Organic Agriculture in Bhutan

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SIT Study Abroad
Spring 2014
Organic Agriculture in Bhutan: Barriers Going to

100%
Mark McCrae-Hokenson
SIT Study Abroad, [email protected]
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McCrae-Hokenson, Mark, "Organic Agriculture in Bhutan: Barriers Going to 100%" (2014). Independent Study Project (ISP)
Collection. Paper 1827.
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Table Of Contents
Abstract: .. 4
Methods: . 4
Acknowledgments: ... 5
Acronyms: .. 6
Introduction .... 7
Organic in Bhutan & Abroad .... 8
Organic by 2020 . 8
International Status . 8
Sustainability .. 10
Why Sustainable? . 10
Ecological .. 11
Economic ... 11
Social 13
History of Farming in Bhutan 13
Organic: Barriers .. 17
Rural to Urban Migration and Labor Shortages 18
Labor Shortage .. 18
Traditional vs. Modern 19
Education . 20
Markets .. 21
Policy & Registration .. 22
Pesticide & Fertilizer 22
Certification . 23
Bio-Fertilizer Shortage .. 24
Organic Seeds . 24
What is Happening Now: 26
Policy ... 27
National Level Board . 27
School Agriculture Programs 27
Education .. 28
Private Organizations 28
BioBhutan 28
Bhutan Organic Logo 29
Happy Green Cooperative 30
SNV Netherlands Development Organization . 30
Samdrup Jongkhar Initiative . 31
Organic Farms in Operation .. 31
Druk Organic Farm in Toktokha . 31
Wang Sisina Integrated Farm 32
Gasa .. 33
The Future . 35
Farms 36
Research 36
Government. 37
Conclusion... 38
Appendix.. 41
Dzongkhag Terms .. 41
Map of Bhutan.. 45
Questionnaire for Farmers..... 46
List of Interviews: ... 50
Bibliography ..... 53
Future Research... 55

Abstract:
This study seeks to provide an overview of organic agriculture in Bhutan. In an effort to
promote sustainability and achieve the goals set by a Gross National Happiness inspired
government, Bhutan has pledged to go 100% organic by 2020. This pledge is at odds with the
countrys goal to increase self sufficiency and food security. I look at the barriers to going
organic, the programs and initiatives in place to overcome or mitigate those barriers, and the
path of least resistance in the future. I asked farmers, scholars, researchers, and members of
the government for their opinions on the prospects of a 100% organic Bhutan. Through their
answers, I hope to have identified what prevents Bhutan from becoming organic, what is
pushing the movement forward now, and what is most important for the movement in the
future.
Methods:
This study was completed primarily from the College of Natural Resources in Lobesa,
Punakha, Bhutan. I spent a total of three weeks in Bhutan with time equally split in Thimphu
and CNR. I interviewed farmers, scholars, researchers and government officials to gain an
insight into views on the prospects of organic in Bhutan. For farmers, I used a questionnaire.
For others, I led a semi-structured interview, using in-service students at CNR for translation
when the interviewee was unable to speak in English.

Acknowledgments:
This project would not have been possible- let alone successful- without the help of Madame
Rehkha Chhetri at the College of Natural Resources. At every turn she guided my research in
the proper direction. Whether she was setting up meetings with farmers, extension agents,
researchers, government officials, or offering simple advice, she was an ideal and invaluable
resource to my research.
By extension I would like to acknowledge CNR for hosting me and providing the space and
environment to conduct a fruitful study. Tandin Gyeltshen played a crucial role and
organized my logistics. President Dorji Wangchuk made my stay possible and made me feel at
home. Between the students and lecturers, I had more help than I could imagine needing and
each and every person I met was a helpful part.
Specifically, I thank Nam Gil, an in-service student who offered not only translation but
company throughout my research. I would not have been able to translate without him, and
would have had less peace of mind as well.
The farmers that took time from their days to answer my questions deserve thanks as well.
They were generous to spend time answering questions when they could have been doing
actual farming, and the information they gave me was vital to my project.
I would not have been able to dream about this study without the assistance Tshering Choden
at the Royal University of Bhutan. The time she took to approve my proposal and allow me
access to the University system made the project possible. Without her consideration, I would
have been out of luck before I even began.
Finally, I thank SIT for the access and support throughout the entire process. Isabelle
Onians, Hubert Decleer, Nazneen Decleer, Eben Yonnetti, Tenzin Choezom, and Rinzi, have
supported my study and my research. Without the countless hours of work behind the scenes,
I would have been unable to find my way to the airport, let alone to Bhutan, let alone to CNR,
let alone to a completed project. The work they do for us students is invaluable.

Acronyms:
BAFRA: Bhutan Agriculture and Food Regulatory Authority
CNR: College of Natural Resources
CSA: Climate Smart Agriculture
FAO: UN Food and Agriculture Organization
GAP: Good Agriculture Practices
GNH: Gross National Happiness
IFOAM: International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements
MOAF: Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry
NOP: National Organic Programme
PGS: Participatory Guarantee System
RNR: Renewable Natural Resource
SAP: School Agriculture Prog
SJI: Samdrup Jongkhar Initiative
SNV: SNV Netherlands Development Project
USDA: United States Department of Agriculture

Introduction

Organic in Bhutan & Abroad

Organic by 2020
While in attendance at the Rio+20 Sustainable Development conference in 2012, the
Prime Minister of Bhutan told the world that his country would be the first to be 100%
organic.1 He explained, "By working in harmony with nature, they can help sustain the flow
of nature's bounties."2 When he said those words, it was a culmination of policy and
initiatives toward a sustainable Bhutan. Bhutan is well known for its approach to governance
and alternative to Gross Domestic Product, called Gross National Happiness (GNH). At the
base of GNH are 4 pillars; sustainable and equitable socio economic development,
preservation and promotion of cultural values, preservation of environment, good
governance- certification.3 These principles are taken into account in all decisions in the
government, agriculture included. The International Federation of Organic Agriculture
Movements (IFOAM) principles to organic farming are quite similar; principle of fairness,
principle of care, principle of ecology, principle of health. These separate sets of pillars are in
agreement. For Bhutan, sustainable development is a paramount concern and organic
agriculture is at the heart of the movement. As Bhutan becomes a member of modernity, it
must ask itself how it deals with the traditional and the modern. Is it important to preserve
traditional dress? Traditional songs? Traditional agriculture? The confluence of these two
trends that appear to be in opposition will determine Bhutans future. For agriculture, the
introduction of chemical additives changes the organic by nature methods of traditional
agriculture. With that dilemma in my mind, I seek to answer what barriers stand in the way
of Bhutan meeting its goal to become 100% organic. For those barriers, I look to what
addresses them (programs, initiatives, or policies) and look beyond that to what the future
looks like for organic agriculture in Bhutan.
International Status
Organic vegetables and organic farming are on the rise worldwide. In February 2014,
Wal-Mart announced its intention to enter the organic vegetable business.4. This business
decision can be traced to the meteoric rise of the organic markets in the United States as well
as Europe. Though still a relatively small percentage of total volume at 2.3 %, the premium
http://www.npr.org/blogs/thesalt/2012/07/31/157645902/bhutan-bets-organic-agriculture-is-the-road-
to-happiness
2
i bid
3 Tshomo, Kesang. "Bhutans Status on Development Strategy for Organic Sector." Lecture, from College of Natural
Resources, Lobesa, April 13, 2014.
"Walmart plots a low-price takeover of the organic food market." The Verge.
http://www.theverge.com/2014/4/10/5600462/walmart-wild-oats-organic-food-prices (accessed May 4, 2014).
4
prices of organically certified vegetables make an $8b market in the United States alone. 5 The
United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) defines organic agriculture as
an ecological production management system that promotes
and enhances biodiversity, biological cycles and soil biological
activity. It is based on minimal use of off-farm inputs and on
management practices that restore, maintain and enhance
ecological harmony".6
This definition is almost identical to the European definition of organic agriculture
and the certification process is considered to be equal between the two. The definition of
organic agriculture given by Madame Kesang Tshomo, Director of the National Organic
Programme (NOP), in a presentation to students at the College of Natural Resources (CNR)
is:
Organic agriculture is a production system that sustains the
health of soils, ecosystems and people. It relies on ecological
processes, biodiversity and cycles adapted to local conditions,
rather than the use of inputs with adverse effects.
Organic agriculture combines tradition, innovation and science
to benefit the shared environment and promote fair relationships
and a good quality of life for all involved.
This definition guides the organic movement in Bhutan. The emphasis on tradition,
innovation, and science should be noted. Organic is at the core of Bhutan's history and
Bhutan's future.
As you wind through mountains on narrow switchbacks, small farms dot the
mountains above and the valleys below. 60% of the Bhutanese workforce is involved in
agrarian activities.7 Still, of all the land in Bhutan only 2.9% is dedicated to agriculture.8 2069
acres are under organic agriculture production9 and that number accounts for all 20
dzongkhags (districts).10 Forested land covers a total of 70% land, and the Constitution
mandates that that number not drop below 60%. Preservation of the forests along with the
unfriendly mountainous landscape only leaves space for small farms. Of crops grown, rice is
the most common, followed by potatoes, maize, and vegetables.11 The most important crop
grown is chilli's and the importance of the crop can not be understated in Bhutanese society.
In Kunzang Choden's book, chilli and Cheese: Food and Society in Bhutan, she details the
Gliessman, Stephen R.. The conversion to sustainable agriculture: principles, processes, and practices. Boca
Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2010.
6
"Organic Production and Organic Food: Information Access Tools." Organic Production and Organic Food:
Information Access Tools. http://www.nal.usda.gov/afsic/pubs/ofp/ofp.shtml (accessed May 4, 2014).
5
Gliessman, Conversion to Sustainable Agriculture, page 59
Ibid., pg 81
Kesang Tshomo, Bhutans Status on Development Strategy for Organic Sector

