CHINA’S SOUTH-SOUTH COOPERATIVE INVESTMENTS

AND CO-DEVELOPMENT MODALITIES IN AFRICA

Asayehgn Desta, Dominican University of California, San Rafael, California, USA

ABSTRACT

Contrary to Western debt and assistance marked by various forms of economic and political overtones,
China, using the South-South Cooperation, is in the process of bestowing a mix of loans with generous
terms, debt forgiveness, infrastructure development, and other assistance to African nations so that they
could be relieved from Western cultural, political, and economic hegemony. African governments have
appreciated and responded enthusiastically to this new source of bottom-up, multiple, bilateral
investment, trade, and aid because China has professed a willingness to ignore the political, conditional
terms that characterize Western assistance.

China’s deepening involvement across Africa can be viewed from two perspectives. The protagonists of
political warfare theory argue that China’s policy in Africa is a nonviolent instrument of grand strategy. It
involves coordinated activities that could precipitate in tangible effects on intended targets such as
economic aid and development assistance, as well as training, equipping, and arming military and
security forces to achieve political and economic influence. On the other hand, the South-South
development cooperation school of thought views China’s increased aid, trade, and investment in Africa
st
as a means to foster Africa’s self-sufficiency and sustainable development in the 21 century.

Based the review of the literature, the socio-economic impacts of some of the Chinese cooperative
investment in Africa were summarized using the following dimensions: a) local employment b) human
management skills (control of decision making process), c) technological transfer, d) local content
requirements, e) efficiency, and f) the terms of trade. Though the study is anecdotally focused, the
modest contributions upon which we hope other researchers will build is that longitudinal studies need to
be undertaken if Chinese investments in Africa are politically motivated or are meant to fulfill the agenda
of the South-South Cooperative goals. Nonetheless, being engaged in constructive exchange, African
policy makers need to redefine Chinese investments to undertake their environmental guidelines so that
Africa could use them as a means to achieve self-sufficiency and sustainable development in the long-
run.

Keywords: South-south Cooperative Development Cooperation, Infrastructure development, Political

Welfare Theory, Sustainable Development, Local Employment, Human Development Skills,
Technological Transfer, Local Content Requirements, Efficiency, Terms of Trade

1. INTRODUCTION

Africa has become more important, due to its growing role in supplying oil, gas, and non-fuel minerals to
the world. In response, the United States has launched the Millennium Challenge Account (MCA) and the
President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR). In addition, the United States has designed a
new military command Africom, to counter attacks from the supposed terrorist cells in the African
continent (Lake and Whitman, 2006).

In recent years, a number of African countries have shifted their focus to cooperative investments with
private corporations or state-owned enterprises as sources of future dynamism. These investments are
originating primarily in the industrializing or newly industrialized countries of Asia, rather than Western
European and US multinational companies. Because of an exponential and sustained growth in its
economy, the Peoples’ Republic of China (hereafter referred to as China), has positioned itself at the
forefront of being a very vital and influential player in Africa’s cooperative pro-business investments. As
discussed by Alden and Davis:

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF BUSINESS RESEARCH, Volume 9, Number 6, 2009 19

 The marked presence of Chinese multinational corporations on the global stage is
changing the landscape of international business and politics. Western firms, once with
virtually undisputed command over the financial resources and requisite political ties to
dominate global business, are now being challenged by a host of emerging country
corporations with China being at the forefront (2006).

China is attempting to accomplish this objective by capturing key resources and market share across
Africa using the South-South Cooperation Investment business strategies (i.e., joint activities between the
newly industrialized southern countries and the lesser-developed nations of the Southern Hemisphere).
African governments have appreciated and responded enthusiastically to this new source of bottom-up,
multiple, bilateral investment, trade, and aid because China has a professed willingness to ignore political
conditions placed on Western assistance (Alden, 2005).

Contrary to Western debt and assistance marked by various forms of economic and political overtones,
China is in the process of bestowing a mix of loans with generous terms, debt forgiveness, infrastructure
development, and other assistance to African nations so that they could be relieved from Western
cultural, political, and economic hegemony (Habib, 2008). For example, Large argues “…a new Wind
from the East is blowing across Africa, and is attracting unprecedented attention. This is driven in part by
the wider resurgence of China in world affairs, but much is also the result of the recent visibility and
interest in the growing presence, roles, and impacts of Chinese actors throughout the continent” (2008).

The Western investments have overtones of various forms of conditionality, such as the formation of free
trade, building private companies, or loosening of government regulations. On the other hand, the
Chinese investments in Africa’s infrastructure rejuvenation and the various types of China’s multifaceted
influence as market, donor, financer, contractor and builder of investment projects are claimed to be
based on flexible soft loans and are tailored to lift the overall economic performance of the borrowing and
assistance-getting African countries. At the opening of the summit held in Beijing in October 2000, for
example, the Forum on China-Africa Cooperation (FOCAC), President Hu Jintao of China promised to the
48 heads of African states that China would offer $3 billion in preferential loans and $2 billion in export
credits over the next three years.

In addition, at the landmark FOCAC Beijing meeting in November of 2006, China adopted a declaration
proclaiming “a new type of strategic partnership” and promised to double its foreign aid to African
counties (BBC, 2006; Corkin & Burke, 2008; Jian-Ye, 2007). In May of 2007, China captured
international attention when it hosted the annual African Development Bank (AfDB) conference in
Shanghai. At the annual meeting, “China agreed to make an additional $20 billion pledge for
infrastructure development in Africa over the next three years” (Gill, et al., 2007).

China’s deepening involvement across Africa can be viewed from two perspectives. The protagonists of
political warfare theory argue that China’s policy in Africa is a nonviolent instrument of grand strategy. It
involves coordinated activities that could precipitate in tangible effects on intended targets such as
economic aid and development assistance, as well as training, equipping, and arming military and
security forces to achieve political and economic clout. Given this thesis, the proponents of the political
warfare theory argue that China’s investment in Africa is not only meant to fulfill China’s immediate
convenience, it is meant as a grand strategy designed to give it clout and leverage to access and develop
further business opportunities in Africa (Chau, 2007). Based on this argument, the proponents of political
warfare theory predict that China’s investment in Africa is nothing creative but rather is an offer of old
wine in a new green bottle, tailored to establish China’s “new imperial power” in Africa. Chinese
assistance to Africa is mainly in the form of colonialist projects that will perpetuate Africa’s
underdevelopment through exploitation, extraction, and destruction of Africa’s resources and industrial
capacity (Chau, 2007).

