+2 Maths Full Book
+2 Maths Full Book
+2 Maths Full Book
APPLICATIONS OF MATRICES
AND DETERMINANTS
1.1. Introduction :
The students are already familiar with the basic definitions, the elementary
operations and some basic properties of matrices. The concept of division is not
defined for matrices. In its place and to serve similar purposes, the notion of the
inverse of a matrix is introduced. In this section, we are going to study about the
inverse of a matrix. To define the inverse of a matrix, we need the concept of
adjoint of a matrix.
1.2 Adjoint :
Let A = [aij] be a square matrix of order n. Let Aij be the cofactor of aij.
Then the nth order matrix [Aij]T is called the adjoint of A. It is denoted by adjA.
Thus the adjA is nothing but the transpose of the cofactor matrix [Aij] of A.
Result : If A is a square matrix of order n, then A (adjA) = | A | In = (adj A) A,
where In is the identity matrix of order n.
Proof : Let us prove this result for a square matrix A of order 3.
a11 a12 a13
a31
A
11
Then adj A = A12
A13
a33
A31
A32
A33
A (adj A) = 0 | A | 0 = | A | 0 1 0 = | A | I3
0
0 0 1
0 | A |
Similarly we can prove that (adj A)A = | A | I3
A (adj A) = | A | I3 = (adj A) A
In general we can prove that A (adj A) = | A | In = (adj A) A.
a b
Example 1.1 : Find the adjoint of the matrix A =
c d
Solution: The cofactor of a is d, the cofactor of b is c, the cofactor of c is b
and the cofactor of d is a. The matrix formed by the cofactors taken in order is
the cofactor matrix of A.
d c
The cofactor matrix of A is =
.
b a
Taking transpose of the cofactor matrix, we get the adjoint of A.
d b
The adjoint of A =
c a
1 1
1
2
1
2 3
=3
1 3
1 3
= 9
2 3
1 2
=5
2 1
1 1
=4
1 3
1 1
=1
2 3
1 1
=3
2 1
1 1
=5
2 3
Cofactor of 1 = A11 =
Cofactor of 1 = A12 =
Cofactor of 1 = A13 =
Cofactor of 1 = A21 =
Cofactor of 2 = A22 =
Cofactor of 3 = A23 =
Cofactor of 2 = A31 =
1 1
=4
1 3
1 1
=
=1
1 2
Cofactor of 1 = A32 =
Cofactor of 3 = A33
3
The Cofactor matrix of A is [Aij] = 4
5
3
T
adj A = (Aij) = 9
5
9 5
1
4
4
1
1
5
4
1
3
1
2
Example 1.3 : If A =
, verify the result A (adj A) = (adj A) A = | A | I2
1 4
1 2
1 2
A=
Solution:
, | A | =
=2
1 4
1 4
4 2
adj A =
1 1
1 2 4 2 2 0
1 0
(1)
A (adj A) =
=
=2
= 2I2
0 1
1 4 1 1 0 2
4 2 1 2 2 0
1 0
(adj A) A =
(2)
=
= 2
= 2I2
0 1
1 1 1 4 0 2
From (1) and (2) we get
A (adj A) = (adj A) A = | A | I2.
Example 1.4 : If A = 1
2
1
3
1
2
1
adj A = 9
1
3
1
4
| A | = 1
2
1
A (adj A) = 1
2
1
= 1(6 3) 1 (3 + 6) + 1( 1 4) = 11
3
1
11 0 0
3 4 5
3 9 1
4
= 0 11 0
0 0 11
3 5 3
1
1
2
1
1
2
1
1 0 0
= 11 0 1 0 = 11 I3 = | A | I3
0 0 1
1 1
1
3 4 5
(adj A) A = 9
5
4 1
1 2
3
1 0 0
2
1
(1)
11
3 = 0
3 0
0
11
0
= 11 0 1 0 = 11 I3 = | A | I3
0 0 1
11
0
(2)
1.3 Inverse :
Let A be a square matrix of order n. Then a matrix B, if it exists, such that
AB = BA = In is called inverse of the matrix A. In this case, we say that A is an
invertible matrix. If a matrix A possesses an inverse, then it must be unique. To
see this, assume that B and C are two inverses of A, then
AB = BA = In
(1)
(2)
AC = CA = In
Now AB = In
(Q associative property)
InB = C B = C
i.e., The inverse of a matrix is unique. Next, let us find a formula for
computing the inverse of a matrix.
We have already seen that, if A is a square matrix of order n, then
A(adj A) = (adj A)A = | A | In
1.3.1 Properties :
1. Reversal Law for Inverses :
If A, B are any two non-singular matrices of the same order, then AB is also
non-singular and
(AB)1 = B1 A1
i.e., the inverse of a product is the product of the inverses taken in the
reverse order.
Proof : Since A and B are non-singular, | A | 0 and | B | 0.
We know that | AB | = | A | | B |
| A | 0, | B | 0 | A | | B | 0 | AB | 0
Hence AB is also non-singular. So AB is invertible.
(AB) (B1A1) = A (BB1)A1
= AIA1 = AA1 = I
Similarly we can show that (B1A1) (AB) = I
(AB) (B1A1) = (B1A1) (AB) = I
B1 A1is the inverse of AB.
(AB)1 = B1 A1
2. Reversal Law for Transposes (without proof) :
If A and B are matrices conformable to multiplication, then (AB)T = BTAT.
i.e., the transpose of the product is the product of the transposes taken in
the reverse order.
1
= (A 1)
(A1) AT = I
(1)
1
AT(A1) = I
(2)
(AT)
= (A 1)
Solution:
1 2
1 2
(i) Let A =
, Then | A | =
=20
1 4
1 4
A is a non-singular matrix. Hence it is invertible. The matrix formed by the
cofactors is
4 1
[Aij] =
2 1
4 2
adj A = [Aij]T =
1 1
2 1
1
1 4 2
= | A | (adj A) = 2
= 1 1
1 1 2 2
2 1
2 1
(ii) Let A =
. then | A | =
=0
4 2
4 2
A is singular. Hence A1 does not exist.
cos sin
cos sin
(iii) Let A =
. Then | A | =
sin cos
sin cos
= cos2 + sin2 = 1 0
A is non singular and hence it is invertible
cos sin
Adj A =
sin cos
1
1 cos sin cos sin
A1 = | A | (Adj A) = 1
=
(iv) Let A = 2 2
2
.
1
0
Then | A | =
2
1
2
2
=20
1
0
1 1
=2
2 0
3 1
=
=2
2 0
3 1
=
=8
2 2
Cofactor of 1 = A31 =
Cofactor of 2 = A32
Cofactor of 1 = A33
[Aij] = 1
2
2
2 1 2
2 5 ; adj A = 2 2 2
6 5 8
2 8
2 1 2
1
1
A1 = | A | (adj A) = 2 2 2 2
6 5 8
2
= 1
3
1
1 2 1
1
5
2
0 1
1 2
Example 1.6 : If A =
verify that (AB)1 = B1 A1.
and B =
1 1
1 2
Solution:
| A | = 1 0 and | B | = 1 0
So A and B are invertible.
1 2 0 1 2 3
=
1 1 1 2 1 1
2 3
| AB | =
= 1 0. So AB is invertible.
1 1
1 2
adj A =
1 1
1 2
1
A1 = | A | (adj A) =
1 1
AB =
2 1
1 0
adj B =
1
2 1
B1 = | B | (adj B) =
1 0
1 3
adj AB =
1 2
1 3
1
(AB)1 = | AB | (adj AB) =
1 2
(1)
2 1 1 2 1 3
=
1 0 1 1 1 2
B1 A1 =
(2)
(ii) 0 5 0
(i)
(iii) 3 1 2
2 4
2 4 3
1 2 1
1 2
(2) Find the adjoint of the matrix A =
and verify the result
3 5
A (adj A) = (adj A)A = | A | . I
3 3 4
(3) Find the adjoint of the matrix A = 2 3 4 and verify the result
1
A (adj A) = (adj A)A = | A | . I
(4) Find the inverse of each of the following matrices :
1 0
3
1 3 7
(i) 2 1 1
1 1 1
8 1 3
2
(iv) 5 1
10 1 4
(ii) 4 2 3
1 2 1
2 2 1
(v) 1 3 1
1 2 2
1
(iii) 1
0
2 1
5 2
verify that
and B =
7 3
1 1
(5) If A =
(i) (AB)1 = B1 A1
(6)
(7)
3 3 4
Find the inverse of the matrix A = 2 3 4 and verify that A3 = A 1
0 1 1
1 2 2 T
1 2 is 3A .
Show that the adjoint of A = 2
2 2 1
4 3 3
0
1 is A itself.
(8) Show that the adjoint of A = 1
4 4 3
1
(9) If A = 3
(10) For A =
10
an
21
a22
an2
a2n
nn
x b
=
x b
x1
b1
(1) where
x1
b1
a22
a2n
nn
A=
21
n1
an2
x b
; X= ;B=
x b
a
=
2 3 y 8
Here
AX = B
1 1
|A| =
=10
2 3
11
2 1
The solution is X = A1B
x 3 1 3
=
y 2 1 8
x 1
=
y 2
x = 1, y = 2
Example 1.8 : Solve by matrix inversion method 2x y + 3z = 9, x + y + z = 6,
xy+z=2
Solution : The matrix equation is
2 1 3 x
1
1
1 1
1 1
2
A X = B, where A = 1
1
9
y = 6
z 2
1 3
9
x
1 1, X = y and B = 6
z
2
1 1
2 1 3
| A | = 1 1 1 = 2 0
1 1 1
[Aij] = 2
4
12
1
1
3
1
2
The adjoint of A = 0
2
2 4
= adj A
3
1
1
Inverse of A = | A | (adj A)
2 2 4
1
1
0 1 1
A = 2
2 1
3
Definition :
The matrix A is said to be of rank r, if
(i) A has atleast one minor of order r which does not vanish.
(ii) Every minor of A of order (r + 1) and higher order vanishes.
In other words, the rank of a matrix is the order of any highest order non
vanishing minor of the matrix.
The rank of A is denoted by the symbol (A). The rank of a null matrix is
defined to be zero.
The rank of the unit matrix of order n is n. The rank of an m n matrix A
cannot exceed the minimum of m and n. i.e., (A) min {m, n}.
7 1
Example 1.9 : Find the rank of the matrix
2 1
7 1
Solution : Let A =
. This is a second order matrix.
2 1
The highest order of minor of A is also 2.
7 1
The minor is given by
=90
2 1
The highest order of non-vanishing minor of A is 2. Hence (A) = 2.
2 4
Example 1.10 : Find the rank of the matrix
1 2
2 4
Solution : Let A =
.
1 2
2 4
The highest order minor of A is given by
= 0. Since the second
1 2
order minor vanishes (A) 2. We have to try for atleast one non-zero first
order minor, i.e., atleast one non-zero element of A. This is possible because A
has non-zero elements (A) = 1.
1 2 3
Example 1.11 : Find the rank of the matrix
5
1
Solution : Let A = 2
2
4
1
1
3
14
2
5
4
1
1
6
2
5
1
6 = 2 1
5
1
4
1
2
2
1
=0
1
3
3
= 22 0
5 1
A has atleast one non-zero minor of order 2. (A) = 2
1 1 1 3
Example 1.12 : Find the rank of the matrix
Solution : Let A = 2
5
1
1 3
2
5
1 3
1 7
11
4
11
3
1 7
This is a matrix of order 3 4
A has minors of highest order 3. They are given by
1 1 1
1 1 3
2
5
= 0 ; 2 1 4 = 0 ;
5 1 11
7
1 1 3
3
4 = 0 ; 1 3 4 = 0
1 7 11
11
1 3
1
1
1
2 3
5 7
15
16
3
2
3
4
3 2 3
1 1 1
0 5 6
0 5 6
1 1 1
0 5 6
0 0 0
1
2
3
Solution : Let A = 2 3
R2 R2 2R1
R3 R3 3R1
R3 R3 R2
1
Solution : Let A = 2
3
2
3
4 6 2
6 9
2 3 1
4 6 2
6 9
1
2 3 1 R R 2R
2
1
0 0 0 0 2
R3 R3 3R1
0 0 0 0
2 1 0 1
17
4 2 1 3
Solution : Let A = 6 3 4 7
2 1 0 1
1 2 4 3
4 3 6 7 C C
3
1
0 1 2 1
4
3
1 2
0 5 10 5 R R 4R
2
1
2
0 1
2
1
1 2 4 3
0 1 2 1 R 1 R
5 2
2
0 1 2 1
1 2 4 3
0 1 2 1 R R R
3
2
3
0 0 0 0
The last equivalent matrix is in the echelon form.
The number of non-zero rows in this matrix is two. (A) = 2
3 1 5 1
Example 1.16 : Find the rank of the matrix
5 1
1
1
1
3
1
5 7
2 1
2
5
1
2
1 5
1 5
1 5 7 2
5 7
1 2 1 5
R2 R2 3R1
0 7 8 14 R3 R3 R1
0 7 8 7
1 2 1 5
0 7 8 14 R3 R3 R2
0 0 0 7
3
Solution : Let A = 1 2
18
R1 R2
EXERCISE 1.3
Find the rank of the following matrices :
(1)
(4)
1
3
2
0
2
1
1
2
3
1
3
4
2
3 1 2 0
(3) 1 0 1 0
2 1 3 0
6 12 6
(2) 1 2 1
4 8 4
1
0
1
1
(5) 2
3
2 1
4
2
7
3
1
(6) 2
1
2
4
2
6
4
1 3
7
19
Fig. 1.3
Solution (iii) 2x + y z = 10
In this case, we have to determine three unknowns x, y and z from a single
equation. We can assign arbitrary values to any two variables and solve for the
third variable. We assign arbitrary values s and t to x and y respectively, and
solve for z.
We get x = s, y = t and z = 2s + t 10 is the solution set.
For different values of s and t we get different solutions.
20
b
2
bn
a21x + a22y = b2
a11 a12
Let =
a21 a22
a11 a12
=
a21 a22
x. = x
a11x a12
a21x a22
b1 a12y
a12
b2 a22y
a22
21
b1 a12
a12 a12
y
(by properties of determinants)
b2 a22
a22 a22
b1 a12
y . 0 (by properties of determinants)
b2 a22
b1 a12
= x (say)
b2 a22
x. =
Similarly
a11 b1
= y (say)
a21 b2
y. =
x, y are the determinants which can also be obtained by replacing 1st and
2nd column respectively by the column of constants containing b1 and b2 i.e. by
x
b1
b Thus, we have, x = x x =
2
y = y y =
y
provided 0
Since , x, y are unique, there exists a unique solution for the above
system of equations. i.e., the system is consistent and has a unique solution.
The method stated above to solve the system of equation is known as
Cramers Rule.
Cramers rule is applicable when 0.
If = 0, then the given system may be consistent or inconsistent.
Case 1 : If = 0 and x = 0, y = 0 and atleast one of the coefficients
a11, a12, a21, a22 is non-zero, then the system is consistent and has infinitely
many solutions.
Case 2 : If = 0 and atleast one of the values x, y is non-zero, then the
system is inconsistent i.e. it has no solution.
To illustrate the possibilities that can occur in solving systems of linear
equations with two unknowns, consider the following three examples. Solve :
(1) x + 2y = 3
x+y=2
(2)
x + 2y = 3
2x + 4y = 6
22
(3)
x + 2y = 3
2x + 4y = 8
Solution (1) :
We have
x
y
Unique solution
1 2
=
= 1
1 1
3 2
=
= 1
2 1
1 3
=
= 1
1 2
S
O
X
X+2Y = 3
X+Y = 2
Fig. 1.4
Since 0, the system has unique solution. By Cramers rule
x
y
x=
=1 ; y=
= 1
(x, y) = (1, 1)
Solution (2) :
Infinitely many solution
Y
1 2
We have =
= 0
2 4
3 2
x =
= 0
o
6 4
X
S
1 3
X + 2Y = 3
y =
= 0
2X + 4Y = 6
2 6
Fig. 1.5
Since = 0 and x = 0, y = 0 and atleast one of a11, a12, a21, a22 is non zero,
it has infinitely (case 1) many solutions. The above system is reduced to a
single equation x + 2y = 3. To solve this equation, assign y = k
x = 3 2y = 3 2k
The solution is x = 3 2k, y = k ; k R
For different value of k we get different solution. In particular (1, 1), ( 1, 2),
(5 1) and (8, 2.5) are some solutions for k = 1, 2, 1 and 2.5 respectively
Solution (3) :
No Solution
Y
1
2
=
= 0 ;
2 4
3 2
1 3
x =
= 4 ; y =
=2
8 4
2 8
o
X
Since = 0 and x 0, y 0
2X + 4Y = 8
X
+
2Y
=
3
(case 2 : atleast one of the value of
x, y, non-zero), the system is
Fig. 1.6
inconsistent.
i.e. it has no solution.
23
11
= a21
a31
a
11
y = a21
a31
a
a12
a22
a32
b1
b2
b3
a23 ,
a33
a13
a23 ,
a33
1
x = b2
b3
b
a13
a22
a32
11
a21
a31
a
z =
a12
a33
a13
a23
a12
a22
a32
b3
b1
b2
As we discussed earlier for two variables, we give the following rule for
testing the consistency of the above system.
Case 1 : If 0, then the system is consistent, and has a unique solution. Using
Cramers Rule can solve this system.
Case 2 : If = 0, we have three important possibilities.
Subcase 2(a) : If = 0 and atleast one of the values of x, y and z is
non-zero, then the system has no solution i.e. Equations are inconsistent.
Subcase 2(b) : If = 0 and x = y = z = 0 and atleast one of the 2 2
minor of is non zero, then the system is consistent and has infinitely many
solution. In this case, the system of three equations is reduced to two equations.
It can be solved by taking two suitable equations and assigning an arbitrary
value to one of the three unknowns and then solve for the other two unknowns.
Subcase 2(c) : If = 0 and x = y = z = 0 and all their (2 2) minors
are zero but atleast one of the elements of is non zero (aij 0) then the system
is consistent and it has infinitely many solution. In this case, system is reduced
to a single equation. To solve we can assign arbitrary values to any two
variables and can determine the value of third variable.
Subcase 2(d) : If = 0, x = y = z = 0, all 2 2 minors of = 0 and
atleast one 2 2 minor of x or y or z is non zero then the system is
inconsistent.
24
1 1 2
5 1 1
x = 4 1 1 = 3
1 1 2
Fig. 1.7
2 1 5
2 5 1
z = 1 1 4 = 3
y = 1 4 1 = 6 ;
1 1 2
1 1 1
= 3, x = 3, y = 6, z = 3
0, The system has unique solution. By Cramers rule.
x 3
y 6
z
x = = 3 = 1, y =
= 3 = 2, z =
=1
The solution is x = 1, y = 2, z = 1
(x, y, z) = (1, 2, 1)
25
Solution (2) :
x + 2y + 3z = 6 ; x + y + z = 3 ; 2x + 3y + 4z = 9
1 2 3
6 2 3
x = 3 1 1 = 0
= 1 1 1 =0 ;
2 3 4
9 3 4
1 6 3
1 2 6
y = 1 3 1 = 0 ;
z = 1 1 3 = 0
2 9 4
2 3 9
Since = 0 and x = y = z = 0 but atleast one of the 2 2 minors of is
1 2 0, the system is consistent (by case 2(b)) and has
non-zero
1 1
infinitely many solution.
The system is reduced to 2 equations. Assigning an arbitrary value to
one of unknowns, say z = k, and taking first two equations.
We get x + 2y + 3k = 6
Infinitely many solution
x+y+k = 3
i.e.,
x + 2y = 6 3k
x+y = 3k
1 2
=1
=
1 1
Fig. 1.8
6
3k
2
x =
= 6 3k 6 + 2k = k
3 k 1
1 6 3k
y =
= 3 k 6 + 3k = 2k 3
1 3 k
x
k
x=
=
= k
1
y
2k 3
=
= 3 2k
y=
1
The solution is
x = k, y = 3 2k and z = k
i.e.
(x, y, z) = (k, 3 2k, k). k R
Particularly, for k = 1, 2, 3, 4 we get
(1, 1, 1), (2, 1, 2), (3, 3, 3), (4, 5, 4) respectively as solution.
26
Solution (3) :
x + 2y + 3z = 6 ; 2x + 4y + 6z = 12 ; 3x + 6y + 9z = 18
1 2 3
6 2 3
12 4 6 = 0
2
4
6
=
= 0 ; x =
3 6 9
18 6 9
1 6 3
1 2 6
y = 2 12 6 = 0 ; z = 2 4 12 = 0
3 18 9
3 6 18
Here = 0 and x = y = z = 0.
Also all their 2 2 minors are zero, but atleast one of aij of is non- zero.
It has infinitely many solution (by
case 2(c)). The system given above is
reduced to one equation i.e. x + 2y + 3z = 6
Fig. 1.9
2 3 4
2x + 3y + 4z = 10
No Solution
6 2 3
x = 3 1 1 = 1
10 3 4
Fig. 1.10
Since = 0, x 0 (atleast one of the values of x, y, z non-zero) The
system is inconsistent (by case 2(a)).
It has no solution.
27
Solution (5) :
x + 2y + 3z = 6
1
= 2
3
1
y = 2
;
2x + 4y + 6z = 12 ; 3x + 6y + 9z = 24
2 3
6 2 3
4 6 = 0 ;
x = 12 4 6 = 0
24 6 9
6 9
6 3
1 2 6
12 6 = 0 ;
z = 2 4 12 = 0
3 6 24
24 9
Here = 0 and x = y = z = 0.
All the 2 2 minors of are
zero, but we see that atleast one of
the 2 2 minors of x or y or z is
non zero. i.e.
12 4 0 minor of 3 in
x
24 6
No solution
Fig. 1.11
x + y = 3,
(2) 2x + 3y = 8,
(3) x y = 2,
2x + 3y = 7
4x + 6y = 16
3y = 3x 7
Solution (1) : x + y = 3 ; 2x + 3y = 7
1 1
=
= 3 2 = 1, ; 0
2 3
3 1
1
x =
= 9 7 = 2 ; y =
7 3
2
= 1,
x = 2,
=76=1
y = 1
By Cramers rule
x=
x 2
= 1 =2
; y =
y
1
= 1 = 1
28
Solution (2) : 2x + 3y = 8 ; 4x + 6y = 16
2 3
=
= 12 12 = 0
4 6
8 3
x =
= 48 48 = 0
16 6
2 8
y =
= 32 32 = 0
4 16
Since = 0, and x = y = 0 and atleast one of the coefficients aij of 0,
the system is consistent and has infinitely many solutions.
All 2 2 minor are zero and atleast (1 1) minor is non zero. The system
is reduced to a single equation. We assign arbitrary value to x (or y) and solve
for y (or x).
Suppose we assign x = t, from equation (1)
1
we get y = 3 (8 2t).
8 2t
The solution set is
(x, y) = t, 3 , t R
In particular
(x, y) = (1, 2)
(x, y) = ( 2, 4)
1
(x, y) = 2 , 3
for t = 1
for t = 2
1
for t = 2
Solution (3) : x y = 2 ; 3y = 3x 7
1 1
=
= 0,
3 3
2 1
x =
7 3 = 1
Since = 0 and x 0 (atleast one of the values x or y 0)
the system is inconsistent. It has no solution.
Example 1.18 : Solve the following non-homogeneous equations of three
unknowns.
(1)
x + 2y + z = 7
(2) x + y + 2z = 6
(3) 2x + 2y + z = 5
2x y + 2z = 4
3x + y z = 2
xy+z=1
x + y 2z = 1
4x + 2y + z = 8
3x + y + 2z = 4
29
(4)
x + y + 2z = 4
2x + 2y + 4z = 8
3x + 3y + 6z = 12
(5)
Solution (1) : x + 2y + z = 7,
1 2
1
x + y + 2z = 4
2x + 2y + 4z = 8
3x + 3y + 6z = 10
2x y + 2z = 4,
2 1 2 = 15
1 1 2
7
2
1
x = 4 1 2 = 15
1 1 2
1 2
7
z = 2 1 4 = 30
1 1 1
x + y 2z = 1
1 7 1
; y = 2 4 2 = 30
1 1 2
4
1
y = 3
2
6
2
1
2
1 = 0,
x = 2 1 1 = 0,
8
1
z = 3
2 1
1 6
1 2 = 0
2 8
8
Since = 0 and x = y = z = 0, also atleast one of the (2 2) minors of
is not zero, the system is consistent and has infinitely many solution.
Take two suitable equations and assign arbitrary value to one of the three
unknowns. We solve for the other two unknowns.
Let z = k R
equation (1) and (2) becomes
x + y =6 2k
3x + y = 2 + k
30
1 1
=13=2
3 1
6 2k 1
= 6 2k 2 k = 4 3k
2 + k 1
x =
1 6 2k
= 2 + k 18 + 6k = 7k 16
3 2 + k
y =
By Cramers rule
x=
x
4 3k
1
=
= 2 (3k 4)
y=
y
7k 16
1
=
= 2 (16 7k)
kR
= 1 1 1 = 0
x y + z = 1,
3x + y + 2z = 4
2 1
5
; x = 1 1 1 0
4 1 2
= 2 2 4 = 0
3 3 6
1 4 2
y = 2 8 4 = 0,
3 12 6
2x + 2y + 4z = 8,
4 1 2
3x + 3y + 6z = 12
x = 8 2 4 = 0
12 3 6
1 1 4
z = 2 2 8 = 0
3 3 12
31
when s = t = 1
3
(x, y, z) = 1, 2, 2
Solution (5) : x + y + 2z = 4,
2x + 2y + 4z = 8,
when s = 1, t = 2
3x + 3y + 6z = 10
1 1 2
= 2 2 4 = 0
3 3 6
1 4 2
y = 2 8 4 = 0
3 10 6
4 1 2
x = 8 2 4 = 0,
10 3 6
1 1 4
z = 2 2 8 = 0
3 3 10
32
x + 2y = 100 5k
30 k 1
1 30 k
1 1
=
= 3k 40, y =
= 70 4k
= 1, x =
1 2
100 5k 2
1 100 5k
By Cramers Rule
x =
x
= 3k 40,
y=
y
= 70 4k
and 70 4k 0 14 k 17
The possible solutions are (2, 14, 14), (5, 10, 15), (8, 6, 16) and (11, 2, 17)
33
As an illustration, consider a
homogeneous linear system of two
equations in two unknowns.
x+y = 0
xy = 0
the graph of these equations are lines
through the origin and the trivial solution
corresponding to the point of intersection
Fig. 1. 12
at the origin.
X Y =0
S
o
X +Y =0
2 2
1
0, the system has unique solution.
The above system of homogeneous equation has only trivial solution.
i.e., (x, y, z) = (0, 0, 0).
34
Example 1.21 :
Solve :
x + y + 2z = 0
3x + 2y + z = 0
2x + y z = 0
Solution :
1 1 2
= 3 2
1 =0
2 1 1
4x + 5y = 9
8x + 10y = 18
(4)
(5)
2x + y z = 4
x + y 2z = 0
3x + 2y 3z = 4
(6)
(7)
x + 2y + z = 6
3x + 3y z = 3
2x + y 2z = 3
(8)
35
x+y+z=4
xy+z=2
2x + y z = 1
3x + y z = 2
2x y + 2z = 6
2x + y 2z = 2
2x y + z = 2
6x 3y + 3z = 6
4x 2y + 2z = 4
1 2 1
2 4 1
(9) x + y z = 1 ; x + y + z = 5 ;
3 2 2
x yz=0
(10) A small seminar hall can hold 100 chairs. Three different colours
(red, blue and green) of chairs are available. The cost of a red chair
is Rs.240, cost of a blue chair is Rs.260 and the cost of a green chair
is Rs.300. The total cost of chair is Rs.25,000. Find atleast 3
different solution of the number of chairs in each colour to be
purchased.
a
a
21
b
b1
36
2x + 5y + 7z = 52,
x + y + z = 9,
2x + y z = 0
1 1 1 y = 9
2 1 1 z 0
AX = B
52
1 9
2 1 1 0
37
1
2
2
1
0
52 R1 R2
1 1 0
1
1
9
R R2 2R1
3
5
34 2
R3 R3 2R1
1 3 18
9
1 1 1
0 1 3 18 R R
3
2
0 3 5 34
0
0
1
20
9
1 3 18
0
R3 R3 + 3R2
The last equivalent matrix is in the echelon form. It has three non-zero
rows.
(A, B) = 3
1
Also A
0
0
4
1
1 3
0
0
0
1 3
0
y =
z
18
20
x+y+z = 9
(1)
y 3z = 18
(2)
4z = 20
(3)
38
3
2
1
19
47
3
y = 13
z 32
AX = B
2
[A, B] = 3
2
19 47
3
2
13
32
5
7
2
7
2
19 47
R
0 112 272 112 R
0 22 54 27
3 7
5
1 2 2
2
3
2
5
2
13 R1 2
32
5
2
R2 3R1
R3 2R1
R1
R3 4R2
The last equivalent matrix is in the echelon form. It has three non-zero
rows. [A, B] = 3 and (A) = 2
(A) [A, B]
The given system is inconsistent and hence has no solution.
Note : This problem can be solved by not dividing R1 by 2 also. i.e., R2 2R2 3R1
Example 1.24 :
Show that the equations x + y + z = 6, x + 2y + 3z = 14,
x + 4y + 7z = 30 are consistent and solve them.
39
1 2 3 y = 14
1 4 7 z 30
AX = B
The augmented matrix is
1 1 1 6
[A, B] = 1 2 3 14
1 4 7 30
1 1 1 6 R R R
2
1
0 1 2 8 2
R3 R3 R1
0 3 6 24
1 1 1 6
0 1 2 8 R R 3R
3
2
3
0 0 0 0
0 1 2 y = 8
0 0 0 z 0
x+y+z = 6
(1)
y + 2z = 8
(2)
(2) y = 8 2z ; (1) x = 6 y z = 6 (8 2z) z = z 2
Taking z = k, we get x = k 2, y = 8 2k ; k R
Putting k = 1, we have one solution as x = 1, y = 6, z = 1. Thus by giving
different values for k we get different solutions. Hence the given system has
infinite number of solutions.
Example 1.25 :
Verify whether the given system of equations is consistent. If it is
consistent, solve them :
x y + z = 5,
x + y z = 5,
40
2x 2y + 2z = 10
1
2
1
2
y = 5
z 10
AX = B
1
[A, B] = 1
2
1
1
10
5
1 5
2 2
1
1 1 5 R R + R
2
1
0 0 0 0 2
R3 R3 2R1
0 0 0 0
In the last equivalent matrix, there is only one non-zero row
[A, B] = 1 and (A) = 1
Thus (A) = [A, B] = 1. the given system is consistent. Since the
common value of the rank is less than the number of unknowns, there are
infinitely many solutions. The given system is equivalent to the matrix
equation.
1 1 1 x 5
0 0 0 y = 0
0 0 0 z 0
x y + z = 5 ; Taking y = k1, z = k2, we have x = 5 + k1 k2. for various
values of k1 and k2 we have infinitely many solutions. k1, k2 R
Example 1.26 : Investigate for what values of , the simultaneous equations x
+ y + z = 6, x + 2y + 3z = 10, x + 2y + z = have (i) no solution (ii) a unique
solution and (iii) an infinite number of solutions.
Solution :
The matrix equations corresponding to the given system is
1 1 1 x 6
1 2 3 y = 10
1 2 z
AX = B
41
[A, B] = 1 2 3 10
1 2
1
0
1 1
6
R R2 R1
1 2
4 2
R3 R3 R2
0 3 10
Case (i) : 3 = 0 and 10 0 i.e. = 3 and 10.
In this case (A) = 2 while [A, B] = 3 (A) [A, B]
The given system is inconsistent and has no solution.
Case (ii) : 3 0 i.e., 3 and can take any value in R.
In this case (A) = 3 and [A, B] = 3
(A) = [A, B] = 3 = number of unknowns.
The given system is consistent and has a unique solution.
Case (iii) :
3 = 0 and 10 = 0 i.e., = 3 and = 10
In this case (A) = [A, B] = 2 < number of unknowns.
The given system is consistent but has an infinite number of solutions.
[A, B] =
21
m1
a22 a2n
am2 amn
= [A, O]
0
0
42
Since rank of A = rank of [A, O] is always true, we see that the system of
homogeneous equations is always consistent.
Note that x1 = 0, x2 = 0, x3 = 0 xn = 0 is always a solution of the system.
This solution is called a trivial solution. If the rank of A = rank of
[A, B] < n then the system has non trivial solutions including trivial solution. If
(A) = n then the system has only trivial solution.
