in the rope.
The tensile designation of the wire rope corresponds to the
minimum tensile strength of the wire in N/mm2.
Some of the steel wire ropes are shown in Fig. 2.3.

2.2.3 Selection of a Wire RopeThe following points must be considered while making a choice
for a wire rope:
1. Strength
2. Abrasion resistance
3. Flexibility
4. Resistance to crushing
5. Fatigue strength, and
6. Corrosion resistance.

2.2.4 Number of Bends

When a wire rope passes over drums and pulleys, it bends.

It has been found that rope life is approximately inversely

proportional to the number of bends.
One bend means the transition of the rope either from its
straight position to a bent one or from a bent position into a
straight one.
Reverse bending is equal to two single bends towards the
same side.

The ratio of
minimum diameter of pulley, d =
rope diameter) for a given number of bids are given in
Table 2.1.

2.2.5 Stresses in the Wire RopeThe following stresses induced in hoisting ropes:
1. Direct tensile stress due to load hoisted and the weIght of the
rope.
2. Stresses due to bending of the rope over the sheave.
3. Starting stresses, and
4. Stresses due to change df rope speed including stops.
1. Direct tensile stress
The direct tensile stress is given by:-

Example 2.1 Select a suitable steel wire rope for a mine

hoist carrying a load of 2 tones to be lifted from a depth
of 100m. A rope speed of 10 ns must be attained in 10
seconds.
Solution.

Example 2.2 Sketch a 6 x 19 wire rope and name its

parts?
Solution.
The sketch of 6 x 19 wire rope is shown in Figure.

Example 2.3 A 6 x 19 wire rope with fiber core and

tensile designation 1420 is used to raise a load. The
nominal diameter of the wire rope and the sheave
diameter are 10 and 450 mm respectively. Assuming long
life
on the basis of fatigue consideration.
Determine the maximum load (including the weight of
wire rope) that the wire rope can carry.

Example 2.5 In the context of wire rope explain the

meaning of 6 x17.
Solution.
6 x 17 wire rope means that it has .6 strands and there are 17
wires in each strand. Thus there are 102 wires in total in the
rope.

Example 2.6 It is required to design a chain drive to

connect at 10 kW, 1440 rpm electric motor to centrifugal
pump running at 720 rpm. The service conditions involve
moderate shock. select a suitable roller chain and give
list of its specification.
Solution.

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Example 2.7
Select a suitable chain drive to transmit 30 kW from an
electric motor running at 1200 rpm to a line shaft
running at 250 rpm. Motor shaft diameter is 60 mm and
the centre distance is approximately 600 mm. Service is
10 hr/day, 6 days a week. Good lubrication condition is
expected.

Solution.

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Machine Design 2

CHAPTERS
Home

Chapter 6 : Flywheel

Topics
Chapter 1 : Flat & V-Belts
Chapter 2 : Chains & Ropes

6.1

Chapter 9 : Lubrication &

Cooling

INTRODUCTION
A flywheel is a heavy body rotating about its axis. It acts as a
reservoir of energy which is stored in the form of kinetic energy.
The extra energy is stored during the idle stroke of the driven
machinery and released during the working stroke. Thus the
flywheel controls the fluctuation of speed during each cycle of
the driven machinery. In the case of a prime mover, the
flywheel absorbs the excess energy during the expansion stroke
and releases during the suction, compression and exhaust
strokes.

Chapter 10 : Basics of CAD

6.2 DEFINITIONS

Chapter 3 : Spur and Helical

Gears
Chapter 4 : Sliding and Rolling
Bearing
Chapter 5 : Bevel and Worm
Gears
Chapter 6 : Flywheel
Chapter 7 : Springs
Chapter 8 : Clutches and Brakes

3 TYPES OF FLYWHEELS

The flywheels can be of the following types:

1. Solid disc type

2. Rimmed type with either arms or solid web.

Solid disc type flywheels are rarely used because they have less
capacity of storing energy. Rimmed type of flywheels with arms
are preferred because they can store more energy. Small
rimmed type flywheels are manufactured with solid web or holes
drilled in the web.

Example6.7 In a flywheel, the major axis of the elliptical

sectionof the arm is the plane of rotation. Write down the
reason for this arrangement.