The South-South development cooperation school of thought, on the other hand, views China’s increased
aid, trade, and investment in Africa as a means to foster Africa’s self-sufficiency and sustainable
st
development in the 21 century (Naidu, 2008). The protagonists of the South-South Cooperative (SSC)
model of development forcefully argue that China should be left alone to forge its unique partnership with

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF BUSINESS RESEARCH, Volume 9, Number 6, 2009 20

Africa and the West must simply learn to compete. According to Okonjo-Iweala, the former Nigerian
Finance Minister, China, “…the new economic giant…knows what it means to be poor and has evolved a
successful wealth creation formula that it is willing to share with African countries” (October 24, 2006).
China’s growing investment commitment in Africa is more likely to boost the huge infrastructure deficit of
the continent (Ezekwesili, July 11, 2008). In short, the proponents of the SSC model argue that China is
acting as a model for Africa’s approaches to international and domestic problems.

The central motive of the pursuing study is to investigate if the opportunities and challenges of Chinese
investments in Africa are based on a win-win strategy. Thus, the first part of the paper reviews existing
studies in order to explore the conceptual framework needed to map out the determinants of South-South
Cooperation’s (SSC) ventures and examines the extent to which China conducts to compliment or
undermine the SSC model. The second portion of the paper reviews and contextualizes China’s
investment in Africa. The third section of the paper scrutinizes the appropriateness of Chinese capital and
technological flows to Africa. Finally, after summarizing the main findings of the study, the paper
concludes by drawing some relevant policy implications and suggests relevant future research directions.

2. CHINA’S SOUTH-SOUTH COOPERATIVE INVESTMENTS

Many developing countries emerged from colonial rule in the 1950s. Between 18 and 25 April, 1955, the
Prime Ministers of Burma (Myanmar), Ceylon (Sri Lanka), Indonesia, India, and Pakistan organized the
South-South meeting in Bandung, Indonesia to discuss the themes and problems of economic
cooperation, human rights, self-determination, dependent people, and the promotion of peace (Lumumba-
Kasongo, 2007). The African region was represented by six delegates from the then independent
governments of Egypt, Ethiopia, Liberia, Libya, and Sudan, and the semi-independent country of the Gold
Coast (Ghana).

In the South-South Bandung Conference of Afro-Asian developing countries in 1955, China identified
itself with African and Asian countries and set out to advance a new international system of economic
relations in a more equitable direction. More specifically, China presented its “Five Principles of Mutual
Coexistence.” Included in the five principles were 1) respect for territorial integration; 2) rejection of
aggression; 3) non-interference in the internal affairs of other countries; 4) equality and mutual benefit;
and 5) peaceful coexistence (See Asche, 2008 and Harris and Worden, 1986).

Based on the principles of self-determination prompted by the United Nations and the collective action by
the Bandung Conference, the South contributed to the formation of the Non-Aligned Movement within the
United Nations in 1961 (Ohiorhenuan and Rath, 2000). Starting in 1964, this paved way for the rise of the
Non-Aligned Movement of the Third World nations—also known as the Group of 77 (G-77)—an
international organization of over 100 independent nations which were either formally colonized by the
Western powers or those with economic and political characteristics of the Global South (Lumumba-
Kasongo, 2007).

Following the substantial increase in the price of oil by the Oil Producing and Exporting Counties (OPEC)
in 1973, China, along with most of the developing countries, strongly advocated for the formation of fair
trade between the developed and the developing. In 1974, the United Nations Conference on Trade and
Development (UNCTAD) established the New International Economic Order (NIEO) to assist the South in
the area of trade policy and promotion. Like other Third World countries, China clearly saw that the
existing international economic order was fundamentally flawed. Thus it supported the United Nations
resolution which called for: 1) an integrated approach to price support for commodity exports, 2) the
attainment of official development assistance to reach the target of 0.7 percent of the GDP of the
developing countries, 3) the lowering of tariffs on the export of manufactured goods from developing
countries, 4) full permanent sovereignty over the natural resources and economic activities of western-
oriented multinational firms, and 5) the establishment of a mechanism for the transfer of technology to
developing countries separate from foreign direct capital investments (Looney, 1999).

Given the perspective of the developing countries—that the multilateral organizations, led by the
developed nations, particularly the United States, have financially controlled and have devised rules at

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF BUSINESS RESEARCH, Volume 9, Number 6, 2009 21

the inception of the developing nations to make them dependent on Western hegemony (Worden,
1986)—China stood by and supported the core idea of the G-77. Also, China strongly argued that SSC
was the way out of the zero-sum game purposely created by advanced West to impede the ambitions of
the developing countries.

Initially, SSC highlighted the anti-colonial movement and emphasized the solidarity of Third World
Countries. By de-linking themselves from the advanced countries of the North, the Southern nations
aspired to pursue their collective development through cooperative exchange of knowledge, skills,
resources, and technical know-how—only among themselves.

In short, by initiating the SSC model, developing countries became fully convinced that they could
address and solve their economic problems by sharing and learning from the experiences of other
developing countries. Thus, the SSC platform was by and large tailored to the exchange and creation of
cooperation and development relevant to the developing countries.

The pivotal role that SSC could play in the arena of development comes from the fact that
the developing countries account for a major proportion of the people in the world and
some of them are large economies, which have a major share of the world GNP. As the
South unites into a single mass, they can voice their concerns as a large economic,
moral, political and social force (Doha, 2005).

Many developing countries were battered by debt and negative economic growth rates in the 1980s. As a
result of external shock, in the 1990s the SSC movement undertook a pragmatic approach to liberalize
their macroeconomic policies (i.e., follow the rigid implementation of the structural adjustment programs)
and decided to integrate themselves into the global market. In short, the Southern countries have
evolved—not divided—to participate more effectively in the newly emerging economic order, to respond
to the new global challenges, and to achieve the targets set forth by the founders of G-77. To highlight:
“The differentiation and fragmentation of economic interests among developing countries will likely make
it more difficult for the South to maintain common positions across the board in future North-South
dialogue” (Ohiorhenuan and Rath, 2000).

