Moto dei fluidi

Descrizione dei fluidi:

Massa volumica: kg/m3
Liquidi: incompressibili (massa volumica non varia in buona
approssimazione)
Gas: compessibili
Pressione: 1 N/m2 = 1 Pascal (Pa)

1 bar = 1 atm = 105 Pa

Sfera diametro
50 cm
Otto von Guericke,
1654
30 anni primo
di Newton

una coppia di emisferi di rame con bordi

perfettamente combacianti. Quando vengono
incastrati tra loro e viene aspirata via l'aria, al loro
interno si forma il vuoto e non possono essere
separati da due opposte schiere di cavalli.

F= pA=10 N /m (0,25 m) =1,910 N

Otto von Guericke
1646 1676 sindaco di Magdeburg
1618 1648 guerra dei trent'anni
1631 sacco di Magdeburg
1654 Emisferi di Magdeburg

Historically, there has been much dispute over whether such a thing as a vacuum
can exist. Ancient Greek philosophers debated the existence of a vacuum, or
void, in the context of atomism, which posited void and atom as the fundamental
explanatory elements of physics.
Following Plato, even the abstract concept of a featureless void faced
considerable skepticism: it could not be apprehended by the senses, it could not,
itself, provide additional explanatory power beyond the physical volume with
which it was commensurate and, by definition, it was quite literally nothing at all,
which cannot rightly be said to exist.
Aristotle believed that no void could occur naturally, because the denser
surrounding material continuum would immediately fill any incipient rarity that
might give rise to a void.

In his Physics, book IV, Aristotle offered numerous arguments against the void:
for example, that motion through a medium which offered no impediment could
continue ad infinitum, there being no reason that something would come to rest
anywhere in particular.

Although Lucretius argued for the existence of vacuum in the first century BC and
Hero of Alexandria tried unsuccessfully to create an artificial vacuum in the first
century AD,[24]

it was European scholars such as Roger Bacon, Blasius of Parma and

Walter Burley in the 13th and 14th century who focused considerable attention on
these issues. Eventually following Stoic physics in this instance, scholars from
the 14th century onward increasingly departed from the Aristotelian perspective
in favor of a supernatural void beyond the confines of the cosmos itself, a
conclusion widely acknowledged by the 17th century, which helped to segregate
natural and theological concerns.[25]

Almost two thousand years after Plato, Ren Descartes also proposed a
geometrically based alternative theory of atomism, without the problematic
nothingeverything dichotomy of vo[27]id and atom.

Although Descartes (1596 1650) agreed with the contemporary position, that a
vacuum does not occur in nature, the success of his
namesake coordinate system and more implicitly, the spacialcorporeal
component of his metaphysics would come to define the philosophically modern
notion of empty space as a quantified extension of volume.

Medieval thought experiments into the idea of a vacuum considered whether a

vacuum was present, if only for an instant, between two flat plates when they
were rapidly separated.[35] There was much discussion of whether the air moved
in quickly enough as the plates were separated, or, as Walter Burley postulated,
whether a 'celestial agent' prevented the vacuum arising. The commonly held
view that nature abhorred a vacuum was called horror vacui. Speculation that
even God could not create a vacuum if he wanted to was shut down[
clarification needed] by the 1277 Paris condemnations of Bishop
Etienne Tempier, which required there to be no restrictions on the powers of God,
which led to the conclusion that God could create a vacuum if he so wished.[19]
Jean Buridan reported in the 14th century that teams of ten horses could not pull
open bellows when the port was sealed.[24]
The 17th century saw the first attempts to quantify measurements of partial
vacuum.[36] Evangelista Torricelli's mercury barometer of 1643 and
Blaise Pascal's experiments that both demonstrated a partial vacuum.
In 1654, Otto von Guericke invented the first vacuum pump[37] and conducted
his famous Magdeburg hemispheres experiment, showing that teams of horses
could not separate two hemispheres from which the air had been partially
evacuated.