Solution.
The arms may have to carry the full torque load due to the
high inertia of the fly
when the energy input to its shaft is cut off. The arm may be
assumed as a cantilever fixed at the hub and carrying the load
at the rim end. This bending moment lies in t.:
plane of rotation of the flywheel, as shown in Fig. 1. Therefore,
the major axis of the arms must be parallel to the tangential
force F acting on the flywheel.

Example6.11

A cast iron flywheel of 1.2 m diameter is to be designed for a

four stroke engine which develops 75 kW at 300 rpm. The total
fluctuation of speed may be limited to 5% of mean speed. The
work done during the working stroke is 1.4 times the average
work done during the whole cycle The peripheral speed is
limited to 3OnVs Assume allowable shear stress for the shaft
and key as 40 MPa and for cast iron in tension as 20 MPa. The
arms are elliptical in cross-section with major axis as twice the
minor axis. There are 6 arms. Design the flywheel.
Solution.

Example6.12
On what basis the material of flywheel is selected?
Solution.
1. High tensile strength.
2. High fatigue strength.
3. Low shrinkage.

Example6.13 A single cylinder internal combustion engine

working on the four-s1roke cycle develops 75 kW at 360 r p m
1 he fluctuation of energy can be assumed to be 09 times the
energy developed per cycle, if the fluctuation of speed is not to
exceed 1 per cent and the maximum centrifugal stress in the
flywheel is to be 5.5 MPa, estimate the mean diameter and the
cross-sectional area of the rim. The material of the rim has a
density of 7200 kg/rn3.

Solution

Machine Design 2

CHAPTERS
Home

Chapter 7 : Springs

Topics
Chapter 1 : Flat & V-Belts
Chapter 2 : Chains & Ropes
Chapter 3 : Spur and Helical
Gears
Chapter 4 : Sliding and Rolling
Bearing
Chapter 5 : Bevel and Worm
Gears
Chapter 6 : Flywheel
Chapter 7 : Springs
Chapter 8 : Clutches and Brakes
Chapter 9 : Lubrication &
Cooling
Chapter 10 : Basics of CAD

7.1
INTRODUCTION
A spring may be defined as an elastic body whose function is to
absorb energy in the form of strain energy when loaded and
release that energy on unloading. The main applications of a
spring are:

1. To absorb energy due to either shock or vibration as in the

case of a vehicle springs, railway buffers, shock absorbers and
vibration dampers.
2. To apply force as in the case of brakes, clutches and spring
loaded safety valves.
3. To control motion by maintaining contact between two
elements as in a cam and follower.
4. To measure forces as in a spring balance and engine
indicators.
5. To store energy as in watches and toys.

7.2
TYPES OF SPRINGS
The various types of springs are

1.Helical springsThey are made up of a wire coiled in the

form of a helix. They are used for tensile or compressive
loading. In the case of close-coiled helical spring, the helix
angle is generally less than 100. A close coiled helical spring
is shown in Fig.
Such springs are subjected to torsional shear stresses only. If
the helix angle is more than 100 then the spring is called open
coiled helical spring. Such springs are subjected to both
bending and shear stresses.

2.Flat spiral springsThese springs are made of flat wire and

wound in the form of a spiral. They are mainly used in clocks
and are subjected to bending stresses.

3.Torsion springsIt is a device, used to transmit the torque

to a particular component of a machine or mechanism. The
spring can be loaded by a torque about the axis of the coils.
They resist bending moment.

4.Laminated (or carriage or leaf) springsThese springs

consist of graduated leaves assembled by U clips. They are
subjected to bending stresses and are widely used in vehicles.

Example7.1
Design a closecoiled helical compression spring to sustain a
load ranging from 250 N to 300 N The axial deflection of the
spring is limited to 8 mm Assume a spring index of8.Th
permissible shear tress in the spring wire is 420 MPa and
modulus of rigidity is 84GPa.
Solution.

7.4
LEAF SPRINGS
These springs are made of a number of graduated overlapping
flat plates The thickness and width of the plates is kept
constant This gives a beam of uniform strength The plates are
assembled with a clamp The springs can be semielliptical or
quarterelliptical A semielliptical spring is shown in Fig 73
The longest leaf is fastened to the supports.

It is called the main or master leaf To take up the shear at the

ends, two or more leaves can be made of full length Their ends
are bent to form an eye The centre bolt holds the leaves
together.

The U-clips reduces the bending stresses in the central part of

the spring The rebound clips serve to distnbute some of the
load to the shorter leaves which otherwise would be taken by
the master leaf alone Half the difference in length between two
neighbouring leaves is called the overlap.