Ibid
11
Ibid., pg 86
10
importance of the chilli in all points of production and consumption.12 The taste of chilli and
cheese and roofs painted red with chillies drying during harvest are a part of Bhutanese
history and culture.
Sustainability
Why Sustainable?
Bhutan is closely tied to India in both geography and trade. For agriculture, a recent
trend of farmer suicide in India is a matter of concern for Bhutanese farmers. In 2012, over
14,000 Indian farmers took their lives, and in the district most affected, nearly 4000 farmers
took their lives. In that district, that number was a quarter of all suicides.13 These suicides are
associated with crushing debt from the expensive chemicals that must be increased each year.
When a group of farmers from the
southeast district of Samdrup
Jongkhar visited farmers in India
they learned from fellow farmers the
ill effects associated with chemicals.
Within the local three district area,
12 farmers had already killed
themselves. One Indian farmer said
"It is better to commit suicide than
not use chemicals."14
Sustainability is at the center
of the organic movement in Bhutan.
In
interviews with farmers,
bureaucrats, and researchers alike,
the terms sustainable agriculture
and organic agriculture are tied together, though not identical. Sustainable agriculture
promotes organic methods but does not mean that chemicals are not allowed. Sustainable
agriculture can be organic but is most often an integrated method.
Bhutan was introduced to the outside world in 1961 and has managed modernization
in domains from daily life to government policies. The guide to this management is GNH.
Amidst the 4 pillars of GNH stands a pledge to become environmentally sound. This
sustainable method seeps into government agencies, agriculture included. Sustainable
agriculture is sustainable in three different sectors; ecological, economic, and social. The
World Bank describes sustainable agriculture as systems that are environmentally sound,
financially and economically feasible and socially acceptable.15 The term sustainable
12
Choden, Kunzang. Chilli and cheese: food and society in Bhutan. Bangkok, Thailand: White Lotus, 2008.
http://www.firstpost.com/politics/farmer-suicides-what-do-the-gujarat-numbers-really- mean-1453851.html
14
http://www.sji.bt/assets/PDFs/Study-tour-report.pdf
15
Thimmaiah, Dr. A. A Guide to Organic Agriculture in Bhutan. Thimphu: Ministry of Agriculture, 2008. pg 2
13
10
agriculture was first defined in 1992 by the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
and was revised for developing countries in 2001, saying, sustainable agriculture must
address issues of economic efficiency, social responsibility and environmental quality.16
Ecological
Ecological sustainability is concerned with corrosive effects that chemicals have on soil
quality and yield when applied year after year. For the farmers in India, they associated
chemicals with unsafe drinking water that forces them to "purchase mineral water for
drinking, like the tourists."17 This concern is echoed by the farmers in Bhutan that I spoke
with. Though they themselves are proponents of pesticide and fertilizer usage, they are wary
of the effect that the chemicals over time. With manure, when you put it once, it stays in the
soil and helps all the plants. With fertilizer, it only helps the plants that it touches, and it only
helps once. You must buy more and more.18
It is believed that conventional farming has a negative effect on the water retention in
soil, and a water shortage pains farmers across the country. Though climate change may be
able to shoulder some of the blame, the farmers have to make amends immediately to grow
crops. When conventional methods are used, the lack of protective soil cover, narrow crop
rotations and frequent tillage help exacerbate an issue that is already troublesome. One
farmer I spoke with, Phubtim, told me as I walked away that if after I make it into the
Bhutanese government, that I should return to her farm and help irrigate her crops19.
Another farmer blamed her actions in a past life on her bad luck with water.20
Pollution is another ecological concern and motivation to become more sustainable.
The health risks associated with chemical pesticide and fertilizers are not fully understood.
The absence of such chemicals in organic agriculture is a boon for those who believe the
chemicals are a growing health risk. For the farmers in India, pollution is associated with the
Cancer Express, a train that "travels regularly to hospitals and is filled with cancer patients
and their families."21 While the imported Indian vegetables test safe under the guidelines in
Bhutan, it is known that they use many chemicals. It is hard to say, but every tenth or
twentieth person in Bhutan gets cancer, and you must wonder if there is a connection.22
Economic
Economic sustainability addresses concerns at the local and national level. At the
individual farm level, there are concerns that chemical additives will become more expensive
16
Ibid., pg 2
Dorji, Cheku. "REPORT ON STUDY TOUR TO INDIA SPONSORED BY SAMDRUP JONGKHAR INITIATIVE (SJI),
DEWATHANG, MARCH 21, 2011 to APRIL 9, 2011.." . http://www.sji.bt/assets/PDFs/Study-tour-report.pdf
(accessed May 4, 2014).
18
Dao, Interview with author
19
Phubtim, Interview with Author
20
Coo Chu, Interview with Author
21
Dorji, Cheku. Report on Study Tour
22
Tshering, Kinlay. Interview with Author
17
11
year after year and that the dependence on them spells doom for the farmers who are not
wealthy enough to keep up. I worry about chemicals, because what if I dont have enough
money next year? What do I do then?23 This concern grows when farmers began to farm
commercially, both for domestic and export markets. In a self sufficient house, farmers can
produce enough for themselves and their family but do not rely on an external income made
at the market to survive. For commercial farmers, yield becomes paramount. With yield in
charge, the measures taken to meet a required yield may not be sustainable. If a farmer needs
pesticides to save his crop he will use those pesticides, and if that farmer does not have
enough money to buy the pesticide, a loan may be needed. Debt becomes an issue. The debt
may trap the farmer in a downward spiral. The farmer who said that he would choose death
over a year without chemicals is not alone. Farmers reported they "can not stop using
chemicals because that will result in a drastic reduction in production, and then an inability to
repay loans."24 To further complicate economic viability, markets are often volatile. In Gasa,
which happens to be organic, the farmers were encouraged by two years of solid sales of their
mushroom crop. However, the third year,
the market for the mushrooms disappeared
and they were unable to find a place to
offload the newfound surplus.25 A farmer
who relies on a single crop may find
himself without a source of income in a
down year.
The encouragement of
bio-diversity seeks to mitigate these
negative effects.
At the national stage, a concern
over national food security sits heavy on
any initiative that has potential to reduce
production. Goals of a self-sufficient
Bhutan focus on the staples of Bhutanese
diet. For rice, Bhutan is 50% self sufficient
and the goal is to become 60% self
sufficient. This push is encouraged by a
scare in 2008 when India cut rice exports
to Bhutan.26 Prices soared during the brief
period but the message was clear- it is
dangerous to rely on India.
Another byproduct of economic
sustainability is an effort to give equal
priority to domestic and export markets.
23
Coo Chu, Interview with Author

Dorji, Cheku. Study tour of India
25
Pulmari, Tanka Maya. Interview with Author
26
http://www.asiasentinel.com/opinion/rice-shortage-crisis-or-hype/
24
12
Export markets may be lucrative, food sold in India returns rupees that are difficult to come
by and products sold in Europe can be sold at premium prices. Profitable exports should be
encouraged but domestic production, either for farmers to remain self sufficient or for farmers
to sell locally, should be given equal priority .
Social
The final component of sustainability is social sustainability. At the farm level, this
begins with social inequities caused by economic success and failure. Some farmers will be
wealthy enough to purchase new fertilizers and pesticides, and other farmers will not have
enough money to purchase them. This situation that results in haves and have-nots could
lead to political unrest. Sustainable agriculture doesn't hope to alleviate the issue in full, but is
more suited toward equality than a conventional method. In addition, conventional methods
are a departure from traditional methods of farming in Bhutan. This means that some
farmers who are accustomed to traditional methods may have difficulty adopting new
technologies. Incorporating those presupposed forms, often indigenous knowledge, is a form
of cultural preservation. When one speaks of the different types of agriculture today,
traditional agriculture is grouped with sustainable and organic. These types, at odds with the
newer conventional methods, are associated with the way that farming was done in Bhutan
for centuries. The traditional methods include the tedious process of collecting manure and
leaf litter for fertilizer. The carrying of manure is done by women, and only some villages
have changed that tradition. The women collect and carry the manure while the men work on
the farm.27 This inequality opens a debate about the merit of traditional agriculture's relation
to gender roles but it is believed that organic agriculture is a way to improve gender inequality.
In a review of organic policy prepared by members of various Research Centers, organic
agriculture is seen as a path to gender equality.28 In a rapidly modernizing society, a
sustainable model will include men and women sharing burden and bounty equally.

History of Farming in Bhutan

The use of fertilizers has an effect after crops leave the fields, are placed in woven
bamboo baskets and toted to markets. For those who purchase the vegetables, there is a
question about the long term effects that vegetables with chemicals have on the health of
consumers. It was said by many of those who I interviewed that Indian imports are passed
over because of the large number of chemicals used. Indian imports are produced
commercially with more chemicals. The object is to export them to Bhutan. When I met
Indian workers in Bhutan, they were boiling all of their vegetables. I asked why, and they said
it was because it was they were trained to do so. The vegetables were unhealthy enough that
27
Namgill. Interview with Author.