Example 1.27 : Solve the following homogeneous linear equations.
x + 2y 5z = 0, 3x + 4y + 6z = 0, x + y + z = 0
Solution : The given system of equations can be written in the form of matrix equation
1 2 5 x 0
3 4
1 1
6 y = 0
1 z 0
AX = B
1 1
1
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
1
2
0
5
21
1
2
6
5
2
2
21
5
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
R2 R2 3R1
R3 R3 R1
R2 R3
R3 R3 2R2
43
4 3
2 1 2
1
[A, B] = 4
y = 0
z 0
1 3 0
3 0
1 2 0
0 1
0 1
1 1
0 1
0 0
1
0
0
0
0
0
12 0
4
3
12
R2 R2 4R1
R3 R3 2R1
R3 R3 R2
8
Case (i) : If 8 then 8 0 and hence there are three non-zero rows.
[A] = [A, B] = 3 = the number of unknowns.
The system has the trivial solution x = 0, y = 0, z = 0
Case (ii) :
If = 8 then.
[A, B] = 2 and (A) = 2
(A) = [A, B] = 2 < number of unknowns.
The given system is equivalent to
x + y + 3z = 0 ; y + 4z = 0
y = 4z ;
x=z
Taking z = k, we get x = k, y = 4k, z = k [k R {0}]
which are non-trivial solutions.
Thus the system is consistent and has infinitely many non-trivial solutions.
Note : In case (ii) the system also has trivial solution. For only non-trivial
solutions we removed k = 0.
44
EXERCISE 1.5
(1) Examine the consistency of the following system of equations. If it is
consistent then solve the same.
(i)
4x + 3y + 6z = 25
x + 5y + 7z = 13
2x + 9y + z = 1
(ii) x 3y 8z = 10
3x + y 4z = 0
2x + 5y + 6z 13 = 0
(iii) x + y + z = 7
x + 2y + 3z = 18
y + 2z = 6
(iv) x 4y + 7z = 14
3x + 8y 2z = 13
7x 8y + 26z = 5
(v) x + y z = 1
2x + 2y 2z = 2
3x 3y + 3z = 3
(2) Discuss the solutions of the system of equations for all values of .
x + y + z = 2,
2x + y 2z = 2,
x + y + 4z = 2
(3) For what values of k, the system of equations
kx + y + z = 1,
x + ky + z = 1,
x + y + kz = 1 have
(i) unique solution (ii) more than one solution (iii) no solution
45
2. VECTOR ALGEBRA
2.1 Introduction :
We have already studied two operations addition and subtraction on
vectors in class XI. In this chapter we will study the notion of another operation,
namely product of two vectors. The product of two vectors results in two
different ways, viz., a scalar product and a vector product. Before defining these
products we shall define the angle between two vectors.
the angle between a and b is the angle between their directions when these
directions both converge or both diverge from their point of intersection.
B
b
A
a
Fig. 2. 1
Fig. 2. 2
It is evident that if is the numerical measure of the angle between two
vectors, then 0 .
Let a and b be two non zero vectors inclined at an angle . Then the
scalar product of a and b is denoted by a . b and is defined as the scalar
a b cos .
| || |
Thus a . b = a b cos = ab cos
Note : Clearly the scalar product of two vectors is a scalar quantity. Therefore
the product is called scalar product. Since we are putting dot between a and
| || |
46
Fig. 2.3
OL = (OB) (cos )
OL = b (cos )
| |
Now by definition a . b = | a | | b | cos
= | a | (OL)
a . b = | a | [projection of b on a ]
a . b
Projection of b on a =
=
(1)
[ using (1)]
a
. b =a. b
| | | |
a . b
= a .
Projection of a on b =
| |
b
= a . b
| |
a . b = a
| | |b | cos
b . a = | b | | a | cos
47
(1)
b . a = a
| | |b | cos
(2)
(i) When the vectors a and b are collinear and are in the same
direction, then = 0
Thus a . b = a b cos = a
b (1) = ab
(1)
(ii) When the vectors a and b are collinear and are in the opposite
direction, then =
Thus
a . b = a b cos = a b (cos )
(1)
= a b ( 1) = ab
Property 3 : Sign of Dot Product
The dot product a . b may be positive or negative or zero.
(i) If the angle between the two vectors is acute (i.e., 0 < < 90) then
cos is positive. In this case dot product is positive.
(ii) If the angle between the two vectors is obtuse (i.e., 90 < < 180) then
cos is negative. In this case dot product is negative.
(iii) If the angle between the two vectors is 90 (i.e., = 90) then
cos = cos 90 = 0. In this case dot product is zero.
Note : If a . b = 0, we have the following three possibilities
a . b = 0 a b cos = 0
| || |
| || |
| || |
| || |
| || |
| || |
(i)
(ii)
(iii) cos = 0 (i.e.,) = 90 (i.e.,) a b
Important Result :
Let a and b be two non-zero vectors, then a . b = 0 a b
48
a . a = a
Convention :
| | |a | cos 0 = |a | |a | = |a |
2
2
(a ) = a . a = |a | = a 2 = a2
= a2
Property 5 :
(i) i . i = j . j = k . k = 1
(ii)
i . j = j . i = j . k = k . j = k . i = i . k =0
i . i = i
m a . n b = mn a . b = mn a . b = a . mn b
) (
Property 8 :
The scalar product is distributive over addition.
a . b + c = a . b + a . c , for any three vectors a , b , c
B
Proof :
c
C
Let
OA = a
b
c
+
b
OB = b
BC = c
O
L
M
a
Then
OC = OB + BC
Fig. 2.4
= b + c
Draw BL OA and CM OA
49
OL = Projection of b on a
LM = Projection of c on a
OM = Projection of b + c on a
We have a . b = a
| | (Projection of b on a )
a . b = | a | (OL)
a . c = | a | (Projection of c on a )
a . c = | a | (LM)
a .( b + c ) = | a | Projection of ( b + c ) on a
= | a | (OL) + | a | (LM)
Also
Now
= a . b + a . c
(1)
(2)
a . b + c = a . b + a . c
(
)
Corollary : a .( b c ) = a . b a . c
Hence
Property 9 :
Proof :
(a + b ) = (a ) + 2a . b + (b )
2
(a + b ) = (a + b ) . (a + b )
= a2 + 2 a . b + b2
= a . a + a . b + b . a + b . b (by distribution law)
2
(a ) + a .b + a .b + (b ) ( a .b = b .a )
2
2
= ( a ) + 2 a . b + ( b ) = a2 + 2 a . b + b2
2
2
2
( a b ) = (a ) 2a . b + (b ) = a2 2a . b + b2
=
(ii)
50
(iii)
Proof :
(a + b ) . (a b ) = (a ) (b ) = a2 b2
(a + b ) . (a b ) = a . a a . b + b . a b . b
2 2
= ( a ) ( b ) = a 2 b2
Let a = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k
b = b1 i + b 2 j + b 3 k
a . b = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k . b1 i + b2 j + b3 k
k.k
)
(
| || |
cos =
a . b
a b
| || |
a . b
a b
= cos1
| || |
If a = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k and b = b1 i + b2 j + b3 k
Then a . b = a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3
|a | =
= cos1
|b | =
a1 + a2 + a3
51
b12
b22
b32
|a + b | |a | + |b | (Triangle inequality)
2
2 2
We have | a + b | = | a | + | b | + 2( a . b )
2
2 2
|
|
a + b = | a | + | b | + 2| a | | b | cos
2 2
| a | + | b | + 2| a | | b |
2
2
| a + b | | a | + | b |
|a + b| |a|+|b|
[ cos 1]
Example 2.1 : Find a . b when
(i) a = i 2 j + k and b = 4 i 4 j + 7 k
(ii) a = j + 2 k and b = 2 i + k
(iii) a = j 2 k and b = 2 i + 3 j 2 k
Solution :
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
a . b = i 2J + k . 4 i 4 j +7k
) (
(
) (
)
a . b = ( j 2 k ) . (2 i + 3 j 2 k )
Example 2.2 : For what value of m the vectors a and b are perpendicular to
each other
(i) a = m i + 2 j + k and b = 4 i 9 j + 2 k
(ii) a = 5 i 9 j + 2 k and b = m i + 2 j + k
Solution :
(i) Given : a b
52
a . b =0 m i +2 j + k . 4 i 9J +2k =0
4m 18 + 2 = 0 m = 4
(ii)
5 i 9J +2k . m i +2 j + k =0
16
5m 18 + 2 = 0 m = 5
a . b = 6. Find the angle between a and b
Solution :
6
1
a . b
= (4) (3) = 2
=3
cos =
a b
Example 2.4 : Find the angle between the vectors
3 i 2 j 6 k and 4 i j + 8 k
Let a = 3 i 2 j 6 k ; b = 4 i j + 8 k
Solution :
Let be the angle between the vectors
a . b = 12 + 2 48 = 34
a = 7, b = 9
a . b
34
cos =
=
79
a b
34
= cos1 63
) (
) (
| |
| || |
| |
| |
| || |
(
| || | |
) (
||
cos =
53
)
|
| |
Example 2.6 : For any vector r
i + r . j
j+ r . k k
prove that r = r . i
Solution : Let r = x i + y j + z k be an arbitrary vector.
r. i = x i +y j +zk . i =x
(
)
r . j = (x i + y j + z k ) . j = y
r . k = (x i + y j + z k ) . k = z
(r . i ) i + (r . j ) j + (r . k ) k = xi + yj + zk = r
Example 2.7 : Find the projection of the vector
7 i + j 4 k on 2 i + 6 j + 3 k
Let a = 7 i + j 4 k ; b = 2 i + 6 j + 3 k
Solution :
7 i + j 4k . 2 i +6 j +3k
a . b
Projection of a on b =
=
2 i +6 j +3k
b
) (
| |
14 + 6 12
8
= 7
4 + 36 + 9
Solution :
| + |a b | = 2 |a | + |b |
2
2
2
2
|a + b | = (a + b ) = |a | + |b | + 2a . b
2
2
2
2
|a b | = (a b ) = |a | + |b | 2a . b
prove that a + b
(1)
(2)
|a + b | + |a b | = |a | + |b |
2
+2a . b + a
| |
2
+|b| 2a . b
2 2
2
2
= 2| a | + 2| b | = 2| a | + | b |
54
Example 2.9 : If a and b are unit vectors inclined at an angle , then prove that
1
sin 2 = 2 a b
2
Solution : a b = a 2 + b 2 2a . b = 1 + 1 2 a b cos
1
a b = 2 sin 2 sin 2 = 2 a b
a + b = c
| |
| |
(a + b ) = ( c )
2
2
2
(a) + (b) +2a . b = (c)
2
2
2
|a | + |b | + 2|a | |b |cos = |c |
| |
cos = 2 = 3
Example 2.11 : Show that the vectors
Solution : Let a = 2 i j + k ; b = i 3 j 5 k ; c = 3 i + 4 j + 4 k
We see that a + b + c = 0
a , b , c forms a triangle
Further
a . b = 2 i j + k . i 3 j 5k
= 2+35=0
a b The vectors form the sides of a right angled triangle.
) (
55
(1)
(2)
EXERCISE 2.1
If a = i + j + 2 k and b = 3 i + 2 j k find
a +3b . 2a b
1
(ii) tan 2 =
(i) cos 2 = 2 a + b
a + b
If the sum of two unit vectors is a unit vector prove that the magnitude of
their difference is 3 .
If a , b , c are three mutually perpendicular unit vectors, then prove
that a + b + c = 3
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
) (
(10)
If | a + b | = 60, | a b | = 40 and | b | = 46 find | a |.
(11) Let u , v and w be vector such that u + v + w = 0 .
If u = 3, v = 4 and w = 5 then find u . v + v . w + w . u
4 i 3 j + k , 2 i 4 j + 5 k , i j form a right angled triangle.
| |
| |
| |
56
(iii) 3 i + j k on 4 i j + 2 k
a = b + c
2
2
= b + c
a
a2 = b2 + c2 + 2 b . c
( ) (
Fig. 2.5
a2 = b2 + c2 + 2bc cos( A)
a2 = b2 + c2 2bc cos A
2bc cosA = b2 + c2 a2
cos A =
b2 + c2 a2
2bc
a = b c
Fig. 2.6
a . a = a.b a.c
57
We have
a2 = ab cos ( C) ac cos ( B)
a2 = ab ( cos C) ac ( cos B)
a2 = ab cos C + ac cos B
a = b cos C + c cos B
To prove APB = 90
We have OA = OB = OP (radii)
Now PA = PO + OA
A
O
Also PB = PO + OB
Fig. 2.7
= PO OA
PA . PB = PO + OA . PO OA
2
= PO OA
= PO2 OA2 = 0
PA PB APB = 2
Hence angle in a semi-circle is a right angle.
Example 2.15 : Diagonals of a rhombus are at right angles. Prove by vector
methods.
Solution : Let ABCD be a rhombus. Let AB = a and AD = b
We have AB = BC = CD = DA
i.e.,
Also
a = b
| | | |
(1)
AC = AB + BC = a + b
BD = BC + CD
= AD AB = b a
b
A
Fig. 2.8
58
AC . BD = a + b . b a
(
) (
)
= (b + a).(b a)
2
2
= ( b ) ( a ) = 0 | a | = | b |
Thus AC . BD = 0 AC BD
Hence the diagonals of a rhombus are at right angles.
Example 2.16 : Altitudes of a triangle are concurrent prove by vector method.
Solution :
Let ABC be a triangle and let AD, BE be its two altitudes intersecting at O.
In order to prove that the altitudes are concurrent it is sufficient to prove
that CO is perpendicular to AB.
Taking O as the origin, let the position vectors of A, B, C be a , b , c
respectively.
A
Then OA = a ; OB = b ; OC = c
E
F
Now AD BC
OA BC
B
Fig. 2.9
OA . BC = 0
a . c b =0
a . c a . b = 0 (1)
BE CA OB CA
OB . CA = 0 b . a c = 0
b . a b . c =0
Adding (1) and (2), we get
a . c b . c =0
59
(2)
(a b ) . c = 0
BA . OC = 0 OC AB
Hence the three altitudes are concurrent.
Example 2.17 : Prove that cos (A B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B
Solution :
Y
Take the points P and Q on the unit
P (Cos A, Sin A)
circle with centre at the origin O.
Q (Cos B, Sin B )
Assume that OP and OQ make angles
A
B
A and B with x-axis respectively.
X
O
M
L
POQ = POx QOx = A B
Clearly the coordinates of P and Q
Fig. 2.10
are (cos A, sin A) and (cos B, sin B) .
OP = OM + MP = cos A i + sin A j
OQ = OL + LQ = cos B i + sin B j
) (
in the direction of F
In right angled OLA
60
OL = OA cos
between F and d
= d cos
| |
3 i j 5 k , by a force F = i + 3 j k
Solution :
F = i + 3 j k ; OA = 2 i 6 j + 7 k ; OB = 3 i j 5 k
d = AB = OB OA = i + 5 j 12 k
Work done = F . d
| |
(i + 3j k ) . (i + 5j 12k
)
Example 2.19 : The work done by the force F = a i + j + k in moving the
point of application from (1, 1, 1) to (2, 2, 2) along a straight line is given to be
5 units. Find the value of a.
Solution : F = a i + j + k ; OA = i + j + k ; OB = 2 i + 2 j + 2 k
Work done = 5 units
d = AB = OB OA = i + j + k
Work done = F . d
5= ai + j + k . i + j + k
) (
5 = a+1+1 a = 3
61
EXERCISE 2.2
Prove by vector method
(1) If the diagonals of a parallelogram are equal then it is a rectangle.
(2) The mid point of the hypotenuse of a right angled triangle is equidistant
from its vertices
(3) The sum of the squares of the diagonals of a parallelogram is equal to the
sum of the squares of the sides.
(4) cos (A + B) = cos A cos B sin A sin B
(5) Find the work done by the force F = 2 i + j + k acting on a particle,
if the particle is displaced from the point with position vector
(6) A force of magnitude 5 units acting parallel to 2 i 2 j + k displaces
the point of application from (1, 2, 3) to (5, 3, 7). Find the work done.
same side of the plane of a and b as the vector c , we say a , b , c is a
right handed system or right handed triple (or) triad.
If c has the opposite direction, a , b , c is a left handed system.
62
z
b
b
O
y
Fig. 2. 12
and it is defined as a vector whose magnitude is a
b sin where is the
both a and b in such a way that a , b and this direction constitute a right
handed system.
In other words,
| || |
a x b
<
| | |b | sin n, where
<
a b = a
b
is the angle between a and b and n
is a unit vector perpendicular to both
a and b such that a , b , n form a
a
Fig. 2.13
right handed system.
Note :
and b .
63
<
B
n
BN = b sin
| |
N
A
a Fig. 2.14
a b = a
| | |b | sin n
|a b | = |a | |b | sin
Now
= (OA) (BN)
= Base height
= Area of parallelogram OACB
Area of parallelogram with
a b =
1
1
= 2 OA OB = 2 a b
|
|
1
a b
(2) The vector area of a parallelogram with adjacent sides is a b
1
(3) The area of a triangle with sides a and b is 2 a b
1
1
(4) The area of a triangle ABC is 2 AB AC (or) 2 BC BA
1
(or) 2 CA CB
64
Vector product is not commutative (i.e.) if a and b are any two vectors,
then a b b a however a b = b a .
a b = a
<
b sin n where
| || |
2 -
<
plane of a and b
-n
Fig. 2.15
b a = b a sin() ( n ) = a
| | |b | sin n = (a b )
| || |
Property (2) :
Vector product of Collinear (Parallel) Vectors :
If the vectors a and b are collinear or parallel then a b = 0
Thus a b = a b sin n
| || |
= | a | | b | (O) n = 0
Result : The vector product of two non-zero vectors is zero vector if and only if
they are parallel (collinear)
i.e., a b = o a is parallel to b , where a , b are non zero vectors.
Proof (i) :
Suppose a b = O
65
then
|a | |b | sin n = O
But a 0 & b 0, n O
= 0 or
| |
| |
sin = 0
a a = a a sin n
= a a (0) n
= o
| || |
| || |
| || |
k
k
O
j
Y
i
i
Fig. 2. 16
66
i j = i
Also
j k = i, k i = j
j i = k, k j = i , i k = j
Similarly
and
Property (5) :
If m is any scalar and a , b are two vectors inclined at angle , then
ma b = m a b = a mb
Property (6) : Distributivity of vector product over vector addition
Let a , b , c be any three vectors. then
(i)
a b + c = a b + a c (Left distributivity)
b+c a = b a + c a
(ii)
Result :
Vector Product in the determinant form
Let
a = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k and
) (
) (Right distributivity)
a b = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k b1 i + b2 j + b3 k
= a1b1 i i + a1b2 i j + a1b3 i k
+ a2b1 j i + a2b2 j j + a2b3 j k
(
)
(
)
(
)
+ a3b1( k i ) + a3b2( k j ) + a3b3( k k )
+ a3b1 j + a3b2( i )
67
= a1
b
1
j k
a2
b2
a3
b3
Then a b = a
| | |b | sin n
| a b | = | a | | b | sin n
| a b | = | a | | b |sin
|a b | = sin1 |a b |
sin =
|a | |b |
| a | | b |
Note :
In this case is always acute. Thus if we try to find the angle using vector
product, we get only the acute angle.
Hence in problems of finding the angle, the use of dot product is preferable
since it specifies the position of the angle .
Property (8) : Unit vectors perpendicular to two given vectors
(i.e.) Unit vectors normal to the plane of two given vectors.
Let a , b be two non-zero, non-parallel vectors and be the angle
between them.
a b = a
| | |b | sin n
(1)
|a b | = |a | |b | sin
From (1) and (2)
a b
n =
a b
68
(2)
a b
Note that
is also a unit vector perpendicular to a and b
a b
n =
a b
(
|
)
|
If a , b are any two vectors, then a b + a . b
Solution :
a b = a b sin n
| (
) = |a | |b |
| || |
|a b | = |a | |b | sin
2
2
2
|a b | = |a | |b | sin2
2
2
2
(a . b ) = |a | |b | cos2
2
2
2
2
2
2
|a b | + (a . b ) = |a | |b | (sin2 + cos2) = |a | |b |
Let
a = 4 i j +3k ; b =2 i + j 2k
i
j
k
Then
a b =
4 1 3 = i +2 j +2k
69
|a b | =
a b
Required vectors = 6
a b
= 2 i +4 j +4k
(
)
Example 2.22 : If | a | = 13, | b | = 5 and a . b = 60 then find | a b |
Solution :
2
|a b | + (a . b ) = |a | |b |
2
2
2
2
|a b | = |a | |b | (a . b )
= (13)2 (5)2 (60)2 = 625
|a b | = 25
i + 2 j + k by using cross product.
Solution :
Let a = 2 i + j k ; b = i + 2 j + k
a b
a b
|
|
| || |
= sin1
a b =
|a b | =
|a | =
|b | =
i
2
1
j
k
1
2
32 + ( 3)2 + 32 = 3 3
22 + 12 + ( 1)2 = 6
12 + 2 2 + 1 2 = 6
70
1 = 3 i 3 j + 3 k
1
a b
sin =
a b
|
| = 3
| | | | 6
3 3
=
6 2
=3
p q . Verify that p and p q are perpendicular to each other and also
verify that q and p q are perpendicular to each other.
Solution :
i
j
k
p q = 3 4 7
= 2 i 51 j 30 k
Now
p . p q = 3 i + 4 j 7 k . 2 i 51 j 30 k
) (
) (
= 6 204 + 210 = 0
Hence p and p q are perpendicular to each other.
Now
q . p q = 6 i + 2 j 3 k . 2 i 51 j 30 k
) (
) (
= 12 102 + 90 = 0
Hence q and p q are perpendicular to each other.
Example 2.25 : If the position vectors of three points A, B and C are
respectively i + 2 j + 3 k , 4 i + j + 5 k and 7 i + k . Find AB AC .
Interpret the result geometrically.
Solution :
OA = i + 2 j + 3 k , OB = 4 i + j + 5 k ; OC = 7 i + 7 k
AB = OB OA = 4 i + j + 5 k i + 2 j + 3 k
) (
AB = 3 i j + 2 k
71
AC = OC OA = 6 i 2 j + 4 k
i
j
k
AB AC = 3 1 2 = 0
The vectors AB and AC are parallel. But they have the point A as a
common point.
(2) If a = 3, b = 4 and a . b = 9 then find a b
(3) Find the unit vectors perpendicular to the plane containing the vectors
2 i + j + k and i + 2 j + k
(4) Find the vectors whose length 5 and which are perpendicular to the
vectors a = 3 i + j 4 k and b = 6 i + 5 j 2 k
(5) Find the angle between two vectors a and b if a b = a . b
| |
| |
(6) If
between a and b .
(7) If a = i + 3 j 2 k and b = i + 3 k then find a b . Verify
that a and b are perpendicular to a b separately.
(8) For any three vectors a , b , c show that
a b + c + b c + a + c a + b = 0
(9) Let a , b , c be unit vectors such that a . b = a . c = 0 and the angle
between b and c is 6 . Prove that a = 2 b c
72
(10) If a b = c d and a c = b d ,
show that a d and b c are parallel.
Area of a parallelogram = 2
d 1 d 2, where d 1 and d 2 are the
diagonals.
Example 2.27 :
If a , b , c are the position vectors of the vertices A, B, C of a
triangle ABC, then prove that the area of triangle ABC is
1
2 a b + b c + c a Deduce the condition for points a , b , c to be
collinear.
73
1
Solution : Area of ABC =2 AB AC
Now
AB = OB OA = b a
and
AC = OC OA = c a
1 1
Hence, area of ABC = 2 AB AC = 2 b a c a
1
=2 b c b a a c + a a
1
=2 b c + a b + c a
1
Area of ABC = 2 a b + b c + c a
If the points A, B, C are collinear, then the area of ABC = 0
1
2 a b + b c + c a =0
) (
|
|
|
)
|
|
|
|
|
|a b + b c + c a| = 0
(or) a b + b c + c a = 0
Thus a b + b c + c a = 0 is the required condition of
collinearity of the points with positions a , b , c .
b
c
a
Example 2.28 : With usual notation prove that sin A = sin B = sin C
Solution :Let BC = a , CA = b , AB = c
1 1 1
By the area property of triangles 2 a b = 2 b c = 2 c a
a b = b c = c a
ab sin (C) = bc sin(A) = ca sin (B)
| |
| |
-A
Divide by abc
sin B
sinC sinA
c = a = b
c
B
-B
A
b
-C
a
Fig. 2.18
74
a
b
c
sin A =sin B = sin C
Example 2.29 : Prove that sin(A + B) = sinA cosB + cosA sinB
Solution :
Y (Co
sA
Take the points P and Q on the
P , S in
A)
unit circle with centre at the origin
O. Assume that OP and OQ make
angles A and B with x-axis
A M N
O
B
respectively.
Take the reciprocals,
in B
sB
(Co Q
, -S
Clearly the coordinates of P and Q are (cosA, sinA) and (cosB, sinB).
OP = OM + MP = cos A i + sin A j
OQ = ON + NQ = cos B i + sin B j
( )
NQ = sinB
= cos B i sin B j
OQ OP = OQ OP sin (A + B) k = sin (A + B) k
OQ OP =
i
cosB
cosA
j
sinB
sinA
(1)
0 = k [sinA cosB + cosA sinB]
0
(2)
3 i + j 2 k and i 3 j + 4 k is 5 3.
75
d1 d2 = 3
1
d 1 d 2 =
=
j
k
1
3
2 = 2 i 14 j 10 k
4
1 1
Area of the parallelogram = 2
d 1 d 2= 2 10 3 = 5 3 sq. units
r
tendency (amount) of F to turn the
body about point O. If this tendency of
F
P
N
rotation about O is in anti-clockwise
Fig. 2.20
direction the moment is positive,
otherwise it is negative.
The magnitude of the moment of the force F about O is the product of the
magnitude of F and the length of the perpendicular from O to the line of action
of the force.
Magnitude of the moment = F (ON)
In right angled triangle ONP
ON ON
sin = OP =
| |
|r | sin = ON
76
Magnitude of the moment = F (ON)
= r F sin
| |
= r F
r
F = 3 i +2 j 4k
P(1,-1,2)
OP = i j + 2 k
F
OA = 2 i j + 3 k
Fig. 2.21
r = AP = OP OA
=
(i j + 2k ) (2i j + 3k )
r =i k
M = r F = 1 0 1 =2 i 7 j 2k
EXERCISE 2.4
(1) Find the area of parallelogram ABCD whose vertices are
A( 5, 2, 5), B( 3, 6, 7), C(4, 1, 5) and D(2, 5, 3)
(2) Find the area of the parallelogram whose diagonals are represented by
2 i + 3 j + 6 k and 3 i 6 j + 2 k
77
i + 2 j + 3 k and 3 i 2 j + k
(4) Find the area of the triangle whose vertices are (3, 1, 2), (1, 1, 3)
and (4, 3, 1)
(5) Prove by vector method that the parallelograms on the same base and
between the same parallels are equal in area.
(6) Prove that twice the area of a parallelogram is equal to the area of another
parallelogram formed by taking as its adjacent sides the diagonals of the
former parallelogram.
(7) Prove that sin (A B) = sin A cos B cos A sin B.
(8) Forces 2 i + 7 j , 2 i 5 j + 6 k , i + 2 j k act at a point P
vector is 6 i + j 3 k .
(9) Show that torque about the point A(3, 1, 3) of a force 4 i + 2 j + k
(a . b ) . c , (a . b ) c , (a b ) . c and (a b ) c
Consider ( a . b ) . c
Here a . b is a scalar quantity and dot product is not defined between a
scalar and vector quantity. Therefore a . b . c is not meaningful.
Similary
(a . b ) c is not meaningful.
78
(
)
Similarly
(a b ) c is meaningful.
having co-terminus edges OA, OB and OC such that OA = a , OB = b and
OC = c .
G
F
a x b
Then a b is a vector
perpendicular to the plane
E
C
B
c
containing a and b .
D
b
L
Let be the angle between
O
A
a
c and a b .
Fig. 2.22
Let CL be perpendicular to the base OADB. Here CL is the height of the
parallelopiped.
Here CL and a b are perpendicular to the same plane
CL is parallel to a b . OCL =
| |
Base area of the parallelopiped = a b
79
(a b ) . c = |a b | |c | cos
Now,
paralleopiped whose co-terminous edges a , b , c form a right handed system
of vectors.
(a b ) . c = (b c ) . a = (c a ) . b
[Cyclic order]
Proof :
Let a , b , c represent the co-terminous edges of a parallelopiped such
that they form a right handed system. Then the volume V of the parallelopiped
is given by V = a b . c
Clearly b , c , a as well as c , a , b form a right handed system of
vectors and represent the co-terminous edges of the same parallelopiped.
V = b c . a and V = c a . b
(
)
(
)
V = ( a b ) . c = ( b c ) . a = ( c a ) . b
(1)
Since dot product is commutative (1) gives
V= c . a b = a. b c = b . c a
(2)
From (1) and (2)
a b . c = a . b c
The dot and cross are interchangeable in a scalar triple product.
In view of this property, the scalar triple product is written in the following
notation.
a b . c = a . b c = a b c
(
)
(
) [
]
[a , b , c] = [b c a]=[c a b]
80
Property (2) :
The change of cyclic order of vectors in scalar triple product changes the
sign of the scalar triple product but not the magnitude.
(i.e.) a b c = b a c = c b a = a c b
Proof :
a b c = a b . c
We have
] [
[
] [
] (
] [
(b a ) . c Q a b = b a
[a , b , c ] = [b a c ]
(1)
=
[a b c ] = (a b ) . c = (b b ).c
= o . c =0
Q b b= o
Similarly we can prove for b = c and for c = a
Property (4) :
For any three vectors a , b , c and scalar a b c = a b c
Proof :
] [
]
[a b c ] = (a b ) . c = (a b ) . c
= [a b c]
Property (5) :
The scalar triple product of three vectors is zero if any two of them are
parallel or collinear.
[a b c ] = [b b c ] = (0) = 0
81
i.e., a , b , c are coplanar
[a b c ] = 0
Note : Three possibilities for [ a b c ] to be zero are
(i) atleast one of the vectors a , b , c is a zero vector.
(ii) any two of the vectors a , b , c are parallel.
(iii) The vector a , b , c are co-planar.
But for cases (i) and (ii), the case (iii) is trivially true.
Result :
Scalar Triple Product in terms of components :
Let a = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k , b = b1 i + b2 j + b3 k ,
c = c1 i + c2 j + c3 k ,
a1 a2 a3
Then
a b c = b1 b2 b3
c1
Proof : We have a b = a1
b
1
c2
j
a2
b2
c3
a3
b3
b1
c1
c3
b2 b3
c2
82
we have a b + c = a b + a c
This can be proved by determinant form of cross product.
[a , b , c ]
3
= 5
7
7
7
= 264
3
5
5
The volume cannot be negative
Volume of parallelopiped = 264 cu. units.
Note : Box product may be negative.
Example 2.33 : For any three vectors a b c prove that
[a + b , b + c , c + a ] = 2 [a b c ]
Solution : [ a + b , b + c , c + a ]
= ( a + b ) ( b + c ) . ( c + a )
= ( a b ) + ( a c ) + ( b b ) + ( b c ) . ( c + a )
= {a b + a c + b c}.(c + a)
= ( a b ) . c + ( a c ) . c + ( b c ). c
+ ( a b ) . a + ( a c ) . a + ( b c ). a
= [a b c]+[b c a] = 2[a b c]
83
Example 2.34 : If x . a = 0, x . b = 0, x . c = 0 and x 0 then show
that a , b , c are coplanar.
Solution :
a b is parallel to x
x = a b
Now x . c = 0 a b . c = 0
a , b , c are coplanar
[a b c ] = 0
a b c are called vector triple products of a , b , c
Result :
For any three vectors a , b , c
a b c= a . c b b . c a
b = b1 i + b2 j + b3 k ; c = c1 i + c2 j + c3 k
Property (1) :
Property (3) :
(b c ) = (a . c )b (a . b )c
84
) (
)
Prove that ( c a ) b = o
a (b c) = (a b) c
Proof : Given :
(a . c ) b (a . b ) c = (a . c ) b (b .c ) a
(a . b)c = (b.c) a
(c . b)a (a . b)c = 0
(c a ) b = 0
Example 2.36 : If a = 3 i + 2 j 4 k , b = 5 i 3 j + 6 k ,
c = 5 i j + 2 k , find (i) a b c
(ii) a b c
and show that they are not equal.
Solution :
i
j
k
b c = 5 3 6 = 20 j + 10 k
(i)
(ii)
5 1 2
i j
k
(
)
a b c = 3 2 4 = 100 i 30 j + 60 k
0 20 10
i
j
k
a b = 3 2 4 = 38 j 19 k
5 3 6
i
j
k
From (i) and (ii) a b c
) (a b ) c
85
(i)
) (
(a b ) (c d ) = [a b d ] c [a b c ] d
(a b ) (c d ) = [a c d ] b [b c d ] a
(ii)
Solution :
(i)
(a b ) (c d ) = x (c d ) where x = a b
= (x . d) c (x . c) d
= ( a b ) . d c ( a b ) . c d
= [a b d] c [a b c] d
Similarly we can prove other result by taking x = c d
Note : (1) If the four vectors a , b , c , d are coplanar then
a b c d = o .