7.4.3 Graduated and Full Length Leaves

The bending moment at the ends of the semielliptical spring
is zero I his shall require zero width of leaves at the ends. But
there is maximum shear force at the ends. Therefore, to take
up the shear force at the ends and to stiffen the leaves at the
ends, two or more leaves are made of full length, as shown in
Fig 74

Example79Whatiscurvatureeffectinhelical springs
Solution.
When the wire is bent in the form of a helical coil, the length of
th inside fibre is - than the length of the outside fibre This
results m stress-concentration at the inside f
of the coil Due to the greater curvature on the inside surface
the resultant stress is morel on the inside fibres This is taken
care of by the Wahis stress-concentration factor which accouts
for curvature and direct shear stress effects

Example7.10 What should be the desirable properties

of spring materials

Solution.
1. High fatigue strength.

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2 High ductility.
3. High resilience
4. High creep resistance.

Example711Whatistheadvantageofgraduatingtheleaves
of a laminated leaf spring

Solution.
The bending moment at the ends of the semi-elliptical spring is
zero This shall require zero width of leaves at the ends But
there is maximum shear force at the ends Therefore, to take up
the shear force at the ends and to stiffen the leaves at the
ends, two or more leaves are made of full length

Example7.12Aspringistobedesignedwhichissubjectedtoa
load varying from 04 kN to 1 kN Use proper steel wire

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Machine Design 2

CHAPTERS
Home

Chapter 8 : Clutches and Brakes

Topics
Chapter 1 : Flat & V-Belts
Chapter 2 : Chains & Ropes
Chapter 3 : Spur and Helical
Gears
Chapter 4 : Sliding and Rolling
Bearing
Chapter 5 : Bevel and Worm
Gears
Chapter 6 : Flywheel
Chapter 7 : Springs
Chapter 8 : Clutches and Brakes
Chapter 9 : Lubrication &
Cooling
Chapter 10 : Basics of CAD

8.1 DESIGN OF CLUTCHES

A clutch is a machine member used to connect a driving shaft

to a driven shaft when desired without stopping the driving
shaft I here are two types of clutches positive clutches and
friction clutches Types of friction clutches are .
1. Disc or plate (single or multiple) clutches
2. Cone cluches, and Centrifugal clutches.
We shall study only disc and cone friction clutches

8 1 1 Properties of material for the lining of a clutch

1. High coefficient of friction.
2. Unaffected by moisture and oil.
3. Ability to withstand high temperature caused by slippage.
4.. High heat conductivity.
5. High resistance to wear and scoring.

8.1.2 Disc or Plate Clutch

Consider two friction surfaces maintained in contact by an
axial force Fa as shown in Fig. 8.1.

81.4 Dry and Wet Clutches- Reasons for

In case of single plate clutches, the contacting surfacs are

either one or two. Due to large surface area available, heating
is not a problem, and the clutch is of the dry type

In case of multiplate clutches, the work done durmg

engagement and disengagement is converted into heat Heat
dissipation is a serious problem in multiplate clutches because
of large number of friction surfaces Cooling oil is used to
dissipate this heat Therefore, these clutches are wet clutches.

8.1.5 Cone Clutch

Acone clutch has an inside conicalsurface or face On the driver

which exactly fits into the outside conical surface of the driven

member The driven member may be shifted along the shaft

by a forked lever provided to engage or disengage by shifting
the two conical surfaces The torque is transmitted from one
shaft to the other due to frictional resistance. A cone clutch is
shown in Fig. 8.3.

8.2 BRAKES
A brake is a device to retard or stop the motion of a machine.
It absorbs either the kinetic or potential energy of a moving
thject. The absorbed energy is converted into heat energy,
which has to be dissipated.
8.2.1 Types of Mechanical Brakes
The varIous types of mechanical brakes are:
1 Single block or shoe brake
2. Pivoted block or shoe brake
3. Double block or shoe brake
4. Simple band brake
5. Differential band brake
6. Band and block brake
7. Internal expanding brake
We shall study single block brake, simple band brake and
differential band brake

8.2.2 Factors on which Capacity of a Brake Depends

Capacity of a brake depends upon the following factors:
1. Unit pressure between braking surfaces.
2. Coefficient of friction between contacting surfaces.
3. Velocity of drum.
4. Projected area of friction surfaces.
5. Ability of brake to dissipate heat generated.
8.2.3 Single Block Brake
A single block brake is shown in Fig. 8.4.