Duba, Sangay, Mahesh Ghimiray, and Tayan Raj Gurung. "PROMOTING ORGANIC FARMING IN BHUTAN: A
REVIEW OF POLICY, IMPLEMENTATION AND CONSTRAINTS." Council for RNR Research of Bhutan.
28
13
they would not eat them if they were not boiled29 This concern does not apply equally to the
chemicals used by Bhutanese farmers. there is not a large difference between locally
produced Bhutanese produce and what is produced as 100% organic. The chemicals that are
used, are used very little.30 Locally produced vegetables may have chemicals but they are not
considered to differ greatly from organically produced vegetables. For a consumer, organic
and local may as well mean the same thing.
Until 1961, when chemicals were introduced to Bhutanese agriculture31, Bhutan was
200% organic.32 There were no chemicals to buy, and no chemicals were used. There were
no genetically modified seeds to buy, and no genetically modified seeds were used. Farmers
were required to weed their fields by hand instead of spray Butachlor, a heavy pesticide used
in paddy fields. Dao, a farmer in Wangdi, said that organic agriculture is what we used to
do.33 The traditional farming methods in Bhutan are organic, and the departure from that
has been a recent movement. For some like Dao, it is easy to remember a day when days were
29
Pulmari, Tanka Maya. Interview with Author.

Ghimiray, Mahesh . Interview with Author.
31
Tashi, Sonam . Interview with Author.
32
Ura, Karma . Interview with Author.
33
Dao. Interview with Author.
30
14
spent in the paddy fields, weeds pulled one by one. That is not the case for all farmers. Dao is
75 and has farmed for the majority of his life. Younger farmers who started after the
introduction of chemicals can not remember a time when chemicals were not a part of their
farming practices. We have used chemicals as long we can remember. 34 There is no one
that doesnt use chemicals, and only some people remember a time when no one did.35
Those who do remember a time without chemicals suggest that the use of chemicals
has increased over time. Madame Yeshey of the Bajo Research Center has worked with
farmers on soil fertility for 18 years. The use of chemical fertilizer then was not as high as it is
now. Then, only a few used it. You had to be close to RNR (Renewable Natural Resource
center) to use it."36 The increase in chemicals is a recent trend, and depending on which
chemical is under consideration, the trend has either stagnated or grown. In a graph
provided by the National Organic Programme (previous page)37 , it is shown that the use of
fertilizer has remained constant over the last 30 years. On the other hand, the use of
herbicides (weedicides) has grown each year. The primary examples of herbicides used are
Butachlor in the rice paddy fields, and metribuzin in potatoes38. It should be noted, as it was
noted to me with frequency, that the number of chemicals that are used in Bhutan, on the rise
or not, are much fewer in number than of chemicals used in India and around the world.
With this limited usage, and chemicals a recent addition, Bhutan is closer to organic than a
developed nation steeped in conventional techniques. For this reason, traditional agriculture
is seen as a viable sustainable method that should be integrated with modern technologies in a
push to go organic.
Bhutan is not alone in the push to go organic. In Mexico, modern techniques of
farming have defined agriculture since the Spanish arrived, and in response to several current
complications, are moving toward a system of sustainable agriculture for small scale farmers.
"Developing agroecosystems in Mexico that are sustainable both ecologically and socially
depends on incorporating many of traditional agriculture's sustainable characteristics into the
new systems."39 In Cuba, they "developed a massive movement with wide, popular
participation where agrarian production was seen as key to food security for the population."
40
It will be seen that these two countries, developing much like Bhutan, are using sustainable
agriculture as a solution to problems brought alongside modernization.
Today, the use of fertilizers and pesticide is most common in the commercial valleys of
Bhutan; Paro, Thimphu, Wangdi, Punakha. For my research, I interviewed farmers in these
valleys, and did not venture into the more rural communities that could be a day long walk
away from the road. These remote communities are filled with farmers who farm with little to
no pesticides because there are little to none available. When a researcher makes contact with
34
Choden. Interview with Author.
35
Ibid.
36
Yeshey, Madame. Interview with Author.
37
Tshomo, Kesang. Provided to Author.
38
Dr. Thinley. Interview with Author.

39
Gliessman, Conversion to Sustainable Agriculture, pg 191
40
Ibid., pg 207
15
a farmer, that researcher contacts the extension agent and the extension agent will take you to
a farmer that he or she is in contact with. A farmer that is in contact with an extension agent
is more likely to have adopted the technologies that the extension agent is offering. For this
reason, all of my interviews were with commercial farmers who have close contact with
extension agents and that selective population skews my experiential data. This skews the
views of those who seek honest answers. We dont hear from the people who are away from
the road that are less reliant the further you are away from the road, the less likely you are
to produce some for sale."41 In addition, there is never a consensus whether organic
agricultural practices are good or bad. There will always be a dissenting voice and that voice
may be loud. If that voice drowns out the voices of the majority, it may seem there are
problems that do not exist. We dont hear about Gasa and how they have increased
production. When we started in 2004, they imported all of the vegetables. Now, they are self
sufficient. When some are asked how they feel about organic, they will tell you they feel
restricted, and will voice their displeasure. If you are not careful, you will assume the people
in Gasa are quite unhappy.42 Again, caution should be used when applying the specific
conclusions I have gathered to the nation of Bhutan as a whole. I have attempted to identify
the most appropriate facts, barriers, programs, initiatives, and voices (both positive and
negative) but realize that I have not completed this task with perfection and hope that more
research will be done on the topic in the future.

41
Tshomo, Kesang. Interview with Author.

Ibid.
42
16
Organic: Barriers

17

The push to go organic is not a movement to turn Bhutan into pesticide and fertilizer
free nation immediately, and it is possible that the goal of 100% organic will never happen.
The policy initiatives that have set a deadline of 2020 will be disappointed. In a mere six
years, a seismic shift would be needed to go 100% organic. Whether Bhutan ever goes 100%
organic or not, each step toward that goal is an increase in sustainable agriculture that will
benefit Bhutan. Barriers that bar Bhutan from 100% organic may never be surmounted but
movements are being made to become more sustainable. These initiatives and barriers are tied
together and with each resolution, Bhutan takes a step towards sustainability.
Rural to Urban Migration and Labor Shortages

Labor Shortage
Labor shortages plague the farmers of the Bhutanese countryside. For the young
Bhutanese, they do not see themselves going back to the farm.43 This comment is imitated
by the farmers. When I sent my kids to school, I sent them so they would have a better life
than me. I never expect them to come back, but not having them makes things difficult."44
Traditional farming is labor intensive and, in lieu of of chemicals, requires hours in the fields
cultivating. As you arrive into Thimphu today, the road is lined with newly finished
apartment complexes offering deals on rent interspersed with the concrete structures
supported by bamboo scaffolding, soon to be completed. These buildings are in response to
the increased demand for housing caused by rural to urban migration. Bhutan has the
highest internal migration rate in Asia45 and the process does not seem likely to continue in
the near future.
In Mexico, seasonal migration has become an "important phenomenon" in recent
years. Young men leave their villages to go to Mexico City, Monterrey, or other large centers
to seek employment. The major consequence in Mexico is an "acute labor shortage."47
Traditional agriculture requires that there be many hands present to pick, weed, and sow and
when those hands are seeking employment elsewhere, "towns are crowded with old people
with no strength to work in the home garden.48 This situation exists in Bhutan as well. "The
villages are empty now, filled with old people. In rural pockets, there are not many people
and the young have left to go to the cities, looking for a better job."49
46
The positive associations connected to an urban lifestyle are shown in the Bhutanese
film, Travellers and Magicians. In the movie, the main character, Dondup, holds a position
43
Ura, Karma. Interview with Author.

Choden. Interview with Author.
45
Samdrup dzongkhag administration, profile, 39
46
44
47
Ibid.
Ibid.
49
Lhamo, D awa. Interview with Author.
48
18
as an officer in a rural community, but

craves an opportunity to move to the
United States, or as he calls it the land of
my dreams.50 This can be considered a
commentary on the Bhutanese desires.
Dondup was prepared to trade a
prestigious job for an opportunity to pick
apples in America. What does that
preference say about the Bhutanese
priorities? In my own interaction, most
Bhutanese are content with the
government and their lives, but the
occasional person sought something else.
One college student asked if he could come
back to the United States with me. There is
an allure to the outside world that
Bhutanese youth can see on television and
Facebook, and the rural lifestyle does not
satisfy that desire.
Traditional vs. Modern
The perceived erosion of culture is
not as clearly defined but is at the front of
the mind. With youth moving into the city
and forgoing their opportunity to learn the
traditional techniques and practices of
farm life, there is a concern for the loss of
traditional knowledge. Karma Phuntso is
the creator and director of the Shejun
Foundation, an organization that has tasked itself with the documentation of Bhutanese
culture. For this purpose, Bhutanese culture includes artwork and texts inside monasteries,
dances, and interviews with Bhutanese elders. When asked about his mission, Karma said,
There is a Bhutanese proverb that says your village is the end of the world. For many years,
this was true for the Bhutanese. You knew a world existed outside but it didnt matter.51
That is no longer the case. He has made it his mission to document Bhutanese culture and his
organization is working closely with an American university to make all of the photographs
and videos available to the public. He expressed that he was worried that he would be too late
in some areas, saying, when people die, they take their knowledge with them. The Shejun
Foundation has not documented traditional farming practices, and if they attempt to, it may
be difficult. "Traditional knowledge is not easily detected by the outside observer because it is
50
Travellers and magicians. DVD. Directed by Jamyang Khyentse. New York, NY: Zeitgeist Films, 2005.
51
Phuntso, Karma. Interview with Author.
19
taken for granted by the traditional farmer."52 With Bhutanese youth using Facebook and
wearing Korean hairstyles, the gap between young and old grows with each login and gel
application. The common traditional knowledge passed down for generations has become
less common.