Altri 300 anni

In 1930, Paul Dirac proposed a model of the vacuum as an infinite sea of

particles possessing negative energy, called the Dirac sea. This theory helped
refine the predictions of his earlier formulated Dirac equation, and successfully
predicted the existence of the positron, confirmed two years later.
Werner Heisenberg's uncertainty principle formulated in 1927, predict a
fundamental limit within which instantaneous position and momentum, or energy
and time can be measured.
This has far reaching consequences on the "emptiness" of space between
particles.
In the late 20th century, so-called virtual particles that arise spontaneously from
empty space were confirmed.

On July 27, 1630, Giovanni Battista Baliani wrote a letter to Galileo Galilei
explaining an experiment he had made in which a siphon, led over a hill about
twenty-one meters high, failed to work. Galileo responded with an explanation of
the phenomenon: he proposed that it was the power of a vacuum that held the
water up, and at a certain height the amount of water simply became too much
and the force could not hold any more, like a cord that can support only so much
weight.[5][6] This was a restatement of the theory of horror vacui ("nature abhors
a vacuum"), which dates to Aristotle, and which Galileo restated as resistenza
del vacuo.

The chain model where the section marked "B" pulls down because it is
heavier than the section "A" is a flawed analogy to the operation of a siphon
in ordinary conditions.

Evangelista Torricelli (Roma, 15 ottobre 1608 Firenze, 25 ottobre 1647) stato un

matematico e fisico italiano

Un tubo, lungo 1 m, ... sigillato a un'estremit, viene riempito di mercurio e posto,

con l'apertura verso il basso tenuta chiusa in modo che non entri aria, in una
bacinella anch'essa piena di mercurio. A questo punto viene aperta l'estremit
inferiore e si constata che il tubo non si svuota e che il mercurio scende solo per
un certo tratto.

Torricelli's chief invention was the mercury barometer, which arose from solving
a practical problem. Pump makers of the Grand Duke of Tuscany attempted to
raise water to a height of 12 meters or more, but found that 10 meters was the
limit with a suction pump (as recounted in Galileo's Dialogue). Torricelli
employed mercury, fourteen times more dense than water. In 1643 he created a
tube approximately one meter long, sealed at the top, filled it with mercury, and
set it vertically into a basin of mercury. The column of mercury fell to about
76 cm, leaving a Torricellian vacuum above. As we now know, the column's
height fluctuated with changing atmospheric pressure; this was the first
barometer. The discovery of the principle of the barometer has perpetuated his
fame ("Torricellian tube", "Torricellian vacuum"). The torr, a unit of pressure used
in vacuum measurements, is named after him.

Er war auch der Erste, dem es gelang, ein Vakuum fr lngere Zeit
aufrechtzuerhalten. Seine wichtigste Entdeckung betraf das Funktionsprinzip
des Quecksilberbarometers: Er stellte die Behauptung auf, dass die Flssigkeit
nicht vom Vakuum hinauf gesogen wird, sondern von der Last der Luftsule
hinauf gedrckt wird. Diese Vermutung war durchaus umstritten.
Ren Descartes schrieb, Vakuum sei allenfalls in Torricellis Kopf anzutreffen. Sie
konnte aber 1647 durch das Experiment Leere in der Leere von Blaise Pascal
gesttzt werden. Das Vakuum oberhalb der Quecksilbersule im Barometer wird
in der lteren Literatur oft als torricellische Leere[4] bezeichnet.