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Example8.13Whatisde-energizing brake?
Solution.
When the frictional force opposes to apply the brake then the
brake is said to be energizing brake.

Example8.14 A simple band brake operates ona drum of

600 mm in diameter that is running 200 rpm. The coefficient
of friction is 0.25. The brake band has a contact angle of 2
one end is fastened to a fixed pin (that also happens to be
one end of the lever arm) a...the other end is to the brake
arm 125 mm from the fixed pin. The straight brake arm 750
mm long and placed perpendicular to the diameter that
bisects the angle of contaci The brake drum is attached to a
450 mm diameter hoisting drum that sustains a load of - N
suspended on a rope. Determine (a) The necessary pull on the
end of brake arm sustain the weight and the direction of
rotation, (b) width of the steel band (2 mm thick) if the
allowable stress is 50 MPa.
Solution.

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Example8.16 What are the specific advantages of pivoted

shoe brake over simple shoe brake?
Solution.
When the angle of contact between the brake shoe and wheel
is more than 60 then the unit pressure normal to the surface
of contact is less at the ends than at the centre. In such
cases, the shoe is pivoted instead of being rigidly attached to
the lever. Its specific advantage is that it gives uniform wear
of the brake lining in the direction of the applied force.

Example8.17Whyweuseuniformweartheoryfordesigning
clutch?
SoIution.Induecourseoftimetheclutchgetswornout,and
uniform wear conditions prevail. ierefore, uniform wear theory
is used for the design of a clutch.

Example8.19 What is significance of pV value in brake

design
Solution
The capacity of a brake depends upon unit pressure between
braking surfaces and velocity of drum in addition to many
other factors Heat is generated due to friction during braking.
The work done is proportional to the product of pressure p)
and rubbing velocity (v), which must be kept below certain
maximum value.

Example8.20 A multiple disc clutch has three discs on the

driving shaft and two on the driven shaft, providing four pairs
of contact surfaces. The outer diameter of the contact

15

surfaces is 250 mm and the inner diameter is 150 mm.

Determine the maximum axial intensity of pressure between
the discs for transmitting 18.75 kW. at 500 r.p.m. Assume
uniform wear and coefficient of friction as 0.3.
Solution.

Machine Design 2

CHAPTERS
Home

Chapter 3 : Spur and Helical Gears

Topics
Chapter 1 : Flat & V-Belts
Chapter 2 : Chains & Ropes
Chapter 3 : Spur and Helical

Gears

3.1 DESIGN OF SPUR GEARS

Chapter 4 : Sliding and Rolling

Bearing
Chapter 5 : Bevel and Worm
Gears
Chapter 6 : Flywheel
Chapter 7 : Springs
Chapter 8 : Clutches and Brakes
Chapter 9 : Lubrication &
Cooling

3.1.1 Static Beam Strength of Gear Tooth

The design of spur gears is based on the static beam strength of the tooth. The analysis for the determina
in a spur gear tooth was presented by Wilfred Lewis in 1892. In this analysis, the gear tooth is
treated as a cantilever beam, as shown in Fig. 3.1. A spur gear tooth with the force acting at the tip is show
Fig.3.2 for the analysis. The normal force F is resolved into its radial cmponent Fr and tangential compone
F actirg at A, the intersection of the line of action of F and the centre line of the tooth.
The static strength is determined by making the following assumptions:

Chapter 10 : Basics of CAD

1. The effect of the radial force component Fr which produces compressive stresses, is neglected.
2. The tangential component F, which produces bending stresses, is uniformly distributed over the face
width of the gear tooth.
3. The effect of stressconcentration is neglected.
4. At any time only one pair of teeth is in contact and takes the total load.

3.1.2 Profile of Gear Tooth

Eq. (3.2) is known as the Lewis equation for beam strength of spur gear tooth. The allowable bending stres
based on ultimate tensile strength with a factor of safety of 3.
Involute and cycloidal profiles are used for the gear tooth. However, involute profile is preferred due to
the following reasons:
1. The involute of a circle is not defined inside the base circle.