(2) Let a , b be lie on one plane and c , d lie on another plane.
) (
] [
) (
Solution :
[a b , b c , c a ] = (a b ) (b c ) . (c a )
= [ a b c ] b [ a b b ] c . ( c a )
= [ a b c ] b . ( c a ) since [ a b b ] = 0
86
[a b c ] [b c a ]
2
= [ a b c ] since [ b c a ] = [ a b c ]
=
a.c
a.d
a b . c d =
i.e.
b.c b.d
Proof :
a b . c d = a b . x where x = c d
(interchange dot and cross)
= a. b x
= a .b c d
= a . b . d c b . c d
= b . d
a . c b . c
a . d
a.c a.d
=
b.c b.d
) (
)
(
) (
) (
) (
) (
)
( ) (
( )( ) (
)(
EXERCISE 2.5
(1) Show that vectors a , b , c are coplanar if and only if
a + b , b + c , c + a are coplanar.
(2) The volume of a parallelopiped whose edges are represented by
87
(4) Show that the points (1, 3, 1), (1, 1, 1), ( 1, 1, 1) (2, 2, 1) are lying
on the same plane. (Hint : It is enough to prove any three vectors formed
by these four points are coplanar).
(5) If a = 2 i + 3 j k ,
b =2 i +5k, c = j 3k
Verify that a b c = a . c b a . b c
(7) If a = 2 i + 3 j 5 k , b = i + j + 2 k and
c = 4 i 2 j + 3 k , show that a b c a b c
prove that i a i + j a j + k a k = 2 a
(
(
)(
)
)
(
(
(
)
)
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Find ( a b ) . ( c d ) if a = i + j + k
b =2 i + k, c =2 i + j + k, d = i + j +2k
(12) Verify a b c d = a b d c a b c
) (
) [
] d
2.6 Lines :
2.6.1 Equation of a line :
Parametric and non parametric vector equations :
Let P be an any point with position vector r on the given line. A relation
satisfied by r for all points on the line is then found using certain conditions.
This relation is called the vector equation of the line.
Parametric vector equations :
88
Let the line pass through a given point A whose position vector is a w.r.to
O and parallel to the given vector v . Let P be any point on the line and its
r
AP = t v for some scalar t
y
O
OP = OA + AP
x
Fig. 2.23
(1)
r = a +tv
This represents the vector equation of the given straight line.
a = x1 i + y1 j + z1 k ; v = l i + m j + n k
r = x i +y j +zk
89
r = a +t v x i + y j + z k =x1 i + y1 j + z1 k + t l i + m j + n k
Equating the coefficients of i , j , k we get
x = x1 + tl
These are the
y = y1 + tm parametric equations
of the line
z = z + tn
y y1
z z1
=
t,
m
n = t
x x1
y y1
z z1
Eliminating t, we get
=
=
l
m
n
This is the cartesian equation of the line passing through a point (x1, y1, z1)
and parallel to a vector whose drs are l, m, n.
Non-parametric vector equation :
AP = OP OA = r a
But AP | | v AP v = 0
r a v = 0
r v a v = 0
r v = a v
This is the non-parametric vector equation of the line.
x x1
= t,
position vector be r
B
b
P
a
We have
r
y
O
OA = a , OB = b and OP = r
x
AP and AB are parallel vectors.
Fig. 2.24
AP = t AB for some scalar t
90
= t OB OA = t b a
OP = OA + AP
r = a +t b a
(or)
(1)
r = (1 t) a + t b
This represents the vector equation of the given straight line.
Note : r = (1 t) a + t b where t is a variable scalar (i.e., a parameter) is the
parametric vector equation of the required line.
Cartesian form :
Let the co-ordinates of the fixed points A be (x1, y1, z1) and B be (x2, y2, z2)
a = x1 i + y1 j + z1 k ; b = x2 i + y2 j + z2 k ; r = x i + y j + z k
Substituting these values in equation (1) we get
x i + y j + z k = x1 i + y1 j + z1 k
+ tx2 i + y2 j + z2 k x1 i + y1 j + z1 k
Equating the coefficients of i , j , k
x = x1 + t(x2 x1)
These are the
parametric equations
y = y1 + t(y2 y1)
of the line
z = z1 + t(z2 z1)
x x1
= t,
x2 x1
y y1
= t,
y2 y1
z z1
= t
z2 z1
Eliminating t, we get
x x1
y y1
z z1
=
=
x2 x1
y2 y1
z2 z1
This is the cartesian equation of the required line.
Note : x2 x1, y2 y1, z2 z1 are the d.r.s of the line joining the points
(x1, y1, z1) and (x2, y2, z2)
Non-parametric vector equation :
AB = OB OA = b a
91
AP = OP OA = r a
r a b a = 0
) (
Let r = a 1 + t u and r = a 2 + s v
be the two lines in space.
These two lines are in the direction of
u and v .
Angle between the two lines is
defined as the angle between their
directions.
a1 +
r =
t u
u
r =a
2 + s v
Fig. 2.25
u . v
If is the angle between the given lines then = cos
u v
1
| || |
= cos1
2
2
2
2
2
2
a2 + b2 + c2
a1 + b1 + c1
Note : When two lines are perpendicular then a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c2 = 0
Example 2.39 : Find the vector and cartesian equations of the straight line
the vector 5 i + 7 j + 3 k
Solution : We know that vector equation of the line through the point with
92
Here a = 3 i j + 4 k
v = 5 i +7 j +3k
Vector equation of the line is
r = 3 i j +4k +t 5 i +7 j +3k
(1)
The cartesian equation of the line passing through (x1, y1, z1) and parallel
to a vector whose d.r.s are l, m, n is
x x1
y y1 z z1
=
l
m = n
Here
(x1, y1, z1) = (3, 1, 4)
) (
(l, m, n) = ( 5, 7, 3)
x3 y+1 z4
= 7 = 3
The required equation is
5
Example 2.40 : Find the vector and cartesian equations of the straight line
passing through the points ( 5, 2, 3) and (4, 3, 6)
Solution : Vector equation of the straight line passing through two points with
a = 5 i +2 j +3k
Here
b = 4 i 3 j +6k
b a = 9 i 5 j +3k
Vector equation of the line is
r = 5 i + 2 j + 3 k + t 9 i 5 j + 3 k or
r = (1 t) 5 i + 2 j + 3 k + t 4 i 3 j + 6 k
Cartesian Form :
The required equation is
x x1
y y1
z z1
=
=
x2 x1
y2 y1
z2 z1
) (
) (
Here
93
r = 3 i + 2 j k + t i + 2 j + 2 k and
r =5 j +2k +s 3 i +2 j +6k
Then u = i + 2 j + 2 k , v = 3 i + 2 j + 6 k
Let be the angle between the given lines
u . v
cos =
u v
| || |
u . v = 19 ; | u | = 3 ; | v | = 7
19
cos = 21
19
= cos1 21
EXERCISE 2.6
(1) Find the d.c.s of a vector whose direction ratios are 2, 3, 6.
(2) (i) Can a vector have direction angles 30, 45, 60.
(ii) Can a vector have direction angles 45, 60, 120?
(3) What are the d.c.s of the vector equally inclined to the axes?
(4) A vector r has length 35 2 and direction ratios (3, 4, 5) , find the
r =5 i 7 j + i +4 j +2k
r = 2 i + k + (3 i + 4 k )
94
r = a 1 + t u ; r = a 2 + s u is given by
d=
u a 2 a 1
|u |
r = a 1 + t u ; r = a 2 + s v is given by
d=
a 2 a 1 u v
|u v |
95
r = a 1 + t u ; r = a 2 + s v is 0
The condition for intersecting is d = 0 a 2 a 1 u v = 0 (or)
x2 x1 y2 y1 z2 z1
l1
m1
n1
l2
m2
n2
=0
if
(x1, y1, z1)and (x2, y2, z2) are the points whose position vectors are a 1 and
a 2 and l1, m1, n1 ; l2, m2, n2 are the d.rs of the vectors u and v
r = i j + t 2 i j + k and
(
) (
)
r = (2 i + j + k ) + s(2 i j + k )
Solution : Compare the given equations with r = a 1 + t u and r = a 2 + s u ,
a 1 = i j ; a 2 = 2 i + j + k and u = 2 i j + k
a2 a1 = i +2 j + k
u a 2 a 1 =
i
2
1
j
k
1
2
1=
1
u a 2 a 1 = 9 + 1 + 25 =
|u | =
3 i j +5k
35
4+1+1 = 6
The distance between u a 2 a 1
35
=
=
the parallel lines
| |
96
Note : If the equations are in the Cartesian form, write in the vector form and
find the distance between them.
) (
r = 2 i j +s i + j k are skew lines and find the distance between
them.
Solution : Compare the given equations with r = a 1 + t u and r = a 2 + s v
) (
a 1 = i j ; a 2 = 2 i j and u = 2 i + k ; v = i + j k
a2 a1 = i
1 0
2 0
a 2 a 1 u v =
0
1 =10
1 1 1
i
2
1
|u v | =
Shortest distance between the lines =
j
k
0
1
1 =
1
i +3 j +2k
14
a 2 a 1 u v
|u v |
(1)
1
14
x4 y z+1
x1 y1 z+1
= 0 and 2 = 0 = 3
Example 2.44 : Show that the lines 3 =
1
intersect and hence find the point of intersection.
Solution : The condition for intersecting is
x2 x1 y2 y1 z2 z1
From (1) shortest distance between them is
l1
m1
n1
l2
m2
n2
=0
97
Compare with
x x1
y y1
z z1
x x2 y y2 z z2
=
=
and
l1
m1
n1
l2 = m2 = n2 , we
get
(x1, y1, z1) = (1, 1, 1) ; (x2, y2, z2) = (4, 0, 1)
(l1, m1, n1) = (3, 1, 0) ; (l2, m2, n2) = (2, 0, 3)
The determinant becomes
3 1 0
0
The lines are intersecting lines.
Point of intersection :
y1 z+1
x1
= 0 =
Take 3 =
1
Any point on the line is of the form (3 + 1, + 1, 1)
x4
y z+1
Take 2 = 0 = 3 =
Any point on this line is of the form (2 + 4, 0, 3 1)
Since they are intersecting, for some ,
(3 + 1, + 1, 1) = (2 + 4, 0, 3 1) = 1 and = 0
To find the point of intersection either take = 1 or = 0
The point of intersection is (4, 0, 1).
Note : If the two lines are in the vector form convert into cartesian form and do
it.
Example 2.45 : Find the shortest distance between the skew lines
r = i j + 2 i + j + k
(
) (
) and
r = ( i + j k ) + (2 i j k )
Solution :
98
a 2 a 1 = 2 j k and u v = 4 j 4 k
a 2 a 1 u v =
0
2
2
|u v | = 4
distance =
a 2 a 1 u v
|u v |
2
1
1
= 12
1
1
12
3
=
4 2
2
1 a + 2 b + 3 c = o and 1 + 2 + 3 = 0
Working rule to find the collinearity :
Write the equation of the line in cartesian form using any two points and
verify the third point.
Note : If the three points are collinear then their position vectors are coplanar,
but the converse need not be true.
Example 2.46 : Show that the points (3, 1, 1), (1, 0, 1) and (5, 2, 1)
are collinear.
Solution :
The equation of the line passing through (3, 1, 1) and (1, 0, 1) is
x3 y+1 z+1
2 = 1 = 0 = (say)
Any point on the line is of the form (2 + 3, 1, 1)
The point (5, 2, 1) is obtained by putting = 1.
The third point lies on the same line. Hence the three points are
collinear.
Note : If the position vectors of the points are given then take the points and do
the problem.
99
Example 2.47 : Find the value of if the points (3, 2, 4), (9, 8, 10) and
(, 4, 6) are collinear.
Solution :
Since the three points are collinear, the position vectors of the points are
coplanar.
Let a = 3 i + 2 j 4 k ; b = 9 i + 8 j 10 k ; c = i + 4 j 6 k
3 2 4
a b c = 9 8 10 = 0
4
12 = 60 = 5
EXERCISE 2.7
(1) Find the shortest distance between the parallel lines
(i)
r = 2 i j k
(ii)
y
z+3
x3
y+1
z1
x1
= 3 = 2 and
= 3 = 2
1
1
(
) + t(i 2j + 3k )
r = ( i 2 j + k ) + s( i 2 j + 3 k )
and
(2) Show that the following two lines are skew lines :
r = 3 i + 5 j + 7 k + t i 2 j + k and
(
) (
)
r = ( i + j + k ) + s( 7 i + 6 j + 7 k )
x1 y+1 z
x2 y1 z1
1 = 1 = 3 and 1 = 2 = 1 intersect
and find their point of intersection.
x6 y7 z4
3 = 1 = 1
x y+9 z2
= 2 = 4
3
(5) Show that (2, 1, 3), (1, 1, 0) and (3, 1, 6) are collinear.
(6) If the points (, 0, 3), (1, 3, 1) and ( 5, 3, 7) are collinear then
find .
100
2.7 Planes :
A plane is defined as a surface such that the line joining of any two points
on it lies completely on the surface.
Vector and Cartesian Equations of the planes in parametric and nonparametric form :
A plane is determined uniquely in the following cases :
(i) Given a point on the plane and a normal to the plane.
(ii) Given a normal to the plane and distance of the plane from the origin.
(iii) Given a point and two parallel vectors to the plane.
(iv) Given two points on it and a line parallel to the plane.
(v) Given three non-collinear points.
(vi) Equation of a plane that contains two given lines.
(vii) Equation of a plane passing through the line of intersection of two
given planes and a given point.
Note : Eventhough the syllabus does not require the derivations
(2.7.1 to 2.7.5) and it needs only the results, the equations are
derived for better understanding the results.
<
Vector Form : Let the plane pass through the point A whose position vector be
Here AP is perpendicular to n
P
a
r
AP. n = 0 OP OA. n = 0
O
y
Fig. 2.27
r a .n = 0 r.n = a.n
x
This is the vector equation of the required plane (non parametric form.)
Cartesian Form :
If (x1, y1, z1) are the coordinates of A and a, b, c are the direction ratios of n
then a = x1 i + y1 j + z1 k ; n = a i + b j + c k ; r = x i + y j + z k
101
Now,
(r a ) .n = 0
2.7.2 Equation of the plane when distance from the origin and unit
normal is given :
z
<
Then ON = pn.
O
Let P be any point on the plane
x
and let its position vector be r
Fig. 2.28
(i.e.,) OP = r . Join NP.
(r pn) . pn = 0
i.e.,
r . n pn . n = 0
r .n = p
( n . n = 1)
r .n=p x i +y j +zk . l i +m j +nk =p
)(
lx + my + nz = p
This is the cartesian equation of the plane (in non-parametric form).
102
Corollary : If n is a normal vector but not a unit vector,
then n =
= p r . n = p n = q (say)
r .
| |
| |
| |
r . n =q
| |
u
C
P
B
a
O
Fig. 2.29
OP = OA + AP
r = a+s u +t v
(1)
This is the vector equation of the plane (in parametric form).
103
Cartesian form :
Let a = x1 i + y1 j + z1 k
u = l1 i + m1 j + n1 k ; v = l2 i + m2 j + n2 k
From (1)
r = a +su +tv
x i + y j + z k = x1 i + y1 j + z1 k + sl1 i + m1 j + n1 k
+ t l2 i + m2 j + n2 k
Equating the coefficients i , j , k
x = x1 + sl1 + tl2
y = y1 + sm1 + tm2
z = z1 + sn1 + tn2
x x1 = sl1 + tl2
y y1 = sm1 + tm2
z z1 = sn1 + tn2
x x1
Eliminating s and t, we get l1
l2
y y1 z z1
m1
n1
m2
n2
=0
AP, AB and AC are coplanar i.e., the vectors r a , u , v are coplanar
[r a , u , v ] = 0
or
[r u v ] = [a , u , v ]
104
2.7.4 Equation of the plane passing through two given points and
parallel to a given vector :
Vector Form :
v
C
B
y
O
x
Fig. 2.30
Through A, draw a line AC lying in the plane such that AC = v .
= s OB OA + t v = s b a + t v
OP = OA + AP
r = a +s b a +t v
(1)
r = (1 s) a + s b + t v
This is the vector equation of the plane (in parametric form).
Non-parametric vector equation
[r a , b a , v ] = 0
105
Cartesian form :
Let a = x1 i + y1 j + z1 k ; b = x2 i + y2 j + z2 k
v = l i +m j +nk
; r =x i +y j +zk
From (1)
x i + y j + z k = x1 i + y1 j + z1 k
y2 y1
z2 z1 = 0
n
m
This is the (non-parametric) equation of the plane in cartesian form.
2.7.5 Vector and cartesian equations of the plane passing through three
given non-collinear points.
z
Let a , b and c be the position
C
vectors of the points A, B and C
A
referred to the origin O.
P
The required plane passes
a
r
c
B
through the points A, B and C.
b
O
y
Let P be any point on the plane
x
and let its position vector be r
(i.e.,) OP = r .
Fig. 2.31
Now join AB, AC and AP.
106
(b a ) + t (c a )
OP = OA + AP
r = a +s b a +t c a
) (
) (or)
(1)
r = (1 s t) a + s b + t c
This is the vector equation of the plane (in parametric form).
Non-parametric vector equation :
AP, AB and AC are coplanar.
AP, AB, AC = 0
(i.e.,)
r a, b a, c a = 0
This is the required vector equation of plane in non-parametric form.
Cartesian form :
Let a = x1 i + y1 j + z1 k ; b = x2 i + y2 j + z3 k ; c = x3 i + y3 j + z3 k
r =x i +y j +zk
From (1)
x i + y j + z k = x1 i + y1 j + z1 k
107
x x1
y y1
z z1
=0
z3 z1
y2 y1 z2 z1
y3 y1
3 i +2 j 2k
n
3 i +2 j 2k 3 i +2 j 2k
n =
=
=
9+4+4
17
| |
3 i +2 j 2k
r .
=8
17
r . 3 i +2 j 2k
)= 8
17
perpendicular to OA.
a = 4 i 2 j 5 k and n = OA = 4 i 2 j 5 k
The required equation of the plane is r . n = a . n
r . 4 i 2 j 5k = 4 i 2 j 5k . 4 i 2 j 5k
= 16 + 4 + 25
) (
r . 4 i 2 j 5 k = 45
108
) (
(1)
Cartesian form :
(xi + yj + zk ) . (4i 2j 5k ) = 45
4x 2y 5z = 45
Example 2.50 : Find the vector and cartesian equations of the plane through the
point (2, 1, 3) and parallel to the lines
x2
y1
z3
x1
y+1
z 2
3 = 2 = 4 and 2 = 3 = 2 .
Solution : The required plane passes through A(2, 1, 3) and parallel to
u = 3 i + 2 j 4 k and v = 2 i 3 j + 2 k
The required equation is r = a + s u + t v
r = 2 i j 3 k +s 3 i + 2 j 4 k + t 2 i 3 j + 2 k
Cartesian form :
(x1, y1, z1) is (2, 1, 3) ; (l1, m1, n1) is (3, 2, 4) ; (l2, m2, n2) is (2, 3, 2)
) (
) (
i.e.,
x 2
3
2
y+1 z+3
2
x x1
l1
l2
y y1 z z1
m1
n1
m2
n2
=0
=0
8x + 14y + 13z + 37 = 0
This is the required equation in cartesian form.
Example 2.51 : Find the vector and cartesian equations of the plane passing
through the points ( 1, 1, 1) and (1, 1, 1) and perpendicular to the plane
x + 2y + 2z = 5
109
r = (1 s) a + s b + t v where s and t are scalars.
Here a = i + j + k ; b = i j + k ; v = i + 2 j + 2 k
r = (1 s) i + j + k + s i j + k + t i + 2 j + 2 k
This is the required vector equation of the plane.
Cartesian form :
(x1, y1, z1) is ( 1, 1, 1) ; (x2, y2, z2) is (1, 1, 1) ; (l1, m1, n1) is (1, 2, 2)
) (
i.e.,
x + 1
2
1
y1 z1
2
x x1
x2 x1
l1
) (
y y1
z z1
y2 y1 z2 z1
m1
n1
=0
=0
2
2
2x + 2y 3z + 3 = 0
Example 2.52 : Find the vector and cartesian equations of the plane passing
through the points (2, 2, 1), (3, 4, 2) and (7, 0, 6)
Solution : Vector equation of the plane passing through three given noncollinear points is
r = (1 s t) a + s b + t c where s and t are scalars.
Here a = 2 i + 2 j k ; b = 3 i + 4 j + 2 k ; c = 7 i + 6 k
r = (1s t) 2 i + 2 j k + s 3 i + 4 j + 2 k + t 7 i + 6 k
Cartesian equation of the plane :
Here (x1, y1, z1) is (2, 2, 1) ; (x2, y2, z2) is (3, 4, 2) ; (x3, y3, z3) is (7, 0, 6)
) (
x x1
x2 x1
x x
3 1
110
) (
y y1
z z1
=0
z3 z1
y2 y1 z2 z1
y3 y1
i.e.,
x 2
1
5
y2 z+1
2
=0
2
7
5x + 2y 3z = 17
This is the Cartesian equation of the plane.
EXERCISE 2.8
(1) Find the vector and cartesian equations of a plane which is at a
distance of 18 units from the origin and which is normal to the vector 2 i
+7 j +8k
(2) Find the unit normal vectors to the plane 2x y + 2z = 5.
(3) Find the length of the perpendicular from the origin to the plane
r . 3 i + 4 j + 12 k = 26.
(4) The foot of the perpendicular drawn from the origin to a plane is
(8, 4, 3). Find the equation of the plane.
(5) Find the equation of the plane through the point whose p.v. is
111
(12) Find the vector and cartesian equation of the plane containing the line
y2
z1
x2
2 = 3 = 2 and passing through the point ( 1, 1, 1).
(13) Find the vector and cartesian equation of the plane passing through the
(ii) r = (1 + s + t) i + (2 s + t) j + (3 2s +2 t) k
r . n 1 q 1 + r . n 2 q2 = 0
i.e. r . n 1 + n 2 = q1 + q2
Cartesian form :
The cartesian equation of the plane passing through the line of intersection
of the planes a1x + b1y + c1z+ d1 = 0 and a2x + b2y + c2z+ d2 = 0 is
(a1x + b1y + c1z + d1) + (a2x + b2y + c2z+ d2 ) = 0
Example 2.53 : Find the equation of the plane passing through the line of
intersection of the plane 2x 3y + 4z = 1 and x y = 4 and passing through
the point (1, 1, 1).
Solution :
Any plane through the line of intersection of the given two planes is of the
form (2x 3y + 4z 1) + (x y + 4) = 0
1
But it passes through the point (1, 1, 1). = 2
1
The equation of the required plane is (2x 3y + 4z 1) 2 (x y + 4)= 0
i.e., 3x 5y + 8z 6 = 0
112
Example 2.54 : Find the equation of the plane passing through the intersection
of the planes 2x 8y + 4z = 3 and 3x 5y + 4z + 10 = 0 and perpendicular to
the plane 3x y 2z 4 = 0
Solution :
The equation of the plane passing through the line of intersection of the
given two planes is of the form (2x 8y + 4z 3) + (3x 5y + 4z + 10) = 0
i.e., (2 + 3) x + ( 8 5)y + (4 + 4)z + ( 3 + 10) = 0 . But the required
plane is perpendicular to the plane 3x y 2z 4 = 0
Their normals are perpendicular.
i.e., (2 + 3) 3 + ( 8 5) ( 1) + (4 + 4) ( 2) = 0
6 + 6 = 0
=1
a2 + b2 + c2
Corollary (1) :
The distance between the origin and the plane ax + by + cz + d = 0 is
d
2 2 2
a +b +c
Corollary (2) :
The distance between the two parallel planes ax + by + cz + d1 = 0 and
d1 d2
ax + by + cz + d2 = 0 is 2
a + b2 + c2
Note : If the given equation is in vector form, convert into cartesian form and
find the distance.
Example 2.55 : Find the distance from the point (1, 1, 2) to the plane
+s i j +t j k
r = i + j + k
) (
113
Solution :
The given plane is passing through the point (1, 1, 1) and parallel to two
vectors i j and j k .
2
x 1
i.e., 1
0
y1
1
2
z1
0 =0
1
i.e., x + y + z 3 = 0
1
Here (x1, y1, z1) = (1, 1, 2)
1
ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d 1 1 + 2 3
=
The distance =
= 3
2
2
2
1
+
1
+
1
a +b +c
r . i j + k = 3 and r . i + j k = 5
Solution :
The corresponding cartesian equations of the planes are
x y + z 3 = 0 and x + y z 5 = 0
i.e., x + y z + 3 = 0 and x + y z 5 = 0
d 1 d2 3 + 5 8
=
distance = 2
=
3
a + b2 + c2 1 + 1 + 1
planes
2.7.8 Equation of the plane which contain two given lines (i.e. passing
through two given lines)
114
x x1
l1
l2
y y1 z z1
m1
n1
m2
n2
=0
x x2
or l1
l2
y y2 z z2
m1
n1
m2
n2
=0
Where a 1 = x1 i + y1 j + z1 k ; a 2 = x2 i + y2 j + z2 k
u = l1 i + m1 j + n1 k ; v = l2 i + m2 j + n2 k
Note :
(1) If the two lines are parallel then take the two trivial points from the
lines and the parallel vector. Now find the equation of the plane
passing through two points and parallel to a vector.
(2) Through two skew lines, we cant draw a plane.
Example 2.57 : Find the equation of the plane which contains the two lines
x4 y1 z
x1 y2 z3
2 = 3 = 4 and 5 = 2 = 1
Solution :
Take the trivial point from the first line and the two parallel vectors i.e. (x1,
y1, z1) = (1, 2, 3).
(l1, m1, n1) = (2, 3, 4) and (l2, m2, n2) = (5, 2, 1)
The required equation is
x x1 y y1 z z1
x1 y2 z3
l1
m1
n1
l2
m2
n2
=0 2
3
2
4 =0
5x 18y + 11z 2 = 0
Example 2.58 : Find the point of intersection of the line passing through the
two points (1, 1, 1) ; ( 1, 0, 1) and the xy-plane.
Solution :
The equation of the line passing through (1, 1, 1) and ( 1, 0, 1) is
y1
z+1
x 1
2 = 1 = 2
It meets the xy-plane i.e. z = 0
y1
1
1
x1
2 = 1 =
x = 0, y = 2
2
1
The required point is 0, 2, 0
115
Example 2.59 : Find the co-ordinates of the point where the line
(
) + t(2i 3j + 4k ) meets the plane
r .(2 i + 4 j k ) = 3
r = i +2 j 5k
Solution :
The equation of the straight line in the cartesian form is
y2 z+5
x1
2 = 3 = 4 = (say)
Any point on this line is of the form (2 + 1, 3 + 2, 4 5).
The cartesian equation of the plane is 2x + 4y z 3 = 0
But the required point lies on this plane.
2(2 + 1) + 4( 3 + 2) (4 5) 3 = 0 = 1
The required point is (3, 1, 1)
EXERCISE 2.9
(1) Find the equation of the plane which contains the two lines
x4 y1
x+1 y2 z3
2 = 3 = 4 and 3 = 2 = z 8
(2) Can you draw a plane through the given two lines? Justify your answer.
r = i +2 j 4 k +t 2 i +3 j +6 k
(
) (
) and
r = (3 i + 3 j 5 k ) + s(2 i + 3 j + 8 k )
(3) Find the point of intersection of the line
r = j k
r = 2 i + j 3k
x 2y + 3z + 7 = 0
(5) Find the distance from the origin to the plane
r . 2 i j +5k
) =7
116
n2
n1
Fig. 2.32
n 1 . n 2
= cos
n 1 n 2
1
Note :
(i) If the two planes are perpendicular then n 1 . n 2 = 0
| || |
90-
Fig. 2.33
b and n
b . n
= sin1
b n
| || |
117
b . n
b n
| || |
Note : If the line is parallel to the plane i.e., the normal to the plane is
perpendicular to the line then b . n = 0
Example 2.60 : Find the angle between 2x y + z = 4 and x + y + 2z = 4
Solution : The normals to the given planes are
n 1 = 2 i j + k and n 2 = i + j + 2 k
Let be the angle between the planes then
n1. n2
3
1
cos =
=
=
=3
6 6 2
n 1 n 2
Example 2.61 : Find the angle between the line
(
) + (2i + j + 2k ) and the plane
r . (3 i 2 j + 6 k ) = 0
r = i +2 j k
Solution : Let be the angle between the line and the plane.
b . n
sin =
b n
| || |
b = 2 i + j +2k ; n =3 i 2 j +6k
16
16
sin =
= sin1 21
3 7
EXERCISE 2.10
(1) Find the angle between the following planes :
(i) 2x + y z = 9 and x + 2y + z = 7
(ii) 2x 3y + 4z = 1 and x + y = 4
(iii) r . 3 i + j k = 7 and r . i + 4 j 2 k = 10
(2) Show that the following planes are at right angles.
r . 2 i j + k = 15 and r . i j 3 k = 3
(3)
(
)
The planes r . (2 i + j 3 k ) = 10 and r . ( i + 3 j + k ) = 5
118
y+1
z3
x2
3 = 1 = 2 and the plane
3x + 4y + z + 5 = 0
(5) Find the angle between the line r = i + j + 3 k + 2 i + j k
and the plane r . i + j = 1.
2.8 Sphere :
A sphere is the locus of a point which moves in space in such a way that its
distance from a fixed point remains constant.
The fixed point is called the centre and the constant distance is called the
radius of the sphere.
Note : Eventhough the syllabus does not require the derivations
(2.8.1, 2.8.2) and it needs only the results, the equations are
derived for better understanding the results.
c and radius is a.
Let O be the point of reference
(origin) and C be the centre of the
a
P
Fig. 2.34
The radius of the sphere is given as a. (i.e.,) CP = a
r c = a
r c = a
(1)
This is the vector equation of the sphere.
Corollary : Vector equation of a sphere whose centre is origin and radius is a.
| | |
119
When O coincides with the centre C then c = o and the vector equation
Let r = x i + y j + z k
c = c1 i + c2 j + c3 k
| | | |
r c = (x c1) i + (y c2) j + (z c3) k
2
But
2
|r c |
= a2
(2)
2
(3)
From (2)
(x c1) + (y c2) + (z c3) = a
This is the cartesian equation of the sphere whose centre is (c1, c2, c3) and
raidus is a.
Corollary : If the centre is at the origin, then the equation (3) takes the form
x2 + y2 + z2 = a2.
This is known as the standard form of the equation of the sphere.
Note : General Equation of a Sphere :
The equation x2 + y2 + z2 + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + d = 0 represents a sphere
with centre ( u, v, w) and the radius =
Note :
u2 + v2 + w2 d
r
b
O
Fig. 2.35
120
(i.e.,) OA = a and OB = b
Let P be any point on the surface of the sphere. Let r be the position
vector of P. (i.e.,) OP = r
AP = OP OA = r a
BP = OP OB = r b
We know that the diameter AB subtends a right angle at P.
AP BP
AP . BP = 0
(r a ) . (r b ) = 0
(1)
Now
a = OA = x1 i + y1 j + z1 k ; b = OB = x2 i + y2 j + z2 k
r = OP = x i + y j + z k
(r a ) . (r b ) = 0
( ) ( )
x i +y j + z k (x1 i +y1 j +z1 k ) . x i +y j +z k (x2 i +y2 j + z2 k ) = 0
From (1)
(x x )
121
Solution : We know that the vector equation of the sphere with centre and
radius is
r c =a
Here
c = 2 i j + 2 k and a = 3
Putting r = x i + y j + z k we get
x i +y j +zk 2 i j +2k = 3
) (
Here a = 5 and c = i + 2 j + 3 k
Vector equation of the sphere is
r c =a
Solution :
Radius =
=
r i +2 j +3k = 5
Cartesian Equation : Let r = x i + y j + z k
From (1)
x i +y j +zk i +2 j +3k = 5
) (
122
(1)
Example 2.64 : Find the equation of the sphere on the join of the points A and B
(r a ) . (r b ) = 0
a = 2 i + 6 j 7 k and b = 2 i 4 j + 3 k
Let
r = x i +y j +zk
The required equation is
x i +y j + z k 2 i +6 j 7 k . x i +y j + z k 2 i 4 j +3 k = 0
Here
(
)(
) (
)(
)
[(x 2)i + (y 6)j + (z+7)k ] . [(x 2)i +(y+4)j +(z3)k ] = 0 (1)
Cartesian Equation :
From (1)
(x 2) (x 2) + (y 6) (y + 4) + (z + 7) (z 3) = 0
x2 + y2 + z2 4x 2y + 4z 41 = 0
Example 2.65 : Find the coordinates of the centre and the radius of the sphere
2
Solution : Let r = x i + y j + z k
2
r r . 8 i 6 j + 10 k 50 = 0
2
r = x2 + y2 + z2
x2 + y2 + z2 8x + 6y 10z 50 = 0
Here
2u = coefficient of x = 8 u = 4
2v = coefficient of y = 6 v = 3
2w = coefficient of z = 10 w = 5
Centre : ( u, v, w) = (4, 3, 5)
Radius : u2 + v2 + w2 d =
Example 2.66 :
16 + 9 + 25 + 50 = 100 = 10 uts.