Education
Education is a strong draw away from farms. As the farmer, Choden, said, she sent
her kids to become educated. Once they are educated, they do not expect to come back to
the farm, but they expect to find an office job in Thimphu."53 Rural to urban migration
happens at this highest clip for Bhutanese aged 15-29. 45% of young Bhutanese are moving.54
This gap leaves the schools in Thimphu overcrowded. In an article posted in Kuensel, the
national newspaper, titled Rural - Migration is a Problem, it is noted that the national
assembly saw rural - urban as a problem.55 This article was written in 1995 and things have
deteriorated since. In the article it was noted that the Ministry of Education is struggling to
find enough space for all the students who want to attend school in Thimphu and plan on
giving incentives (free stationery, uniforms, food etc.) to students who attend school in more
rural areas.56 For the majority of students, even attending school in a rural environment
requires them to live away from home. Many schools above the primary level board students
for whom the commute is too long, and by the time students graduate it is not difficult to live
away from home; They have lived far from home for several years already. At Lobesa Primary
School, the students are only able to help on the farms when they are away from school on
holiday.57
This trend of educated migrants is supported by the statistics offered by the Ministry of
Agriculture in their examination of Rural to Urban migration. 43% of migrants had completed
higher secondary or a university degree.58 This opinion was supported in both informal and
formal interactions I had with college students. Most of the students wanted to join the civil
service upon graduation, and I did not meet a single student who desired to return to his or
her home to farm. Denka, the daughter of the manager at Druk Organic Farm in Toktokha,
Punakha, said that when she graduated two years ago, she did not want to come back to the
farm to help her father, but now that she has worked on the farm for several years, she is okay
with it.59 She, like the Traveller Dondup, would like to visit New York someday, though she
said she would only like to visit for one month.

Choden. Interview with Author
54
Lhendup, Pema and Jigme Nidup. Internal Migration in Bhutan. Population Dynamics of Bhutan: an
Occasional Publication of Center for Population and Development Studies, 1. (2009).
55
Kuensel, "Rural-Urban Migration is a Problem," September 2, 1995.
56
Ibid.
57
Mr. Kedarnath. Interview with Author.
58
RGob, Ministry of Agriculture and Forests. Rural to Urban Migration, 24.
59
Denka. Interview with Author.
52
53
20
The lack of familial labor leaves farmers with a choice between paying for external
labor and using chemical inputs. While on occasion there are labor sharing agreements with
neighboring farms during peak planting and harvesting times, these arrangements do not
meet day to day needs. It is expensive to hire external labor, especially in Bhutan. "In India,
labor is very cheap but in Bhutan it is very expensive. Too expensive for me. I could never
afford to hire someone."60 Of the farmers I interviewed, all commercially inclined, none were
able to pay for external labor. Even those who would like to avoid chemicals felt they could
never be without them because there is not enough labor to weed the paddy fields or spread
leaf litter on the chillis. The decision to use chemicals is, above all, economic.
Markets
The goal of economic success takes farmers to the market. Unlike the United States
and Europe, there are not premium prices placed on organically produced produce.61 At the
market in Thimphu, there is a new organic section on the second floor but it composes a small
section and there is not motivation to pay a premium price for the produce. Mahesh
Ghimiray, a Researcher at the Research center in Bajo says, maybe foreigners will buy it, but
I wouldnt buy it. There is a mentality that whatever is produced locally, it is not that toxic.
There isnt a distinction between organic and locally grown.62 This sentiment is echoed by his
colleague Madame Yeshey, why go to the expensive vegetables? There are very few people
who are high earning, the majority are low earning. If you cant afford it, it doesnt matter
how good it is for you.63 From the perspective of the NOP, they do not advise farmers to go
organic if it is not financially sound. We dont have premium prices in Bhutan, and so we
dont tell them to try to do
that. It is important to be self
sufficient and sustainable.64
The difference between
locally grown vegetables and
organic
vegetables
is
forgettable. That indifference
combined with cheaper prices
leads consumers to buy local.
Yet, the difference between
Indian vegetables and locally
grown vegetables is even
greater. At the market in
Thimphu, the local and
import
vegetables
are
60
Bida, Padang. Interview with Author

62
Ghimiray, Mahesh. Interview with Author.
63
64
61
21
separated. I polled the sellers and found that the prices on Indian goods were far cheaper
than local produce. This difference was confirmed, in India, you can produce things for
much cheaper because labor is much cheaper and they spray chemicals many times.65 On the
day I visited the market, I was looking to buy a kilo of tomatoes. The imported tomatoes
covered a large stand and cost 40ng. I could find a single kilo bag of locally grown tomatoes
and they cost 100ng. My visit was in the afternoon, and perhaps the locally grown tomatoes
had been already cleared out by eager buyer. Either way, for someone with 200 ng to spend
on a weeks worth of vegetables, the choice is simple. Organic vegetables are costly to produce
and when placed against the imported vegetables, they are expensive.
To add to the concern on Indian imports, India cut rice exports to Bhutan in 2008
and caused a panic.66 This caused the cost of rice to sky rocket and the Bhutanese
government remains skeptical of reliance on imported vegetables. This concern has motivated
the country to raise rice self sufficiency from 50% to 60% in the next five years.67 This self
sufficiency goal remains one of the greatest barriers to the stated goal of 100% organic.
Farmers need to make yields for themselves as well as their nation and adding chemicals
makes that short term goal more attainable.
Policy & Registration

Self sufficiency policy looms over organic agriculture and is the first words from the
lips of experts on the issue. Self sufficiency goals will likely not be met if Bhutan goes organic.
I think the political will is there, but if we are organic, we will never be self sufficient. It is a
good idea but it will be very difficult because we import from the outside, even now68 The self
sufficiency goals are more important to this administration than organic farming. This Prime
Minister values organic farming less than the last, and supports the self sufficiency goals
more.69 This means that the financial and political support are not as strong as they once
were, and the movement would benefit from an increase in funding and policy.
Pesticide & Fertilizer
The lack of policy that spells out the exact usage needed for fertilizers is one of the
barriers identified by the NOP. The Pesticide Act of 2000 detailed some proper guidelines for
pesticide usage. The objectives of this act were to ensure integrated pest management,
making pesticides a last resort, ensure only appropriate types of pesticides were used, and to
ensure pesticides were effective when used as recommended, among others.70 There is no
such act for fertilizers. Even the Pesticide Act lacks clear rules and regulations for usage, but
65
66
Zangpo, Sonam. Interview with Author

http://www.asiasentinel.com/opinion/rice-shortage-crisis-or-hype/
67
Ibid.
68
Gurung, Tulsi. Interview with Author.
69
Zangpo, Sonam. Interview with Author.
70
Tshomo, Kesang. Bhutans Status on Organic Sector.
22
operates as a guideline. With no such guideline for fertilizers, farmers and extension agents
are left without proper guidance.
Certification
The international standards of organic farming are defined to minute detail, and the
certification process that ensures that the crop is organic is extensive, detailed, and expensive.
Almost no one is certified in Bhutan. The process to become certified is long and arduous and
requires a foreign agency. BioBhutan, a private company that sells more than a dozen
products to domestic and export markets, has certified their lemongrass products. Certifying
was expensive, 2.2 lakhs ngultrum ($3,550 USD). It needs to be done every year, but it has
helped us become more profitable.71 Of the 15 or 16 products that they sell, only three are
certified organic. For lemongrass, the process is simple. The lemongrass is grown in the
wild. In that particular forest they use no pesticides or chemicals. There is no cultivation.72
The ease certifying lemongrass and the benefits in their export market made it worthwhile.
For most farmers, including the other products BioBhutan produces, the process is much
more difficult, and the benefits do not outweigh the burden. Without a domestic market that
pays premiums for Organic goods and the high cost of exporting, certifying does not make
financial sense for most products.
While the self sufficiency
goal could be met in the future,
and certification may get easier
with time, the lack of organic
alternatives to chemicals may be
the most difficult barrier. The
herbicide Butachlor is the
kingpin. While other chemicals
usage has leveled out over time,
Butachlor continues to increase.
Butachlor is a powerful
weedicide that replaces hours in
the rice paddy fields with a spray
that kills all flowering weeds. In
the figure shown previously and
included in the appendix, the green bars are the herbicides that have seen a steady increase
and make up the majority of pesticide & herbicide usage. The reliance on herbicides,
especially Butachlor, is a major reason that organic farming is still a goal far in the future. If
an effective and sustainable alternative is found, the burden shouldered by Butachlor could be
reduced and chemical pesticide and herbicide usage would fall drastically. Even then, usage
may continue. The porous border shared with India is a challenge to manage and the
71
Navin. Interview by Author.