2. The generating line is tangent to the base circle and normal to the involute it generates.

3. All involutes drawn from the same circle are alike.

SPUR AND HELICAL GEARS

3.1 DESIGN OF SPUR GEARS

3.1.1 Static Beam Strength of Gear Tooth

The design of spur gears is based on the static beam strength of the tooth. The analysis for the determina
in a spur gear tooth was presented by Wilfred Lewis in 1892. In this analysis, the gear tooth is treated a
shown in Fig. 3.1. A spur gear tooth with the force acting at the tip is shown in Fig.3.2 for
resolved into its radial cmponent Fr and tangential component F actirg at A, the intersection of the line
centre line of the tooth.
The static strength is determined by making the following assumptions:

1.
2.
3.
4.

The effect of the radial force component Fr which produces compressive stresses, is neglected.
The tangential component F, which produces bending stresses, is uniformly distributed over the face wid
The effect of stressconcentration is neglected.
At any time only one pair of teeth is in contact and takes the total load.

3.1.2 Profile of Gear Tooth

Eq. (3.2) is known as the Lewis equation for beam strength of spur gear tooth. The allowable bending str
tensile strength with a factor of safety of 3.
Involute and cycloidal profiles are used for the gear tooth. However, involute profile is preferred due to the
1. The involute of a circle is not defined inside the base circle.

2. The generating line is tangent to the base circle and normal to the involute it generates.

3. All involutes drawn from the same circle are alike.

4. The involute of a circle of larger radius shall be flatter as compared to that of a smaller circle.

5. It obeys the law of gearing from the base circle to the tip of the gear tooth.

3.1.3 Velocity Factor,

The impact and fatigue stresses are introduced in the gear tooth due to the following:

1. Inaccuracies of the tooth profile.

2. Errors in tooth spacing.
3. Misalignment between bearings.
4. Elasticity of parts, and
5. Inertia of rotating masses.
These stresses become more severe as the pitch line velocity increases. To account for these additio
factor,

isintroducedintotheLewis equation.

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Machine Design 2

CHAPTERS
Home

Chapter 5 : Bevel and Worm Gears

Topics
Chapter 1 : Flat & V-Belts
Chapter 2 : Chains & Ropes
Chapter 3 : Spur and Helical
Gears
Chapter 4 : Sliding and Rolling
Bearing
Chapter 5 : Bevel and Worm
Gears
Chapter 6 : Flywheel
Chapter 7 : Springs
Chapter 8 : Clutches and Brakes
Chapter 9 : Lubrication &
Cooling
Chapter 10 : Basics of CAD

Machine Design 2

CHAPTERS
Home

Chapter 4 : Sliding and Rolling Bearing

Topics
Chapter 1 : Flat & V-Belts
Chapter 2 : Chains & Ropes
Chapter 3 : Spur and Helical
Gears
Chapter 4 : Sliding and Rolling
Bearing
Chapter 5 : Bevel and Worm
Gears
Chapter 6 : Flywheel
Chapter 7 : Springs
Chapter 8 : Clutches and Brakes
Chapter 9 : Lubrication &
Cooling
Chapter 10 : Basics of CAD

5 1 INTRODUCTION
A bearing may be defined as a machine member whose function is to
support and retain another moving member the part of the shaft inside
the bearing is called the journal Bearings may be grouped into two distinct
classes sliding bearings and rolling or antifriction bearings.

Inslidingbearings,alubricantfilm is introduced between the relatively

moving surfaces In rolling bearings, rolling components are introduced
between the surfaces A journal bearing is a sliding contact bearing which
gives lateral support to the rotating shaft. A thrust bearing carries the
axial load of a rotating shaft.

Anti-friction or rolling bearings have either point orlihe contact. A rolling

contact bearing consists of four parts inner and outer races, a rolling
element like a ball, roller or needle and a cage which holds the rolling
elements together and spaces them evenly around the periphery.

5.2 SLIDING BEARINGS

5.2.1 Types of Sliding Bearings

The sliding bearings may be classified into two groups

1. Hydrodynamic bearings, and

2. Hydrostatic bearings.

In the hydrodynamic bearings, the load supporting fluid film is created by the
shape and relative motion of the sliding surfaces. In the case of
hydrostatic bearings, the load supporting fluid film, separating the two
surfaces, is created by an external source, like a pump.

5 2 2 working Principles of Bearings

(a) Hydrodynamic Bearing

1 he principle of working of hydrodynamic bearing is illustrated in Fig 5 1 The
shaft is at rest initially and the contact between the journal and bearing is
at the bottom most point as shown in Fig 5 1(a) The surface of the journal
and bearing contact during at rest.