123
= 1, = 0, = 10
Coordinates of B are (1, 0, 10)
EXERCISE 2.11
(1) Find the vector equation of a sphere with centre having position vector
r i + j + 2 k = 5.
(4) If A ( 1, 4, 3) is one end of a diameter AB of the sphere
(i) r 2 i j + 4 k = 5
(
)
(ii) 2 r + (3 i j + 4 k ) = 4
(iii) x2 + y2 + z2 + 4x 8y + 2z = 5
(iv) r 2 r . 4 i + 2 j 6 k 11 = 0
(6) Show that diameter of a sphere subtends a right angle at a point on the
surface.
124
3. COMPLEX NUMBERS
3.1 Introduction :
The number system that we are aware of today is the gradual development
from natural numbers to integers, from integers to rational numbers and from
rational numbers to the real numbers.
If we consider the following polynomial equations (i) x 1 = 0,
(ii) x + 1 = 0, (iii) x + 1 = 1, (iv) 2x + 1 = 0 and (v) x2 3 = 0, we see that all
of them have solutions in the real number system. However this real number
system is not sufficient to solve equations of the form x2 + 9 = 0 i.e., there does
not exist any real number which satisfies x2 = 9. The mathematical need to
have solutions for equations of the above form led us to extend the real number
system to a new kind of number system that allows the square root of negative
numbers.
Let us consider solution of a simple quadratic equation x2 + 16 = 0. Its
solutions are x = 4 1 . We assume that square root of 1 is denoted by the
symbol i, called the imaginary unit. Thus for any two real numbers a and b, we
can form a new number a + ib. This number a + ib is called a complex number.
The set of all complex numbers is denoted by and the nomenclature of a
complex number was introduced by C.F. Gauss, a German mathematician.
Hence the extension of the concept of numbers from real numbers enables one
to solve any polynomial equation. The symbol i was first introduced in
mathematics by the famous Swiss mathematician, Leonhard Euler
(1707 1783) in 1748. i is the first letter of the Latin word imaginarius and
it is also referred to as iota, a Greek alphabet. Later on the subject was
enriched by the original work of A.L. Cauchy, B. Riemann, K. Weierstrass and
others.
125
Note that 3 is the real part and 2 is the imaginary part of 3 i2 and so on.
Two complex numbers a + ib and c + id are equal if and only if a = c and b
= d. i.e., the corresponding real parts are equal and the corresponding imaginary
parts are equal. The real numbers can be considered as a subset of the set of
complex numbers with b = 0. Hence the complex numbers 0 + i0 and 2 + i0
represents the real numbers 0 and 2 respectively. If a = 0 the complex number
0 + ib or ib is called a pure imaginary number.
Negative of a complex number :
If z = a + ib is a complex number then the negative of z is denoted by z
and it is defined as z = a + i( b)
z = a ib
c id
a + ib a + ib
Division :
c + id = c + id c id
Multiplying the numerator and denominator by the conjugate of the
denominator, we get
a + ib ac + bd
bc ad
c + id = c2 + d2 + i c2 + d2
3.3.1 Properties :
=
(ii) Conjugate of z is z i.e., z = z
126
z + z = (a + ib) + (a ib) = 2a
z+ z
a = Re(z) = 2
z z
Similarly, b = Im(z) = 2i
(v) The conjugate of the sum of two complex numbers z1, z2 is the sum of
z1 = a + ib and z2 = c + id
Proof : Let
z1 + z2 = (a + ib) + (c + id) = (a + c) + i (b + d)
Then
z1 + z2 = (a + c) i (b + d)
z1
z1
= a ib, z2 = c id
= z1 + z2
Similarly it can be proved that the conjugate of the difference of two
complex numbers z1, z2 is the difference of their conjugates.
i.e., z1 z2 = z1 z2
(vi) The conjugate of the product of two complex numbers z1, z2 is the
product of their conjugates.
i.e.,
z1z2
= z1 z2
Proof : Let z1 = a + ib and z2 = c + id. Then
z1 z2 = (a + ib) (c + id) = (ac bd) + i(ad + bc)
z1z2
z1
z1 z2
= a ib, z2 = c id
= (a ib) (c id) = (ac bd) i(ad + bc)
= z1z2
127
(vii) The conjugate of the quotient of two complex numbers z1, z2, (z2 0)
is the quotient of their conjugates.
z1 z 1
i.e., z = (without proof)
2 z
2
n
(viii) zn = ( z )
Example 3.1 : Write the following as complex numbers
(i) 35
Solution :
(i)
35 =
(ii) 3
( 1) (35) =
7
1 .
35 = i 35
(ii) 3 7 = 3 ( 1) 7 = 3 1 7 = 3 i 7
Example 3.2 : Write the real and imaginary parts of the following numbers :
3
(ii) 2 i
(i) 4 i 3
Solution :
(i) Let z = 4 i 3 ; Re(z) = 4, Im(z) = 3
3
3
(ii) Let z = 2 i ; Re(z) = 0, Im(z) = 2
Example 3.3 :
Find the complex conjugate of (i) 2 + i 7, (ii) 4 i9 (iii) 5
Solution :
By definition, the complex conjugate is obtained by reversing the sign of
the imaginary part of the complex number. Hence the required conjugates are
(i) 2 i 7, (ii) 4 + i9 and (iii) 5 ( the conjugate of any real number is
itself).
Example 3.4 :
Express the following in the standard form of a + ib
(i) (3 + 2i) + ( 7 i)
(ii) (8 6i) (2i 7)
5 + 5i
(iii) (2 3i) (4 + 2i)
(iv)
3 4i
Solution :
(i) (3 + 2i) + ( 7 i) = 3 + 2i 7 i = 4 + i
(ii) (8 6i) (2i 7) = 8 6i 2i + 7 = 15 8i
128
5 + 5i 5 + 5i 3 + 4i
15 + 20i + 15i + 20i2
=
3 + 4i =
3 4i 3 4i
32 + 42
=
Note :
1 7
5 + 35i
= 5 +5i
25
i4 = 1
i3 = i
i2 = 1
(i)4n = 1
(i)4n 1 = i
(i)4n 2 = 1 ; n z
Example 3.5 : Find the real and imaginary parts of the complex number
3i20 i19
2i 1
Solution :
z=
(i)
3i20 i19
z=
=
2i 1
=
=
=
10
3(i2) (i2) i
2i 1
3( 1)10 ( 1)9i
1 + 2i
3+i
1 + 2i
3+i
1 2i
1 + 2i 1 2i
3 6i i 2i2
( 1)2 + 22
1
7
1 7i
= 5 5 i
=
5
1
7
5 and Im(z) = 5
Re(z) =
3
1
Example 3.6 : If z1 = 2 + i, z2 = 3 2i and z3 = 2 + 2 i
find the conjugate of (i) z1z2
(ii) (z3)4
129
Solution :
i.e. (2 + i) (3 2i) =
=
=
(ii)
(2 + i) (3 2i)
(2 i) (3 + 2i)
(2 i) (3 + 2i)
= 6 + 4i 3i 2i2 = 6 + 4i 3i + 2
= 8+i
4
4
3
1
z34 = z3 = 2 + 2 i
2
1
3
3 3
1
= 2 2 i = 4 + 2 i + 4 i2
3
3
1
3
1
= 2 + 2 i = 4 2 i + 4 i2
3
1
= 2 2 i
EXERCISE 3.1
(1) Express the following in the standard form a + ib
2(i 3)
(1 + i) (1 2i)
(i)
(ii)
2
1 + 3i
(1 + i)
i4 + i9 + i16
3 2i8 i10 i15
(2) Find the real and imaginary parts of the following complex numbers:
2 + 5i
1
(ii)
(iii) (2 + i) (3 2i)
(i) 1 + i
4 3i
(iii) ( 3 + i) (4 2i) (iv)
1 + i
=1
(3) Find the least positive integer n such that
1 i
(4) Find the real values of x and y for which the following equations are
satisfied.
(i) (1 i)x + (1 + i)y = 1 3i
(1 + i)x 2i (2 3i)y + i
+
=i
(ii)
3+i
3i
(iii)
x2 + 3x + 8 + (x + 4)i = y(2 + i)
130
(5) For what values of x and y, the numbers 3 + ix2y and x2 + y + 4i are
complex conjugate of each other?
Result :
The imaginary unit i is defined as i = (0, 1).
We have (a, b) = (a, 0) + (0, b) = a(1, 0) + b(0, 1)
and (0, 1) (0, 1) = (0 1, 0 + 0) = ( 1, 0).
By identifying (1, 0) with 1 and (0, 1) with i we see that (a, b) = a + ib.
Thus we associate the complex number a + ib with the ordered pair (a, b).
The ordered pair (0, 0) corresponds to the real number 0.
Remark :
Though the set of real numbers is ordered, the set of complex numbers is
not ordered. i.e., order relation does not exist in . Given two complex numbers
z1 and z2 we cannot say z1 < z2 or z1 > z2. We can only say that
z1 = z2 or z1 z2, since the points are represented in a plane. Thus the order
relations greater than and less than are not definied for complex numbers.
i.e., the inequalities like 1` + i > 3 2i, i > 0, (3 + i) < 2 etc. are meaningless.
a2 + b2
131
(1)
(2)
Re(z) | z |
| 2 + 4i | =
( 2)2 + 42 =
20 = 2 5
(ii)
|23i| =
22 + ( 3)2 =
13
(iii)
| 3 2i | =
(iv)
| 4 + 3i | =
( 3) + ( 2) =
42 + 32 =
13
25 = 5
3.5.1 Properties :
If z1, z2, zm are complex numbers, then the following properties hold.
(i) The modulus of a product of two complex numbers is equal to the product
of their moduli.
i.e. |z1 z2 | = | z1 | | z2 |
Proof :
|z1 z2 |2 = (z1z2) z1 z2
[ zz = | z |2]
= (z1 z2) z1 z2
= z1 z1
)( z2 z2 )
= | z1 | 2 | z2 | 2
Taking the positive square root on both sides, we get
|z1 z2 | = | z1 | | z2 |
Note : This result can be extended to any finite number of complex numbers
i.e., | z1 z2 zn | = | z1 | | z2 | | zn |
(ii) The modulus of a quotient of two complex numbers is equal to the quotient
of their moduli.
z1 | z1 |
i.e.,
z = | z | where z2 0.
2
2
132
Proof : Since z2 0,
z1
z1
z1 = z . z2 and so | z1 | = z | z2 | (by the previous
2
2
result)
Therefore
Hence
| z1 |
z1
=
z
| z2 |
2
z1 | z1 |
z = | z |
2
2
[ | z |2 = zz ]
( )
= (z1 + z2) z1 + z2
= z1 z1 + z1 z2 + z2 z1 + z2 z2
= z1 z1 + z2 z2 + z1 z2 + z1 z2
( )
= | z1 |2 + | z2 |2 + 2 Re z1 z2
| z1 |2 + | z2 |2 + 2 | z1 z 2 |
= | z1 |2 + | z2 |2 + 2 | z1| | z2|
[ Re (z) | z |]
| z | = |z|
= [ | z11 + | z2 |]2
| z1 + z2 |2 [| z1 | + | z2 |]2
Thus taking positive square root we get
| z1 + z2 | | z1 | + | z2 |
Note : 1 Writing z2 for z2 in this result
We also have | z1 z2 | | z1 | + | z2 | | z1 z2 | | z1 | + | z2 |
133
Note : 2
The above inequality can be immediately extended by induction to any
finite number of complex numbers
i.e., for any n complex numbers
z1, z2, z3, , zn
|z1 + z2 + z3 + + zn | | z1 | + | z2 | + + | zn |
(iv) The modulus of the difference of two complex numbers is always greater
than or equal to the difference of their moduli.
Proof : Let z1 and z2 be two complex numbers.
[Q| z |2 = z z ]
( )
= (z1 z2) z1 z2
= z1 z1 z1 z2 z2 z1 + z2 z2
= z1 z1 + z2 z2 2 Re z1 z2
| z1 |2 + | z2 |2 2 | z1 z 2 |
[Q Re (z) | z |
Re (z) | z |]
z2
|
= | z1 | + | z2 | 2 | z1 | |
= | z1 |2 + | z2 |2 2 | z1 | | z2 |
= [ | z1| | z2 |]2
| z1 z2 |2 [| z1 | | z2 |]2
Thus taking positive square root we get
| z1 z2 | | z1 | | z2 |
Example 3.8 : Find the modulus or the absolute value of
(1 + 3i) (1 2i)
(3 + 4i)
Solution :
(1 + 3i) (1 2i) = | 1 + 3i | | 1 2i |
| 3 + 4i |
(3 + 4i)
=
12 + 32
2
12 + (2)2
3 +4
=
10 5
=
5
134
10 5
25
y
P(z)
z|
x
Fig. 3.1
Clearly, the set of real numbers (x, 0) corresponds to the x-axis called real
axis. The set of all purely imaginary number (0, y) corresponds to the y-axis
called the imaginary number axis. The origin identifies the complex number
0 = 0 + i0.
135
y
P(x,y)
where r = x + y = | x + iy | is called
y
the modulus or the absolute value of
)
z = x + iy denoted by mod z or | z |
x
x M
O
(i.e., the distance from the origin to the
Fig. 3.2
point z)
y
1 y
tan = x , = tan x is called the amplitude or argument of z = x + iy
denoted by amp z or arg z and is measured as the angle which the line OP
makes with the positive x-axis (in the anti clockwise sense).
Thus z = x + iy = r(cos + i sin ) is called the polar form or the modulus
amplitude form of the complex number. It is sometimes convenient to use the
abbreviation cis for cos + i sin .
y
= tan1 x is applicable only for first quadrant numbers i.e., x & y are
positive.
Results :
(1) For any two complex numbers z1 and z2
(ii) arg (z1 . z2) = arg z1 + arg z2
(i) | z1 z2 | = | z1 | . | z2 |
Proof :
Let z1 = r1 (cos 1 + i sin 1) and z2 = r2 (cos 2 + i sin 2)
then
136
z1 | z1 |
z1
(i) z = | z | , (z2 0)
(ii) arg z = arg z1 arg z2
2
2
2
Proof :
Let z1 = r1 (cos 1 + i sin 1) and z2 = r2 (cos 2 + i sin 2)
Then
Now
r1
= r [cos (1 2) + i sin (1 2)]
2
z1 r1 | z1 |
z = r = | z | and
2
2
2
z
1
arg z = 1 2 = arg z1 arg z2
2
Exponential form of a Complex Number :
The symbol ei or exp (i) (called exponential of i) is defined by
ei = cos + i sin
This relation is known as Eulers formula.
137
i( + )
we have e 1.e 2 = e 1 2
Remarks :
(1) If 1 = and 2 = in the above definition
then we have ei . ei( ) = ei( ) = ei0 = 1
1
ei( ) = i . Thus writing ei( ) as e i
e
1
we observe that ei = i
e
2
138
=
=
=
=
=+
=
Example 3.9 : Find the modulus and argument of the following complex
numbers :
(ii) 1 + i 3 (iii) 1 i 3
(i) 2 + i 2
Solution :
(i) Let
2 + i 2 = r(cos + i sin )
Equating the real and imaginary parts separately
r cos = 2 r sin = 2
r2 cos2 = 2
r2 sin2 = 2
r2 (cos2 + sin2) = 4
r = 4=2
2 1
cos = 2 =
2
2
1
sin = 2 =
2
3
= 4= 4
3
argument = 4
modulus r = 2,
3
3
Hence 2 + i 2 = 2 cos 4 + i sin 4
(ii) Let
1 + i 3 = r(cos + i sin )
Equating the real and imaginary parts separately
r cos = 1
2
r cos = 1
r sin = 3
r2 sin2 = 3
r2 (cos2 + sin2) = 4 r = 2
1
cos = 2
in the 1st quadrant
3
sin = 2
=3
modulus r = 2,
= tan1 y
x
argument = 3
139
(iii) Let
1 i 3 = r(cos + i sin )
Equating the real and imaginary parts separately
r cos = 1 r sin = 3
r2 cos2 = 1
r2 sin2 = 3
r2 (cos2 + sin2) = 4
r=2
1
cos = 2
3
sin = 2
2
= +3= 3
modulus r = 2,
2
argument = 3
2
2
2
2
Hence 1 i 3 = 2 cos 3 + i sin 3 = 2 cos 3 i sin 3
Solution :
Given (a1 + ib1) (a2 + ib2) (an + ibn) = A + iB
| (a1 + ib1) (a2 + ib2) (an + ibn) | = | A + iB |
| (a1 + ib1) | | (a2 + ib2) | | (an + ibn) | = | A + iB |
a12 + b12
a22 + b22
an2 + bn2 =
A2 + B2
140
arg (a1 + ib1) + arg (a2 + ib2) + arg (an + ibn) = arg (A + iB)
(1)
bi
Now arg (ai + ibi) = tan1 a
i
1
2
n
By taking the general value,
B
b1
b2
bn
tan1 a + tan1 a + + tan1 a = k + tan1 A
1
2
n
Example 3.11 :
P represents the variable complex number z, find the locus of P if
z+1
z1
(ii) arg z + 1 = 3
(i) Re z + i = 1
Solution :
Let z = x + iy then
z + 1 x + iy + 1
(x + 1) + iy
(i)
z + i = x + iy + i = x + i(y + 1)
[x i(y + 1)]
[(x + 1) + iy]
= x + i(y + 1)
[x i(y + 1)]
x(x + 1) + y(y + 1) + i(yx xy x y 1)
=
x2 + (y + 1)2
x(x + 1) + y(y + 1) + i( x y 1)
=
x2 + (y + 1)2
z+1
Given that
Re z + i = 1
x(x + 1) + y(y + 1)
=1
x2 + (y + 1)2
x2 + y2 + x + y = x2 + y2 + 2y + 1
x y = 1 which is a straight line.
The locus of P is a straight line.
z1
(ii) arg z + 1 = 3
141
arg (z 1) arg (z + 1) = 3
arg(x + iy 1) arg (x + iy + 1) = 3
tan1 x + 1 = 3
tan1
x1
y
y
x+1
x1
tan1
y y = 3
1+
x 1 x + 1
2y
2 = tan 3
x 1+y
2y
= 3
2
x + y2 1
2y =
3x2 + 3y2 3
given by z = x iy.
P( z )
r
O
)
)-
r
Q( z )
Fig. 3.3
Thus the moduli of both z and z are same i.e., r = x2 + y2 But the
amp z = amp z.
y
-z
Fig. 3.4
A ( z1 )
If C is (h, k) then midpoint M of OC is
x
0+h 0+k
O
also given by 2 , 2
Fig. 3.5
k
h
i.e., M is 2 , 2
(2)
143
144
C(z1+z2)
B(z2)
A(z1)
x
D(z1 - z2)
B(-z2)
Fig. 3.8
Result :
From the diagram OD = AB. But OD = | z1 z2 |. AB is the distance
between z1 and z2. Thus, distance between two complex numbers z1 and z2 is
| z1 z2 | .
Note :
Complete the parallelogram OACB. Then C represents the complex
number z1 + z2.
y
C (z1, z2)
) 1
r1
A (z1)
145
r2
OB = r2, XOB = 2 .
Take a point L on OX such that OL
= 1 unit. Draw the triangle OBC
directly similar to OLA. (Fig. 3.9)
B (z2)
L (1,0)
Fig. 3.9
then
OB OC
OL = OA
r2
OC
i.e., 1 = r
1
OC = r1r2
Also
XOA = BOC
The point C represents the complex number z1z2 with polar coordinates
(r1 r2, 1 + 2)
y
Note :
If P represents the complex
number
Q (-y, x)
iz
x
-y
P (x,y)
Fig. 3.10
A (z1)
r1
C (z1/z2)
146
OB = r2, XOB = 2 .
Take a point L on OX such that OL
= 1 unit. Draw the triangle OAC
directly similar to OBL. (Fig. 3.11)
) 2
1
r2
B (z2)
L (1,0)
Fig. 3.11
OA OC
OB = OL
then
r1
OC
i.e., r = 1
2
r1
OC = r
2
XOC = XOA COA = 1 2
r1
z1
represents the complex number z
2
Example 3.12 : Graphically prove that | z1 + z2 + z3 | | z1 | + | z2 | + | z3 |
Solution :
y
By triangle inequality in OAB,
B
| z1 + z2 | | z 1 | + | z 2 |
(1)
|z 2|
A
|z |
1
|
+z 2
|z 1
+z |
|z 1+z 2 3
| z1 + z2 + z3 | | z1 | + | z2 | + | z3 |
|z3|
P
x
Fig. 3.12
Example 3.13 : Prove that the complex numbers 3 + 3i, 3 3i, 3 3 + 3 3 i
are the vertices of an equilateral triangle in the complex plane.
Solution :
y
Let A, B and C represent the
C(-3 3, 3 3 )
complex numbers
(3 + 3i),
A (3,3)
( 3 3i) and ( 3 3 + i3 3) in
the Argand diagram.
AB = | (3 + 3i) ( 3 3i) |
x
= | 6 + 6i | = 72
B (-3,-3 )
Fig. 3.13
BC = |( 3 3i) ( 3 3 + 3 3i)|
=
|( 3 + 3 3) + i ( 3 3 3)| =
147
72
|( 3
= |( 3
CA =
3 + 3 3i) (3 + 3i)|
3 3) + i (3 3 3)| = 72
A (0, 2)
AB = BC = CA
ABC is an equilateral triangle.
Example 3.14 : Prove that the points representing the complex numbers
2i, 1 + i, 4 + 4i and 3 + 5i on the Argand plane are the vertices of a rectangle.
Solution :
y
Let A, B, C and D represent the
D (3,5)
complex numbers 2i, (1 + i), (4 + 4i) and
(3 + 5i) in the Argand diagram
C (4,4)
respectively.
AB = | 2i (1 + i) |
= | 1 + i | = ( 1)2 + (1)2 = 2
BC = | (1 + i) (4 + 4i) |
B (1,1 )
= | 3 3i |
Fig. 3.14
= ( 3)2 + ( 3)2 = 9 + 9 = 18
CD = | (4 + 4i) (3 + 5i) |
= |1i| =
12 + ( 1)2 = 2
DA = | (3 + 5i) 2i | = | 3 + 3i | =
AB = CD and BC = DA
AC = | (0 + 2i) (4 4i) |
= | 4 2i |
=
2
( 4)2 + ( 2)2 =
32 + 32 = 18
16 + 4 = 20
AB + BC = 2 + 18 = 20
AC2 = 20
Hence
148
Solution :
Let A, B and C represent the complex
numbers
7 + 9i, 3 + 7i and 3 + 3i in the
Argand diagram respectively.
AB = | (7 + 9i) ( 3 + 7i) |
= | 10 + 2i | =
A(7,9)
)
B (-3, 7
C(3,3)
102 + 22 = 104
BC = | ( 3 + 7i) (3 + 3i) |
Fig. 3.15
= | 6 + 4i |
= ( 6)2 + 42 = 36 + 16 = 52
CA = | (3 + 3i) (7 + 9i) |
= | 4 6i |
=
( 4)2 + ( 6)2 = 16 + 36 = 52
= ( 7)2 + (24)2 = 25
Solving,
x2 y2 = 7 and x2 + y2 = 25
we get
x2 = 9 and y2 = 16
x = 3 and y = 4
Since xy is positive, x and y have the same sign.
(x = 3, y = 4) or (x = 3, y = 4)
149
EXERCISE 3.2
(1) If (1 + i) (1 + 2i) (1 + 3i) (1 + ni) = x + iy
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
z1
z1
(iv) | 2z 3 | = 2
(v) arg z + 3 = 2
(iii) Re z + i = 1
( 4)
2
12
12
2
=2i 3
Thus we see that the roots 2 + i 3 and 2 i 3 are conjugate to each other.
We shall now consider the cube roots of unity.
Let x be the cube root of unity then
1
x = (1)3
x3 = 1
(x 1) (x2 + x + 1) = 0
150
x 1 = 0 ; x2 + x + 1 = 0
Hence x = 1 and
x=
1 + 3 i 1 3i
,
2
2
1+ 3i
1 3i
and
are conjugate
2
2
to each other.
From the above two examples one can infer that in an equation with real
coefficients, imaginary roots occur in pairs (i.e., one root is the conjugate of the
other). This paved the way for the following theorem.
Theorem :
For any polynomial equation P(x) = 0 with real coefficients, imaginary
(complex) roots occur in conjugate pairs.
Proof :
Let P(x) = anxn + an1xn 1 + + a1x + a0 = 0 be a polynomial equation
of degree n with real coefficients.
(1)
Using the idea that the conjugate of the sum of the complex numbers is
equal to the sum of their conjugates,
anzn
+ an 1zn 1 + + a1z + a0 = 0
i.e. an zn + an1 zn1 + + a1 z + a0 = 0
Since zn = ( z )
and
a0, a1, a2 an are real numbers, each of them is its own conjugate and
hence we get
an zn + an 1zn1 + + a1 z + a0 = 0
151
which is same as P( z ) = 0
152
q
Consider cos q + i sin q = cos + i sin
Therefore cos q + i sin q is such that its qth power is cos + i sin.
1
P
cos q + i sin q is one of the values of (cos + i sin)q
p
p
i.e., cos q + i sin q is one of the values of (cos + i sin)q
ie., cos n + i sin n is one of the values of (cos + i sin)n.
Note : De Moivres theorem holds good for irrational values also but the proof
is beyond the scope of this book.
153
Properties :
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
= cos n 2 + i sin n2
Solution :
The given expression =
(ei2) . (ei3)
i4 6
(e
i 8
(e )
ei6 ei9
= i24 i8
.e
e
= ei15 . ei16
= ei31 = cos31 + i sin 31
Alternative method :
The given expression =
= (cos + i sin )6 + 9 + 24 8
= (cos + i sin )31
= cos 31 + i sin 31
Example 3.19 : Simplify :
(cos + i sin)4
(sin + i cos)5
154
Solution :
(cos + i sin)4
(cos + i sin)4
=
5
(sin + i cos)5
cos + i sin
2
2
= cos 4 5 2 + i sin 4 5 2
5
5
= cos 9 2 + i sin 9 2
5
5
= cos 2 9 i sin 2 9
= cos 2 9 i sin 2 9
= sin 9 i cos 9
Alternative method :
(cos + i sin)4 1 (cos + i sin)4
=
Result : | z | = 1 z = z
Example 3.20 : If n is a positive integer, prove that
n
Solution :
Let z = sin + i cos
1
z = sin i cos
n
1 + sin + i cos
1 + z
n
n
=
1 = z = (sin + i cos )
1 + sin i cos
1 + z
= cos2 + i sin 2
155
= cos n2 + i sin n2
( 3 )2 + 1 2
4=2
3
1
cos = 2 , sin = 2 = 6
Hence
3 + i) = 2 cos 6 + i sin 6
3 + i)
n
n
= 2ncos 6 + i sin 6
(1)
( 3 i) = 2cos 6 i sin 6
n
n
n
( 3 i) = 2n cos 6 i sin 6
(2)
sinn
Solution :
The roots of the equation x2 2x + 2 = 0 are 1 i.
156
Let = 1 + i and = 1 i
(y + )n = [(cot 1) + (1 + i)]n
Then
= (cot + i)n
1
=
[cos + i sin]n
n
sin
1
[cosn + i sin n]
=
sinn
1
[cosn i sin n]
Similarly
(y + )n =
sinn
2i sin n
(y + )n (y + )n=
sinn
Further
= (1 + i) (1 i) = 2i
(y + )n (y + )n 2i sin n
sin n
=
=
n
2i sin
sinn
EXERCISE 3.4
(1) Simplify :
(cos + i sin )3
(sin + i cos )4
(3) If cos + cos + cos = 0 = sin + sin + sin , prove that
(i) cos 3 + cos 3 + cos 3 = 3 cos ( + + )
(ii) sin 3 + sin 3 + sin 3 = 3 sin ( + + )
(iii) cos 2 + cos 2 + cos 2 = 0
(iv) sin 2 + sin 2 + sin 2 = 0
(Hints : Take a = cis , b = cis , c = cis
a + b + c = 0 a3+ b3 + b3 = 3abc
(2) Simplify :
n
cos 4
157
n
n
n
(ii) (1 + i 3) + (1 i 3) = 2n + 1 cos 3
n
n
(iii) (1 + cos + i sin )n + (1+cos i sin )n = 2n + 1 cos ( / 2) cos 2
(iv) (1 + i)4n and (1 + i)4n + 2 are real and purely imaginary respectively
(5) If and are the roots of the equation x2 2px + (p2 + q2) = 0 and
(y + )n (y +)n
sin n
q
= qn 1
tan = y + p show that
sinn
(6) If and are the roots of x2 2x + 4 = 0
n
Prove that n n = i2n + 1 sin 3 and deduct 9 9
1
(7) If x + x = 2 cos prove that
1
1
(i) xn + n = 2 cos n
(ii) xn n = 2 i sin n
x
x
1
1
(8) If x + x = 2 cos and y + y = 2 cos show that
yn
xm
(i) n + m = 2 cos (m n)
y
x
xm
yn
(ii) n m = 2 i sin (m n)
y
x
a2 b2 + c2
= 2 cos 2( + )
abc
we write = zn
158
:
:
:
:
z = r(cos + i sin)
= r{cos (2k + ) + i sin (2k + )}, k is an integer.
1
2k +
2k +
= rn cos n + i sin n
where k = 0, 1, 2 (n 1)
1
2 4
roots of z are obtained by adding respectively n , n , to n
(4) If k be given integral values greater than or equal to n, these n values
are repeated and no fresh root is obtained.
2
2
The nth roots of unity are cos0 + i sin 0 , cos n + i sin n ,
4
4
6
6
2
2
cos n + i sin n , cos n + i sin n , , cos (n 1) n + i sin (n 1) n
2
2
2
i
Let = cos n + i sin n = e n
159
2(n 1)
i
i
i
i n
e0, e n , e n , e n , e
become 1, , 2 n 1 .
It is clear that the roots are in geometric progression.
Results :
(1) n = 1
n
2
2
= cos n + i sin n = cos 2 + i sin 2 = 1
n
1 + r + r2 + + rn 1 =
1r
1
= 0 = R.H.S.
(3) The roots are in G.P with common ratio
2
(4) The arguments are in A.P with common difference n
=
Let x = (1)3
1
160
Result :
1
12
0
120
4
2
2
4
cos 3 + i sin 3 = cos 3 + i sin 3 becomes 2.
Hence we observe that the cube roots of unity, namely 1, , 2 are in G.P.
Note :
1i 3
1+i 3
(i) Even if
is taken as it can be proved that
= 2
2
2
(ii) 1 + + 2 = 0 (by actual addition) i.e., the sum of the cube roots of
unity is zero.
(iii) Since is a root of the equation x3 = 1, we see that 3 = 1.
1
(1)4
k
k
= cos 2 + i sin 2 where k = 0, 1, 2, 3
161
3
3
cos 0 + i sin 0, cos 2 + i sin 2, cos + i sin , cos 2 + i sin 2
i.e., 1, i, 1(= i2), i (= i3) . Let us denote cos 2 + i sin 2 by . Then the
four roots of unity are 1, , 2, 3.
y
/2
2
O
Fig. 3.17
Note : The values of used in cube roots of unity and in fourth roots of unity
are different.
Sixth roots of unity : Let x be a sixth root of unity. Then x = (1)1/6
1 = cos 0 + i sin 0
(1)1/6 = (cos 2k + i sin 2k)1/6
where k is an integer.