Blaise Pascal (Clermont-Ferrand, 19 giugno 1623 Parigi, 19 agosto

1662) stato un matematico, fisico, filosofo e teologo francese
Tutta la nostra dignit consiste dunque nel pensiero. con questo che
dobbiamo nobilitarci e non gi con lo spazio e con il tempo che non potremmo
riempire. Studiamoci dunque di pensar bene: questo il principio della morale

With his experiments Guericke disproved the hypothesis of "horror vacui", that
nature abhors a vacuum. Aristotle in e.g. Physics IV 6-9 had argued against the
existence of the void and his views commanded near universal endorsement by
philosophers and scientists up to the 17th century. Guericke showed that
substances were not pulled by a vacuum, but were pushed by the pressure of
the surrounding fluids.
Conlon, Thomas E. (27 September 2011). Thinking About Nothing: Otto von
Guericke and the Magdeburg Experiments on the Vacuum.
The Saint Austin
Press. ISBN 978-14478-3916-3

Fluidi in quiete (e senza gravit):

equilibrio idrostatico = la pressione costante in tutti il fluido

Torchio idraulico

F1
F2
p1= = p 2=
S1
p2

Con gravit :
p = F/A
y

liquido

p+p

F peso mg Vg
yA
p=
=
=
=g
=g y
A
A
A
A
p
=g
y
p

dp= gdy
p0

p p0 =gy

Per liquido

p= p 0+ gy

A quale profonditit sotto la superficie dell'acqua si deve scendere affinch la

pressione sia il doppio della pressione atmosferica?
Quanto vale la pressione dell'acqua sul fondo della Fossa della Marianne, una
valle profonda 11,3 km sul fondo dell'Oceaono Pacifico.
Si supponga in entrambi I casi che la pressione sulla superficie dell'acqua sia
1,0 atm e che la massa volumica dell'acqua sia 1,0 103 kg/m3

p= p 0+ gy

p p0 2,010 5 Pa1,010 5 Pa
y=
=
=10 m
3
2
g
(1,010 kg / m)9,8 m/ s
3

p= p 0+ gy =1 atm+ 1,010 kg /m 9,8 m/s 11,310 m

6

p=1 atm+ 110,710 Pa=1 atm+ 1107 atm=1108 atm

manometro

barometro

Gas :

=( p)

p = F/A
h
y
p+p

F peso mg Vg
yA
p=
=
=
=g
=g( h)
A
A
A
A
kT
con p=

m( molecola)

p
=g
h
h

p= p0e

mg
kT

pV mol =N AkT

= p 0e

h / h0

dp
mg
= p
dh
kT

(atmosfera a temperatura
uniforme, e g non varia)

h0 quota di scala

NA
N am kT
p=
kT =

V mol
V mol m

La pressione atmosferica al livello del mare e' 1,0 atm. Supponendo una
temperatura uniforme di 280 K e una massa molecolare media di 4,8 10-26 kg,
si calcola la quota di scala nell'atmosfera terrestre e, base a essa, la pressione
a 1900 e a 8200 m.
Quota di scala:

23
kT (1,3810 J / K )280 K
h0 =
=
=8200 m
26
2
mg
4,810 kg9,8 m/s

p(1900 m)= p 0e

h / h0

p(8200 m)=0,37 atm

1900m / 8200m

=1,0 atme

=0,79 atm

Principio di Archimede

Un corpo immerso in un fluido riceve una spinta dal basso verso l'alto pari
al peso del volume di fluido spostato

cos detto in onore di Archimede di Siracusa, matematico e fisico greco,

vissuto nel III secolo a.C. che lo enunci nella sua opera Sui corpi galleggianti
Galileo Galilei nello scritto Discorso intorno alle cose che stanno in su l'acqua o
che in quella si muovono (del 1612) difende il Principio di Archimede contro le
erronee interpretazioni degli aristotelici.

La massa volmica meda di un iceberg artico e pari a circa 0,86 di quella

dell'acqua di mare. Quale frazione del volume di un iceberg e' sommersa?
Spinta di Archimede:

(acqua)V (sommerso)g

( ghiaccio)V (ghiaccio )g=(acqua)V ( sommerso)g

V (sommerso) (ghiaccio)
=
=0,86
V (ghiaccio )
(acqua)

Liceberg sospettato dellaffondamento del

Titanic: una macchia rossa dello stesso colore
della nave era osservabile alla sua base

Dinamica dei fluidi

Equazione di continuita'

m=V =Al=Av t
1A1v 1 t=2A 2v 2 t

Av =costante

Fiume con : largo 40 m, profondo 2,2 m, velocita' 4,5 m

Nel punto piu' stretto : largo 3,7 m,
Se la velocit della corrente del fiume 6,0 m/s, quanto vale la profondit in
questo punto?