At the First South Summit in Havana in 2000, the Southern countries came out with a strategy to learn
from each other in different arenas such as foreign investment and trade promotion policies. The joint
development and dissemination of solutions was called the Havana Plan of Action. In 2003, the United
th
Nations General Assembly adopted Resolution 58/220, declaring December 19 the annual United
Nations Day for South-South Cooperation. In June 2005, at the Second South Summit in Doha (Qatar), a
Plan of Action was adopted by the United Nations. Finally, an internationally agreed set of goals—known
as the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)—was officially declared in 2005 (UNESCO, June 2006).

More recently, as a natural growth of the South-South Cooperation, Africa is giving considerable attention
to drawing knowledge, experience, and policies from China to build its capacity for stimulating
environmentally sustainable development. As narrated by Rocha (2008), the Sino-African partnership is
envisioned “…to stimulate backward and forward linkages with the local economy; generate additional
employment opportunities; bolster revenues for the state; enhance economic growth; and boost the
continent’s development prospects. In foreign direct investment flows alone, the South-South flows have
grown far faster than North-South flows…One recent estimate suggests that South-South flows rose from
$4.6 billion in 1994 to an average of $54.4 billion between 1997 and 2000, equivalent to 36 percent of
total FDI inflows to developing economies in the latter period (Akkurt and Ratha, 2004). Chinese
investment increased from $20 million from 1990 to 1997 to $120 million from 1998 to 2002. “In value
terms, extractive and resource-related projects comprise a much higher share at 28 percent, but
nonetheless 64 percent of the value of Chinese investments in Africa is in the manufacturing sector”
(Akkurt and Ratha, 2004). The question that needs to be addressed is, have the Chinese Cooperation
ventures contributed to driving new forces, generating positive spin-off, and serving as effective
st
leapfrogging vehicles for Africa’s development in the 21 century?

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF BUSINESS RESEARCH, Volume 9, Number 6, 2009 22

3. CHINA’S COOPERATIVE INVESTMENTS IN AFRICA

Despite the arrogance of Western colonialists, who state that Europe should not hand over its African
commitments to the recently emerging China, it needs to be underlined at the outset that the
establishment of modern Sino-African relations goes back “six hundred years ago. Zheng He, the chief
navigator of China’s Ming Dynasty and commander of the largest fleet in the world, discovered almost a
century before the much heralded visits to Africa by Vasco Da Gama (Sebastian, 2008). However, the
resurgence in Chinese-African relations started with Chairman Mao’s observation that “We don’t have a
clear understanding of African history, geography, and the present situation” (Anshan, 2005). In 1963-64
Prime Minister of the Peoples’ Republic of China Zhou Enlai made a ten-country visit to Africa. The
general aim of Premier Zhou Enlai’s visit to Africa were to: 1) underscore the implementation of the One-
China policy and foreclose Taiwan’s diplomatic relations with Africa, 2) respect the principles of
sovereignty and non-intervention, 3) promote development on the basis of equality and mutual benefit, 4)
seek prestige by presenting itself as mentor or a de facto leader or a moral leader of the developing world
in the United Nations, 5) de-link the progressive African nations from the hegemonic relations they had
with the then-revisionist Soviet Union, and 6) sow anti-Western imperialist sentiments in Africa (Muekalia,
2004; Harris, 1985).

Prior to the 1970s, Sino-African relations were by and large ideologically driven. It provided financial
support, equipment and training to a variety of liberation movements, particularly in Algeria, Angola,
Congo, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Rhodesia, etc. China’s “…involvement in the Non-Aligned
Movement and other Third World conference-type activities…were designed to demonstrate its own anti-
imperialist approach to aid and to identify it with those nations that continued to suffer the effects of
colonialism (Hamrin, C.L., 1986). As stated by Gu and Humphrey:

By blaming Africa’s underdevelopment on colonialism, Beijing believes it has established

the moral ground. From training “fighter for freedom” in the revolutionary 1960s and early
1970s to providing scholarships to children of African elites, China has been exporting its
values for years. By successfully linking neo-colonialism with the neo-liberalism of
Western countries, China has been able to win the hearts and minds of African elites
(2006).

To exemplify its commitment to a non-imperialist stand, starting in 1967, China began building the
TanZam Railway between Tanzania and Zambia. Following the death of Moa Zedong, however, the
Chinese government gave less attention to Africa. Instead, China turned inward throughout the 1980 and
1990 to experiment with its new economic reform programs. “When Chinese economic reform began in
1978, the political leadership initially concentrated on a swift economic catching-up process, and attracted
only relatively little importance to Africa in comparison with Western industrialized countries and Japan.
For instance, between 1980 and 1987 the contribution pledged each year amounted to about $200-300
million, falling to a low point in 1988 of only $60.4 million. This comparatively low status was reflected in
the rather sporadic visits by high-ranking politicians to Africa, a stagnating volumes of trade, and
stagnating or even declining development assistance inputs” (Asche, 2008).

Because of the global domination by the World Bank and International Monetary Fund’s structural
adjustment programs (which advocated extensive economic liberation and privatization), the Sino-African
relations were partially eclipsed during the Cold War. Following the Tiananmen incident of 1989 (under
the economic transformation initiated by President Deng Xiaoping), China renewed its SSC program and
attempted to reconnect with Africa mostly to satisfy its economic need for resources—oil, minerals,
timber, etc.—and to market its manufactured goods in the Africa.

China resumed its economic relations with Africa through an institutional framework known as the Forum
on China-Africa Cooperation (FOCAC). As stated by Holslag:

The China-Africa Cooperation Forum (FOCAC) is another means for bolstering

commercial and political relations. Established in 2000, the FOCAC forms an interface for
officials and business leaders through ministerial conferences, senior officials’ meetings,

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF BUSINESS RESEARCH, Volume 9, Number 6, 2009 23

 and the China-Africa Joint Business Council. Its current goals are stressed in the Addis
Ababa Action and entails issues related to peace and security, multilateral cooperation,
economic development, and social development. A first priority in this regard is the
development of Africa’s agriculture in order to strengthen the food security of Africa and
to increase its exports to China and other markets. China will continue to support and
encourage strong and viable Chinese enterprises, through financial and policy incentives
schemes (2006).