As the journal starts rotating the contact point between journal and
bearing will shift opposite to the direction of rotation of the journal due to
frictional forces, as shown in Fig 5 1(b) As the speed of journal is further
increased, it will force the lubricant into the wedge-shaped region
between the journal and the bearing and the journal will be lifted up The
minimum clearance between journal and bearing will shift in the direction
of rotation of the journal, as shown in Fig. 5.1(c). As more and more
lubricating fluid is forced into the wedgeshaped clearance space,
pressure is generated to full value to generate the hydrodynamic action
The pressure distribution around the periphery of the journal is shown in
Fig. 5.2.

(b) Hydrostatic Bearing

The principle of working of a hydrostatic bearing is shown in Fig. 5.3.
Initially, the journal rests on the bearing surface, as shown in Fig 5 3(a)
As the high pressure fluid is admitted into the clearance space, it forces
the journal and bearing surfaces to separate out, as shown in Fig. 5.3(b).
The hydrostatic bearings are used where pressures are very high like
vertical turbo-generators, centrifuges and ball mills, etc.

..2.4 Bearing Modulus

When the coefficient of friction f for any bearing having film lubrication is
plotted ainst (j.tn/p), a curve similar to that shown in Fig 5 4 is obtamed
For any bearing there a combination of i, n and p that results in minimum
coefficient of friction, indicated C in the figure Values of (tin/p) greater
than C indicate that the bearing may operate h complete film lubrication
At values les than C the oil film shall break down resulting metalto
metal contact and consequent higher friction and wear This value of ir) at
the breaking point is termed the bearing modulus .

ROLLING BEARINGS

L51 Advantages of Rolling Contact Bearings over Sliding Bearings In case of rolling
hearings, there is either point or lane contact. The advantages of bearings are:
1. Low starting and running friction except at very high speeds.
2. Ability to withstand shock loads.
3. Accuracy of shaft alignment.
4. Low cost of maintenance.
5. Small overall dimensions.

6. High reliability of service.

7. Easy to mount and erect.
8. Cleanliness.

5.5.2 Classification of Rolling Bearings

The rolling bearings may be classified as follows 1. Ball bearings

(i) Radial ball bearings
(ii) Angular contact ball bearings
(iii) Thrust ball bearings

2. Roller bearings
(i) Cylindrical roller bearings
(ii) Needle roller bearings
(iii) Taper roller bearings
Spherical roller bearings These bearings are shown in Fig. 5.6.

The most common type of ball bearing is the deep groove ball bearing. In this
bearing, the inner race is placed eccentric with respect to the outer race and
the balls are inserted in the crescent shaped space. There is a point contt
between the balls and the races They have a high radial load capacity and
moderate thrust load capacity

Cylindrical roller bearing consists of short rollers, which are

positioned and guided by a cage The linecontact between rollers and races
increases the rigidity and load carrying capacity. They have a low coefficient of
friction/highloadcarryingcapacityandhighrigidity

In angular contact bearings one side of the outer race is cut to insert
the balls This permits the bearing to take the thrust load in only one direction
They are mounted in pairs to take the thrust load in both directions aligning
ball bearings consists of two rows of balls, which roll on a common spherical
surface in the outer race In this case, the inner race can freely adjust itself to
the angular misalignment of the shaft They can compensate angular
misalignment between the axes of shaft and housing

Spherical roller bearing consists of two rows of spherical rollers, which run on
a common spherical surface in the outer race: They can carry relatively high
radial and thrust loads.

I he taper roller bearing consists of rolling elements that are frustrums of a cone I hey are arranged in such a way that all their elements and axes
mtersect at a common apex point on the axis of the bearing They have high

radial and thrust load carrying capacity [hey are mainly used to take thrust
loads.

Example 5. 11
What do you mean by hydrodynamic lubrication?
Solution
Hydrodyramic lubrication The lubrication achieved due to the hydrodynamic
action of the lubricant is called hydrodynamic lubrication. As the speed of
ajournal is increased beyond a certam value, it will force the lubricant into the
wedgeshaped region between the journal and the bearing and the journal
will be lifted up As more and more lubricating fluid is forced mto the wedge
shaped clearance space, pressure is generated to full value to generate the
hydrodynarnic action.

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