Av =costante
=costante

v 1l 1y 1=v 2l 2y 2

v 1l 1y 1 (4,5 m/s)40 m2,2 m

y 2=
=
=18 m
v 2l 2
(6,0 m/ s)3,7 m

Un campo vettoriale associa ad ogni punto dello spazio un vettore. Per esempio, se si
considera lo scorrere di carica elettrica attraverso un conduttore elettrico, possibile
definire il campo vettoriale che ad ogni punto associa la velocit delle cariche. Se si
vuole esprimere la conservazione di una quantit utile considerare il flusso di tale
quantit attraverso una superficie: considerate due sezioni del conduttore, se il numero
di cariche che attraversano le rispettive superfici nell'unit di tempo il medesimo
significa che le cariche che viaggiano nella parte di conduttore compresa tra le due
sezioni non si disperdono, restando all'interno di esso.

A continuity equation in physics is an equation that describes the transport of a

conserved quantity. Since mass, energy, momentum, electric charge and other natural
quantities are conserved under their respective appropriate conditions, a variety of
physical phenomena may be described using continuity equations.
Continuity equations are a stronger, local form of conservation laws. For example, it is
true that "the total energy in the universe is conserved". But this statement does not
immediately rule out the possibility that energy could disappear from Earth while
simultaneously appearing in another galaxy. A stronger statement is that energy is locally
conserved: Energy can neither be created nor destroyed, nor can it "teleport" from one
place to anotherit can only move by a continuous flow. A continuity equation is the
mathematical way to express this kind of statement.

Continuity equations more generally can include "source" and "sink" terms, which allow
them to describe quantities that are often but not always conserved, such as the density
of a molecular species which can be created or destroyed by chemical reactions. In an
everyday example, there is a continuity equation for the number of living humans; it has a
"source term" to account for people giving birth, and a "sink term" to account for people
dying.
Any continuity equation can be expressed in an "integral form" (in terms of a flux integral
), which applies to any finite region, or in a "differential form" (in terms of the divergence
operator) which applies at a point.

Conservazione dell'energia: teorema di Bernoulli

Fluido incompressibile, privo di dissipazione di energia

1/2mv 2=1/ 2Vv 2

Energia cinetica

mgh=Vgh
pV

Energia pot. grav.

Energia pressione

1/2v 2+ gh+ p=costante

Un grande recipiente aperto e' pieno fino alla quota h di un liquido di massa
volumica .
Quanto vale la velocita' del'liquido che effluisce da un piccolo foro alla base del
recipiente?

1/2v + gh+ p
1/2v 2+ p at
2

1/2v + p at =gh+ p at
v = gh

1/2v + gh+ p
gh+ p at

Tubo di venturi

1/2v 2+ gh+ p 1/2v 2+ p=costante

Quando la valvola del gas complettamente aperta, il carburatore di

un'automobile ha un diametro del diffusore di 2,4 cm. A ogni giro il motore, a 4
cilindri, di 2,2 l di cilindrata, aspira 0,55 l di aria attraverso il carburatore. Alla
velocit di rotazione del motore di 3000 giri/min,
quanto valgono la portata in volume, la velocit della corrente d'aria e la
differenza tra la pressione atmosferica e la pressione dell'aria nel diffusore ?
Massa volumica (aria) = 1,3 kg/m3

portata Q=0,55 l/ giro3000 giri /min=1650 l /min=0,0275 m 3 /s

Q
0,0275 m3 / s
v= 2 =
=61 m/ s
2
r (0,012 m)
pat + 0= p c + 1/ 2v 2
2

pat pc =1/2v =1/ 21,3 kg /m (61 m/ s) =2,410 N / m =0,024 atm

v1
v2

elica

v3
x

1/ 2v 2+ p=costante

34