In contrast to the West’s view of Africa that chaos, conflict, corruption, and poor governance characterize
its underdevelopment, China propagates that the African continent is rich in culture, religion, social
dynamism, and energy. Realizing that the African continent has a great opportunity for business, the
Chinese government encourages the following industries and projects to be invested in Africa: a)
processing industrial products in the fields of electronics, machinery building, textiles, and garments, b)
investing in agricultural products in order to add value to Africa’s exports and improve Africa’s terms of
trade, c) extracting natural resources, such as petroleum and high-value minerals, and d) investing in
infrastructure, power supply, and real estate development (United Nations, UNDP, 2007).

Realizing that Africa is marginalized in the worldwide distribution of foreign direct investment (FDI), China
pledged government-backed foreign direct investment to African countries. In 2007, over 700 registered
Chinese state-owned and private companies (provided with government financial backing) have entered
into a number of business ventures in collaboration with African national governments, state-owned
corporations, and private firms. For instance, the Chinese government has designated about 180
companies to benefit from preferential finance, tax concessions, and political backing to “go global” and
become true multinationals (Alden and Davies, 2006).

Despite the government’s support in leveraging Chinese businesses to go global, at this stage, Chinese
investment in Africa is very low in comparison with other areas. For example, “Africa is attracting less
investment, ranking in a mere US$317 million corresponding to 5.8% of total Chinese FDI outflows in
2005, in comparison to Latin America, which attracted US $1.7 billion accounting for 32%. Asia pulled off
US$3 billion, representing 54.6% of total Chinese FDI outflows” (Rocha, 2008). Though the motives of
foreign direct investments might be 1) securing new markets, 2) raising efficiency, 3) securing raw
materials, 4) obtaining cheap labor, and 5) securing defensive or offensive strategic advantages, the
Chinese investments in Africa seemed be exclusively focused on securing raw materials and developing
the markets for Chinese goods and services.

The basic forms of the Chinese Development Cooperation, which is almost exclusively project-based,
includes 1) giving grant aid (non-repayable loans to social projects such as schools, hospitals, housing,
etc), 2) interest-free loans to finance infrastructure projects, and 3) preferential credits or concessionary
credits (reserve-backed lending) with interests rates below the market level. Through the Export and
Import (EXIM) Bank of China (the official credit agency of China established in 1994 to extend export
seller’s and buyer’s credits, credits for investment, and construction projects, and guarantees to promote
Chinese investment in Africa), it lends to China’s state-owned enterprises (SOEs) to promote their “Going
Global” strategy. Though there is no distinction between development cooperation and commercial
cooperation, the EXIM bank mainly assists the financing of infrastructures regarded very vital for
extracting and transporting energy and mineral resources.

It needs to be highlighted that the Chinese government chooses Chinese construction companies to
undertake large-scale projects and infrastructure development to encourage the expansion of markets
and the entry of smaller firms in Africa. For instance, as of September 2006, China’s committed 79
percent of its contracted investment in infrastructure development (Ellis, 2007). Between 2000 and 2005,
China-Africa trade was $39 billion and is projected to reach $100 billion by 2010 (Alden, 2005). Since
2000, Africa’s exports to China have grown at a rate of 56 percent. Oil and mineral exports account for 85
percent of African exports to China. “The share of Africa’s exports to China rose from 1.3% in 1995 to
9.3% in 2004, accompanied by a significant decline in African exports to OECD countries in the same
period” (Broker, 2007).

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF BUSINESS RESEARCH, Volume 9, Number 6, 2009 24

In its socially responsible development programs, China is donating development assistance and soft
loans to various African states to finance their infrastructure projects, including roads, railways, access to
fishing waters, hydropower stations, agricultural land, schools, and medical personnel. In 2006 alone,
“There were more than 1000 Chinese doctors and nurses working in 36 African countries. At the Beijing
Summit, Hu Jintao also announced support for 30 new hospitals in Africa, 30 malaria prevention and
treatment centres and an additional US $38 million for the provision of artemisinin (a derivative of the
Artemissia shrub) over the next years. …By 2009, government scholarships for African students to study
in China will be doubled from their present 2000; and 15,000 African professionals will be trained in
technical, scientific and administrative fields in 2007-09” (le Pere, 2008). In addition, “with 26 African
countries now being accorded ‘Approved Destination Status’ by China, it is projected that there will be 1
million Chinese tourists traveling to Africa by 2020, compared to the 110,000 in 2005” (le Pere, 2008).

In short, in contrast to Western hegemonies, China’s bilateral state-centric engagement in Africa is based
on the principles of sovereignty and non-interference in internal affairs. China’s investment in Africa is
driven to:

1) acquire the natural resources, energy supplies, and export markets to sustain its growing
economy. Also, as stated by Alves, “Africa’s long-standing preferential access to western markets
offers ‘back door’ entry for some Chinese producers” (2008);
2) ascertain its belief that its development model is instructive for Africa; and
3) strengthen diplomatic alliances essential to support its global ambitions.

In other words, China’s strategic incursions into Africa include 1) the use of public diplomacy, including
high-powered official visits and a triennial Forum on China-Africa Co-operation (FOCAC); 2) China’s
pledge of large amounts of aid and investments in Africa’s infrastructure and other sectors with no
political strings attached, except withdrawal of diplomatic relations with Taiwan, and 3) the use of aid
donations to encourage Chinese companies to acquire overseas assets, such as oil and industrial raw
materials so that Africa could become a strategic training ground for Chinese companies (JETRO, 2007).

In addition to being diplomatic, the Chinese investment, trade, and infrastructural assistance help the
African continent diversify its exports. But, it needs to be underlined that through government-endorsed
contracts, the Chinese EXIM Bank requires that in all overseas financing, the Chinese contract must
ensure that they include export spin-offs in the long run from China. For instance, in the short run, while
local and other foreign construction companies operate on profit margins of 15-25%, Chinese companies
usually operate on margins of under 10%, making them extremely competitive. Large owned enterprises
(SOEs) generally slice their profit margin to undercut other competitors.

[D]espite the enormous challenges China faces concerning its own development,
Beijing’s focus on infrastructural development in Africa, with the construction of roads,
bridges, hydroelectric and irrigation schemes, schools, hospitals, health centres and an
array of government buildings, has driven private sector competition and made a clear
and definite contribution to improving the lives of people across Africa (Corkin & Burke,
2008).