Navin. Interview by Author.
72
23
chemicals may slip through even if highly regulated by the government.73 The development of
a organic alternatives would help, but it may be impossible to rid the countryside of chemicals
forever.
Bio-Fertilizer Shortage
Much like the lack of organic alternatives to pesticides, there is not enough organic
fertilizer to satisfy Bhutans needs. When people look at organic farming, they often forget
about manure. For many farmers, there simply isnt enough manure to meet their needs. For
it to be possible, there needs to be enough manure.74 For those farmers who do raise cattle,
they can collect their own livestock manure and use it. For farmers who do not raise their
own cattle, manure must be bought and may be expensive. In the past, manure was traded
for free, but now it must be purchased.75 Farms, especially commercial farms, are growing
and more and more manure is required and the collection or purchase requires time or
money. Compounded by the labor shortage, it is simpler to use chemical fertilizers. In
addition to manure, leaf litter is used to insulate crops and retain water in the fields. This is a
form of bio-pesticide that is, again, difficult to collect. The shortage of these components or
the lack of labor to collect them encourages the use of chemicals and the increased availability
of organic alternatives could reduce chemical usage.
Organic Seeds
In the same vein, organic seeds are required to be organic and the lack of them makes
the practice difficult. If a seed is treated with chemicals or is genetically modified, that seed
can not be used for organic agriculture, even if the process is 100% organic after the plant is
in the ground.76 There is already difficulty in providing enough non-organic seeds, and the
production of organic seeds would need to see a drastic increase to become feasible. One of
the extension agents that I spoke with suggested that supplying free organic seeds would be
one way to motivate farmers to go organic.77 This is possible, but if a farmer sees a benefit of
using fertilizers and pesticides on organic seeds, there is little motivation to stop that from
happening.
If all of the aforementioned issues surrounding organic alternatives were alleviated, an
unpredictable outbreak of pests could necessitate the use of chemicals to save farmers from
devastation. In 2013, the army worm became a problem for farmers. Armyworms are a
caterpillar that thrives on the rainfall and sunshine of Bhutans summers. The worm would
eat anything green78 and could be devastating to a small scale farmer. Mahesh Ghimiray
attributes the outbreak to climate change and believes it could happen again at any time.
Even in areas that are organic, you have to spray to save the crop and seedlings.79 The
73
Gurung, DB. Interview with Author.

Ura, Karma. Interview with Author.
75
Dorji, Kinley. Interview with Author.
76
Chhetri, Mr Durba. Interview with Author.
77
Tshering. Interview with Author.
78
Ghimiray, Mahesh. Interview with Author.
79
Ibid.
74
24
unpredictable nature of farming means that even the most organic-conscious farmer could be
forced to choose between spraying to save his crop and losing all that he has grown.

25
What is Happening Now:

26
Bhutan faces a long trek to 100% organic. Whether 100% organic is a "good plan" in
the long term is another question to debate, but the steps to an organic Bhutan will help
Bhutan achieve their sustainability goals. Between the government and private organizations
there are initiatives, policies, and support for the organic movement.
Policy
National Level Board
The establishment of a national level board is a step towards organic in Bhutan. The
board is under the Department of Agriculture and with the Framework for Organic Farming
in Bhutan as a guide, their goal is to establish support systems for the farms under conversion
to organic. This is done at many levels. A national board handles the policy making and
implementation, budget allocation, and coordination between departments.80
A
non-governmental technical body composed of experts on organic farming from different
sectors of society and NGOs will help promote organic farming and operate as an advisory
board to the National Level Board.81 Credit support will be included as well, with the goal
offering support for organic farming activities at reasonable interest rates and with feasible
security.82 The final component would be the introduction of organic farming syllabus in all
ages of education in Bhutan.
School Agriculture Programs
The current iteration of agricultural education is School Agriculture Programs (SAP).
These programs are a joint effort between the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of
Agriculture.83 The aim is to have these programs in every secondary school nationwide, but
currently only two-thirds of schools participate.84 The Ministry of Agriculture supports the
first year financially, with following years a part of the schools budget.85 Support continues
on a smaller scale through a nationwide evaluation and ranking for the best SAP, with a cash
prize awarded to the winner.86 Lobesa Secondary School is located within a few kilometers of
the College of Natural Resources (CNR). The College serves to train future agriculture
extension agents offer and is home to the academic agricultural experts of the country. For
Lobesa Secondary schools SAP, they visit CNR to learn and practice. Once a week on
Wednesday afternoons, 30 students make trek down the hill to CNR and learn technical skills
from a CNR lecturer.87 The students come from farms and are motivated to learn.88 The
students come from the Lobesa or other nearby villages. These villages are situated in a part
80
Thimmaiah, Dr. A. Guide to Organic Agriculture. pg 82

Ibid., pg 82
82
Ibid., pg 83
83
Dosch, Emma. Validating the Culture of Agriculture: Farmers Groups and Organic Agriculture Mitigating
Rural to Urban Migration in Bhutan. Kathmandu: SIT Digital Collections, 2011. pg 31
81
84
Ibid., pg 31
Ibid., pg 32
86
Ibid., pg 33
87
Kinley, Mr. Interview with Author.
88
Kedarnath, Mr. Interview with Author.
85
27
of Bhutan where most farms are commercially oriented. For these kids, organic is a new
phenomenon and the advantages and disadvantages are taught. Whatever we teach, we
encourage them to take it home and encourage their parents to use organic.89
Education
Education is at the heart of the organic process. If farmers are not privy to the
advantages and disadvantages of organic agriculture, they can not make an informed
decision that benefits both themselves and Bhutan as a whole. For Bhutan to go organic,
people need to become more literate. People see that you should go organic, but dont have
the tools.90 The education does not only include the children of farmers, but the farmers
themselves. While farmer literacy is not a stated goal, there is a push to educate the farmers
on the advantages of organic. In the NOP offices, there are pamphlets that show a step by
step guide to organic processes with directions in English and Dzongkha. If farmers can not
read them, when their kids come home they can tell them what it says.91 The NOP also
educates any group of farmers that expresses an interest in organic agriculture. Through the
extension agents, the NOP goes and trains local farmer groups. By the time a farmer group
is formed it is usually three years for them to go organic.92 The NOP stays in contact with
them and has remained in contact with all of the groups that have been trained in the last 10
years.93 Most important is that the farmers themselves are interested and motivated. If we
give away free things, everyone will want to be organic, but we dont do that. We give
information and wait for them to back to us.94 Still the best teacher is a neighbor or another
farmer. When the research center in Bajo meets with farmers, they meet as a group and share
their problems collectively.95 In Bumthang, farmer groups have become like schools96
because farmers visit and get answers to their questions. The farmers that visit will then talk
with their extension agent who will work with the NOP to get a training session scheduled.
Private Organizations
BioBhutan
Another way that farmers are trained is through private organizations. BioBhutan, the
company that certified lemongrass organic, teaches their farmers proper techniques.
Lemongrass is grown in the wild, and the training is relatively simple, but the process has not
been perfect. In 2008, one of their batches of lemongrass oil was found to be contaminated.97
The distiller in question had an orchard that was sprayed with chemicals. Those chemicals
89
Kinley, Mr. Interview with Author.

Navin. Interview with Author.
91
92
Ibid.
90
93
Ibid.
94
Ibid.
96
97
Navin. Interview with Author.
95
28
washed into the river and the river water was used to distill the lemongrass.98 BioBhutan
visited and explained how the product becomes more valuable, often four fold, when organic
and that that requires a level of care. For their other products that are cultivated in fields,
BioBhutan will run a feasibility test and visit the farms who have the opportunity to produce
the most and the highest quality produce.99 It is explained that they will provide a market for
the product, but it must be organic. Farmers are trained what can and cannot be used in
addition to how to use specific techniques (vermicompost etc.).100 With the motivation of a
guaranteed market, these farmers are able and willing to farm organically.
The lemongrass farmers that work for BioBhutan are certified organic and are
required to follow strict international standards. This process is tedious, expensive and
complicated. It is not for all farmers in Bhutan, and the NOP recognizes this. With the 11th
five year plan, NOP has split organic farming into three separate categories. The first category
is classified by naturally organic, remote areas within national parks, high altitude areas and
the focus for development is a conservation of area/watershed, biodiversity, household
nutritional needs and food basket security.101 The second group is Selected areas selected
products linked to potential markets in local proximity and development looks to focus on
local markets with a build toward surplus production that could be used in a larger market.102
The third category is Any area suitable for production, any products identified as suitable for
production for assured market and development is focused on targeting export markets.103

Bhutan Organic Logo
There is a plan to increase the marketability of Bhutanese vegetables that fall under a
distinction of Good Agriculture Practices (GAP). These practices, while not under an
international certification, would be a domestic standard that could be accepted by some
export markets. The face of this movement is the Bhutan Organic logo. This logo is designed
by the government to give to farmers and organizations who abide by the standard an identity
that could develop into increased profitability. The
NOP pushes those who qualify to use the organic
logo. The hope is that this logo will be placed
alongside other international organic logos and act as
a sign of consistency for consumers. The logo was
designed to symbolize the components of Bhutanese
agriculture that align with organic principles. This
logo can be used by farmers who are registered with
the NOP and are supervised by an extension agent,
98
99
Ibid.
Ibid.
100
Ibid.
102
Ibid.
103
Ibid.
101
29
involved in Participatory Guarantee System (PGS), certified by the Bhutan Agriculture and
Food Regulatory Authority (BAFRA), or internationally certified.