By De Moivres theorem
1
2k
2k
x = (1)6 = cos 6 + i sin 6 , where k = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
cos 3 + i sin 3
2
2
cos 3 + i sin 3
1
3
3
3
x
cos 3 + i sin 3
4
4
cos 3 + i sin 3
5
5
5
4
cos 3 + i sin 3
Fig. 3.18
162
3
2
1
n-1
n-2
n-3
Fig. 3.19
9
x = (1)5 ; ( 1)4
1
(i)
(ii)
(2k + 1)
(2k + 1)
+ i sin
k = 0, 1, 2, 3
4
4
163
x4 = 1 ; x3 = 1
1
(i)
x = ( 1)4
1
= (cos + i sin )4
1
)]4
; k = 0, 1, 2, 3
i.e.,
(ii)
x3 = 1
x = ( 1)3
1
= (cos + i sin )3
1
3
3
5
5
The roots are cos 4 + i sin 4 ; cos 4 + i sin 4 ; cos 4 + i sin 4
7
7
cos 5 + i sin 5
3
3
1
1
1
1
1
1 1
1
i.e.,
+i
,
+i ,
i ,
i
2
2
2
2
2
2 2
2
3
3
1
1
2 + i 2 , 1, 2 i 2
2
r =
( 3) + 1 = 2
3
1
Cos = 2 , sin = 2 = 6
2
164
2
23
2 3
cos + i sin
6
6
= 23 cos 3 + i sin 3 3
2
23
cos 2k + + i sin 2k + 3
3
3
7
7
13
13
23 cos 9 + i sin 9 , 23 cos 9 + i sin 9 , 23 cos 9 + i sin 9
Aliter :
2
2
23
cos 2k + + i sin 2k + 3
6
6
2
23
13
13
The different values are 23 cos 9 + i sin 9 , 23 cos 9 + i sin 9 ,
2
25
25
23 cos 9 + i sin 9
2
23
cos + i sin , 23
cos 7 + i sin 7, and
i.e.,
9
9
9
9
13
13
25
25
7
7
cos
2
23
165
EXERCISE 3.5
(1) Find all the values of the following :
1
(i) (i)3
(ii) (8i))3
(iii) ( 3 i)3
(ii)
1 + i 3 + 1 i 3 = 1
2
2
1
1
1
+
= 0
1 + 2
1+
2+
(4) Solve :
(i) x4 + 4 = 0 (ii) x4 x3 + x2 x + 1 = 0
(iii)
34
1
(5) Find all the values of 2 i 2
166
4. ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY
4.1 Introduction :
Tracing the history of Mathematics, around 430 B.C., study of conic
sections or conics, i.e., study of plane sections of a right circular cone began.
The study included degenerate or singular conics (comprising single point, pair
of distinct lines, two coincident lines etc., which were already dealt with in
detail in lower classes) and non-degenerate or non-singular conics (comprising
of circles, parabolas, ellipses and hyperbolas).
The study of conic sections from Greek Geometry, developed by
Apollonius, is described today as graphs of quadratic equations in the
co-ordinate plane. The Greek mathematicians of Platos time (429 347 B.C.)
described these curves as the curves formed by slicing a double cone (right
circular cone of two nappes) with a plane and hence the name conic sections.
Analytic Geometry grew out of need for establishing uniform techniques
for solving geometrical problems, the aim being to apply them to the study of
curves, which are of particular importance in practical problems.
The aim was achieved in the co-ordinate method viz., cartesian, polar,
bi-polar (where calculations are fundamental and constructions play a
subordinate role). Thus solving problems by the method of Analytical
Geometry requires less inventiveness. This method of the ancient Greek origin
( 1 2 B.C.) was systematically developed in the first half of the 17th century
by great mathematicians Fermat, Descartes, Kepler, Newton, Euler, Leibnitz,
LHpital, Clairaut, Cramer and the Jacobis.
A major breakthrough in the study occurred with the development of the
hypothesis of Planetary Phenomena by the German mathematician cum
physicist Johannes Kepler. He stated that all the planets in the solar system
including the earth are moving in elliptical orbits with sun at one of a foci,
governed by inverse square law. This led to the development of Newtons
gravitation theory.
Euler applied the co-ordinate method in a systematic study of space curves
and surfaces, which was further developed by Albert Einstein in his theory of
relativity.
Needless to say that today the development in this area has conquered
industry, medicine and scientific research. And we shall cite a few of them
before getting into the depth of actual study of conics.
167
X
V F
Fig. 4. 2
Fig. 4. 3
from S falls on the reflecting surface gets reflected parallel to the axis of
parabola. For example, Flash light, head light of motor vehicles, parabolic
mirrors, spot light reflectors, selective microphone sounding boards etc.
The same reflectors can be
employed in intensifying signals.
Electromagnetic waves arriving
x
parallel to the axis of the
R
V
parabolic reflector will be
focussed at the focus where a
suitable receiver R could be
Fig. 4. 4
placed. (Fig. 4.4)
For example, Radio telescope, television satellite dishes, solar heaters,
radar antennas etc.
The strongest simple arch is parabolic in shape.
168
M1
Laser rod
Output
Flashtube
Capacitor bank
Power Supply
Ballast resistor
Fig. 4. 7
169
M2
Ellipsoidal
reflector
Trigger
pulse
The orbits of our planet earth and all other planets and planetoids in our
solar system are elliptical with sun situated at one of the foci. Also all the
satellites, either natural or artificial to all the planets in the solar system have
elliptic orbits (with the force binding them following inverse square law).
[Fig.4.8(a)]
Uranus Mercury
Jupiter Venus
Pluto
Saturn
Halleys Comet
Saturn
JupiterSun
Earth
Sun
Neptune
Mars
Earth
Pluto
Asteroids
Fig. 4.8(b)
Fig. 4.8(a)
Path of Halleys Comet (which returns after every 75 years) is an ellipse
with e 0.97 and the sun at a focus [Fig. 4.8 (b)], e being the eccentricity.
Elliptical arches are often used for their beauty.
Steam boilers are believed
to have greatest strength when
heads are made elliptical with
major and minor axes in the
ratio 2 : 1.
Fig. 4. 9
Gears are sometimes (for particular need) made elliptical in shape (Fig. 4.9)
Fig. 4. 10
The orbit of Comet Kohoutek is an ellipse with e 0.9999 (Fig. 4.10).
The shape of our mother earth is an oblate spheroid i.e., the solid of
revolution of an ellipse about its minor axis, bulged along equatorial region and
flat along the polar region.
The area of action of an airplane which leaves a moving carrier and returns
in a given time (with no wind) is an ellipse with the take off and landing
positions of the carrier as foci.
The track of a plane making an
On-pylon turn in a wind of constant
velocity is an ellipse with one focus
directly over the pylon (Fig. 4.11).
Fig. 4. 11
170
Fig. 4. 12
The lines from the foci to any point on
a hyperbola make equal angles with the
tangent at that point. Hence if the surface of
a reflector is generated by revolving a
hyperbola about its transverse axis, all rays
of light converging on one focus are
reflected to the other (Fig.4.13)
P
F2
F1
Fig. 4. 13
Fig. 4. 14
172
F(x1,y1)
Fig. 4. 17
FP
By the definition of a conic, PM = e
FP2 = e2 PM2
2
(x x1) + (y y1) = e
lx + my + n
l2 + m2
y
M3
M2
M1
P3
P2
P1
F2
F1
Fig. 4. 18
M3
P2
M2
M1
P3
P1
Fig. 4. 19
y
M3
M2
M1
F2
P3
P2
P1
Fig. 4. 20
173
F1
4.3 Parabola :
The locus of a point whose distance from a fixed point is equal to its
distance from a fixed line is called a parabola. That is a parabola is a conic
whose eccentricity is 1.
Note : Eventhough the syllabus does not require the derivation of
standard equation and the tracing of parabola (4.3.1, 4.3.2) and it
needs only the standard equation and the diagram, the equation is
derived and the curve is traced for better understanding.
Now we derive and trace the standard equation of a parabola.
Given :
Fixed point (F)
Fixed line (l)
Eccentricity (e = 1)
Moving point P(x, y)
Construction :
Plot the fixed point F and
draw the fixed line l.
M
(-a, y)
Z
(-a,0)
P (x,y)
F (a,0)
Fig. 4. 21
174
P (x, y)
M
(-a, y)
i.e., as x , y2
i.e., as x , y
Z
(-a, o)
F(a, o)
Fig. 4. 22
175
F
L
Fig. 4. 23
If L and L are the end points of latus rectum then L is (a, 2a) and L is
(a, 2a). The length of latus rectum = LL = 4a. Length of semi-latus rectum
= FL = FL = 2a. So far we have discussed standard equation of a parabola
which is open rightward. But we have parabolas which are open leftward, open
upward and open downward.
y2 = -4ax
x =a
F(-a,0)
Fig. 4. 24
x 2=
4ay
F(0, a)
x
y =- a
Fig. 4. 25
3. Open downward :
x2 = 4ay [a > 0]
If y > 0, then y becomes
imaginary. i.e., the curve does
not exist for y > 0 i.e., the
curve exist for y 0.
y
y =a
x 2=
- 4a
F(0,- a)
Fig. 4. 26
176
177
y
x
x
x
Fig. 4. 27
For the above parabolas, the axes are neither parallel to x-axis nor parallel
to y-axis. In such cases the equation of the parabolas include xy term, which is
beyond the scope of this book, eventhough we will find the equation of the
parabolas which are not in standard form. Note that for the standard types the
axis is either parallel to x-axis or parallel to y-axis. We will study only these
four types.
All the parabolas discussed so far have vertex at the origin. In general the
vertex need not be at the origin for any parabola. Hence we need the concept of
shifting the origin or translation of the axes.
178
x=a
(ii) ( 1, 2)
x 2y + 3 = 0
(iii) (2, 3)
y2=0
a>0
FP = PM
x + a
(x a) + (y 0) =
12
F(a,0)
(x a)2 + y2 = (x + a)2
y2 = 4ax
This is the required equation.
Fig. 4. 29
179
Alternative method :
From the given data, the parabola is
open rightward.
The equation of the parabola is of
the form (y k)2 = 4a (x h)
We know that the vertex is the
midpoint of Z( a, 0) and focus F(a, 0),
where Z is the point of intersection of the
directrix and the x-axis.
y
x =- a
F(a,0)
Z
(-a,0)
V (0,0)
Fig. 4. 30
a+a
Vertex is 2 ,
0 + 0
2 = (0, 0) = (h, k)
Again the distance between the vertex and the focus VF = a
The required equation is (y 0)2 = 4a (x 0) i.e., y2 = 4ax
(ii) Let P(x, y) be any point on the parabola. If PM is drawn perpendicular to
the directrix,
FP
P(x, y)
M
PM = e = 1
FP2 = PM2
(x + 1)2 + (y + 2)2 =
x 2y + 3
12+22
x - 2y + 3 = 0
F( -1, -2 )
Fig. 4. 31
4x2 + 4xy + y2 + 4x + 32y + 16 = 0
Note : Here the directrix is parallel to neither x-axis nor y-axis. This type
is not standard type. Therefore we cant do this problem as in the alternative
method of previous problem.
(iii) Let P(x, y) be any point on the parabola. If PM is drawn perpendicular to
the directrix
FP
M
P(x,y)
PM = e = 1
2
y 2
i.e., (x 2) + (y + 3) =
2
2
(x 2) + (y + 3) = (y 2)
y - 2 =0
FP2 = PM2
F(2,-3)
Fig. 4. 32
x 4x + 10y + 9 = 0
180
F(4,-3)
Fig. 4. 34
(x 4)2 = 16(y 1)
Example 4.3: Find the equation of the parabola whose vertex is (1, 2) and the
equation of the latus rectum is x = 3.
Solution: From the given data the parabola is open rightward.
y
The equation is of the form
(y k)2 = 4a(x h)
Here, the vertex V (h, k) is (1, 2)
Draw a perpendicular from V to the latus
rectum.
It passes through the focus.
F is (3, 2)
Again VF = a = 2
181
x =3
V
F(3,2)
(1,2)
Fig. 4. 35
y =2
x
182
Solution:
(i)
y2 = 4x
(y 0)2 = 4(1) (x 0)
Here (h, k) is (0, 0) and a = 1
y
Axis
: The axis of symmetry is
x-axis.
x = -1
Vertex : The vertex V (h, k) is (0, 0)
x =1
Focus : The focus F (a, 0) is (1, 0)
F(1,0)
x
Directrix : The equation of the directrix is
V (0,0)
x = a i.e. x = 1
Latus Rectum : The equation of the latus
Fig. 4. 36
rectum is x = a i.e. x = 1
and its length is 4a = 4(1) = 4
the graph of the parabola looks as in
Fig. 4.36.
(ii)
x2 = 4y
(x 0)2 = 4(1) (y 0)
y
Here (h, k) is (0, 0) and a = 1
y =1
Axis
: y-axis or x = 0
V (0,0)
x
Vertex
: V (0, 0)
y = -1
Focus
: F (0, a) i.e. F (0, 1)
F
Directrix
: y = a i.e. y = 1
(0,-1)
Latus rectum : y = a i.e. y = 1
: length = 4
Fig. 4. 37
the graph looks as in Fig. 4.37
(iii)
(y + 2)2 = 8 (x + 1)
Y2 = 8X
where X = x + 1
Y=y+2
a=2
Y = 4(2) X
The type is open leftward.
Referred to X, Y
Referred to x, y
X = x + 1, Y = y + 2
Axis
Y=0
Y=0 y+2=0
Vertex
(0, 0)
X=0 ; Y=0
x+1=0 ; y+2=0
x = 1, y = 2
V ( 1, 2)
183
Focus
( a, 0) i.e. ( 2, 0)
Directrix
X=a
Latus rectum
X=a
Length of
Latus rectum
4a = 8
i.e. X = 2
i.e. X = 2
X=2 ; Y=0
x + 1 = 2, y + 2 = 0
x = 3, y = 2
F ( 3, 2)
X=2 x+1=2
x=1
X=2 x+1=2
x=3
8
y
x =1
(0,0)
F
(-3,-2 )
V (-1,-2)
x
X
Fig. 4. 38
(iv)
y 8x + 6y + 9 = 0
y2 + 6y = + 8x 9
(y + 3)2 9 = + 8x 9
(y + 3)2 = 8x
Y2 = 8X
2
Y = 4(2)X
a=2
The type is open rightward
Referred to X, Y
Axis
Vertex
Y=0
(0, 0)
184
where X = x
Y = y+3
Referred to x, y
X=x,Y=y+3
Y=0 y+3=0
X=0 ; Y=0
x=0 ; y+3=0
V (0, 3)
Focus
Directrix
Latus rectum
Length
X = a i.e. X = 2
X = a i.e. X = 2
4a = 8
x = -2
X=+2 ; Y=0
x = 2, y + 3 = 0
F (2, 3)
X=2 x=2
X=2 x=2
8
y
x
x =2
V
( 0,-3)
x2 2x + 8y + 17
x2 2x
(x 1)2 1
(x 1)2
(x 1)2
X2
X2
a
The type is open downward
(v)
F(2,-3)
y = -3
X
Fig. 4. 39
=0
= 8y 17
= 8y 17
= 8y 16
= 8(y + 2)
= 8Y
where X = x 1
= 4(2)Y
Y = y+2
=2
Y
y
x
V (1,-2)
y = -2
y = -4
F (1,-4)
Fig. 4. 40
185
Referred to X, Y
Referred to x, y
X=x1,Y=y+2
X=0 x1=0
x=1
X=0 ; Y=0
x 1 = 0, y + 2 = 0
V (1, 2)
Axis
X=0
Vertex
(0, 0)
Focus
X=0 ; Y=2
x 1 = 0, y + 2 = 2
F (1, 4)
Directrix
Y=a
Y=2 y+2=2
y=0
Latus rectum
Y=a
Length
4a = 8
i.e. Y = 2
i.e. Y = 2
Y=2 y+2= 2
y=4
8
Solution:
Girder
C
10
(-50,-10)
Fig. 4. 41
Consider the parabolic girder as open downwards
i.e.,
x2 = 4ay
186
B
10
A
(50,-10)
250
a= 4
250
x2 = 4 4 y
x2 = 250y
Let B(10, y1) be a point on the parabola.
100 = 250y1
100
2
y1 = 250 = 5
Let AB be the height of the bridge at 10 ft to the right from the mid point
2
AC = 10 and BC = 5
2
3
AB = 10 5 = 9 5 ft
3
i.e. the height of the bridge at the required place = 9 5 ft.
Example 4.9 :
The headlight of a motor vehicle is a parabolic reflector of diameter 12cm
and depth 4cm. Find the position of bulb on the axis of the reflector for
effective functioning of the headlight.
Solution:
By the property of parabolic
reflector the position of the bulb
should be placed at the focus.
By taking the vertex at the
origin, the equation of the
reflector is y2 = 4ax
Let PQ be the diameter of the
reflector
12 cm
-- - 4 - -V
Fig. 4. 42
P is (4, 6) and since P(4, 6) lies on the parabola, 36 = 4a 4 a = 2.25
The focus is at a distance of 2.25cm from the vertex on the x-axis.
187
The bulb has to be placed at a distance of 2.25 cms from the centre of
the mirror.
Example 4.10 :
On lighting a rocket cracker it gets projected in a parabolic path and
reaches a maximum height of 4mts when it is 6 mts away from the point of
projection. Finally it reaches the ground 12 mts away from the starting point.
Find the angle of projection.
Solution:
V (0,0)
4
6 mts
12
(- 6, - 4)
Fig. 4. 43
6 mts
(6, - 4)
Fig. 4. 44
2
The equation of the parabola is of the form x = 4ay (by taking the vertex at
the origin). It passes through (6, 4)
9
36 = 16a a = 4
The equation is
x2 = 9y
(1)
Find the slope at ( 6, 4)
Differentiating (1) with respect to x, we get
dy
dy
2
2x = 9 dx dx = 9 x
dy
2
4
4
At ( 6, 4), dx = 9 6 = 3 i.e. tan = 3
4
= tan1 3
4
The angle of projection is tan1 3
Example 4.11 :
A reflecting telescope has a parabolic mirror for which the distance from
the vertex to the focus is 9mts. If the distance across (diameter) the top of the
mirror is 160cm, how deep is the mirror at the middle?
188
Solution:
Let the vertex be at the origin.
VF = a = 900
The equation of the parabola is
y2 = 4 900 x
Let x1 be the depth of the mirror at the
middle
Since (x1, 80) lies on the parabola
16
802 = 4 900 x1 x1 = 9
16
depth of the mirror = 9 cm
Example 4.12 :
(x1, 80)
x1
V(0,0)
----------900------
(x1, - 80)
Fig. 4. 45
Assume that water issuing from the end of a horizontal pipe, 7.5m above
the ground, describes a parabolic path. The vertex of the parabolic path is at the
end of the pipe. At a position 2.5m below the line of the pipe, the flow of water
has curved outward 3m beyond the vertical line through the end of the pipe.
How far beyond this vertical line will the water strike the ground?
Solution:
y
Pipe line
2.5 mts
7.5 mts
V (0,0)
3 mts
2.5
x
P(3, -2.5)
7.5
Ground
A
Fig. 4. 46
x1
Q (x1, -7.5)
Fig. 4. 47
As per the given information, we can take the parabola as open downwards
i.e. x2 = 4ay
Let P be the point on the flow path, 2.5m below the line of the pipe and 3m
beyond the vertical line through the end of the pipe.
P is (3, 2.5)
Thus 9 = 4a ( 2.5)
9
a = 10
189
9
The equation of the parabola is x2 = 4 10 y
Let x1 be the distance between the bottom of the vertical line on the ground
from the pipe end and the point on which the water touches the ground. But the
height of the pipe from the ground is 7.5 m
The point (x1, 7.5) lies on the parabola
9
x12 = 4 10 ( 7.5) = 27
x1 = 3 3
The water strikes the ground 3 3 m beyond the vertical line.
Example 4.13 :
A comet is moving in a parabolic orbit around the sun which is at the focus
of a parabola. When the comet is 80 million kms from the sun, the line segment
from the sun to the comet makes an angle of 3 radians with the axis of the orbit.
find (i) the equation of the comets orbit (ii) how close does the comet come
nearer to the sun? (Take the orbit as open rightward).
Solution:
Take the parabolic orbit as open
rightward and the vertex at the origin.
Let P be the position of the comet in
which FP = 80 million kms.
Draw a perpendicular PQ from P to the
axis of the parabola.
Let
FQ = x1
From the triangle FQP,
PQ = FP . sin 3
3
= 80 2 = 40 3
y
Comet
P
80
V
/3
F )
Sun x1 Q
Fig. 4. 48
1
Thus FQ = x1 = FP . cos 3 = 80 2 = 40
VQ = a + 40 if VF = a ; P is (VQ, PQ) = (a + 40, 40 3)
Since P lies on the parabola y2 = 4ax
190
(40 3)
= 4a(a + 40)
a = 60 or 20
a = 60 is not acceptable.
The equation of the orbit is
y2 = 4 20 x
y2 = 80x
The shortest distance between the Sun and the Comet is VF i.e. a
The shortest distance is 20 million kms.
Example 4.14 :
A cable of a suspension bridge hangs in the form of a parabola when the
load is uniformly distributed horizontally. The distance between two towers is
1500 ft, the points of support of the cable on the towers are 200ft above the road
way and the lowest point on the cable is 70ft above the roadway. Find the
vertical distance to the cable (parallel to the roadway) from a pole whose height
is 122 ft.
Solution :
B
D
Q
P
C
C
750
70
130
52
70
70
A
A
Fig. 4. 49
Take the lowest point on the cable as the vertex and take it as origin. Let
AB and CD be the towers. Since the distance between the two towers is 1500 ft.
VA = 750 ft ; AB = 200 ft
AB = 200 70 = 130 ft
Thus the point B is (750, 130)
The equation of the parabola is x2 = 4ay
Since B is a point on x2 = 4ay
(750)2 = 4a(130)
75 750
4a =
13
191
The equation is x2 =
75 750
y
13
Let PQ be the vertical distance to the cable from the pole RQ.
RQ = 122, RR = 70 RQ = 52
Let VR be x1 Q is (x1, 52)
Q is a point on parabola
x12 =
75 750
52
13
x1 = 150 10
PQ = 2x1 = 300 10 ft.
EXERCISE 4.1
(1) Find the equation of the parabola if
(i)
Focus : (2, 3) ; directrix : 2y 3 = 0
(ii) Focus : ( 1, 3) ; directrix : 2x + 3y = 3
(iii) Vertex : (0, 0) ; focus : (0, 4)
(iv) Vertex : (1, 4) ; focus : ( 2, 4)
(v) Vertex : (1, 2) ; latus rectum : y = 5
(vi) Vertex : (1, 4) ; open leftward and passing through the point
( 2, 10)
(vii) Vertex : (3, 2) ; open downward and the length of the latus
rectum is 8.
(viii) Vertex : (3, 1) ; open rightward ; the distance between the
latus rectum and the directrix is 4.
(ix) Vertex : (2, 3) ; open upward ; and passing through the point
(6, 4).
(2) Find the axis, vertex, focus, equation of directrix, latus rectum, length of
the latus rectum for the following parabolas and hence sketch their
graphs.
(i) y2 = 8x
(ii) x2 = 20y
(iv) y2 + 8x 6y + 1 = 0
(v) x2 6x 12y 3 = 0
(3) If a parabolic reflector is 20cm in diameter and 5cm deep, find the
distance of the focus from the centre of the reflector.
192
(4) The focus of a parabolic mirror is at a distance of 8cm from its centre
(vertex). If the mirror is 25cm deep, find the diameter of the mirror.
(5) A cable of a suspension bridge is in the form of a parabola whose span is
40 mts. The road way is 5 mts below the lowest point of the cable. If an
extra support is provided across the cable 30 mts above the ground level,
find the length of the support if the height of the pillars are 55 mts.
4.4 Ellipse :
Definition : The locus of a point in a plane whose distance from a fixed point bears
a constant ratio, less than one to its distance from a fixed line is called ellipse.
Note : Eventhough the syllabus does not require the derivation of
standard equation and the tracing of ellipse (4.4.1, 4.4.2) and it
needs only the standard equation and the diagram, the equation is
derived and the curve is traced for better understanding.
Now, we will derive the standard equation of an ellipse.
FA
e
=1
AZ
FA
e
AZ = 1
FA = e AZ
i.e., CA CF = e (CZ CA)
a CF = e (CZ a) (1)
(2) + (1)
(2) (1)
a + CF = e(a + CZ)
a
2a = e [2CZ] CZ = e
FA = e AZ
i.e. AC + CF = e (AC + CZ)
2CF = e(2a)
(2)
CF = ae
a
M is e, y and F is (ae, 0)
a
i.e. (x ae)2 + (y 0)2 = e2x e + (y y)2
2
x2 e2x2 + y2 = a2 a2e2
(1 e2) x2 + y2 = a2 (1 e2)
Dividing by a2 (1 e2), we get
x2
y2
+
=1
a2
a2(1 e2)
x2 y2
+
= 1, where b2 = a2 (1 e2)
a2 b2
This is known as the standard equation of an ellipse.
i.e.
x2 y2
4.4.2 Tracing of the ellipse 2 + 2 = 1, a > b
a
b
(i) Symmetry property :
It is symmetrical about x-axis and y-axis simultaneously and hence about
the origin.
(ii) Special points :
It does not pass through the origin.
194
Z
(- a/e, 0)
A
(- a,0)
x = a/e
C
(0,0)
P(x,y)
F1
(ae,0)
A
Z
(a,0) (a/e, 0)
Fig. 4. 51
4.4.3 Important definitions regarding ellipse :
Focus : The fixed point is called focus, denoted as F1 (ae, 0).
Directrix : The fixed line is called directrix l of the ellipse and its equation
a
is x = e .
Major axis : The line segment AA is called the major axis and the length
of the major axis is 2a. The equation of the major axis is y = 0.
195
Minor axis : The line segment BB is called the minor axis and the length
of minor axis is 2b. Equation of the minor axis is x = 0. Note that the length of
major axis is always greater than minor axis.
Centre : The point of intersection of the major axis and minor axis of the
ellipse is called the centre of the ellipse. Here C(0, 0) is the centre of the ellipse.
Note that the centre need not be the origin of the ellipse always.
End points of latus rectum and length of latus rectum :
To find the end points, solve x = ae (1)
and
x2 y2
+
= 1 (2)
a2 b2
y2
= 1 e2
b2
y2 = b2 (1 e2)
b2 = a2 (1 e2)
b
= b 2 2 b2
2
a or 2 = 1 e
a
2
b2
y= a
b2
If L1 and L1 are the end points of the latus rectum then L1 is ae, a and
b2
L1 is ae, a .
b2
The end points of the other latus rectum are ae, a .
2b2
The length of the latus rectum is a .
For the above discussed ellipse, the major axis is along x-axis. There is
another standard ellipse in which the major axis is along the y-axis.
Vertices : The points of intersection of the ellipse and its major axis are
called its vertices. Here the vertices of the ellipse are A(a, 0) and A( a, 0).
196
Focal distance : The focal distance with respect to any point P on the
ellipse is the distance of P from the referred focus.
Focal chord : A chord which passes through the focus of the ellipse is
called the focal chord of the ellipse.
A special property : Thanks to the symmetry about the origin, it permits
(i) the second focus F2 ( ae, 0)
a
(ii) the second directrix x = e
Latus rectum : It is a focal chord perpendicular to the major axis of the
ellipse. The equations of latus rectum are x = ae, x = ae.
Eccentricity
e=
b2
1 2
a
Remark :
b
In the case of an ellipse 0 < e < 1. As e 0, a 1 i.e., b a or the
length of the minor and major axes are close in size. i.e., the ellipse is close to
being a circle.
b
As e 1, a 0 and the ellipse degenerates into a line segment
(degenerate conic) i.e., the ellipse is flat.
197
b2
b2
y
y =a/e
A(0,a)
L1 (-b2/a,ae)
B1
(-b2/a -,ae)L21
L2 (b2/a,-ae)
A(0,-a)
y =- a/e
Fig. 4. 52
4.4.5 General forms of standard ellipses :
To obtain the general forms of standard ellipses, replace x by x h and y
by (y k) if the centre is C(h, k).
Thus the general forms of standard ellipses are
(y k)2
(x h)2
+
= 1,
a2
b2
(x h)2 (y k)2
+
= 1, a > b
b2
a2
Focal property of an ellipse :
The sum of the focal distances of any point on an ellipse is constant and is
equal to the length of the major axis.
y
x = - a/e
x = a/e
P
M
Z
F2 C
F1
Fig. 4. 53
198
M
Z
Proof :
To prove : F1P + F2P = 2a
Let P be a point on the ellipse. Drop the perpendiculars PM and PM to the
a
a
directrices x = e and x = e respectively .
F1P
F2P
We know that PM = e,
=e
PM
F1P = ePM, F2P = e PM
F1P + F2P = e(PM + PM)
= e(MM)
2a
= e. e
= 2a
= length of the major axis
Example 4.15 : Find the equation of the ellipse whose foci are (1, 0) and
1
( 1, 0) and eccentricity is 2 .
Solution:
The centre of the ellipse is the midpoint of FF where F is (1, 0) and F is
( 1, 0).
y
11 0+0
Centre C is 2 , 2 = (0, 0)
1
C
x
But F1F2 = 2ae = 2 and e = 2
F1 (1,0)
(-1,0) F2
1
2a 2 = 2
Fig. 4. 54
a=2
1
b2 = a2 (1 e2) = 4 1 4 = 3
199
Example 4.16 : Find the equation of the ellipse whose one of the foci is (2, 0)
1
and the corresponding directrix is x = 8 and eccentricity is 2
Solution:
Let P(x, y) be a moving point. By definition
FP
PM = e
x =8
y
P(x,y)
FP2 = e2 PM2
M (8,y)
1
x 8
(x 2)2 + (y 0)2 = 4
1
(x 2)2 + y2 = 4 (x 8)2
2
4 [(x 2) + y ] = (x 8)
F(2,0)
Fig. 4. 55
3x2 + 4y2 = 48
x2 y2
16 + 12 = 1
Aliter :
From the given data, the major
axis is along the x-axis and the
equation of the ellipse may be
taken as
y
x =8
x2 y2
+
=1
a2 b2
a
FZ = e ae = 6
1
1
But e = 2 2a 2 a = 6
3
2a = 6 a=4
F(2,0)
Z(8,0)
Fig. 4. 56
1
3
b2 = a2 (1 e2) = 16 1 4 = 16 4 = 12
x
y
The required equation is 16 + 12 = 1
200
Example 4.17 : Find the equation of the ellipse with focus ( 1, 3), directrix
4
x 2y = 0 and eccentricity 5
FP2 = e2 PM2
16
x 2y
(x + 1) + (y + 3) = 25
1 + 4
2
x - 2y =0
Solution:
Let P(x, y) be a moving point. By definition
FP
PM = e
F(-1,-3)
P(x,y)
Fig. 4. 57
= (0, 0)
(-5,0) (-4,0)
(4,0) (5,0)
Fig. 4. 58
From the given data, the major axis is along the x-axis and the equation of
the ellipse is of the form
x2 y2
+
=1
a2 b2
Here CA = a = 5
4
since e = 5
CF = ae = 4
201
Example 4.19 : The centre of the ellipse is (2, 3). One of the foci is (3, 3). Find
the other focus.
Solution:
From the given data the major axis is
parallel to the x axis. Let F1 be (3, 3)
F
C
F
2
y =3
Fig. 4. 59
y
x =1
F1(1,3)
C(1,2)
(x h)2 (y k)2
+
=1
b2
a2
CF1 = ae = 1
1
But e = 2 a = 2, a2 = 4
Fig. 4. 60
1
b2 = a2(1 e2) = 41 4 = 3 ; C(h, k) = (1, 2)
(x 1)2 (y 2)2
+
=1
3
4
Example 4.21 : Find the equation of the ellipse whose major axis is along
1
x-axis, centre at the origin, passes through the point (2, 1) and eccentricity 2
Solution:
Since the major axis is along the x-axis and the centre is at the origin, the
x2 y2
equation of the ellipse is of the form 2 + 2 = 1
a
b
202
(1)
1
b2 = a2 (1 e2) b2 = a2 1 4
(2)
4b = 3a
16
2
2
Solving (1) and (2) we get
a = 3 , b =4
2
x
y2
The required equation is 16/3 + 4 = 1
Example 4.22 : Find the equation of the ellipse if the major axis is parallel to
y-axis, semi-major axis is 12, length of the latus rectum is 6 and the centre is (1,
12)
Solution:
Since the major axis is parallel to y-axis the equation of the ellipse is of the
form
(x h)2 (y k)2
+
=1
b2
a2
The centre C (h, k) is (1, 12)
a = 12 a2 = 144
Semi major axis
2b2
2b2
Length of the latus rectum a = 6 12 = 6
(x 1)2 (y 12)2
+ 144
=1
36
Example 4.23 : Find the equation of the ellipse given that the centre is (4, 1),
focus is (1, 1) and passing through (8, 0).
Solution :
y
From the given data since the
major axis is parallel to the x axis,
x
C(4,-1)
the equation is of the form
y =-1
b2 = 36 and the required equation is
F2(1,-1)
(x h)2 (y k)2
+
=1
a2
b2
The centre C(h, k) is (4, 1)
2
Fig. 4. 61
(x 4)
(y + 1)
+
=1
a2
b2
203
16 1
It passes through (8, 0) 2 + 2 = 1
a
b
But CF1 = ae = 3
(1)
b2 = a2 (1 e2) = a2 a2 e2 = a2 9
16
1
=1
2+ 2
a
a 9
a4 26a2 + 144 = 0
a2 = 18 or 8
Case (i)
(1)
a2 = 18
b2 = a2 9 = 18 9 = 9
Case (ii)
a2 = 8
b2 = 8 9 = 1 which is not possible
a2 = 18,
b2 = 9
(x 4)2 (y + 1)2
+
=1
18
9
Example 4.24 : Find the equation of the ellipse whose foci are (2, 1), ( 2, 1)
and length of the latus rectum is 6.