Africa needs to ascertain that the Chinese investments are transformative and are likely to extricate the
African continent from the doldrums of underdevelopment. However, instead of mirroring Africa as a mere
beneficiary of Chinese benevolence or as a renter continent—that is, the African state governments are
recipients of the external rent and do not require a strong domestic sector—the Chinese cooperative
assistance offers need to inspire alternative routes to an environmentally-sensitive development based on
a win-win strategic partnership.

For example, some other African countries state that the presence of the Chinese in their countries is not
only instructive but also contributes to positive results. For example, Mr. G. D. Boateng, Executive
Secretary at Ghana’s Secretariat of the Chinese funded Bui Dam Project argues that “With Chinese
assistance, old development plans that were jettisoned at the insistence of development partners are now
being revived and are being executed at much lower costs. Before the Chinese came, the BUI Dam

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF BUSINESS RESEARCH, Volume 9, Number 6, 2009 25

project had been on the shelf since the 1960s. We had expressions of interest from a number of Western
companies in the 1960s and in 2001, but they all fell through because those companies didn’t see the
project as a worthwhile project. Now with Chinese assistance the project has gone off the shelf to the
ground and this time it is an integrated project that includes the building of a new city around Bui”
(JETRO, 2007). Also, in Lesotho, very important growth in the textile and clothing industry has been
recorded as a result of investment from Asian firms. What is achieved in Lesotho “…is the process of
growth leading infrastructure as Chinese and Taiwanese investors demand improved infrastructure in
transport, energy and water, all necessary for profitable operations in the sector” (Gelb, 2005).

On the whole, unlike the Western competitors, China makes no value demands that its aid be intertwined
with investments and provides generous support for the expansion of Chinese companies into the African
markets in order to diversify its source of supply for its industrial inputs. Based on this, a number of
African governments seem to be satisfied with the Chinese contributions to the expansion of their
infrastructure, tapping unexploited resources, integrating Africa’s economies into global value chains, and
visualizing China as a model for Africa’s development. Despite the fact that domestic companies feel that
they are being crowded out and there are shortfalls in the transfer of know-how and employment to local
workers (Asche, 2008), a number of policy makers in Africa go one step further to justify that China has
brought economic sanity to impoverished and conflict-ridden neighborhoods in Africa. To make China be
influential and a credible source for Africa, a number of African countries have endorsed themselves to be
a strategic training ground for Chinese state-owned enterprises, as well as private enterprises, in order to
quench their thirst for oil and industrial raw materials (JETRO, 2007). Being the trailblazer from Western
dictates, the Chinese Export-Import Bank has played a major role in low-cost financing development,
cooperative projects, and coordinating the effort of Chinese state-owned corporations and private
enterprises. Nevertheless, it is worth noting that the growth of South-South development cooperation in
Africa is not likely to fundamentally change the terms of the relationship between Africa and the Western
industrialized countries (North), but it can definitely be ascertained that the Africa continent has
leveraging power to bargain with prospective Western investors (Gelb, December 2005).

The Sino-investment projects are in the process of generating development cooperation in resources (i.e.,
oil, mining, timber, agricultural commodities), trade and investment, and contracts for construction and
engineering projects (roads, bridges, schools, shopping centers, housing and office buildings, water
conservancy, and power plants) for Africa’s present and future generations. Though very vital, African
states thus far “have not developed strategies of their own that underpin their cooperation with China”
(Asche, 2008). Therefore, if Africa is to extricate maximum benefits from its enhanced cooperation with
China it needs to design its own game plan and allocate a specific role for China based on a common
agenda at the continental level.

For example, in 2006, Angola signed with China for the construction of an oil refinery to enable Angola to
meet increasing domestic demand and increase supply to regional markets with the Southern African
Development Community. However, the negotiations broke down because instead of abiding by the intra-
Africa trade, China insisted that the bulk of the refined oil be exported to China.

Since China has not come out with environmentally sensitive programs, 30% of the forest logging
concessions given to China in Central Africa are expected to precipitate an increase of carbon
emissions. If the various mining concessions held by China in Africa do not comply with environmental
laws, it is possible that they might be a health hazard and could impair human security. For instance in
Gabon, the Chinese oil company was accused of “a whole range of unacceptable practices including
pollution, exploding dynamite, and carving roads through parks. In addition, environmental groups, human
rights groups, and businesses are irked by some unsavory aspects of [the] Chinese profile, such as the
deployment of Chinese labor, which limits local employment opportunities, destroys local manufacturing
capabilities, [and] sustains poor labor and environmental standards” (JETRO, 2007). As articulated by
Rocha:

Since Cameroon, Congo, [the] Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea,Gabon,

and Liberia are all major suppliers of timber to China, the conduct of industry in theCongo
Rainforest has serious ecological and other implications for the entire continent. There

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF BUSINESS RESEARCH, Volume 9, Number 6, 2009 26

 are already indications that the effects of climate change will be most severe in Africa.
Thus, continued mismanagement, in all its dimensions, of Africa’s natural resources,
renewable and non-renewable, will have catastrophic consequences for the continent
(2008).

Due to limited cross-cultural communication, there seems to be lack of collaboration between the Chinese
and African employees. Examining the composition of personnel in most of the over 800 state-owned
Chinese firms, Africa seems to be dependent on Chinese experts. The African workers are busy
accomplishing semi-skilled and manual types of work in textiles and clothing and the logging of tropical
timber. The highly skilled and senior managerial personnel are brought from China and are mostly
engaged in extractive industry (oil, gas, and mining), hydroelectric, and civil engineering. In addition, with
Chinese infrastructure projects, local construction firms are crying foul with respect to Chinese bidding
practices and with the overwhelming Chinese involvement in the composition of the semi-skilled labor
force. This might be possible because the Chinese are not adequately trained in cross-cultural
communication skills to effectively deal with their African counterparts. Even if the Africans are not highly
trained in engineering and construction, as part and parcel of the Chinese co-development strategy, the
main purpose of Chinese investment in Africa should have been to train and upgrade the skills of local
personnel so that Africa could be in a better position to replace the highly skilled Chinese employees and
investors in the near future. African governments should be in a position to monitor that the Chinese
companies are contributing to improve the skills of the local workforce even if they may initially employ
expatriate skilled technical and management personnel. Thus, the Chinese need to establish local
educational infrastructure and provide training opportunities to adequately prepare prospective African
employees (See the United Nations, UNDP, 2007).