Happy Green Cooperative
Happy Green Cooperative is a private company involved in the marketing and
promotion of organic agriculture. The creator, Sangay Rinchen, is a graduate of CNR, and he
began the cooperative to mitigate youth unemployment.104 His solution was an organization
that seeks to "Establish a sustainable high quality employment to its owner worker members."
105
The mission connects the youth to the Happy Green Designs that promote eco-friendly
products. A notable success are reusable canvas bags that are found around Thimphu.
Happy Green Cooperative sells their organic produce near the market. The marketing
component is called Happy Green Infotainment and works to campaign for "green" methods
by highlighting their products and components of GNH. The infotainment division is a
departure from the other product based initiatives and is a form of marketing for social action
that is also a step towards Happy Green's goals.
SNV Netherlands Development Organization
To address the water shortage that farmers frequently cite as a barrier, SNV
Netherlands Development Organization is prepared to help. SNV is responsible for much of
the research on organic agriculture in Bhutan and has coordinated with the Ministry of
Agriculture and Forestry (MOAF) and the NOP on books on the topic. SNV recently began a
program called "Climate-smart Agriculture" (CSA) in Bhutan as well as Laos, Cambodia and
Nepal.106 Per the SNV website, the program has "expectations towards increasing footprint,
and innovation from a global perspective and support rural development connecting partner
agencies and provide service to the needy communities- both men and women alike in
realizing climate resilience agriculture production system."107 The project started in the
Summer of 2013 and in February of 2014 SNV organized a workshop with 27 participants
from "various backgrounds108 that was guided by the theme "where do we stand on
agriculture adaptation to climate change, and how do we collectively contribute to an
improved food security and income level of both women & men farmers under climate change
context."109 SNV is involved in the production of texts for the NOP and though CSA is in the
early stages of development, it is another step by SNV to improve sustainable agriculture in
Bhutan.

104
Dosch. Rural to Urban. pg 33

Ibid.
106
http://www.snvworld.org/node/8240/
105
Ibid.
Ibid.
107
108
109
Dorji, Cheku. Report on Study Tour
30
Samdrup Jongkhar Initiative

Samdrup Jongkhar is a dzongkha in the farthest southeast corner of the country and
is home to the Samdrup Jongkhar Initiative (SJI). The initiative was started by Dzongsar
Khyentse Rinpoche in March 2010110 and "aims to raise living standards in Samdrup
Jongkhar dzongkhag (south-eastern Bhutan) in an ecologically friendly, self-reliant way that
strengthens community and culture."111 One of the focuses of the initiative is organic
agriculture. There have been organic training sessions conducted by the Organic Farming
Association of India, and in March of 2011 SJI organized a three week tour in India that
included farmers, District Agriculture officer, extension agents, and representatives from the
National Organic Programme. The tour looked into organic farming in India. Currently, SJI
is focused on the education and research of organic agriculture. In research, study is focused
on the conversion to organic that farmers in Samdrup Jongkhar are experiencing.112 This
study is still in the first stages and is focused on collection of soil samples along with farmer
interviews113 The education initiative focuses on training sessions, like the study tour in India,
are designed to teach the farmers about organic agriculture.114 The most recent training
session was a 10 day training in pest control and soil management that was attended by some
250 people.115

Organic Farms in Operation

With acknowledgement to the many farms that abide by organic principles by nature,
there are several farms that are making a conscience choice to go organic. Druk Organic
Farm in Toktokha, Punakha, an Integrated Agriculture Technology farm in Wang Sisina, and
the farmers in Gasa are all using organic methods of farming and are considered examples for
other farmers..
Druk Organic Farm in Toktokha
Druk Organic Farm is a half hour from the College of Natural Resources and receives
frequent visitors who hope to learn about organic methods. The farm consists of terraced
land that hosts an array of vegetables, all organic. When I met with Tshering, the manager of
the farm, he was busy with the members of the local cooperative that he manages. The
cooperative began three years ago, consists of local farmers, and abides by organic principles
as well. The farm is for commercial use and relies on hired help. The farm began in
November 2009 as a hobby116 and so that the land would not become fallow. The goal is for
110
http://www.sji.bt/about/frequently-asked-questions/
"Summary Overview of Samdrup Jongkhar Initiative (SJI) (as of May 2011)." .
111
112
http://www.sji.bt/organic-agriculture/research/
113
Ibid.
Ibid.
115
Ibid.
114
116
Denka. Interview with Author.
31
the organic farm to become filled with mixed vegetables, sold in bulk.117 The biggest issue
that Druk Organic faces is a water shortage. The farm is quite new and does not have a water
source on site. We ask the local farmers for water, but they say they do not have enough for
themselves, let alone us.118 Without water to irrigate the crops, it is difficult to grow anything
and at the moment the collective is vital to their success. Each Thursday, they sell their
vegetables through Happy Green Cooperative in Thimphu. Druk Organic Farm differs from
other farms I visited because it is a purely commercial project that is backed by external funds.
Wang Sisina Integrated Farm
Wang Sisina is on the road between Thimphu and Paro and is home to a farm that is focused
on Integrated Agriculture Technology. The farm includes three components; integrated,
ornamental, and food storage."119 The venture began in 2012 as a program to employ the
unemployed youth and landless farmers, but in March of 2014, was rebranded.120 Now, the
farm is serviced on weekends by 85 different
shareholders from the civil service.121 The
shareholders are expected to come twice a week,
Saturday and Sunday, and work the land. This
farm is in its infancy and some plots are still
under construction.122
The farm changed
purposes under the direction of the Prime
Minister in order to offer recreational exercise
123
to the civil service agents who spend most of
their time on the computer. The Prime Minister
himself has a plot. In addition, the farm hopes to
be a model for other farmers to go organic. Near
the entrance, there is a large plot that is
surrounded by a solar powered electric fence and
has signs that highlight the technologies being
used. Just beyond that, you are greeted by
Technology Park. To enter, you pass a fountain
that doesnt yet run, and arrive in a newly
planted grass lawn with two rows of crops
running down the middle. We hope that this is
a place for people to come and relax, bring their
children.124 Just beyond the park are several
greenhouses that are home to seedlings,
117
Ibid.
Ibid.
118
119
D hondo. Interview with Author.

Ibid.
121
D orji, Kinley. Interview with Author.
122
Ibid.
120
123
124
Dhondo. Interview with Author.

Dorj, Kinley. Interview with Author.
32
transplants, and ornamental crops. The seedlings and transplants are given to the farmers to
use in plots that are small enough to be managed in limited time. The families are expected to
take home a majority of their crop. We hope they when they take it home, they also share it
with their friends and family. With this, it may reduce imports from India.125 The reliance
on Indian imports is a concern, but the hope is that some of the excess will be available for
export as well. With the cold storage component, the vegetables will be stored in a cool
environment and preserved for sale at a later date. This storage can be used by any local
farms and has potential to address an export market. To address the lack of volunteer labor
during the week, thirteen local workers are employed to help, especially during the early
stages of the farms development. They hope to water each plot twice a week, and workers
clear new plots of rocks and roots. It is hoped that the civil service plot owners will take on a
bulk of the work.
Gasa
Gasa sits an 86 km drive beyond Punakha. It is difficult to get there because taxi
drivers do not feel comfortable on the rough roads; They feel their cars will fall apart. I was
quoted a price of nearly $100 USD. Gasa is organic by choice and works closely with the
Research Center in Bajothang (RC
Bajo) to increase yields while
remaining organic. The research
program was initiated in 2012 and
intends to increase vegetable
production and marketing.126 The
research center provides training
and some additives but hopes that
the farmers make their own. We
do provide bio-pesticides, but do
not provide bio-fertilizers. We
encourage them to make their
own.127 Before the onset of this
program, Gasa was unable to be
self sufficient and bought
vegetables from the lower regions.
128
With the guidance of RC Bajo,
Gasa is becoming increasingly self
sufficient. They still buy rice, but vegetable is self sufficient now and livestock product is
enough.129 The feasibility in Gasa is aided by its location high in the mountains. Some
places at high altitude have less pest and disease problems. In the south, it is needed, but not
125
Ibid.
127
Ibid.
128
129
126
33
so much in high altitudes.130 For RC Bajo, it is hoped that their work in Gasa becomes a
blueprint for other farmers that hope to go organic. I want Gasa to be a bank of knowledge,
for both positive and negative things. Not just for publication but for farmers to come here,
learn, and take it back to their own farms. We can learn from the successes and failures in
Gasa.131
The work done in Gasa is in coordination with the research center in Bajothang.
Workers at the research center commute from Punakha and pass CNR on their way to work.
CNR and the research centers interact frequently.
CNR trains the agricultural extension agents that
are the connection that farmers have to the
government. This is the connection that allows
farmers to acquire pesticide and fertilizers and it is
how they learn about new techniques. Though the
farmers I visited were referred to me by extension
agents, each and every farmer regarded the
connection with the extension agent the most
important source of technical information. For
CNR, this means that what is taught there is what
will end up in the fields. This responsibility is
understood by the lecturers at CNR. I think that
CNR has the keys to an organic future in Bhutan.
What is taught here is what will be used by the
farmers in the field.132 The research center can
offer trials and advice to those extension agents.
We run trials to test whether foreign crops can be
introduced into this area effectively. We then
show farmers our results and compare them to
their own methods and let them choose.133 Their
reach is limited and they rely on extension agents
to disseminate information in areas that are not
local. There are research centers for each different
altitude level, with altitude specific results catered
to the farmers.