Solution :
From the given data the major axis is
parallel to the x axis.
The equation is of the form
(x h)2 (y k)2
+
=1
a2
b2
Since the centre is the midpoint of
F1F2
2 + 2 1 + 1
, 2
C is 2
= (0, 1)
and the equation becomes
x2 (y 1)2
+
=1
a2
b2
204
F2(-2,1)
F1(2,1)
y =1
x
Fig. 4. 62
F1 F2 = 2ae = 4 a2 e2 = 4
a2 e2 = a2 b2
a2 b 2 = 4
2b
a
a2 3a 4
a
a
a
(1)
=6
=
=
=
=
(1)
b2 = 3a
0
4 or 1
1 is absurd
4
(2)
(by (2))
b2 = 3a = 12
x2 (y 1)2
=1
16 + 12
Example 4.25 : Find the equation of the ellipse whose vertices are ( 1, 4) and
1
( 7, 4) and eccentricity is 3 .
y
Solution :
y
From the given data the major axis is
parallel to x axis.
A
A
y =4
The equation is of the form
(-7,4)
(-1,4)
(x h)2 (y k)2
+
=1
a2
b2
= ( 4, 4)
Thus the equation becomes
Fig. 4. 63
(y 4)2
(x + 4)2
+
=1
a2
b2
AA = 2a = 6
a=3
1
b2 = a2 (1 e2) = 9 1 9 = 8
We know that
(x + 4)2
(y 4)2
+
=1
9
8
205
Example 4.26 : Find the equation of the ellipse whose foci are (1, 3) and (1, 9)
1
and eccentricity is 2
y
Solution :
x =1
From the given data the major axis is
parallel to y axis.
F2(1,9)
The equation is of the form
(x h)2 (y k)2
+
=1
b2
a2
The centre of the ellipse is the
midpoint of F1 F2
1+1 3+9
C is 2 , 2 = (1, 6)
F1(1,3)
x
Fig. 4. 64
F1 F2 = 2ae = 6
ae = 3
1
But e = 2
a=6
1
b2 = a2 (1 e2) = 36 1 4 = 27
F1(4,0)
F2(-4,0)
Fig. 4. 65
206
Solution :
Let F1 and F2 be the fixed points (4, 0) and ( 4, 0) respectively and
P(x1, y1) be the moving point.
It is given that
i.e.,
F1P + F2P = 10
Simplifying we get
9x12 + 25y12 = 225. The locus of (x1, y1) is
x2
y2
+
25
9 =1
Example 4. 28 : Find the equations and lengths of major and minor axes of
(x 1)2 (y + 1)2
x2 y2
(iii)
+ 16
=1
(i) 9 + 4 = 1 (ii) 4x2 + 3y2 = 12
9
Solution :
(i) The major axis is along x-axis and the minor axis is along y-axis. This
gives the equation of major axis as y = 0 and the equation of minor axis as
x = 0. We have a2 = 9 ; b2 = 4 a = 3, b = 2
The length of major axis is 2a = 6 and the length of minor axis is 2b = 4
(ii)
x2 y2
3 + 4 =1
The major axis is along y-axis and the minor axis is along x-axis.
The equation of major axis is x = 0 and the equation of minor axis is
y = 0. Here a2 = 4 ; b2 = 3 a = 2, b = 3
The length of major axis (2a) = 4
The length of minor axis (2b) = 2 3
(iii) Let x 1 = X and y + 1 = Y
X2 Y2
The given equation becomes 9 + 16 = 1 Clearly the major axis is along
Y-axis and the minor axis is along X-axis.
The equation of major axis is X = 0 and the equation of minor axis is
Y=0
i.e., the equation of major axis is x 1 = 0 and the equation of minor axis
is y + 1 = 0
207
Here a2 = 16, b2 = 9
a = 4, b = 3
Length of major axis (2a) = 8
Length of minor axis (2b) = 6
Example 4. 29 : Find the equations of axes and length of axes of the ellipse
6x2 + 9y2 + 12x 36y 12 = 0
Solution :
6x2 + 9y2 + 12x 36y 12 = 0
(6x2 + 12x) + (9y2 36y) = 12
6(x2 + 2x) + 9(y2 4y) = 12
6{(x + 1)2 1} + 9 {(y 2)2 4} = 12
6(x + 1)2 + 9 (y 2)2 = 12 + 6 + 36
Let X = x + 1 ;
X 2 Y2
9 + 6 =1
Clearly the major axis is along X-axis and the minor axis is along Y-axis.
The equation of the major axis is Y = 0 and the equation of the minor
axis is X = 0.
The equation of the major axis is y 2 = 0 and of minor axis is x + 1 = 0
i.e., the equation of the major axis is y 2 = 0
The equation becomes
Here a2 = 9, b2 = 6 a = 3, b = 6
The length of major axis (2a) = 6
The length of minor axis (2b) = 2 6
Example 4.30 : Find the equations of directrices, latus rectum and length of
latus rectums of the following ellipses.
x2 y2
(i) 16 + 9 = 1 (ii) 25x2 + 9y2 = 225
Solution :
(i) The major axis is along x-axis
Here a2 = 16, b2 = 9
208
b2
1 2 =
a
a
x = e
e=
Equations of directrices are
x=
Equations of the latus rectums are
7
9
1 16 = 4
16
7
x = ae
x= 7
2b
a
29
9
4 = 2
x2 y2
9 + 25 = 1
b2 = 9
e=
b2
1 2 =
a
9
4
1 25 = 5
a
y =e
y=
25
4
2b2
29
18
a = 5 = 5
209
X 2 Y2
3 + 4 = 1 where X = x + 1 , Y = y + 2
The major axis is along Y axis. Here a2 = 4,
1
b2 = 3 and e = 2
a
Y =e
2
i.e. Y = (1/2)
Y = 4
(i) Y = 4
y+2=4
y=2
(ii) Y = 4 y + 2 = 4 y = 6
The directrices are y = 2 and y = 6
Y = ae
1
i.e. Y = 2 2
Y = 1
y+2=1
y=1
(ii) Y = 1 y + 2 = 1
y=3
Equation of the latus rectum are y = 1 and y = 3
(i) Y = 1
23
2b2
Length of the latus rectum is a = 2 = 3
Example 4.31 : Find the eccentricity, centre, foci, vertices of the following
x2 y2
x2 y2
(ii) 4 + 9 = 1
ellipses : (i) 25 + 9 = 1
(iii)
(x + 3)2 (y 5)2
+
=1
6
4
x2 y2
Solution : (i)25 + 9 = 1
The major axis is along x-axis a2 = 25, b2 = 9
4
e = 5 and ae = 4
Clearly centre C is (0, 0),
A F2
Foci are ( ae, 0) = ( 4, 0)
(-5,0) (-4,0)
Vertices are ( a, 0) = ( 5, 0)
C (0,0)
(4,0) (5,0)
Fig. 4. 66
210
F1
y
A(0,3)
F1 (0,5)
C (0,0)
F2 (0,-5)
A(0,-3)
Fig. 4. 67
(iii) Let x + 3 = X, y 5 = Y
Y2
X2
The equation becomes 6 + 4 = 1
The major axis is along X-axis
a2 = 6, b2 = 4
1
and ae = 2
e=
3
Referred to X, Y
Centre
(0, 0)
( a, 0) i.e. ( 6, 0)
(i) ( 6, 0)
Vertices
(ii) ( 6, 0)
Referred to x, y
X=x+3; Y=y5
X = 0 ; Y=0
x + 3 = 0, y 5 = 0
x = 3, y = 5
Centre C( 3, 5)
(i)
X = 6, Y=0
x+3 = 6 , y5=0
x = 6 3, y = 5
A ( 3 + 6, 5)
(ii)
211
X = 6,Y=0
x+3 = 6,y5=0
x = 3 6 ,y=5
A ( 3 6, 5)
( ae, 0)
i.e. ( 2 , 0)
(i)
X = 2, Y=0
x+3 = 2, y5=0
x = 3+ 2,y=5
F1 ( 3 + 2 , 5)
(ii)
X = 2 , Y=0
x+3 = 2,y5=0
x = 3 2,y=5
F2 ( 3 2 , 5)
(i) ( 2 , 0)
foci
(ii) ( 2, 0)
Y
A1
(-3 - 6, 5)
F2
C (-3,5) F1
AA
(-3 +6, 5)
(-3+2,5)
(-3- 2, 5)
y =5
X
Fig. 4. 68
(iv) 36x2 + 4y2 72x + 32y 44 = 0
36 (x2 2x) + 4 (y2 + 8y) = 44
36 {(x 1)2 1} + 4 {(y + 4)2 16} = 44
36(x 1)2 + 4 (y + 4)2 = 144
(x 1)2
(y + 4)2
+
=1
4
36
i.e.,
X2
Y2
+
4
36 = 1 where X = x 1 , Y = y + 4
212
Referred to x, y
X=x1; Y=y+4
X = 0 ; Y=0
x 1 = 0, y + 4 = 0
x = 1, y = 4
Centre C(1, 4)
(i)
X = 0, Y = 6
x1 = 0, y+4=6
x = 1, y = 2
A (1, 2)
X = 0, Y = 6
(ii)
x 1 = 0, y + 4 = 6
x1=0,y+4=6
x = 1, y = 10
A (1, 10)
(i)
X = 0; Y=4 2
x 1 = 0, y + 4 = 4 2
x = 1, y = 4 2 4
F1 (1, 4 2 4)
Referred to X, Y
Centre
(0, 0)
(0, ae)
i.e. (0, 4 2)
(i) (0, 4 2)
Foci
(ii) (0, 4 2)
(ii)
X = 0, Y=4 2
x 1= 0 ; y + 4 = 4 2
x = 1, y = 4 4 2
F2 (1, 4 4 2)
y
Y
x =1
A(1,2)
F1
C (1,-4)
F2
A (1,-10)
Fig. 4. 69
213
x
X
Where
F1(1, 4 2 4)
F2(1, - 4 4 2)
x12
24
102
=1
202
x1 = 12 3
214
AA = 2a = 20 a = 10
b = 18 12 = 6
x2
y2
+
100
36 = 1
Let QR be y1 then R is (6, y1)
y1
36
100 + 36 = 1 y1 = 4.8
PQ + QR = 12 + 4.8
The required height of the ceiling is 16.8 feet.
Example 4.34 : The orbit of the earth around the sun is elliptical in shape with
sun at a focus. The semi major axis is of length 92.9 million miles and
eccentricity is 0.017. Find how close the earth gets to sun and the greatest
possible distance between the earth and the sun.
Solution :
y
Semi-major axis CA is
H
a = 92.9 million miles
RT
EA
Given e = 0.017
SUN A
A
x
The closest distance of the
C (0,0)
F
earth from the sun = FA
and farthest distance of the
earth from the sun = FA
Fig. 4. 72
CF = ae = 92.9 0.017
FA = CA CF = 92.9 92.9 0.017
= 92.9 [1 0.017]
= 92.9 0.983 = 91.3207 million miles
FA = CA + CF = 92.9 + 92.9 0.017
= 92.9 (1 + 0.017)
= 92.9 1.017 = 94.4793 million miles
Example 4.35 : A ladder of length 15m moves with its ends always touching
the vertical wall and the horizontal floor. Determine the equation of the locus of
a point P on the ladder, which is 6m from the end of the ladder in contact with
the floor.
215
Solution :
Let AB be the ladder and P(x1, y1) be
a point on the ladder such that AP = 6m.
Draw PD perpendicular to x-axis and
PC perpendicular to y-axis.
Clearly the triangles ADP and PCB
are similar.
PC
PB
BC
DA = AP = PD
i.e.,
B
9
C
x1
y1
O
x1
9
BC
DA = 6 = y1
P(x1y1)
6
y1
x1
Fig. 4. 73
6x1
2x1
DA = 9 = 3
9y1
3
; BC = 6 = 2 y1
2x1
3y1
5
5
OA = OD + DA = x1 + 3 = 3 x1 ; OB = OC + BC = y1 + 2 = 2 y1
But
25 2 25 2
9 x1 + 4 y1 = 225
x12 y12
9 + 4 =9
x2 y2
The locus of (x1, y1) is 81 + 36 = 1, which is an ellipse.
EXERCISE 4.2
(1) Find the equation of the ellipse if
(i)
(ii)
1
the foci are (2, 1), (0, 1) and e = 2
(iii)
(iv)
3
the centre is (3, 4), one of the foci is (3 + 3, 4) and e = 2
216
2
the centre at the origin, the major axis is along x-axis, e = 3 and
5
passes through the point 2, 3
80
(vi) the length of the semi major axis, and the latus rectum are 7 and 7
respectively, the centre is (2, 5) and the major axis is parallel to
y-axis.
(vii) the centre is (3, 1), one of the foci is (6, 1) and passing through
the point (8, 1).
32
(viii) the foci are ( 3, 0), and the length of the latus rectum is 5 .
(v)
3
the vertices are ( 4, 0) and e = 2
(2) If the centre of the ellipse is (4, 2) and one of the focus is (4, 2),
find the other focus?
(3) Find the locus of a point which moves so that the sum of its distances
from (3, 0) and ( 3, 0) is 9
(4) Find the equations and length of major and minor axes of
(ix)
(ii) 5x2 + 9y2 + 10x 36y 4 = 0 (iv) 16x2 + 9y2 + 32x 36y 92 = 0
(5) Find the equations of directrices, latus rectum and lengths of latus
rectums of the following ellipses :
(i) 25x2 + 169y2 = 4225
217
(9) The orbit of the planet mercury around the sun is in elliptical shape with
sun at a focus. The semi-major axis is of length 36 million miles and the
eccentricity of the orbit is 0.206. Find (i) how close the mercury gets to
sun? (ii) the greatest possible distance between mercury and sun.
(10) The arch of a bridge is in the shape of a semi-ellipse having a horizontal
span of 40ft and 16ft high at the centre. How high is the arch, 9ft from
the right or left of the centre.
4.5 Hyperbola :
Definition: The locus of a point whose distance from a fixed point bears a constant
ratio, greater than one to its distance from a fixed line is called a hyperbola.
Note : Eventhough the syllabus does not require the derivation of
standard equation and the tracing of hyperbola (4.5.1, 4.5.2) and it
needs only the standard equation and the diagram, the equation is
derived and the curve is traced for better understanding.
We shall now derive the standard equation of the hyperbola.
218
FA
e
=1
AZ
FA
e
AZ = 1
FA = e AZ
i.e. CF CA = e (CA CZ)
CF a = e (a CZ) (1)
FA = e AZ
i.e. AC + CF = e (AC + CZ)
a + CF = e(a + CZ)
a
(2) (1) 2a = e [2CZ] CZ = e
(2) + (1) 2CF = e(2a) CF = ae
(2)
a
M is e, y and F is (ae, 0)
2 2
[e x 2aex + a ]
x2 2aex + a2e2 + y2 = e2
e2
x2 e2x2 + y2 = a2 a2e2
(e2 1)x2 y2 = a2(e2 1)
2
y2
x
=1
a2
a2(e2 1)
y2
x2
2
2 2
x2 y2
=1
a2 b2
(i) Symmetry :
The hyperbola is symmetric about x-axis, y-axis and hence the hyperbola is
symmetric about the origin.
(ii) Special points :
The hyperbola does not pass through the origin.
To find the points on x-axis, put y = 0, we get x = a. Therefore the curve
meets the x-axis at A(a, 0) and A( a, 0).
219
x = a/e
x = -a/e
F2 A
(-ae,0)
B
A
Z
B
F1
(ae,0)
Fig. 4. 75
B (0, b) is called the conjugate axis. The length of the conjugate axis is 2b.
The equation of the conjugate axis is x = 0
Centre : The point of intersection of the transverse and conjugate axes of
the hyperbola is called the centre of the hyperbola. Here C(0, 0) is called the
centre of the hyperbola.
Vertices : The points of intersection of the hyperbola and its transverse
axis is called its vertices. The vertices of the hyperbola are A(a, 0) and
A( a, 0).
As in the case of ellipse, hyperbola also has the special property of the
a
second focus F2( ae, 0) and the second directrix x = e .
220
Eccentricity : e =
b2
1+ 2
a
Remark :
b
In the case of a hyperbola e > 1. As e 1, a 0 i.e., as e 1, b is very
small related to a and the hyperbola becomes a pointed nose. As e , b is
very large related to a and the hyperbola becomes flat.
Latus rectum : It is a focal chord perpendicular to the transverse axis of
the hyperbola. The equations of the latus rectum are x = ae.
End points of latus rectum and length of latus rectum :
To find the end points, solve x = ae (1)
and
x2 y2
= 1 (2)
a2 b2
=1
a2
b2
y2
= e2 1
b2
y2 = b2 (e2 1)
b
= b 2 . 2
a
2
( b2 = a2 (e2 1))
b2
y= a
b2
If L1 and L1 are the end points of one latus rectum then L1 is ae, a and
b2
L1 is ae, a .
b2
Similarly the end points of the other latus rectum are ae, a and the
2b2
length of the latus rectum is a .
For the above discussed hyperbola, the transverse axis is along x-axis.
There is another standard hyperbola in which the transverse axis is along
y-axis.
221
Foci
x=0
y=0
(b, 0), ( b, 0)
Equations of directrices
y = ae
a
y=e
b2
b2
a , ae , a , ae
y
F1 (0, ae)
A(0,a)
y = a/e
Z
C
B
B
y = -a/e
Z
A(0, -a)
F2 (0, - ae)
Fig. 4. 76
222
4+1
P(x,y)
M
2x +y - 1=0
3
(x 1)2 + (y 2)2 = 5 (2x + y 1)2
i.e., 7x2 + 12xy 2y2 2x + 14y 22 = 0
This is the required equation of the
hyperbola.
F(1,2)
Fig. 4. 77
Example 4.37 : Find the equation of the hyperbola whose transverse axis is
along x-axis. The centre is (0, 0) length of semi-transverse axis is 6 and
eccentricity is 3.
Solution:
Since the transverse axis is along x-axis and the centre is (0, 0), the
x2 y2
equation of the hyperbola is of the form 2 2 = 1
a b
y
Given that semi-transverse axis
a = 6, eccentricity e = 3
We know that b2 = a2 (e2 1)
b2 = 36(8)
= 288
The equation of the hyperbola is
x2
y2
36
288 = 1
A C
F2
A
6
F1
Fig. 4. 78
Example 4.38 : Find the equation of the hyperbola whose transverse axis is
parallel to x-axis, centre is (1, 2), length of the conjugate axis is 4 and
eccentricity e = 2.
223
Solution:
Since the transverse axis is parallel to x-axis, the equation is of the form
(x h)2
(y k)2
=1
a2
b2
Here centre C(h, k) is (1, 2).
The length of conjugate axis 2b = 4 and e = 2
b2 = a2 (e2 1)
4 = a2 (4 1)
4
a2 = 3
(y 2)2
(x 1)2
=1
The required equation is 4/3
4
Example 4.39 : Find the equation of the hyperbola whose centre is (1, 2). The
20
distance between the directrices is 3 , the distance between the foci is 30 and
the transverse axis is parallel to y-axis.
Solution:
Since the transverse axis is parallel to y-axis, the equation is of the form
(y k)2
(x h)2
=1
a2
b2
Here centre C(h, k) is (1, 2)
a
10
2a 20
The distance between the directrices e = 3 e = 3
The distance between the foci, 2ae = 30 ae = 15
a
10
2
e (ae) = 3 15 a = 50
9
ae
Also a/e e2 = 2
9
b2 = a2 (e2 1) b2 = 50 2 1 = 175
(y 2)2
(x 1)2
50
175 = 1
Example 4.40 : Find the equation of the hyperbola whose transverse axis is
parallel to y-axis, centre (0, 0), length of semi-conjugate axis is 4 and
eccentricity is 2.
The required equation is
224
Solution:
From the given data the hyperbola is of the form
y2 x2
= 1
a2 b2
=1
2
2
F2(-6,0)
F1(6,0)
a
b
The centre is the midpoint of
Fig. 4. 79
F1 and F2
6 + 6 0 + 0
, 2
i.e., C is 2
= (0, 0)
The length of the transverse axis 2a = 8, a = 4
F1F2 = 2ae = 12 ae = 6
4e = 6
6
3
e=4 = 2
9
16 5
b2 = a2 (e2 1) = 16 4 1 = 4 = 20
y
x
The required equation is 16 20 = 1
225
Example 4.42 : Find the equation of the hyperbola whose foci are (5, 4) and
3
eccentricity is 2 .
Solution:
From the given data the transverse
axis is parallel to y-axis and hence
the equation of the hyperbola is of
the form
(y k)2
(x h)2
=1
a2
b2
The centre C (h, k) is the midpoint
of F1 and F2
y
F1(5,4)
x
C (0,0)
F2(5,-4)
Fig. 4. 80
5+5 44
i.e., C is 2 , 2 = (5, 0)
80
= 9
The required equation is
9y2
9(x 5)2
(y 0)2 (x 5)2
=
1
or
=1
64/9
80/9
64
80
Example 4.43 : Find the equation of the hyperbola whose centre is (2, 1), one
of the foci is (8, 1) and the corresponding directrix is x = 4.
Solution:
y
From the given data the equation
x =4
is of the form
C(2,1)
(x h)2 (y k)2
=1
a2
b2
Centre C (h, k) is (2, 1)
CF1 = ae = 6
F1(8,1)
Fig. 4. 81
(Draw CZ perpendicular to x = 4)
226
y =1
x
12
24 = 1
Example 4.44 : Find the equation of the hyperbola whose foci are (0, 5) and
the length of the transverse axis is 6.
Solution:
y
From the given data the transverse axis is
along y-axis and hence the equation is of
F1(0,5)
the form
(y k)2 (x h)2
=1
a2
b2
The centre C (h, k) is the midpoint of
F1 and F2
(0,0)
C
F2(0,-5)
Fig. 4. 82
0+0 55
i.e. C is 2 , 2 = (0, 0)
F1F2 = 2ae = 10
The length of the transverse axis = 2a = 6
5
a = 3 and e = 3
b2 = a2 (e2 1)
25
= 9 9 1
= 16
x2
y2
The required equation is 9 16=1
227
Example 4.45 : Find the equation of the hyperbola whose foci are (0, 10)
and passing through (2, 3).
Solution:
From the data, the transverse axis is along
the y-axis. it is of the form
y2 x2
=1
a 2 b2
Given that the foci are (0, ae) =
(0, 10)
ae =
2
F1(0, 10)
(0,0)
C
F2(0, -10)
10
2
2 2
Also b = a (e 1) = a e a
b2 = 10 a2
Equation of the hyperbola is
Fig. 4. 83
x2
y2
= 1
10 a2
a2
228
Solution:
The centre is at the origin, the transverse axis is along x-axis and the
conjugate axis is along the y-axis. i.e., transverse axis is x-axis i.e., y = 0 and the
conjugate axis y-axis i.e., x = 0.
Hence a2 = 9, b2 = 4 a = 3, b = 2
Length of transverse axis = 2a = 6
Length of conjugate axis = 2b = 4
Example 4.47 : Find the equations and length of transverse and conjugate axes
of the hyperbola 16y2 9x2 = 144
y2 x2
Solution: 9 16 = 1
The centre is at the origin, the transverse axis is along y-axis, and the
conjugate axis is along x-axis.
The transverse axis is y-axis, i.e. x = 0
The conjugate axis is x-axis i.e. y = 0.
Here a2 = 9, b2 = 16 a = 3, b = 4
The length of transverse axis = 2a = 6
The length of conjugate axis = 2b = 8
Example 4.48 : Find the equations and length of transverse and conjugate axes
of the hyperbola 9x2 36x 4y2 16y + 56 = 0
Solution:
9(x2 4x) 4(y2 + 4y) = 56
9{(x 2)2 4} 4 {(y + 2)2 4} = 56
9(x 2)2 4(y + 2)2 = 36 16 56
9(x 2)2 4(y + 2)2 = 36
4(y + 2)2 9(x 2)2 = 36
(y + 2)2
(x 2)2
=1
9
4
X = x 2
Y2
X2
9
4 = 1 where Y = y + 2
Clearly the transverse axis is along y-axis and the conjugate axis is along xaxis. i.e. transverse axis is y-axis or X = 0 i.e., x 2 = 0
The conjugate axis is X-axis or Y = 0 i.e., y + 2 = 0
Here a2 = 9,
b2 = 4
a = 3,
229
b =2
b2 = 4
b2
1+ 2 =
a
e=
4
1+9 =
13
3
3
9
i.e. x =
13/3
13
b2 = 16
a
The equations of the directrices are y = e
9
i.e., y = 5
230
Example 4.51 : Find the equations of directrices, latus rectum and length of
latus rectum of the hyperbola 9x2 36x 4y2 16y + 56 = 0
Y = y + 2
Y2
X2
Solution: By simplifying we get 9 4 = 1 where X = x 2
Here a2 = 9,
b2 = 4
13
b2
1+ 2 = 3
a
a
9
13 , e =
13
e=
ae =
The transverse axis is along Y-axis.
a
The equations of the directrices are Y = e
i.e. Y =
9
13
9
9
9
y+2 =
y=
2
13
13
13
9
9
9
y+2 =
y=
2
(ii) Y =
13
13
13
The equations of the latus rectum are Y = ae i.e. Y = 13
(i) Y = 13
y+2 =
13 y = 13 2
(ii) Y = 13 y + 2 = 13 y = 13 2
(i) Y =
2b2
8
Length of the latus rectum is a = 3
Example 4.52 : The foci of a hyperbola coincide with the foci of the ellipse
x2 y2
25 + 9 = 1. Determine the equation of the hyperbola if its eccentricity is 2.
Solution :
x2 y2
The equation of the ellipse is 25 + 9 = 1
a2 = 25, b2 = 9,
e =
b2
1 2 =
a
9
4
1 25 = 5
ae = 4
The foci of the ellipse are ( ae, 0) = ( 4, 0)
Given that the foci of the hyperbola coincide with the foci of the ellipse,
foci of the hyperbola are ( ae, 0) = ( 4, 0)
231
ae = 4
Given that the eccentricity of the hyperbola is 2
a(2) = 4 a = 2
For a hyperbola
b2 = a2 (e2 1)
= a2 e2 a2
= 16 4 = 12
x2 y2
The equation of the hyperbola is 4 12 = 1
Property (without proof) :
A point moves such that the difference of its distances from two fixed
points in a plane is a constant. The locus of this point is a hyperbola and this
difference is equal to the length of the transverse axis.
Example 4.53 : Find the equation of the locus of all points such that the
differences of their distances from (4, 0) and ( 4, 0) is always equal to 2.
Solution :
By the property, the locus is a hyperbola. Take the fixed points as foci.
F1 is (4, 0) and F2 is ( 4, 0)
Let P(x, y) be a point on the hyperbola.
F2P = length of transverse axis = 2a = 2
F1P
a=1
Centre is the midpoint of F1F2 = (0, 0)
Hence from
P(x,y)
F2
b2 = a2 (e2 1)
= 1(16 1) = 15
C (0,0)
F1
Fig. 4. 84
y2
x2
The equation is 1 15 = 1
Alternate method:
Let P(x, y) be a point on the hyperbola and let F1and F2 be the fixed points
(4, 0) and ( 4, 0).
232
F2P = 2
(x + 4)2 + (y 0)2 = 2
x2
y2
Simplifying, we get 1 15 = 1
Example 4.54 : Find the eccentricity, centre, foci and vertices of the hyperbola
y2
x2
4
5 = 1 and also trace the curve
Solution :
y
a2 = 4, b2 = 5
b2
3
1+ 2 = 2
F2 A
C (0,0) A F1
x
a
(2,0) (3,0)
(-3,0) (-2,0)
3
ae = 2 2 = 3.
The transverse axis is along the
Fig. 4. 85
x-axis
Centre : (0, 0)
Foci
: ( ae, 0) = ( 3, 0)
vertices : ( a, 0) = ( 2, 0)
Example 4.55 : Find the eccentricity, centre, foci and vertices of the hyperbola
x2
y2
6
18 = 1 and also trace the curve.
y
Solution :
e=
F1 (0,26)
a2 = 6 b2 = 18
e=
b2
1+ 2=
a
24
6 =2
ae = 2 6
The transverse axis is along the y-axis
A(0, 6)
C (0,0)
A(0, -6)
F2 (0,-26)
Fig. 4. 86
Centre
: (0, 0)
Foci are
: (0, ae) = (0, 2 6)
vertices are : (0, a) = (0, 6)
233
Example 4.56 : Find the eccentricity, centre, foci and vertices of the hyperbola
9x2 16y2 18x 64y 199 = 0 and also trace the curve.
9(x2 2x) 16 (y2 + 4y) = 199
Solution:
16
9
i.e.,
a2 = 16,
b2 = 9
X = x 1
X2
Y2
16
9 = 1 where Y = y + 2
e=
b2 5
1+ 2= 4
a
5
ae = 4 4 = 5
Referred to x, y
X = x 1, Y = y + 2
X=0
; Y=0
x1=0 ; y+2=0
x=1
; y=2
C (1, 2)
(i) X = 5
; Y=0
x1=5 ; y+2=0
x=6
; y=2
F1 (6, 2)
(0, 0)
( ae, 0) is ( 5, 0)
(i) (5, 0)
Foci
(ii) X = 5
; Y=0
x 1 = 5; y + 2 = 0
F2 ( 4, 2)
(ii) ( 5, 0)
234
Vertices
( a, 0) i.e. ( 4, 0)
(i) (4, 0)
(i) X = 4
x1=4
A (5, 2)
(ii) ( 4, 0)
(ii) X = 4
;Y=0
x1=4
; y+2=0
A ( 3, 2)
;Y=0
; y+2=0
x
F2
(-4, -2)
A
(-3,-2)
C (1,-2) A
(5,-2)
F1
(6,-2)
Fig. 4. 87
Example 4.57 : Find the eccentricity, centre, foci and vertices of the following
hyperbola and draw the diagram : 9x2 16y2 + 36x + 32y + 164 = 0
Solution:
9(x2 + 4x) 16(y2 2y) = 164
9{(x + 2)2 4} 16 {(y 1)2 1} = 164
9(x + 2)2 16(y 1)2 = 164 + 36 16
16(y 1)2 9(x + 2)2 = 144
(x + 2)2
(y 1)2
=1
9
16
X = x + 2
X2
Y2
9
16 = 1 where Y = y 1
a2 = 9,
b2 = 16
e=
b2 5
1+ 2= 3
a
ae = 5
235
Referred to x, y
X = x + 2, Y = y 1
X=0
; Y=0
x+2=0 ; y1=0
x=2
; y=1
C ( 2, 1)
(i) X = 0
; Y=5
x+2=0 ; y1=5
x=2
; y=6
F1 ( 2, 6)
(0, 0)
(ii) (0, 5)
(ii) X = 0
; Y= 5
x+2=0 ; y1=5
x=2
; y=4
F2 ( 2, 4)
(i) X = 0
; Y=3
x+2=0 ; y1=3
A ( 2, 4)
(ii) X = 0
; Y=3
x+2=0 ; y1=3
x=2
; y=2
Foci
(0, a)
(i) (0, 3)
Vertices
(ii) (0, 3)
A ( 2, 2)
x =-2
y
F1 (-2,6)
A (-2,4)
y =1
C (-2,1)
A (-2,-2)
F2 (-2,-4)
Fig. 4. 88
236
X
x
Example 4.58 :
Points A and B are 10 km apart and it is determined from the sound of an
explosion heard at those points at different times that the location of the
explosion is 6 km closer to A than B. Show that the location of the explosion is
restricted to a particular curve and find an equation of it.
y
P(x,y)
A(-5, 0)
B(5, 0)
Fig. 4. 89
Given :
i.e.,
PB PA = 6
(x 5)2 + y2
Simplifying we get
(x + 5)2 + y2 = 6
9y2 + 16x2 = 144
y2 x2
x2
y2
+
=
1
i.e.,
16
9
9
16 = 1 which is a hyperbola.