Based a review of the literature, the socio-economic impacts of some of the Chinese cooperative
investments in Africa are summarized using the following dimensions: a) Human Capital (local
employment) b) human management skills (control of decision making process) , c) technological
transfer, d) local content requirements, e) efficiency, and f) the terms of trade (See Table 1).

a) Human Capital: The Chinese investors seem to be in control of decision-making and are
involved as heads of human development, accounting, finance, marketing, production, and
operations. Research and development (R&D) for all Sino-African investments are also
conducted in the Chinese headquarters, controlled by state-owned enterprises and government-
approved private agencies.
b) Technology Transfer: Typically, state-owned companies arrive in Africa with their own work
force, mainly project managers, engineers, technicians (Jian-Ye, 2007). Unless corrected, the
Sino-African investment is likely to fatten the pockets of state elites and marginalize the African
masses. In line with the objectives of the SSC, the degree of control must be reversed if there are
going to be technological transfers from China to Africa. Also, China has done little to integrate
Africa into the global value chains though it is considered to be an essential part of the technology
transfer package.

c) Local Continent Requirements and Environmental Externalities: More than 50 percent of the
intermediate products for Chinese investments in Africa originate in China. Thus, though it is
claimed that the Chinese-capital investments in Africa are new (Greenfield) rather than takeover
investments, but it needs to be underlined that the Chinese investments in Africa are constrained
by not being environmentally friendly. Similar to the Euro-African investments, the Sino-African
investments have failed to address their negative environmental externalities.

d) Efficiency: African firms generally lose about 8 percent of sales due to power outages, and
transportation delays account for about 3 percent lost sales (World Economic Forum, 2007). The
Chinese construction companies are currently able to wind up to a third of all public tender
processes in Africa to electrify a number of places and speed up the transportation process. The
African governments see this as a means of obtaining construction services more cheaply and
more quickly than obtaining them from Western construction firms. Nonetheless, it is instructive to
notice that about 30 to 40 percent of the orders that come from China are being executed by

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF BUSINESS RESEARCH, Volume 9, Number 6, 2009 27

 Chinese firms with little collaboration with local African personnel and subcontractors (see for
example, Asche, 2008).

e) Foreign Exchange: As discussed above, most of the foreign exchange generally used for the
Chinese investments in Africa originates from the China’s EXIM and development banks.
Employing Article 4 of the special regulation called the “Guidance for Granting Loans to Support
the Overseas Processing of the Investor’s Raw Materials and Assembling Operations” the Export-
Import Bank of China has been granting long-term and short-term loans to companies investing
abroad to purchase Chinese equipment and technology necessary to build factories abroad
(Zhaoxi, 2009).

f) Terms of Trade: In 2006, Africa’s exports to China were composed of oiland gas (about 62
percent), minerals and metals (about 13 percent), and manufactured goods (8 percent). The main
imports of Africa from China included about 45 percent manufactured products, 31 percent
machinery and transport equipment, and about 24 percent primary products. “Rough estimates
suggest that Africa’s terms of trade (the ratio of Africa’s export price index to its import price
index) in relation to China improved by 80 to 90 percent between 2001 and 2006 (Jiang-Ye,
2007). More specifically, the terms of trade of the 48 countries of Sub-Saharan Africa can be
divided roughly equally into winners (for example, oil exporting countries), winner-losers, and
losers (oil-importing textile producers such as Madagascar and Mauritius, coffee producing and
other agricultural exporting countries) (Kennan and Stevens, 2005).

While Chinese exports to Africa are poor in quality, they are generally cheaper to African consumers. The
export driven strategy of China has heavily contributed to huge job losses in a number of manufacturing
industries throughout the African continent. For instance, instead of supporting domestic enterprises
through backward and forward linkages within the domestic economy, the footwear industry in Ethiopia
has been facing pressures from cheap Chinese imports (Gebre-Egziabher, 2007). In addition, although
cotton growers in West Africa have benefited from increased exports of raw cotton to China,
“nevertheless most observers today share the concern that by purchasing raw materials from the
continent and selling value-added products back, China’s increased involvement will create unfavorable
trade balance for many African countries” (Broker, 2007). The importation of Chinese manufactured
textiles to Lesotho, Kenya, and South Africa with well-established clothing industries has flared up social
unrest and disruption by trade unions (Alden and Davies, 2006). As stated above, Chinese economic
involvement on the African continent has contributed to a surge of low- cost consumer goods. But, the
importation of higher value-added products such as refrigerators, air conditioners, and other machinery
products have not stimulated but displaced local products and laborers.

Chinese investments that seek efficiency and use local content inputs for export-oriented manufacturing
have been very limited in Africa (United Nations, UNDP, 2007). “ In recent years, individual small
entrepreneurs, often traders, have been traveling or migrating to Africa to seek business opportunities.
Once established (teaming up with local business) in African towns, these entrepreneurs set up
wholesale or retail outlets and import from China consumer goods like electronic appliances, textiles, and
clothing, competing with local traders” (ECOWAS-SWAC/OECD, 2006).

4. SUMMARY AND POLICY IMPLICATIONS

The internationalization of Chinese investment in Africa has been accelerated in recent years in
manufacturing (textiles), resource extraction, construction, and other services. China’s incentives to
promote FDI outflows to Africa take four forms: a) special and general tax incentives (All Chinese
enterprises overseas are exempt from corporate income tax for five successive years after beginning
operations); b) loans and credit (Chinese enterprises with investments abroad are accorded medium- and
long-term commercial loans or soft loans from government-owned Chinese banks); c) foreign exchange
(China’s foreign exchange administration stipulates that Chinese enterprises are eligible for foreign
exchange for foreign investment projects); and d) a favorable import and export of raw materials and
services (United Nations, UNDP, 2007).