130
Ibid.
Ibid.
132
Thinley, Dr. Interview with Author.
133
131
34
The Future

35

Organic agriculture has potential in Bhutan. While other countries who rely on
chemicals are too far to turn around, Bhutan has the capacity to be 100% organic. The
farmers are attuned to organic agriculture. The techniques that they have used for centuries
before the introduction to chemicals are organic. For farmers in more remote areas, organic is
already reality. The conversion to organic will not be as difficult because of that. Organic also
gives an opportunity for small landholding farmers to turn their crop into profit. Shown by
the work of Happy Green Cooperative and BioBhutan, there is an export market for organic
agriculture. As export markets in Europe and the United States grow, Bhutanese farmers
could be a part of a profitable business that begins to export on a larger scale. This economic
boon could contribute to poverty alleviation. Poor subsistence farmers would benefit from the
increased income.
It will take many steps to unlock that potential. Success mandates a plan and careful
execution of that plan. For organic to work, there will need to be support from the farmers
and for the farmers, support from the government and for the government. In my own
opinions, I will detail what I see as Bhutan's best chance to go organic.
Farms
At the micro level, it is paramount that organic move slowly. If Bhutan decides to
switch to organic agriculture overnight, the movement will fail. Farmers are accustomed to a
form of conventional agriculture and fear that a move to organic agriculture would them
under. Starting with small organic farms that can teach other local farmers techniques over
time will help change conventional agricultures momentum. The lack of labor needs to be
addressed. This could be addressed by increasing the labor availability, but rural-urban
migration inhibits that plans potential. The management of input supply would be more
feasible. Farmers should produce as much of their own fertilizer and pesticide as they are
able to and should be advised on the appropriate dosage and application of a chemical input.
Clear guidance would prevent reckless usage. The final piece of advice is practicality. If a
plot of land is not able to make yield when organic, that plot of land should not be organic. If
a certain crop can not meet yield goals as organic, that crop should not be organic. Food
security is a vital issue and if an integrated method is used with care, the chemical usage will
not grow to an unhealthy level.
Research
One level higher, research is important. With the use of Butachlor in paddy fields not
replaceable by any known organic alternative, it is difficult to see Butachlor being phased out.
Research must continue to determine a sustainable alternative. Farmers will not choose an
organic commitment over the safety of their entire crop and will use chemicals if it assists
them. If we can not sort out an alternative to the chemicals, organic is only a dream.134 For
134
36
the chemicals that an alternative exists, that alternative needs to be available. If it more
difficult for a farmer to acquire urea than manure, it will be another sacrifice the farmer must
make to become organic. Other areas of research could include; soil fertility management,
animal husbandry management, marketing, integrated methods, watershed management,
biodiversity management, and post harvest supply chain management. The research may be
completed by the research centers, but then must be taught to the farmers through training
sessions and extension agents. If the agriculture extension agents are unlearned on organic
agriculture, there is no hope that the information will be taught to farmers. If extension
agents are taught how to farm organically at CNR or through training sessions, it is more
likely that organic farming will be taught to farmers, and thus, organic is more feasible.
Beyond the extension agents, the creation and cultivation of farmers groups that share
information and cooperate in pre and post production will aid the movement. Farmers learn
best from each other, and if farmers have an avenue to ask questions and seek input from
organic experts it will encourage a smooth conversion to organic. Finally, organic will never
be possible if it is not profitable. Private organizations that promote profitable organic
farming should be encouraged. Farmers will not be able to front the capital required to start a
successful business. If investments are made wisely, they will pay off and will promote
organic.
Government
At the top level, organic requires support from the government. Most important are
definitive plans and policies. The creation of the NOP is a step in the proper direction and
should be supported both politically and financially. The NOP should be able to operate in
collaboration with the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (MOAF) for them to have unified
initiatives and information for farmers making the conversion to organic. Clear policy will aid
these farmers as well. A Pesticide Act with more precision and an equivalent Fertilizer Act
would allow farmers and extension agents to apply the appropriate amount of inputs. The
advocation of these policies needs to increase. There are strong resources for farmers
available at the MOAF and NOP and they should be publicized and utilized by farmers. The
MOAF and NOP can increase organic by increasing availability to organic markets. Organic
agriculture begins with a single seed but ends at the market. All the steps in between need to
be met with support. If the government can provide a system that relieves farmers of a market
burden, it will be easier for farmers to become organic. The final component and part of the
organic process is quality regulation and certification. Certifying organic is expensive and
tedious and small scale farms are unlikely to attempt the process. For a small scale farm to
enter the export market, that farm needs to have some type of quality assurance. If
certification is made easier and cheaper while maintaining high standards, it would help
small scale farmers join the movement. As it is has been done with BioBhutan and
lemongrass, beginning organic with a niche product on a small scale can be profitable. From
there, the process can grow.
37
Conclusion

38
Dao, at right, has farmed for as long as he

can remember. When he first began farming, the
United States was slipping into the Great
Depression and Bhutan was still 30 years from
letting in the outside world. When the gates
opened, Dao began to use chemicals in his crops.
The Beatles took America by storm and Dao began
to grow more than his families could eat. Today,
Dao hears about organic farming and wonders
whether he has gone back in time. I used to have
many cattle, you had to to have any chance of
growing something. Now, I dont because I can use
chemicals instead. I like organic, they tell me I need
to go back and do what I did before. It is feels like I
am going to be young again.135 He chuckles
hardily. I do not understand his dzongkhag, but I
laugh too. His fingernails are stained with 50 years
of farming and his laugh carries a lifetime of joy.
Organic is good, but I dont know how I would
meet the yields that are already dropping when I do
use fertilizer. Still, I have been here as long as the
land and I dont get too excited about things that
are too new.136
Though Bhutan is not new to organic methods, the
conversion from conventional to organic will not be simple. There is a startling labor shortage
that leaves farmers unable to manage cultivation by hand. The labor shortage is caused by the
rural to urban migration that lures the increasingly educated youth population into the cities
for office jobs. There is fear that with movement into the cities the traditional knowledge that
has been taken for granted for generations will disappear. Organic agriculture is seen as a
way to curb this trend. It is supported by the government but there are holes in policy that
inhibit progress. The lack of clear pesticide regulation and lack of fertilizer regulation does
not help. The process of certifying organic is expensive and arduous. There are not enough
bio-fertilizers to support a full conversion, and organic seeds are even less common. The odds
are stacked against conversion yet it is possible.
With the creation of a National Level Board that sets to advise the organic movement,
progress is being made. School Agriculture Programs are common in schools and are
educating future generations on the benefits of organic agriculture. Private organizations like
BioBhutan, Happy Green Cooperative, SNV, and Samdrup Jongkhar Initiative seek to
educate farmers and the public on organic agriculture while also making it commercially
viable. Organic is already happening at Druk Organic Farm in Toktokha, Wang Sisina
Integrated Farm and in Gasa. The techniques piloted in these farms can be taught to other
farmers who hope to follow in their organic foot steps.
135
D ao. Interview with Author.

D ao. Interview with Author.
136
39
With these programs in place, organic is possible. Still, the plan for the future will determine
whether the initiative makes its goals. At the farm level, change needs to move slow and there
needs to be support for the farmers who undergo the burden of conversion. At the research
level, research needs to focus on the most successful and sustainable methods and that
research needs to be dispersed to the farmers appropriately. At the national level, there needs
to be clear legislation and support for initiatives both public and private.
In 2011, the Prime Minister released a statement reaffirming his commitment to organic
agriculture. In the statement he says going organic is living GNH.137 That what the organic
agriculture movement is about in Bhutan. Bhutan has chose to face modernity by embracing
a sustainable approach to governance, the environment and in agriculture. Bhutan may
never be 100% organic, and GNH may not make every citizen happy. That may not matter.
The process of developing sustainable methods does not have to meet all of its goals for it to
make Bhutan a better country.
137
Thinley, Jigmi. "Making a Commitment to Organic Agriculture." Lecture,, Thimphu, March 12, 2011.
40
Appendix
Dzongkhag Terms
Acre:
Agricultural:
Agricultural Development Programme:
Agricultural Extension:
Agricultural Extension Centre:
Agricultural Labourer:
Agricultural Land:
Agricultural Policy:
Agriculture:
Agrobiodiversity:
Agrochemicals:
Alternative Agriculture:
Bhutan Agriculture and Food Regulatory Authority:
Biodiversity:
Bioinsecticide:
Biotechnology:
Buckwheat:
Cash Crop:
Caterpillar:
Chemical:
Chemical Fertiliser:
Chilli Pepper:
Commercial Harvesting:
Community:
41
Composting:
Conservation:
Conventional Agriculture:
Cooperative:
Crop Rotation:
Cultivate:
Demonstration Farm:
Dig
Diversification:
Drought:
Earth:
Ecological:
Ecosystem:
Experimental Farm:
Fair Market Value:
Family Farm:
Farm:
Farm Inputs:
Farm Worker:
Farmer:
Farming:
Farming Systems:
Fertile Land:
Fertilize:
Fertilizer:
Field:
Food Chain:
42
Fungicide:
Garden:
Grain:
Greenhouse:
Grow:
Harvest:
Herbicide:
Highland:
High-yielding:
Hoe:
Horticulture:
Import:
Insecticide:
Irrigate:
Land Management:
Livestock:
Maize:
Manure:
Ministry of Agriculture:
Mixed Farming:
Multicrop:
Natural Ecosystems:
Natural Resource:
Nature Conservation:
Normal Farming Practices:
Organic Agriculture:
organic farming
43
organic fertilizer
paddy field
plant
pollution
power tiller
preservation
produce
productive agriculture
rain
renewable natural resources research centre
rotation of crops
rural development
seed
shovel
smallholding
soil
soil management
sustainable agriculture
terrace
traditional agriculture
vegetable
vegetable garden
vegetable market
water
water management
weed
world food programme
44
Map of Bhutan
45

Questionnaire for Farmers
Site name:
Village:
Date of survey:
Time:
Geog:
Person answering question:

Name:
Age:
Position in Household:
Gender: M / F
Occupation:
Household information:
1. How many people are in you family? _____ People
2. How many children are attending school? _____ children
2.1. What grades are they in?
1 - 2 - 3 - 4 - 5 - 6 - 7 - 8 - 9 - 10 - 11 - 12 - college
3. Have you attended school? ( Y / N )
3.1. What grade did you complete?
4. How many in your family have an occupation outside farming? ___ persons
4.1. Where are they, and what are they doing?
5. Did your grandparents farm on the same land? ( Y / N / IDK )
6. How long has your family farmed this land? ( Since _____ /___ years )
7. What is the approximate area of your farmland? _____ Acres
8. Has cultivated land increased or decreased since your grandparents time? (Y/ N/ IDK)
8.1. explain why?
Farming
1. What was your farm like 10 years ago? What has changed?
2. What are your most important crops? List about 3, in order of importance.
3. Do you follow any guidelines on when to plant? ( Y / N / IDK )
3.1. If yes, where are those guidelines from?
4. What do you use to fertilize your fields?
46
4.1. leaf litter from forest

4.2. animal manure from YOUR OWN farm
4.3. animal manure from OTHER farms
4.4. other local materials____________________-
4.5. Urea
4.6. Other fertilizers________________________
5. If fertilizers are used, when did they start being used? Since _______/
_______years
6. Are fertilizers becoming more expensive? ( Y / N / IDK )
7. Has total use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides increased or decreased over the
years? ( Y / N / IDK )
7.1. Why?
8. How do you control pests?
8.1. I buy chemicals. They are ______________________________
8.2. I make my own pesticides. They are _____________________
8.3. Hand pick insects
8.4. Rarely have pest problems
8.5. Other_________________________
9. Has the quality of your soil changed in recent years? ( Y / N / IDK )
9.1. How has it changed?
9.2. Why do you think it has changed?
10. How has your method of farming changed in the past 5 years?
10.1. Use of machines
10.2. Different fertilizer and pesticide use
10.3. Started to use chemical pesticides / fertilizers
10.4. Increased area of cultivation
10.5. Decreased area of cultivation
47
10.6. Changed crops

10.7. Other
11. What reasons did you change your method of farming?
11.1. Local advice
11.2. Changes in policy
11.3. Need for more income
11.4. Climate change
11.5. Wild animal problems
11.6. Changes in market demand
11.7. Labor shortage
11.8. Other
12. Do your methods differ for what you grow for yourself and what you grow to sell? Y/N
12.1. How?
13. Are you familiar with the term Organic? ( Y / N / IDK )
13.1. If you are familiar, what is your understanding of organic?
14. Do you practice organic farming?
14.1. Yes, everything I grow
14.2. Yes, what my family eats
14.3. Yes, for part of what I sell
14.4. No
14.5. Don't Know/ Not sure
14.6. When did you begin to practice organic farming? (since ____ / ___ years)
15. Do you think organic farming will increase income? ( Y / N / IDK )
15.1. Why?
16. Do you think organic farming will increase yield? ( Y / N / IDK )
16.1. Why?
17. Do you think Organic farming will change the quality of the soil? ( Y / N / IDK )
48
17.1. How?
18. If you have trouble with crops, who do you get advice from?
18.1. Neighbors/relatives
18.2. Extension agent
18.3. I do not go for help or advice
18.4. Other
19. Are you in contact with an extension agent? ( Y / N / IDK )
20. Are you a part of a local farmers group? ( Y / N / IDK )
20.1. How, in what capacity?
Market
1. Where do you sell your produce?
1.1. Local market
1.2. Market in different village
1.3. From home
1.4. Other
2. When did you start selling your produce? ( Since _____ / ___ years)
3. Have your sales increased over the years? ( Y / N / IDK )
4. How many hours do you travel? _____ Hours
5. Has access to the market improved? ( Y / N / IDK )
5.1. How?
6. Is your household self sufficient? ( Y / N / IDK )

49
List of Interviews:
Bhattarai, BN
Climate Smart Agriculture Advisor at SNV, Thimphu. Interview with Author. April 22,
2014.
Bida, Padang
Farmer, Tong Cheka, Limbu. Interview with Author. April 13, 2014.
Chhetri, Mr Durba
Director of Druk Seeds, Bajothang. Interview with Author. April 16, 2014.
Chhetri, Rehkha
Lecturer at College of Natural Resources, Lobesa, Punakha. Interview with Author.
April 18, 2014.
Choden, Ani Kuzang
Writer, Bumthang. Interview with Author. March 7, 2014.
Choden
Farmer, Thangu, Wangdi. Interview with Author. April 13, 2014.
Coo Chu
Farmer, Om Techa, Limbu. Interview with Author. April 13, 2014.
Dao
Farmer, Thangu, Wangdi. Interview with Author. April 13, 2014.
Dhodo
District Agriculture Officer, Thimphu. Interview with Author. April 21, 2014.
Dorji, Kinley
Town Leader, Om Techa, Limbu. Interview with Author. April 13, 2014.
Dorje, Kinley
Extension Agent, Wang Sisina. Interview with Author. April 22, 2014.
Lhamo, Dawa
Lecturer at Institute for Language and Culture Studies, Taktse. Interview with
Author. March 11, 2014.
50
Ghimiray, Mahesh
Principal Researcher at RC Bajo, Bajo. Interview with Author. April 16, 2014.
Gurung, DB
Lecturer at College of Natural Resources, Lobesa Punakha. Interview with Author.
March 14, 2014
Gurung, Tulsi
March 17, 2014
Gurung, Tulsi
April 14, 2014.
Mr. Kedarnath
Teacher at Lobesa Secondary School, Lobesa, Punakha. Interview with Author.
April 15, 2014
Kesang
Farmer, Samtenling, Punakha. Interview with Author. April 13, 2014.
Kinley
Teacher at Lobesa Secondary School, Lobesa, Punakha. Interview with Author.
April 15, 2014.
Navin
Manager at BioBhutan, Thimphu. Interview with Author. April 24, 2014.
Phubtim
Farmer, Samtenling, Punakha. Interview with Author. April 13, 2014.
Phuntso, Karma
Director of Loden Foundation, Thimphu. Interview with Author. March 19, 2014.
Pulmari, Tanka Maya
Organic in Gasa expert at RC Bajo, Bajo. Interview with Author. April 16, 2014.
Tashi, Sonam
Lecturer at College of Natural Resources, Lobesa, Punakha. Interview With Author.
March 17, 2014.
51
Dr. Thinley
April 18, 2014.
Tshering, Kinlay
Chief Horticulture Office, Thimphu. Interview with Author. April 21, 2014.
Tshering
Extension Agent, Tong Cheka, Limbu. Interview with Author. April 13, 2014.
Ura, Karma
Director at Center for Bhutan Studies, Thimphu. Interview with Author. March 20,
2014.
Wangchuk, Dorje
Director at College of Natural Resources, Lobesa, Punakha. Interview with Author.
March 14, 2014
Wangchuk, Dorje
Director at College of Natural Resources, Lobesa, Punakha. Interview with Author.
April 18, 2014.
Yangchen, Ugyen
March 17, 2014
Yeshey
Soil Specialist at RC Bajo, Bajo. Interview with Author. April 16, 2014.
Zangpo, Sonam
District Agriculture Officer, Bajo. Interview with Author. April 16, 2014.
52
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FARMING IN BHUTAN: A REVIEW OF POLICY, IMPLEMENTATION AND
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Gliessman, Stephen R.. The conversion to sustainable agriculture: principles, processes, and
practices. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2010.
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54
Future Research
I wish that I would have had time to be more specific. While I learned a good deal, I
hope that others can take the basic information that I have and apply it to a more
specific topic. Looking into the specific methods that farmers use, look into a niche
product like lemongrass or buckwheat, looking at the gender shifting gender roles,
visiting remote farms like Gasa, and visiting other commercial areas of Bhutan would
have been delightful had I been had more time. This study could also be replicated in
Nepal or India. For India, the farmer suicides is an alarmingly and important issue
that may already have significant research, but if it doesnt- it should. I also think that
doing this study over again, just better, would be worthwhile. If future research is
pursued, I would like to be helpful in anyway I can.

The face of research:
55

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Organic in Bhutan & Abroad

Gliessman, Conversion to Sustainable Agriculture, page 59

Kesang Tshomo, Bhutans Status on Development Strategy for Organic Sector

Coo Chu, Interview with Author

History of Farming in Bhutan

Namgill. Interview with Author.

Pulmari, Tanka Maya. Interview with Author.

Choden. Interview with Author.

Yeshey, Madame. Interview with Author.

Tshomo, Kesang. Provided to Author.

Dr. Thinley. Interview with Author.

Tshomo, Kesang. Interview with Author.

Rural to Urban Migration and Labor Shortages

Ura, Karma. Interview with Author.

as an officer in a rural community, but

Phuntso, Karma. Interview with Author.

Gliessman, Conversion to Sustainable Agriculture, pg 186

Bida, Padang. Interview with Author

Policy & Registration

Zangpo, Sonam. Interview with Author

Gurung, Tulsi. Interview with Author.

Zangpo, Sonam. Interview with Author.

Tshomo, Kesang. Bhutans Status on Organic Sector.

Navin. Interview by Author.

Gurung, DB. Interview with Author.

What is Happening Now:

Thimmaiah, Dr. A. Guide to Organic Agriculture. pg 82

Kinley, Mr. Interview with Author.

Dosch. Rural to Urban. pg 33

Dorji, Cheku. Report on Study Tour

Samdrup Jongkhar Initiative

Organic Farms in Operation

Denka. Interview with Author.

D hondo. Interview with Author.

Dhondo. Interview with Author.

Tshomo, Kesang. Interview with Author.

Dao, at right, has farmed for as long as he

D ao. Interview with Author.

Person answering question:

4.1. leaf litter from forest

10.6. Changed crops

Lhendup, Pema and Jigme Nidup. Internal Migration in Bhutan. Population

RGob, Ministry of Agriculture and Forests. Rural to Urban Migration, 24.

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