EXERCISE 4.3
(1) Find the equation of the hyperbola if
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
237
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
Parametric
equations
x = at2
y = 2at
x = a cos
y = b sin
x = a sec
y = b tan
Parameter
t
Range of
parameter
<t<
0 2
0 2
Any point on
the conic
t or
(at2, 2at)
or
(a cos, b sin)
or
(a sec , b tan )
a(1 t2)
,
1 + t2
b.2t
2 , < t < . This result will be obtained by putting tan 2 = t in the
1+t
238
y1 y2
4a
=
x1 x2 y1 + y2
B(x2,y2)
y2 =4ax
Fig. 4. 90
4a
i.e., the slope (m) of the chord AB = y + y
1
2
The equation of the chord, using slope (m) and point (x1, y1) is
4a
(y y1) = y + y (x x1)
1
2
Ta
4a
(y y1) = y + y (x x1)
1
1
yy1 = 2a(x + x1)
(use
y12
ng
en
t
If the point (x2, y2) coincides with (x1, y1) then the chord becomes the
tangent at (x1, y1). Therefore, to obtain tangent at (x1, y1), put x2 = x1 and
y2 = y1 in the equation of the chord. the equation of the tangent is
(x1,y1)
x
= 4ax1)
y2 =4ax
Fig. 4. 91
239
No
rm
al
Ta
ng
en
t
(x1,y1)
y1x + 2ay = k
y2 =4ax
Fig. 4. 92
x22
2
y1
+ 2 = 1,
a
b
a
2
A(x1,y1)
y2
+ 2 = 1
b
B(x2,y2)
y1 y2 b2 (x1 + x2)
= 2
x1 x2
a (y1 + y2)
Fig. 4. 93
b2 (x1 + x2)
a2(y1 + y2)
(x x1)
To get the equation of the tangent at (x1, y1) put x2 = x1 and y2 = y1 in the
equation of the chord.
240
y
(x1,y1)
Tan
g
(y y1) =
b (x1 + x1)
2
a (y1 + y1)
(x x1)
en t
yy1
+ 2 =1
a
b
xx1
2
No
rm
a
Fig. 4. 94
To get the equation of the normal, use the perpendicularity property to a
straight line.
The equation of the tangent is
y
x1b2x + y1a2y a2b2 = 0
The equation of the normal is of
the form y1a2x x1b2y = k
(x1,y1)
x
xx1
a
yy1
b2
= 1
a2 x b 2 y
and the normal at (x1, y1) as x + y = a2 + b2
1
1
Note : To get the results for the hyperbola replace b2 as b2 in the results
of ellipse.
241
yt = x + at2
242
243
Note : The equation of tangent at (x1, y1) is obtained from the equation of the
1
1
curve by replacing x2 by xx1, y2 by yy1, xy by 2 (xy1 + x1y), x by 2 (x + x1) and
1
y by 2 (y + y1)
To find the condition that y = mx + c may be a tangent to the conics
(1) Parabola :
Let y = mx + c be a tangent to the parabola y2 = 4ax at (x1, y1).
We know that at (x1, y1), the equation of the tangent is yy1 = 2a(x + x1)
The above two equations represent the same tangent and hence their
corresponding coefficients are proportional
2ax y1y + 2ax1 = 0
mx y + c = 0
2ax1
2a y1
=
=
c
m
1
c
2a
x1 = m , y1 = m
c
4a2
= 4a . m
m2
a
i.e. , c = m
Thus we have three results to the parabola y2 = 4ax.
a
(1) The condition for the tangency is c = m
c 2a
a 2a
(2) The point of contact is m , m i.e., 2 , m .
a
(3) The equation of any tangent is of the form y = mx + m
Note : Instead of taking the equation of the tangent in the cartesian form, we
can prove the same result by taking the tangent in the parametric form.
Similarly, we can derive the results for other conics also.
244
a2m2 + b2
a2m2 + b2 , either y = mx +
a2m2 + b2 holds
or y = mx a2m2 + b2 holds
Results connected with hyperbola :
(i) The condition that y = mx + c may be a tangent to the hyperbola is
c2 = a2m2 b2
a2m b2
(ii) The point of contact is c , c where c2 = a2m2 b2
a2m2 b2
a2m2 b2 , either y = mx +
a2m2 b2
(x
,y
2)
x2 y2
x2 y2
to the (i) Parabola y2 = 4ax (ii) ellipse 2 + 2 = 1 (iii) hyperbola 2 2 = 1
a b
a b
Solution :
y
The equation of tangent at
Q(x2, y2) is yy2 = 2a(x + x2)
It passes through the point
P(x1, y1)
y1y2 = 2a (x1 + x2)
(1)
(x1,y1)
P V
The equation of tangent at
x
R(x3, y3) is yy3 = 2a(x + x3)
It passes through the point
P(x1, y1)
y1y3 = 2a(x1 + x3)
(2)
The result (1) and (2) show that
Q(x2, y2) and R(x3, y3) lie on the
straight line yy1 = 2a(x + x1).
Fig. 4. 96
)
,y 3
x3
R(
245
1
the points of contact are 5 , 1 , (125, 25)
Example 4.60 : Find the equation of the tangent at t = 1 to the parabola y2 = 12x
Solution: Equation of the parabola is y2 = 12x.
Here 4a = 12, a = 3
t represents the point (at2, 2at). t = 1 represents the point = (3, 6)
(x + x1)
Equation of tangent at (x1, y1) to the parabola y2 = 12x is yy1 = 12
2
12 (x + 3)
i.e., x y + 3 = 0
Equation of tangent at (3, 6) is y(6) =
2
Alternative form :
The equation of the tangent at t is yt = x + at2
Here
4a = 12 a = 3
Also
t=1
246
(y + y1)
x + x1
x+1
(y + 2)
2
+ 2 = 0 i.e., x(1) + 2 2 2 + 2 = 0
2
2
On simplification we get 3x 2y + 1 = 0
Equation of the normal is of the form 2x + 3y + k = 0
This normal passes through (1, 2)
2+6+k = 0 k=8
Equation of the normal is 2x + 3y 8
=
0
Example 4.62 : Find the equations of the two tangents that can be drawn from
the point (5, 2) to the ellipse 2x2 + 7y2 = 14
Solution:
Equation of the ellipse is
2x2 + 7y2 = 14
i.e.,
x2 y2
7 + 2 =1
Here a2 = 7, b2 = 2
Let the equation of the tangent be y = mx +
a2m2 + b2
y = mx + 7m2 + 2
Since this line passes through the point (5, 2) we get
2 = 5m +
i.e.
2 5m =
7m2 + 2
7m2 + 2
(2 5m)2 = 7m2 + 2
4 + 25m2 20m = 7m2 + 2
18m2 20m + 2 = 0
9m2 10m + 1 = 0
247
(9m 1) (m 1) = 0
m=1
1
or m = 9
248
x2 y2
a2 b2 (a2 + b2)
(iii) the hyperbola 2 2 = 1 is 2 2 =
a b
l
m
n2
(7) The locus of the foot of the perpendicular from a focus to a tangent to
(i) the parabola y2 = 4ax is x = 0
x2 y2
(ii) the ellipse 2 + 2 = 1 is the circle x2 + y2 = a2
b
a
x2 y2
(iii) the hyperbola 2 2 = 1 is the circle x2 + y2 = a2
b
a
(This circle is also called auxiliary circle)
(8) The locus of the point of intersection of perpendicular tangents to
(i) the parabola y2 = 4ax is x = a (the directrx)
x2
(ii) the ellipse 2 +
a
director circle)
y2
= 1 is x2 + y2 = a2 + b2 (This circle is called
b2
x2 y2
(iii) an hyperbola 2 2 = 1 is x2 + y2 = a2 b2 (This circle is also
a
b
called director circle)
(9) The point of intersection of the tangents at t1 and t2 to the
250
(11) If t1 and t2 are the extremities of any focal chord of the parabola
y2 = 4ax, then t1t2 = 1
Note : For the proof of above results one may refer the Solution Book.
4.8. Asymptotes
Consider the graph of a function y = f(x). As a point P on the curve moves
farther and farther away from the origin, it may happen that the distance
between P and some fixed line tends to zero. This fixed line is called an
asymptote.
Note that it is possible only when the curve is open. Since hyperbola is
open and y as x + and x hyperbola have asymptotes.
Definition :
An asymptote to a curve is the tangent to the curve such that the point of
contact is at infinity. In particular the asymptote touches the curve at
+ and .
y
xe
Fi
A
F2
P
in
dL
A
e(
as
pto
ym
te)
F1
Fig. 4. 97
x 2 y2
The equations of the asymptotes to the hyperbola 2 2 = 1
a b
Assume that the equation of an asymptote is of the form y = mx + c.
To find the points of intersection of the hyperbola and the asymptote, solve
2
x
y2
= 1 and y = mx + c.
a2
b2
x2
(mx + c)2
=1
a2
b2
251
1 m2 2 2mc
c2
2 2 x 2 x 2 + 1 = 0
b
a b
b
The points of contact are at infinity. i.e., the roots of the equations are
infinite. Since the roots are infinite, the coefficients of x2 and x must be zero.
1
m2
2mc
2 2 = 0 and
=0
a
b2
b
b
i.e., m = a and c = 0
b
Then y = a x
there are two asymptotes to the hyperbola whose equations are
b
b
y = a x and y = a x
x y
x
y
i.e. a b = 0 and a + b = 0
The combined equation of asymptotes is
x y x + y = 0 i.e.
a b a b
x/a
x2
y2
2 2=0
a
b
y
y/b
=0
F2
(-ae,0)
l1
A'
Z'
-y
x/a
A
Z
0
/b=
F1
(ae,0)
Fig. 4. 98
Results regarding asymptotes :
(1) The asymptotes pass through the centre C(0, 0) of the hyperbola.
252
b
b
(2) The slopes of asymptotes are a and a i.e., the transverse axis and
conjugate axis bisect angles between the asymptotes.
x
y
(3) If 2 is the angle between the asymptotes then the slope of a b = 0 is
b
tan = a .
b
angle between the asymptotes is 2 = 2 tan1 a
(4) We know that sec2 = 1 + tan2
a2 + b2
b2
sec2 = 1 + 2 =
= e2
a
a2
sec = e = sec1e
angle between the asymptotes 2 = 2 sec1e
Important Note :
Eventhough the asymptotes are straight lines, if the angle between the
asymptotes is obtuse, take obtuse angle as the angle between them and
not the corresponding acute angle.
(5) The standard equation of hyperbola and combined equation of
asymptotes differs only by a constant.
(6) If l1 = 0 and l2 = 0 are the separate equations of asymptotes, then the
combined equation of the asymptotes is l1 l2 = 0.
the equation of the corresponding hyperbola is of the form l1l2 = k,
where k is a constant. To find this k, we need a point on the hyperbola.
Example 4.64 : Find the separate equations of the asymptotes of the hyperbola
3x2 5xy 2y2 + 17x + y + 14 = 0
Solution: The combined equation of the asymptotes differs from the hyperbola
by a constant only.
the combined equation of the asymptotes is
3x2 5xy 2y2 + 17x + y + k = 0
Consider 3x2 5xy 2y2 = 3x2 6xy + xy 2y2
= 3x (x 2y) + y(x 2y)
= (3x + y) (x 2y)
The separate equations are 3x + y + l = 0, x 2y + m = 0
253
(2)
4
12 = 1
Here a = 2, b = 12 = 2 3
254
12
1+ 4 = 2
e=
2
2 = 2 sec12 = 2 3 = 3
Example 4.67 : Find the angle between the asymptotes to the hyperbola
3x2 5xy 2y2 + 17x + y + 14 = 0
Solution: Combined equation of the asymptotes differs from that of the
hyperbola by a constant only.
Combined equation of asymptotes is 3x2 5xy 2y2 + 17x + y + k = 0
3x2 5xy 2y2 = 3x2 6xy + xy 2y2
= 3x(x 2y) + y(x 2y)
= (x 2y) (3x + y)
Separate equations are x 2y + l = 0, 3x + y + m = 0
1
Let m1 and m2 be the slopes of these lines, then m1 = 2 , m2 = 3
m1 m2
1/2 ( 3)
angle between the lines is
tan = 1 + m m =
1 + 1/2 ( 3) = 7
1 2
= tan1 (7)
Alternative method : Combined equation of asymptotes is nothing but pair of
straight lines. Hence the angle between the asymptotes is
2 h2 ab
a+b
tan =
2 4 + 6
tan =
32
27
= 2 =7
= tan1 (7)
255
Note : Since the above hyperbola is not in the standard form, it is difficult to
identify whether the angle between the asymptotes is obtuse or acute.
According to the above method we will get only the acute angle as the angle
between the asymptotes.
b
Therefore if the hyperbola in the standard form, use either 2 tan1 a or
2 sec1e to find the angle between the asymptotes and take the angle as it is.
Example 4.68 : Prove that the product of perpendiculars from any point on the
a2b2
x2 y2
hyperbola 2 2 = 1 to its asymptotes is constant and the value is 2
a b
a + b2
Solution:
x12 y12
x2 y2
Let P (x1, y1) be any point on the hyperbola 2 2 = 1 2 2 = 1 (1)
a
b
a
b
The perpendicular distance from (x1, y1) to the asymptote
x y
a b = 0 is
x1 y1
a b
x y
and to a + b = 0 is
1 1
+
a 2 b2
x1 y1
a + b
1 1
+
a2 b 2
y
x/a
y/b
-y
x/a
=0
0
/b=
P(x1,y1)
F2
F1
Fig. 4. 99
Product of perpendicular distances =
256
x1 y1
a + b
.
1 1
+
a2 b 2
x1 y1
a b
1 1
+
a2 b2
x12
y12
a2 b2
1
= 1 1 = 2
b + a2
2+ 2
a b
a2 b2
(by (1))
a2 b2
= 2
, which is a constant.
a + b2
EXERCISE 4.5
(1) Find the equation of the asymptotes to the hyperbola
(i) 36x2 25y2 = 900
(ii) 8x2 + 10xy 3y2 2x + 4y 2 = 0
(2) Find the equation of the hyperbola if
(i) the asymptotes are 2x + 3y 8 = 0 and 3x 2y + 1 = 0 and (5, 3) is a
point on the hyperbola
(ii) its asymptotes are parallel to x + 2y 12 = 0 and x 2y + 8 = 0,
(2, 4) is the centre of the hyperbola and it passes through (2, 0).
(3) Find the angle between the asymptotes of the hyperbola
(i) 24x2 8y2 = 27
(ii) 9(x 2)2 4(y + 3)2 = 36
2
2
(iii) 4x 5y 16x + 10y + 31 = 0
257
This type of rectangular hyperbola is not a standard one. For standard type,
the asymptotes are the co-ordinate axes.
The standard rectangular hyperbola xy = c2 is obtained by rotating the
rectangular hyperbola x2 y2 = a2 through an angle 45 about the origin in the
anticlockwise direction.
y
y
x y = c2
x2 -
y 2 = a2
A
90
45
Fig. 4. 100
4.9.1 Standard equation of a rectangular hyperbola :
For a standard rectangular hyperbola the asymptotes are co-ordinate axes.
Since the axes are the asymptotes, the equations of the asymptotes are x = 0 and
y = 0. The combined equation of the asymptotes is xy = 0. Therefore the
equation of the standard rectangular hyperbola is of the form xy = k. To find k,
we need a point on the rectangular hyperbola.
y
D1
D2
F1(a,a)
A (a/2, a/2)
C
45
M
A
D1
F2(-a,-a)
D2
Fig. 4. 101
258
a
a
a2
.
or k = 2 and
2
2
a2
the equation of the rectangular hyperbola is xy = 2 or
xy = c2
a2
where c2 = 2 .
259
c
Equation of normal at t is y xt2 = t ct3
Two tangents and four normals can be drawn from a point to a
rectangular hyperbola.
Example 4.69 : Find the equation of the standard rectangular hyperbola whose
2
3
centre is 2 , 2 and which passes through the point 1, 3
Solution:
The equation of the standard rectangular hyperbola with centre at (h, k) is
(x h) (y k) = c2
3
The centre is 2 , 2 .
3
the equation of the standard rectangular hyperbola is (x+2) y + 2 = c2
2
2 3
2
2 5
It passes through 1 , 3
(1 + 2) 3 + 2 = c c = 2
3 5
Hence the required equation is (x + 2) y + 2 = 2 or
2xy + 3x + 4y + 1 = 0
Example 4.70 : The tangent at any point of the rectangular hyperbola xy = c2
makes intercepts a, b and the normal at the point makes intercepts p, q on the
axes. Prove that ap + bq = 0
y
Ta
nt
N
or
m
al
e
ng
b
}q
}
p
Fig. 4. 102
260
2
t
c
1 c
p = 2 t ct3 , q = t ct3
t
2c c
1 c
ap + bq = 2ct 2 t ct3 + t t ct3
t
2c c
2c c
= t t ct3 + t t ct3
=0
Example 4.71 : Show that the tangent to a rectangular hyperbola terminated by
its asymptotes is bisected at the point of contact.
Solution:
y
The equation of tangent at
c
P ct, t is x + yt2 = 2ct
the co-ordinates of B as 0, t
O
x
intercept on axes are
Fig. 4. 103
2c
2ct + 0 0 + t
c
The mid-point of AB is 2 , 2 = ct , t
which is the point P. This shows that the tangent is bisected at the point of
contact.
261
EXERCISE 4.6
(1) Find the equation of the standard rectangular hyperbola whose centre is
1 , 1 and which passes through the point 1 , 1 .
2 2
4
(2) Find the equation of the tangent and normal (i) at (3, 4) to the rectangular
1
hyperbolas xy = 12
(ii) at 2 , 4 to the rectangular hyperbola
2xy 2x 8y 1 = 0
(3) Find the equation of the rectangular hyperbola which has for one of its
asymptotes the line x + 2y 5 = 0 and passes through the points (6, 0)
and ( 3, 0).
(4) A standard rectangular hyperbola has its vertices at (5, 7) and ( 3, 1).
Find its equation and asymptotes.
(5) Find the equation of the rectangular hyperbola which has its centre at
(2, 1), one of its asymptotes 3x y 5 = 0 and which passes through the
point (1, 1).
(6) Find the equations of the asymptotes of the following rectangular
hyperbolas.
(i) xy kx hy = 0
(ii) 2xy + 3x + 4y +1 = 0
(iii) 6x2 + 5xy 6y2 + 12x + 5y + 3 = 0
(7) Prove that the tangent at any point to the rectangular hyperbola forms
with the asymptotes a triangle of constant area.
Results without proof :
(1) The foot of the perpendicular from a focus of a hyperbola on an
asymptote lies on the corresponding directrix.
(2) (i) Two tangents (ii) four normals can be drawn from a point to the
rectangular hyperbola xy = c2.
(3) The condition that the line lx + my + n = 0 may be a tangent to the
rectangular hyperbola xy = c2 is 4c2lm = n2
(4) If the normal to the rectangular hyperbola xy = c2 at t1 meets the
curve again at t2 prove that t13 t2 = 1.
Note : For the proof of above results one may refer the Solution Book.
262
Equation
Diagram
Focus
Equation of
Directrix
Axis
x =a
y=0
(0, 0)
x=a
4a
x=a
y=0
(0, 0)
x=a
4a
y =a
x=0
(0, 0)
y=a
4a
y=a
x=0
(0, 0)
y=a
4a
Vertex
Equation of
Latus Rectum
Length of
Latus Rectum
Open rightwards
y = 4ax
(a, 0)
y
2
Open leftwards
y = 4ax
Open upwards
x2 = 4ay
( a, 0)
(0, a)
x
y
Open downwards
x = 4ay
(0, a)
177
Parabola
4a
y y1 = y + y (x x1)
1
2
y y1 =
xx1 / a2 + yy1/b2 = 1
Parametric form :
Equation of chord
Parabola
Chord joining the
points t1 and t2 is
y(t1 + t2) = 2x + 2at1t2
Equation of tangent
at t is yt = x + at2
Equation of normal
at t is
tx + y = 2at + at3
Ellipse
Hyperbola
b (x1+x2)
2
a (y1+y2)
(x x1)
b (x1+x2)
(x x1)
y y1 = 2
a (y1+y2)
xx1 / a2 yy1/b2 = 1
a2x b2y
2
2
x1 y1 = a b
Ellipse
Chord joning the points 1 and 2 is
a2x b2y
2
2
x1 + y1 = a + b
Hyperbola
Chord joning the points 1 and 2 is
(1 2)
x (1 + 2) y (1 + 2)
cos
+
sin
=
cos
a
b
2
2
2
x
y
at is a cos + b sin = 1
by
ax
= a2 b2
cos sin
(1 + 2)
x (1 2) y (1 + 2)
cos
sin
=
cos
a
b
2
2
2
x
y
at is a sec b tan = 1
by
ax
+
= a2 + b2
sec tan
243
5. DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
APPLICATIONS - I
5.1 Introduction :
In higher secondary first year we discussed the theoretical aspects of
differential calculus, assimilated the process of various techniques involved and
created many tools of differentiation. Geometrical and kinematical significances
for first and second order derivatives were also interpreted. Now let us learn
some practical aspects of differential calculus.
At this level we shall consider problems concerned with the applications to
(i) plane geometry, (ii) theory of real functions, (iii) optimisation problems and
approximation problems.
x
t
x
Time
Fig. 5.1
If, however, the velocity of the
car is not constant then the distance /
time graph will not be a straight line.
It may be as shown in Fig.5.2
The average velocity over a
small time t and distance x is
given by the gradient of the chord AB
i.e., the average velocity over time t
x
is .
t
y
Distance
B
x
A
t
Time
Fig. 5.2
Velocity
distance x = 3t3 2 t2 + 4t 1
dx
velocity v = dt = 9t2 4 t + 4 m/s
d2x
= 18t 4 m/s2
dt2
When time t = 0
acceleration a =
(i)
d 2
2
2 = 18 12t rad/s
dt
dy/dt =?
Wall
Solution :
2m
We first sketch the cone
rm
and label it as in Fig. 5.7. Let V, r
4m
and h be respectively the volume of
h
the water, the radius of the cone
and the height at time t, where
Fig. 5.7
t is measured in minutes.
dV
dh
We are given that dt = 2m3/min. and we are asked to find dt when h is 3m.
1
The quantities V and h are related by the equation V = 3 r2h. But it is very
useful to express V as function of h alone.
r
2
In order to eliminate r we use similar triangles in Fig. 5.7 to write h = 4
1
h 2
h
r = 2 and the expression for V becomes V = 3 2 h = 12 h3.
Now we can differentiate each side with respect to t and we have
2 dh
dh
4 dV
dV
dt = 4 h dt dt = h2 dt
dV
Substituting h = 3m and dt = 2m3/min.
4
8
dh
we get, dt =
2 . 2= 9 m/min
(3)
EXERCISE 5.1
(1) A missile fired from ground level rises x metres vertically upwards in
25
t seconds and x = 100t - 2 t2. Find (i) the initial velocity of the missile,
(ii) the time when the height of the missile is a maximum (iii) the
maximum height reached and (iv) the velocity with which the missile
strikes the ground.
(2) A particle of unit mass moves so that displacement after t secs is given by
x = 3 cos (2t 4). Find the acceleration and kinetic energy at the end of 2
K.E. = 1 mv2, m is mass
secs.
2
(3) The distance x metres traveled by a vehicle in time t seconds after the
brakes are applied is given by : x = 20 t 5/3t2. Determine (i) the speed
of the vehicle (in km/hr) at the instant the brakes are applied and (ii) the
distance the car travelled before it stops.
9
[e1.2 = 3.3201)
k = 0.03.
(5) The altitude of a triangle is increasing at a rate of 1 cm/min while the area
of the triangle is increasing at a rate of 2 cm2/min. At what rate is the
base of the triangle changing when the altitude is 10 cm and the area is
100 cm2.
(6) At noon, ship A is 100 km west of ship B. Ship A is sailing east at 35
km/hr and ship B is sailing north at 25 km/hr. How fast is the distance
between the ships changing at 4.00 p.m.
(7) Two sides of a triangle are 4m and 5m in length and the angle between
them is increasing at a rate of 0.06 rad/sec. Find the rate at which the
area of the triangle is increasing when the angle between the sides of
fixed length is /3.
(8) Two sides of a triangle have length 12 m and 15 m. The angle between
them is increasing at a rate of 2 /min. How fast is the length of third side
increasing when the angle between the sides of fixed length is 60?
(9) Gravel is being dumped from a conveyor belt at a rate of 30 ft3/min and
its coarsened such that it forms a pile in the shape of a cone whose base
diameter and height are always equal. How fast is the height of the pile
increasing when the pile is 10 ft high ?
y =f (x)
P (x1,y1)
No
rm
al
at this point is not parallel to the coordinate axes, we can write the
equation of the tangent line at P.
Time
Fig. 5.8
10
11
Example 5.11 : Find the equations of the tangent and normal to the curve
y = x2 x 2 at the point (1, 2).
dy
We have y = x2 x 2 ; slope, m = dx = 2x 1.
Solution :
At the point (1,2), m = 1
Hence the equation of the tangent is y y1 = m(x x1) i.e., y (2) = x 1
i.e., y = x 3
1
Equation of the normal is y y1 = m (x x1)
1
i.e., y (2) = 1 (x 1)
or y = x 1
Example 5.12 : Find the equation of the tangent at the point (a,b) to the
curve xy = c2.
Solution : The equation of the curve is xy = c2.
Differentiating w.r.to x we get,
dy
y +x dx = 0
y
b
dy
dy
or dx = x and m = dx
(a, b)= a .
Hence the required equation of the tangent is
b
y b = a (x a)
i.e., ay ab = bx + ab
x y
bx + ay = 2ab or a + b = 2
Example 5.13 : Find the equations of the tangent and normal at = 2 to the
curve x = a ( + sin ), y = a (1 + cos ).
dx
= a (1 + cos) = 2a cos2 2
Solution : We have
d
dy
dy
Then dx = dx = tan 2
d
12
dy
Slope m = dx
= / = tan 4 = 1
2
y a = (1) x a 2 + 1
1
1
i.e., x + y = 2 a + 2a or x + y 2 a 2a = 0
Equation of the normal at this point is
y a = (1) x a 2 + 1
1
or x y 2 a = 0
Example 5.14 : Find the equations of tangent and normal to the curve
16x2 + 9y2 = 144 at (x1,y1) where x1 = 2 and y1 > 0.
Solution : We have 16x2 + 9y2 = 144
(x1,y1) lies on this curve, where x1 = 2 and y1 > 0
(16 4) + 9 y12 = 144 or 9 y12 = 144 64 = 80
80
80
3 . But y1 > 0 y1 = 3
80
80
y12 = 9
y1 =
2 , 80 = dy
3
dx 2 ,
16
= 9
13
80
3
2
8
=
3 5
80
3
80
8
The equation of the tangent is y 3 =
(x 2)
3 5
On simplification we get 8x + 3 5 y = 36
Similarly the equation of the normal can be found as 9 5 x 24 y + 14 5 = 0
Example 5.15 : Find the equations of the tangent and normal to the ellipse
2 , 2
dx
dy
= a sin ,
= b cos .
y
d
d
dy
T
d
b
dy
P
=
=
cot
=/4
dx
a
dx
x
d
O
N
b
b
m = = a cot 4 = a
Fig. 5.9
b
b
a
,
and the slope is m = a .
Thus the point of tangency is
2
2
b
b
a
The equation of the tangent is y
= a x or bx + ay ab 2 = 0
2
2
b
a
a
The equation of the normal is y
= b x
2
2
14
(1)
(2)
100 = 20 x1 or x1 = 5
i.e., (x1,y1) = (5,10)
and hence the equation of the tangent at (5, 10) is
y 10 = 1(x 5)
or y = x + 5.
Note : This problem is suitable for equation of any tangent to a parabola
a
i.e., y = mx + m
y =g (x)
C2
y =f (x)
C1
tan = tan (2 1)
tan 2 tan 1
=
1 + tan 1 tan 2
T1
m2 m1
= 1+m m
1 2
180
where 0 <
T2
Time
Fig. 5.10
We observe that if their slopes are equal namely m1 = m2 then the two
curves touch each other. If the product m1 m2 = 1 then these curves are said to
cut at right angles or orthogonally. We caution that if they cut at right angles
then m1 m2 need not be 1.
Note that in this case 1 is acute and 2 is obtuse and = 2 1. If 1 is
obtuse and 2 is acute, then = 12.
15
y =(x-2)2
we get x2 = (x 2)2
This gives x = 1. When x = 1, y = 1
The point of intersection is (1, 1)
dy
Now y = x2 dx = 2x
dy
m1 = dx
(1,1) = 2
2
1
(1,1)
2
(0,0)
Tan-1(4/3)
Fig. 5.11
dy
dy
y = (x 2)2 dx = 2(x 2) m2 = dx
(1,1) = 2.
If is the angle between them, then
22
4
1 4
tan = 1 4 =
3 = tan 3
Example 5.18 : Find the condition for the curves
ax2 + by2 = 1, a1x2 + b1y2= 1 to intersect orthogonally.
Solution :
If (x1,y1) is the point of intersection, then ax12 + by12 = 1 ; a1x12 + b1y12 = 1
b1 b
a a1
then, x12 = ab a b , y12 = ab a b (By Cramers rule)
1
1
1
1
ax
dy
1
For ax2 + by2 = 1, m1 = dx
(x ,y ) = by1
1 1
a1x1
= b y
(x ,y )
1 1
1 1
For orthogonal intersection, we have m1m2 = 1. This gives
dy
m2 = dx
2
a a1x1
ax1 a1x1
= 1.
by b y = 1 or
1 1 1
bb1y12
16
b1 b
a a1
aa1x12 + bb1y12 = 0 aa1 ab a b + bb1 ab a b = 0
b1 b
a a1
+ aa = 0
aa1 (b1 b) + bb1 (a a1) = 0 bb
1
1
1 1
1
1
1 1 1 1
or b b + a a = 0 or a a = b b which is the required condition.
1
1
1
1
Example 5.19 : Show that x2 y2 = a2 and xy = c2 cut orthogonally.
Solution : Let (x1,y1) be the point of intersection of the given curves
x12 y12 = a2 and x1 y1 = c2
dy
dy x
2x 2y dx = 0 dx = y
x1
x1
dy
m1 = dx
= y ie., m1 = y
(x ,y ) 1
1
x2 y2 = a2
1 1
xy = c2
c2
y = x
dy
dx =
c2
x2
c2
c2
dy
m2 = dx
= 2 i.e., m2 = 2
(x ,y ) x1
x1
1 1
c2
x1 c2 c2
m1m2 = y 2 = x y = 2 = 1
c
1 x1 1 1
the curves cut orthogonally.
Example 5.20 : Prove that the sum of the intercepts on the co-ordinate axes of
=0
x
(a,0)
Fig. 5.12
17
sin2
cos2
sin2
4
2 (x a cos )
cos
2 +
a cos a sin2
i.e., sum of the intercepts = a cos2 + a sin2 = a
EXERCISE 5.2
(1) Find the equation of the tangent and normal to the curves
(i)
y = x2 4x 5 at x = 2
(iii) y = 2 sin2 3x at x = 6
1 + sinx
(iv) y = cos x at x = 4
(2) Find the points on curve x2 y2=2 at which the slope of the tangent is 2.
(3) Find at what points on the circle x2 + y2 = 13, the tangent is parallel to
the line 2x + 3y = 7
(4) At what points on the curve x2 + y2 2x 4y + 1 = 0 the tangent is
parallel to (i) x axis (ii) y axis.
(5) Find the equations of those tangents to the circle x2 + y2 = 52, which
are parallel to the straight line 2x + 3y = 6.
(6) Find the equations of normal to y = x3 3x that is parallel to
2x + 18y 9 = 0.
(7) Let P be a point on the curve y = x3 and suppose that the tangent line at
P intersects the curve again at Q. Prove that the slope at Q is four times
the slope at P.
(8) Prove that the curve 2x2 + 4y2 = 1 and 6x2 12y2= 1 cut each other at
right angles.
(9) At what angle do the curves y = ax and y = bx intersect (a b) ?
(10) Show that the equation of the normal to the curve
x = a cos3 ; y = a sin3 at is x cos y sin = a cos 2.
(11) If the curve y2 = x and xy = k are orthogonal then prove that 8k2 = 1.
18
19
Solution :
(i) The function is continuous in [1,1] and differentiable in (1,1).
f(1) = f (1) = 0 all the three conditions are satisfied.
1 2x
x
=
f (x) = 2
2
1 x
1 x2
f (x) = 0 x = 0.
(Note that for x = 0, denominator = 1 0) Thus the suitable point for which
Rolles theorem holds is c = 0.
(ii) f(x) = (x a) (b x), a x b, a b.
f (x) is continuous on [a,b] and f (x) exists at every point of (a,b).
f(a) = f(b) = 0 All the conditions are satisfied.
f (x) = (b x) (x a)
a+b
f (x) = 0 2x = b a x = 2
a+b
The suitable point c of Rolles theorem is c = 2
1
(iii) f(x) = 2x3 5x2 4x + 3, 2 x 3
1
1
f is continuous on 2 , 3and differentiable in 2 , 3
0x
(vi) f(x) = x (x 1) (x 2), 0 x 2
20
Solution :
(i) f(x) = x3 3x + 3 0 x 1
f is continuous on [0,1] and differentiable in (0,1)
f(0) = 3 and f(1) = 1 f (a) f (b)
Rolles theorem, does not hold, since f (a) = f (b) is not satisfied.