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF BUSINESS RESEARCH, Volume 9, Number 6, 2009 28

 TABLE 1: IMPACT OF CHINESE COOPERATIVE INVESTMENTS IN AFRICA

Indicator Aggregate Analysis of the Effects of Chinese Investments in Africa

a) Human Capital
Local employment In general, the Chinese are employed in highly skilled jobs where as African
are mainly engaged in lower skill jobs
Chief Executive Mixed
officer/organizational
structure
Accounting & finance Mixed
Marketing Local people are used to market local products. Thus far, most of the
products are sold in the domestic markets and Chinese investors are not
helping African countries to sell their products internationally.
Production and Mostly Chinese
Operations
R&D and Product Mainly Chinese
Design
b)Technological
Transfer
Engineering Mostly accomplished by Chinese
Specification
Human Capital and Very minor training given to local employees
Development
Productivity The Sino-African firms are very productive
Technological Mixed impact
Infrastructure for
Backward and Forward
Linkages
c)Environmental Generally negative impact on the continent and less than 50 percent of
Effect and local supplies are obtained from domestic sources.
content requirement
d)Efficiency Per unit cost of goods and services produced by the Sino-African investment
is cost effective

e)Foreign Exchange Mostly supplied by China’s EXIM and China Development Bank
f) Term of
trade
Boosting Exports Limited domestic manufactured products for the international market, China
heavily exports Africa’s primary products
Boosting Imports The Chinese have heavily flooded African markets with cheap and poor
quality products from China

Based on the current Chinese investments and co-development projects existing in Africa, the supporters
of Chinese investment in Africa argue “Africa registered 5.8 percent economic growth in 2007, its highest
level ever, in part because of Chinese investment. Experts say the roads, bridges, and dams built by
Chinese firms are low cost, good quality, and completed in a fraction of the time such projects usually
take in Africa” (Hanson, 2006). In short, proponents of Chinese investment in Africa claim that China has
not only provided assistance but has also invested in Africa in areas that the Western aid agencies and
private investors have long neglected. For instance, though agriculture is regarded as vital for Africa’s

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF BUSINESS RESEARCH, Volume 9, Number 6, 2009 29

development, both the United States Agency for Development (USAID) and the World Bank reduced
assistance to Africa’s agricultural sector by as much as 90 percent in the 1990s. The Chinese state-
owned enterprises, on the other hand, provided human and capital assistance to Africa without any
conditionality (Lake and Whitman, 2006). As argued by Sebastian:

The concurrent economic development of China and African countries is truly

complementary—rapid Chinese growth requires constant fueling from natural resources,
in which Africa is abundant. While Africa is lacking in infrastructure, China possesses an
expertise in the construction and manufacturing sector that is willing to share. This
symbiotic relationship has resulted in an unprecedented scale and pace of trade and
investment flows between China and Africa (2008).

On the other hand critics argue China has shipped entire workforces across to Africa for many of its
projects. Also, China has flooded the African markets with cheap consumer goods and devastated the
local textile and consumer product industries. In addition, some of the Afro-pessimistic intellectuals argue
that as yet a) there is little evidence whether China’s renewed, and most probably lasting involvement in
Africa will serve the continent better than the decades of aid from Western governments, which have
scarcely delivered on their promises; b) while Chinese FDI is contributing to economic growth (especially
in resource-endowed states), apart from an infrastructure construction boom, “there is little evidence of a
positive impact on broader human development” (Broker, 2007); and c) “China has an African Policy.
Africa doesn’t have a China policy” (the daily newspaper Nation, Nairobi, Kenya, 2006). Instead of being
dictated, it is up to Africa states to determine how they can use their relations with China. “African political
leaders should sit in the driver’s seat with their national policy guidelines and their priorities (Lumumba-
Kasongo, 2007).”

In short, Lumumba-Kasongo argues that under the pretext of the SSC model China has introduced the
“Beijing Consensus,” which is to a large extent based on China’s self-representation as Africa’s help-mate
rather than the “Washington Consensus,” “which is the dogma of White House, Pentagon, the [World]
Bank, International Monetary Fund, and multinationals representing the interests of big private business”
(2007).

Instead of the two diametrically opposed perspectives of the Chinese engagement in Africa presented
above, Holslag’s (2006) point of view is eclectic. According to Holslag, China’s vision on its economic
relations is to beckon Africa with sweet carrots largely tailored to derive goodwill and permit it to do
business suavely (2006, p.15). Being engaged in constructive exchange, Africa simply needs to redefine
the rules of the game to make it more amenable and less threatening to its own interests (Rocha, 2008).
For example, in South Africa, Chinese investments are “the product of lengthy and detailed negotiations
that–apparently unlike some deals struck in other African settings–are framed in terms which conform to
international legal norms and responsibilities” (Alden and Davis, 2006). African governments should be in
a position to monitor that the Chinese companies are contributing to improve the skills of the local
workforce even if they may initially employ expatriate skilled technical and management personnel.
Finally, African leaders need to encourage the Chinese investors to adopt production techniques that are
ecologically sensitive and are in line with the Chinese environmental guidelines (See, Bosshard, 2008).

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF BUSINESS RESEARCH, Volume 9, Number 6, 2009 30

REFERENCES:

Alden, C., “China in Africa.” Survival, 47 93, 2005, 147-164.

Alden, C. and Davis, M., “A Profile of the Operations of Chinese Multinationals in Africa.” South African
Journal of International Affairs. Vol. 13, (1), Summer/Autumn 2006, 83-96.

Alves, A., “China’s Preferential Trade Policy as a Foreign Policy Tool.” Centre for Chinese Studies (CCS),
Stellenbosch University, South Africa, 2008.

Asche, H., “China’s Engagement in Africa- Opportunities and Risks for Development.” Hamburg: Africa
Department, Economics Affairs, 2008, 3.

Akkurt, A. D. and Ratha, D., “South-South FDI Flows: How Big Are They?” In Transnational Corporations,
Vol.13, (1), 2004.

BBC News, “China to Double its aid to Africa.” November 4, 2006.

Bosshard, P., “China’s Environmental Footprints in Africa.” China in Africa Policy. China in Africa Project
of the SA Institute of International Affairs (SAIIA), No. 3, April 2008.

Broker., “China and Africa, How will the Beijing Consensus Benefit Africa?” April, 2007.
www.thebrokeronline.eu/en/articles/How-will-the-Beijing-Consensus-benefit-Africa. Retrieved May
19, 2009.

Chau, Donovan C., “Political Warfare in Sub-Saharan Africa: U.S. Capabilities and Chinese Operations in
Ethiopia, Kenya, Nigeria, and South Africa.” March 2007.

Corkin, L. and Burke, C. “Constructive Engagement: An Overview of China’s Role in Africa’s Construction
Industries.” Centre for Chinese Studies (CCS), Stellenbosch University, South Africa, 2008.

Doha., “The Need for a South Platform.” Prepared by the South Centre on the Occasion of the Second
South Summit. 2005.

ECOWAS-SWAC/OECD “Africa and China Economic Series of the Atlas on Regional Integration in West
Africa,” 2006. www.atlas.estafrica.org. Retrieved May 19, 2009,

Ellis, Linden J. “China EXIM Bank in Africa.” China Environmental Forum, March 22, 2007. Woodrow
Wilson Center for Scholars, www.wilsoncenter.org. Retrieved May 19, 2009.

Ezekwesili, O. K., “World Bank: China Helps Africa Grow.” www.nowpublic.com/world/world-bank-

china-helps-africa-grow Retrieved July 11, 2008,

GebreEgziabher, T., “The Developmental Impact of China and India on Ethiopia with Emphasis on Small
Scale Footwear Producers.” Development Policy Research Unit, Johannesburg, South Africa, October
18-20, 2006.

Gelb, S., “South-South Investment: The Case of Africa.” Africa in the World Ecnomy-The National,
Regional and International Challenges. December, 2005.

Gill, B., et al., “Assessing China’s Growing Influence in Africa.” China Security, Vol. 3 (3), 2007, 3-21.

Gu, J., and Humphrey, J., “The Impact of Africa on China.” African Economic Research Consortium
Working Paper No. ADWP-05. 2007. www.jcer.or.jp/eng/research /assia.html Retrieved October 31,
2008.

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF BUSINESS RESEARCH, Volume 9, Number 6, 2009 31

Habib, A., “Seeing the New African Scramble for what it really is: Reflections on the United States and
China.” Centre for Chinese Studies (CCS), Stellenbosch University, South Africa, 2008.

Hamrin, C. L., ”Domestic Components and China’s Evolving Three World Theory.” Auburn House
Publishing Company, Dover, MA, 1986.

Hanson, S., “China, Africa, and Oil.” Council on Foreign Relations. June 6, 2006.
www.cfr.org/publication/9557/. Retrieved July 12, 2008,

Harris, L. C. and Worden, Robert L., China and the Third World: Champion and Challenger? Auburn
House Publishing Company, Dover, MA. 1986.

Holslag, J., “China’s New Mercantilism in Central Africa.” African and Asian Studies, Vol. 5 (2), 2006.
15-16.

JETRO. “Africapractice: The Impact of the Chinese Presence in Africa”. Isaac Idun-Arkhurst and James
Laing (eds). Africapractice, London, 2007.

Jian-Ye, W., “What Drives China’s Growing Role in Africa?” International Monetary Fund Working Paper,
07/211. Washington D.C., 2007.

Kennan, J., and Stevens, C., Opening the Package: The Asian Drivers and Poor-Country Trade. Sussex
University: Institute of Development Studies, 2005.

Lake, A. and Whitman, C. T., “More Than Humanitarianism: A Strategic U.S. Approach Toward Africa.”
New York: Council of Foreign Relations Independent Task Force Report No. 56, 2006.

Large, D. “Beyond Dragon in the Bush: The Study of Chin-Africa Relations.” African Affairs, 107/426,
2008, 45-61.

Le Pere, G., “Prospects for a Coherent African Policy Response: Engaging China.” New Impulses from
the South: China’s Engagement of Africa. Hannah Edinger, et al., [eds.], Centre for Chinese Studies
(CCS), Stellenbosch University, South Africa, 2008, 14.

Looney, R., New International Economic Order, 1999.

http://web.nps.navy.mil/~relooney/routledge_15b.htm. Retrieved October 10, 2008.

Lumumba-Kasongo, T., “China-Africa Relations in the Post-Cold War Era: Dialectics of Rethinking South-
South Dialogue.” CODESRIA Bulletin, No. 1 & 2, 2007, 8-16.

Muekalia, D. J.,. “Africa and China’s Strategic Partnership.” African Security Review, 13, No.1:5-1, 2004.

Naidu, S., “Introduction.” Africa Day Conference: New Impulses from the South: China’s Engagement
with Africa. Centre for Chinese Studies (CCS), Stellenbosch University, South Africa, 2008..

Ohiorhenuan, J. F. E. and Rathe, A.. “The History & Urgency of South-South Cooperation in Science &
Technology.” Cooperation South, No 1, 2000.

Okonjo-Iweala, N., “Viewpoint: China Becomes Africa’s Suitor.” October 24, 2006.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/6079838.stm. Retrieved July 12, 2008.

Rocha, J. “China and African Natural Resources: Developmental Opportunity or Deepening the Resource
Curse?” Centre for Chinese Studies (CCS), Stellenbosch University, South Africa, 2008.

Sebastian, S. “China–Africa Investments: An Analysis of China’s Investments in Africa.” CHINAVES, 2.

September 17, 2008.

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF BUSINESS RESEARCH, Volume 9, Number 6, 2009 32

UNESCO “Note on South-South Cooperation.” United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization, ED/EFA?2006/ME/7. June, 2006.

United Nations, UNDP. “Asian Foreign Direct Investment in Africa: Towards a New Era of Cooperation
Among Developing Countries”. United Nations, New York, 2007.

Worden, R.L., “International Organization: China’s Third World Policy in Practice.” China and the Third
World :Champion and Challenger? Auburn House Publishing Company, Dover, MA, 1986.

World Economic Forum, Africa Competitiveness Report, 2007. World Bank, Washington,
www.weforum.org/africacompetritiveness. Retrieved on May 19, 2009, from

Zhaoxi, L., “China’s Outward Foreign Direct Investment.” Chinese Multinationals, Jean-Paul Larcon [ed],
Singapore: World Scientific Publishing, Co. Pte. Ltd., 49. 2009.

AUTHOR PROFILE:

Dr. Asayehgn Desta earned his Ph.D., at Stanford University in International Development with
emphasis in Economics of Education. Currently he is the Sarlo Distinguished Professor of Business
Economics at the Dominican University of California, San Rafael. He is the author of several articles and
books.

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF BUSINESS RESEARCH, Volume 9, Number 6, 2009 33

Copyright of International Journal of Business Research is the property of International Journal of Business
Research and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the
copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for
individual use.