Also note that f (x) = 3x2 3 = 0 x2 = 1 x = 1
There exists no point c (0,1) satisfying f (c) = 0.
(ii) f(x) = tan x, 0 x
3
f (c) = 0 sin 2c = 0 2c = 0, , 2, 3, ... c = 0, 2, , 2 , ...
21
x
differentiable in (0,2)
(0,0)
f(0) = 0 = f(2) satisfying hypothesis
-1
of Rolles theorem.
-2
Now f (x) = sin x = 0 sin x = 0
(,-2)
x = 0, , 2, . . .
Fig. 5.13
x = , is the required c in (0,2). At x = , y = 1 + cos = 2.
the point (,2) is such that at this point the tangent to the curve is parallel
to x-axis.
EXERCISE 5.3
(1) Verify Rolles theorem for the following functions :
(i) f(x) = sin x,
0x
(ii) f(x) = x2,
(iii) f(x) = | x 1|,
0 x 1
0x2
3
3
(iv) f(x) = 4x3 9x, 2 x 2
22
(2) Using Rolles theorem find the points on the curve y = x2+1, 2 x 2
where the tangent is parallel to x axis.
23
y
C
( x)
y =f
A
x
(0,0)
Fig. 5.14
Remarks (1) : Since the value of c satisfies the condition a < c < b, it follows
ca
that (c a) < (b a) or
(< 1) = , (say).
ba
i.e.,
ca
= c a = (b a), 0 < < 1.
ba
But then c = a + (b a)
the law of the mean can be put in the form
f(b) f(a) = (b a) f (c)
= (b a) f [a + (b a)], 0 < < 1
and this is used in calculating approximate values of functions.
(2) Letting b a = h, the above result can be written as
f(a + h) = f(a) + hf (a + h), 0 < < 1
(3) If we let a = x, h = x, law of the mean becomes
f(x + x) = f(x) + x f (x + x) for some such that 0 < < 1.
Example 5.24 : Verify Lagranges law of the mean for f(x) = x3 on [2,2]
Solution : f is a polynomial, hence continuous and differentiable on [ 2, 2].
f(2) = 23 = 8 ; f (2) = (2)3 = 8
f (x) = 3x2 f (c) = 3c2
By law of the mean there exists an element c ( 2, 2) such that
f(b) f(a)
8 (8)
=4
f (c) =
3c2 =
4
ba
i.e.,
4
2
c2 = 3 c =
3
2
2
and
as both lie in [2,2].
3
3
Example 5.25 :
A cylindrical hole 4 mm in diameter and 12 mm deep in a metal block is
rebored to increase the diameter to 4.12 mm. Estimate the amount of metal
removed.
Solution : The volume of cylindrical hole of radius x mm and depth 12 mm is
given by
24
12mm
V = f(x) = 12 x2
f (c) = 24c.
To estimate f(2.06) f(2) :
4mm
By law of mean,
f(2.06) f(2) = 0.06 f (c)
= 0.06 (24 c), 2 < c < 2.06
Take c = 2.01
f(2.06) f(2) = 0.06 24 2.01
= 2.89 cubic mm.
Fig. 5.15
Note : Any suitable c between 2 and 2.06 other than 2.01 also will give other
estimates.
Example 5.26 : Suppose that f(0) = 3 and f (x) 5 for all values of x, how
large can f(2) possibly be?
Solution : Since by hypothesis f is differentiable, f is continuous everywhere.
We can apply Lagranges Law of the mean on the interval [0,2]. There exist
atleast one c(0, 2) such that
f(2) f(0) = f (c) ( 2 0)
f(2) = f(0) + 2 f (c)
= 3 + 2 f (c)
Given that f (x) 5 for all x. In particular we know that f (c) 5.
Multiplying both sides of the inequality by 2, we have
2f (c) 10
f(2) = 3 + 2 f (c) 3 + 10 = 7
i.e., the largest possible value of f(2) is 7.
Example 5.27 : It took 14 sec for a thermometer to rise from 19C to 100C
when it was taken from a freezer and placed in boiling water. Show that
somewhere along the way the mercury was rising at exactly 8.5C/sec.
Solution : Let T be the temperature reading shown in the thermometer at any
time t. Then T is a function of time t. Since the temperature rise is continuous
and since there is a continuous change in the temperature the function is
differentiable too. By law of the mean there exists a t0 in (0, 14)
such that
T(t2) T(t1)
= T (t0)
t2 t1
Here T (t0) is the rate of rise of temperature at C.
25
1
(ii) f(x) = x , [1,2]
26
f(x) = sin x
; f 2 = sin 2 = 1
f (x) = cos x
; f 2 = cos 2 = 0
f (x) = sin x ; f 2 = 1
f (x) = cos x ; f 2 = 0
27
f(x) = sin x = f 2 +
f 2
1! x 2 +
f 2
x
2!
2 + ...
2
(1)
= 1 + 0 x 2 + 2! x 2 + ...
1
1
2
sin x = 1 2! x 2 + 4! x 2 ...
Example 5.28 :
Obtain the Maclaurins Series for
1) ex
2) loge(1 + x)
Solution :
(1)
f(x) = ex
f(0) = e0 = 1
f (x) = ex
; f (0) = 1
f (x) = e
f (0) = 1
!
1.x 1
1
f(x) = ex = 1 + 1! + 2! x2 + 3! x3
x
x2
x3
= 1 + 1! + 2! + 3! + ... holds for all x
f(x) = loge(1 + x) :
1
f (x) = 1 + x
;
1
;
f (x) =
(1 + x)2
+1.2
f (x) =
;
(1 + x)3
1.2.3
;
f (x) =
(1 + x)4
(2)
f(0) = loge1 = 0
f (0) = 1
f (0) = 1
f (0) = 2!
f (0) = (3!)
1
2!
1
3!
f(x) = loge(1 + x) = 0 + 1! x 2! x2 + 3! x3 4! x4 ... + .
x2 x3 x4
x 2 + 3 4 + .... 1 < x 1.
28
(3)
f(x) = tan1x
f (x) =
; f(0) = 0
1
= 1 x2 + x4 x6. ; f (0) = 1 = 1!
1 + x2
(2) cos2x
(4) tan x, 2 < x < 2
(3) 1 + x
(1) e2x
of the type
as the numerator and denominator becomes in the limiting
case, x tends to .
29
lim
lim ex lim
lim
,
(x ex), x 0 xx,
x1/x
x x x
x
1
/(x1)
lim
which lead to other indeterminate forms of the types
and x 1 x
0 . , , 00, 0 and 1 respectively. These symbols must not be taken
literally. They are only convenient labels for distinguishing types of behaviour
at certain limits. To deal with such indeterminate forms we need a tool that
facilitates the evaluation. This tool was devised by John Bernoulli for
calculating the limit of a fraction whose numerator and denominator approach
zero. This tool today is known as lHpitals rule after Guillaume Francois
Antoinede lHpital.
lHpitals rule :
Let f and g be continuous real valued functions defined on the closed
interval [a,b], f, g be differentiable on (a,b) and g(c) 0.
f (c)
= L it follows that
g(c)
x c
x c
f(x)
lim g(x) = L.
x c
Remarks :
(1) Using lHpitals method, evaluation of the limits of indeterminate
forms works faster than conventional methods. For instance, consider
sin x
lim
x . This limit we know is 1, which we obtained through
x 0
geometrical constructions, a laborious method.
sin x
cos x
But lim x = lim 1 = cos 0 = 1
x 0
x 0
(2) Note that lHpitals rule can be applied only to differentiable
functions for which the limits are in the indeterminate form. For,
x+1
1
x+1 1
lim
is 3 while if lHpitals rule is applied lim x + 3 = 1 = 1.
x
+
3
x 0
x 0
Here f(x) = x + 1 g(x) = x + 3 are both differentiable but not in the
indeterminate form
(3) The conclusion of lHpitals rule is unchanged if lim f(x) = 0 and
x a
x a
30
x a
(4) All other indeterminate forms mentioned above can also be reduced to
0
0 or by a suitable transformation.
We need the following result in some problems
Composite Function Theorem :
Result : If lim g(x) = b and f is continuous at b,
x a
xa
x
Example 5.29 : Evaluate : lim tan x
x 0
x
0
Solution : lim tan x is of the type 0 .
x 0
x
1
1
lim tan x = lim
2 =1=1
x 0
x 0 sec x
1
sin x
if exists
Example 5.30 : Find
lim
11
x + tan x
1
Let y = x As x , y 0
Solution :
1
sin x
sin y 0
= lim
lim
1 = 0
1
1
y 0 tan y
x + tan x
cos y
1
= lim 1 = 1 = 1
y0
2
1 + y
log(sin x)
Example 5.31 : lim
2
( 2x)
x /2
0
Solution : It is of the form 0
log(sin x)
lim
lim
2 =
( 2x)
x /2
1
sin x cos x
2( 2x) (2)
x /2
31
= lim
cotx
0
=
4( 2x) 0
= lim
cosec2x 1
=
42 8
x /2
x /2
Note that here lHpitals rule, applied twice yields the result.
x2
Example 5.32 : Evaluate : lim
ex
x
x2
Solution : lim
x is the type
e
x
x2
2x
2
2
lim
x = lim
x = lim
x = =0
e
e
e
x
x
x
1
Example 5.33 : Evaluate : lim cosec x x
x 0
1
Solution : lim cosec x x is of the type .
x 0
1
1
1
x sin x 0
lim cosec x
= lim sin x x = lim x sinx = 0
x
x 0
x 0
x 0
1 cos x 0
sinx
= 0 type = lim
sin
x
+
x
cos
x
x
x x sin x
cos
+
cos
x 0
x 0
0
=2 = 0
lim
sin x
is of the type 0.
x 0
sin x
x 0
log (cot x)
is of the type
cosec
x
x 0
= lim
32
x 0
x 0
x 0
Caution : When the existence of lim f(x) is not known, log lim f(x) is
x a
x a
meaningless.
sinx
Solution :
lim x
sinx
x 0 +
sinx
Let y = x
x 0 +
x 0 +
Applying lHpitals rule,
1
x
log x
lim
= lim
cosec
x
x 0 +
x 0 +cosec x cot x
sin2x
0
= lim x cos x of the type 0
x 0 +
33
2 sin x cos x
= 0
x
x 0 + sin x cos x
= lim
ie.,
lim logy = 0
x 0 +
Rt
E 1 e L
i
lim
=
R0
R
R0
lim
0
(is of the type 0.)
Rt
lim
R0
t
E L e L
1
Et
Et
= L lim i = L is the suitable formula.
R0
EXERCISE 5.6
Evaluate the limit for the following if exists,
sin x
tan x x
(1) lim
(2) lim
2
x
x 2
x 0 x sinx
sin 1x
x
x 0
x n 2n
x 2 x 2
1
1
2 tan1 x
x2
(6) lim
1
x
x
(3) lim
(5)
lim
x
(4) lim
2
sin x
1/x
logex
x
(7)
lim
x
(9)
lim x2 logex.
x0+
cotx
lim cot 2x
x0
1
x1
(10) lim x
x1
(8)
34
(11)
lim
x /2
lim
cos x
(tanx)
lim
(12) x0+ xx
/x
(13) x 0 (cos x)
x
decreasing on [b,c], and
c d
O a x1 x2 b
increasing again on [c,d]. We
Fig. 5.16
use this as the defining property
of an increasing function.
Definition : A function f is called increasing on an interval I if
f(x1) f(x2) whenever x1 < x2 in I. It is called decreasing on I if f(x1) f(x2)
whenever x1 < x2 in I.
A function that is completely increasing or completely decreasing on I is
called monotonic on I.
In the first case the function f preserves the order.
i.e., x1 < x2 f(x1) f(x2) and in the later case the function f reverses the
order i.e., x1 < x2 f(x1) f(x2). Thanks to the order preserving property,
increasing functions are also known as order preserving functions. Similarly,
the decreasing functions are also known as order reversing functions.
Illustrations :
(i) Every constant function is an increasing function.
(ii) Every identity function is an increasing function.
35
There are other functions that are even worse. They are not monotonic on any
subinterval also. But most of the functions that we consider are not so bad.
Usually, by looking at the graph of the function one can say whether the
function is increasing or decreasing or neither. The graph of an increasing
function does not fall as we go from left to right while the graph of a decreasing
function does not rise as we go from left to right. But if we are not given the
graph, how do we decide whether a given function is monotonic or not ?
Theorem 1 gives us a criterion to do just that.
Theorem 1 : Let I be an open interval. Let f : I R be differentiable. Then
(i) f is increasing if and only if f (x) 0 for all x in I.
(ii) f is decreasing if and only if f (x) 0 for all x in I.
Proof : (i) Let f be increasing and x I. Since f is differentiable f (x) exists and
lim f(x + h) f(x)
is given by f (x) = h0
. If h > 0, then x + h > x and since f is
h
increasing, f(x + h) f(x). Hence f(x + h) f(x) 0.
If h < 0, then x + h < x and f (x + h) f(x). Hence f(x + h) f(x) 0
So either f(x + h) f(x) and h are both non-negative or they are both
non positive.
f(x + h) f(x)
Therefore
is non-negative for all non-zero values of h and
h
f(x + h) f(x)
must also be non-negative. Thus, f (x) 0
lim
h
h0
36
y
=
x
1 f(x) =1
0
Fig. 5.17
f(
x)
3
-2 1
1
-2
Fig. 5.18
37
Fig. 5.19
Theorem 2 :
(i) Let f be positive on I. Then f is strictly increasing on I.
(ii) Let f be negative on I. Then f is strictly decreasing on I.
The proof of the theorem is easy and is left as an exercise.
Corollary : f is strictly monotonic on the interval I, if f is of the same sign
through out I.
You may have noticed that there is a difference between the statement of
Theorem 1 and Theorem 2.
f is increasing if and only if f is non negative
If f > 0, then f is strictly increasing.
Can we have if and only if in Theorem 2 also ?
The answer is no as shown in the following example.
Illustration : Define f : R R by f(x) = x3.
Suppose x1 < x2, Then x2 x1 > 0 and x12 + x22 > 0
This implies x23 x13 = (x2 x1) (x22 + x12 + x1 x2)
1
= (x2 x1) 2 [(x12 + x22)+ (x1 + x2)2] > 0
x13 < x23
Thus whenever x1 < x2, f(x1) < f(x2).
Hence f(x) = x3 is strictly increasing.
But its derivate f (x) = 3x2 and f (0) = 0.
Hence its derivate f is not strictly positive.
Note: If a function changes its signs at different points of a region (interval)
then the function is not monotonic in that region. So to prove the
non- monotonicity of a function, it is enough to prove that f has different signs
at different points.
Example 5.37 : Prove that the function f (x) = sin x + cos2x is not monotonic on
the interval 0, 4 .
38
Example 5.38 : Find the intervals in which f(x) = 2x3 + x2 20x is increasing
and decreasing.
Solution : f (x) = 6x2 + 2x 20 = 2(3x2 + x 10) = 2 (x + 2) ( 3x 5)
Now f (x) = 0 x = 2, and x = 5/3. The values 2 and 5/3 divide the real
line (the domain of f(x)) into intervals (, 2), ( 2, 5/3)and (5/3, ) .
0 5/3
-2
Fig. 5.20
Interval
< x < 2
2 < x < 5/3
x +2
3x 5
f (x)
+
decreasing on [ 2, 5/3]
increasing on [5/3, )
Note (i) : If the critical numbers are not included in the intervals, then the
intervals of increasing (decreasing) becomes strictly increasing (strictly
decreasing)
Note : (ii) The intervals of inc / dec can be obtained by taking and checking a
sample point in the sub-interval.
Example 5.39 : Prove that the function f(x) = x2 x + 1 is neither increasing nor
decreasing in [0,1]
Solution :
f (x) = x2 x + 1
f (x) = 2x 1
1
1
1
f (x) 0 for x 2 i.e., x 2 , 1 f(x) is increasing on 2 , 1
1
1
1
Also f (x) 0 for x 2 x 0, 2. Also f (x) is decreasing on 0, 2
Therefore in the entire interval [0,1] the function f(x) is neither increasing
nor decreasing.
Example 5.40 : Discuss monotonicity of the function
f(x) = sin x, x [0, 2]
39
3
f (x) = sin x and f (x) = cos x = 0 for x = 2 , 2 in [0,2] Now
3
f (x) 0 for 0 x 2 and 2 x 2. Therefore f(x) = sin x is increasing on
0, and 3, 2 i.e., sin x is increasing on 0, 3 , 2
2
2
2 2
Solution :
3
Also, f (x) 0 for 2 x 2 . Therefore f(x) = sin x is decreasing on
, 3
2 2
x 2
Example 5.41 : Determine for which values of x, the function y = x + 1 ,
x 1 is strictly increasing or strictly decreasing.
Solution :
dy (x + 1) 1 (x 2) 1
3
=
> 0 for all x 1.
2
dx =
(x + 1)
(x +1)2
x 2
y = x + 1 , x 1
x 2
x3
f (x)
<x<2
increasing on ( , 2]
2<x<3
decreasing on [2, 3]
+
+
+
3<x<
increasing on [3, )
The points where the tangent to the graph of the function are parallel to the
x axis are given by f (x)= 0, ie., when x = 2, 3 Now f(2) = 29 and f(3) = 28.
Therefore the required points are (2, 29) and (3, 28)
40
Example 5.43 :
Show that f(x) = tan1 (sin x + cos x), x > 0 is a strictly increasing function
in the interval 0, 4 .
Solution :
EXERCISE 5.7
(1) Prove that ex is strictly increasing function on R.
(2) Prove that log x is strictly increasing function on (0, )
(3) Which of the following functions are increasing or decreasing on the
interval given ?
1 1
(i) x2 1 on [0,2]
(ii) 2x2 + 3x on 2 , 2
(iii) ex on [0,1]
(v) x sin x on 0, 4
(4) Prove that the following functions are not monotonic in the intervals
given.
(i) 2x2 + x 5 on [1,0]
(ii) x (x 1) (x + 1) on [0,2]
(ii)
f(x) = x3 3x + 1
(iii) f(x) = x3 + x + 1
(iv)
(vi)
41
Inequalities :
Example 5.44 :
Prove that ex > 1 + x for all x > 0.
f (x) = ex 1 > 0 for x > 0
Let f(x) = ex x 1
Solution :
x =/2
y=
x
y =tan x
Solution :
f is strictly increasing.
y =sin x
(1)
/2
Fig. 5.21
g is strictly increasing
For x > 0, f(x) > f(0) tan x x > 0 tan x > x (2)
From (1) and (2)
42
EXERCISE 5.8
(1) Prove the following inequalities :
x3
x2
(ii) sin x > x 6 , x > 0
(i) cos x > 1 2 , x > 0
(iii) tan1 x < x for all x > 0
(slope)
Positiv
e
Gradie
nt
ve
Negati
nt
Gradie
)
e
p
lo
(s
Positiv
e Grad
ient
(slope
)
For since the fabric of the Universe is most perfect and the work of a
most wise creator, nothing at all takes place in the Universe in which some rule
of maximum or minimum does not appear
Leonard Euler
Fig. 5.22
Let us first explain exactly what we mean by maximum and minimum values.
In fig 5.22 the gradient (rate
of change) of the curve changes
from positive between O and P
to negative between P and Q and
positive again between Q and R.
At point P, the gradient is zero
and as x increases, the gradient
(slope) of the curve changes
from positive just before P to
negative just after. Such a point
is called a maximum point and
appears as the crest of a wave.
y
Maximum
Point
Maximum
Point
Point of
Inflexion
x
Minimum
Point
Fig. 5.23
43
f (d)
f (a)
aO b
Fig. 5.24
44
y = x2
x
O
Min. value =0; No Max.
Fig. 5.25
y
8
6 y =x3
2
-4
-2
-2
-4
-6
No Minimum
No Maximum
-8
Fig. 5.26
y
45
(-1,37)
40
(4,32)
30
20
10 (1,5)
-1 0
-10
1 2
(2,-8)
-20
-30
(3,-27)
Fig. 5.27
, 0x<1
0 , 1 x 2
The function is defined on the
closed interval [0,2] but has no
maximum value. Notice that the
range of f is the interval [0,1). The
function takes on value close to 1
but never attains the value 1.
f(x) =
Fig. 5.28
Lim
Lim
f(x) = x 1 (x2) = 1 ; x 1 + f(x) = 0
y
4
f (x) =x2, 0<x<2
No Maximum
No Minimum
Fig. 5.29
If we alter the function by including either end point of the interval (0,2)
then we get one of the situations shown in Fig. 5.30, Fig. 5.31, Fig. 5.32 In
particular the function f(x) = x2, 0 x 2 is continuous on the closed interval
[0,2]. So the extreme value theorem says that the function has an absolute
maximum and an absolute minimum.
46
Fig. 5.30
No Maximum
Minimum f2 (0) =0
Maximum f1 (2) =4
No Minimum
Maximum f3 (2) =4
Minimum f3 (0) =0
Fig. 5.31
Fig. 5.32
Inspite of the above examples we point out that there are functions which
are neither continuous nor differentiable but still attains minimum and
maximum values. For instance, consider
1 , x is irrational
0 , x is rational
(This function is known as characteristic function on the set of irrational
numbers)
This function is nowhere differentiable and everywhere discontinuous. But
the maximum value is 1 and the minimum value is 0.
The extreme value theorem says that a continuous function on a closed
interval has a maximum value and minimum value, but it does not tell us how to
find their extreme values.
y
Fig. 5.33 shows the graph of a
(c, f (c))
function f with a local maximum at
c and a local minimum at d. It
appears that at the maximum and
(d, f (d))
minimum points the tangent line is
horizontal and therefore has slope
zero. We know that the derivative
x
is the slope of the tangent line, so it
O
c
d
Fig. 5.33
appear that f (c) = 0 and f (d) = 0.
f(x) =
The following theorem shows that this is always true for differentiable
functions.
Fermats Theorem : If f has a local extremum (maximum or minimum) at c
and if f (c) exists then f (c) = 0.
The following examples caution us that we cannot locate extreme values
simply by setting f (x) = 0 and solving for x.
47
y =- x
y =x
y =|x|
Fig. 5.34
(8) The function f(x) = 3x 1, 0 x 1
has its maximum value when x = 1 but
f (1) = 3 0. This does not contradict
Fermats Theorem. Since f(1) = 2 is not a
local maximum.
Note that the number 1 is not
contained in an open interval in the
domain of f.
y
(1,2)
y =3x 1
0x1
1
-1
-1 (0,-1)
Fig. 5.35
Remark : The above examples demonstrate that even when f (c) = 0 there
need not be a maximum or minimum at c. Further more, there may be an
extreme value even when f (c) 0 or when f (c) does not exist.
y
8
6
y =x3
4
2
-2 0
2
-2
-4
-6
-8
Fig. 5.36
Fermats theorem does suggest that we should atleast start looking for
extreme values of f at the numbers c where f (c) = 0 or f (c) does not exist.
Definition : A critical number of a function f is a number c in the domain of f
such that either f (c) = 0 or f (c) does not exist.
48
Stationary points are critical numbers c in the domain of f, for which f (c)= 0.
3
/
Example 5.47 : Find the critical numbers of x 5 (4 x)
Solution :
3
8
/
/
f(x) = 4 x 5 x 5
f (x) =
=
12 2/5
8 3/5
x
5
5 x
4 2/5
(3 2x)
5 x
3
Therefore f (x) = 0 if 3 2x = 0 i.e., if x = 2 . f (x) does not exist when
3
x = 0. Thus the critical numbers are 0 and 2 .
Note that if f has a local extremum at c, then c is a critical number of f, but
not vice versa.
To find the absolute maximum and absolute minimum values of a
continuous function f on a closed interval [a,b] :
(1) Find the values of f at the critical numbers, of f in (a,b).
(2) Find the values of f(a) and f(b)
(3) The largest of the values from steps 1 and 2 is the absolute maximum
value, the smallest of these values is the absolute minimum value.
Example 5.48 : Find the absolute maximum and minimum values of the
1
f (x) = 3x2 6x = 3x (x 2)
-1/2 0
Fig. 5.37
Since f (x) exists for all x, the only critical numbers of f are x = 0, x = 2.
1
Both of these critical numbers lie in the interval 2 , 4 . Value of f at
49
( ) ( )
( )
and f(4) = 43 3 42 + 1 = 17
Comparing these four numbers, we see that the absolute maximum value is
f(4) = 17 and the absolute minimum value is f(2) = 3.
Note that in this example the absolute maximum occurs at an end point, whereas
the absolute minimum occurs at a critical number.
Example 5.48(a): Find the absolute maximum and absolute minimum values of
f(x) =x 2sin x, 0 x 2.
f(x) =x 2 sin x, is continuous in [0, 2]
Solution :
f (x) = 1 2 cos x
1
5
f (x) = 0 cos x = 2 x = 3 or 3
The value of f at these critical points are
f 3 = 3 2 sin 3 = 3 3
5
5
5
f 3 = 3 2 sin 3
5
= 3 + 3
6.968039
The values of f at the end points are f(0) = 0 and f(2) = 2 6.28
50
Example 5.49 : Discuss the curve y = x4 4x3 with respect to local extrema.
Solution :
f(x) = x4 4x3
f (x) = 4x3 12x2 , f (x) = 12x2 24x
(v) Determine the sign of the gradient (slope f (x) of the curve just before
and just after the stationary points. If the sign change for the gradient
of the curve is
(a) positive to negative this point is a maximum one
(b) negative to positive this point is a minimum one
Example 5.50 : Locate the extreme point on the curve y = 3x2 6x and
determine its nature by examining the sign of the gradient on either side.
51
Solution :
1 27
Hence the coordinates of the stationary points are (1, 0) and 4 , 256
Caution :
No function will attain local maximum / minimum at the end points of its
domain.
52
EXERCISE 5.9
(1) Find the critical numbers and stationary points of each of the following
functions.
(i) f(x) = 2x 3x2
(ii) f(x)
= x3 3x + 1
(iv) f(x)
x+1
x +x+1
2
f(x) = x2 2x + 2,
[0,3]
(ii)
f(x) = 1 2x x2,
[4,1]
9 x2 ,
x
f(x) = x + 1,
[1,2]
[1,2]
[3,5]
0,
3
x 2 cos x,
[, ]
(3) Find the local maximum and minimum values of the following :
(i) x3 x
(iii) x4 6x2
(v) sin2 ,
(vi) t + cos t
[0, ]
53
54
Note that x 0 and x 1200 (otherwise A < 0). So the function that we
wish to maximize is
A (x) = 2400 x 2x2, 0 x 1200.
A(x) = 2400 4x, so to find the critical numbers we solve the equation
2400 4x = 0 which gives x = 600. The maximum of A must occur either at this
critical number or at an end point of the interval.
Since A(0) = 0, A(600) = 7,20,000 and A(1200) = 0, thus the maximum
value is A (600) = 720,000. When x = 600, y = 2400 1200 = 1200
Hence the rectangular field should be 600 ft wide and 1200 ft long.
Note : This problem also be done by using second derivative test (local). In this
case x > 0 and y > 0.
Example 5.53 :
to the point (1,4)
Find a point on the parabola y2 = 2x that is closest
y
Solution : Let (x,y) be the point
on the parabola y2 = 2x. The
distance between the points (1,4)
and
(x,y) is d =
(1,4)
y2 = 2x
(x,y)
(x 1)2 + (y 4)2 .
0
y2
(x,y) lies on y = 2x x = 2 ,
y2
so d2= f(y) = ( 2 1)2 + (y 4)2
2
Fig. 5.39
(Note that the minimum of d occurs at the same point as the minimum of d2)
y2
Now f (y) = 2 2 1 (y) + 2 (y 4)
= y3 8 = 0 at a critical point.
y3 8 = 0 y = 2 (since y2 + 2y + 4 = 0 is not possible)
55
Observe that f (y) < 0 when y < 2 and f (y) > 0 when y > 2, so by the
first derivate test, for absolute extrema, the absolute minimum occurs when
y2
y = 2. The corresponding value of x is x = 2 = 2. Thus the point on y2 = 2x
closest to (1,4) is (2,2).
Note : This problem also be done by using second derivative test
Example 5.54 :
Find the area of the largest rectangle that can be inscribed in a semi circle
of radius r.
Solution :
x2 +y2 =r2
Let be the angle made by OP
P(r cos , r sin )
with the positive direction of xaxis.
r
Then the area of the rectangle A is
x
A() = (2 r cos) (r sin)
Fig. 5.40
= r2 2 sin cos = r2 sin 2
Now A() is maximum when sin 2 is maximum. The maximum value of
A () = 2r2 cos 2 = 0 2 = 2 ; = 4
Aliter :
From the above problem, we understand that the method of calculus gives
the solution faster than the algebraic method.
Example 5.55 : The top and bottom margins of a poster are each 6 cms and the
side margins are each 4 cms. If the area of the printed material on the poster is
fixed at 384 cms2, find the dimension of the poster with the smallest area.
Solution : Let x and y be the length and breadth of printed area, then the area
xy = 384
56
x +8
6 cms
4
x
y
y +12
6 cms
Fig. 5.41
1
A = 16 384 3
x
A = 0 x = 16
But x > 0
x = 16
when x = 16, A > 0
when x = 16, the area is minimum
y = 24
x + 8 = 24, y + 12 = 36
Hence the dimensions are 24cm and 36 cm.
Example 5.56 : Show that the volume of the largest right circular cone that can
8
be inscribed in a sphere of radius a is 27 (volume of the sphere).
Solution : Given that a is the radius of
the sphere and let x be the base radius of
a
the cone. If h is the height of the cone,
c
then its volume is
y
1
2
V = 3 x h
O x
1
= 3 x2 (a + y)
(1)
Fig. 5.42
where OC = y so that height h = a + y.
From the diagram x2 + y2 = a2
(2)
57
3
9 (a + 3 a) = 27 (3 a ) = 27 (volume of the sphere)
Example 5.57 : A closed (cuboid) box with a square base is to have a volume
of 2000 c.c. The material for the top and bottom of the box is to cost Rs. 3 per
square cm. and the material for the sides is to cost Rs. 1.50 per square cm. If the
cost of the materials is to be the least, find the dimensions of the box.
Solution : Let x, y respectively denote the length of the side of the square base
and depth of the box. Let C be the cost of the material
Area of the bottom = x2
Area of the top = x2
Combined area of the top and bottom = 2x2
Area of the four sides = 4xy
Cost of the material for the top and bottom = 3(2x2)
Cost of the material for the sides = (1.5) (4xy) = 6xy
Total cost C = 6x2 + 6xy
(1)
2
58
8-x
x2 + 9
6
(8 x)
8
Fig. 5.43
Therefore the total time T = Rt + rt =
(8 x)
x2 + 9
+ 8 , 0 x 8.
6
x2 + 9
16x2 = 9 (x2 + 9)
7x2 = 81
59
9
9
since x =
is not admissible.
7
7
9
The only critical number is x =
. We calculate T at the end point of the
7
9
.
domain 0 and 8 and at x =
7
x=
T(0) = 1.5, T
9
7
73
= 1 + 8 1.33, and T(8) = 6 1.42
7
9
, the man
7
9
km ( 3.4 km) down stream from his starting
7
point.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
EXERCISE 5.10
Find two numbers whose sum is 100 and whose product is a maximum.
Find two positive numbers whose product is 100 and whose sum is
minimum.
Show that of all the rectangles with a given area the one with smallest
perimeter is a square.
Show that of all the rectangles with a given perimeter the one with the
greatest area is a square.
Find the dimensions of the rectangle of largest area that can be
inscribed in a circle of radius r.
5
Resistance to motion, F, of a moving vehicle is given by, F = x + 100x.
Determine the minimum value of resistance.
60
A
0
Fig. 5.44(c)
Definition :
If the graph of f lies above all of its tangents on an interval I, then it is
called concave upward (convex downward) on I. If the graph of f lies below all
of its tangents on I, it is called concave downward (convex upward) on I.
Let us see how the second derivative helps to determine the intervals of
concavity (convexity). Looking at Fig.5.44(c), you can see that, going from left
to right, the slope of the tangent increases. This means that the derivative f (x)
is an increasing function and therefore its derivative f (x) is positive. Likewise
in Fig.5.44 (d) the slope of the tangent decreases from left to right, so f (x)
decreases and therefore f (x) is negative. This reasoning can be reversed and
suggests that the following theorem is true.
The test for concavity (convexity) :
Suppose f is twice differentiable on an interval I.
(i) If f (x) > 0 for all x in I, then the graph of f is concave upward
(convex downward) on I.
(ii) If f(x) < 0 for all x in I, then the graph of f is concave downward
(convex upward) on I.
61
B
x
Fig. 5.45
Remark :
We caution the reader that points of inflections need not be critical points
and critical points need not be points of inflections. However x = x0 is a critical
point such that f (x) does not change its sign as f(x) passes through x0, then
x0 is a point of inflection and for points of inflections x0, it is necessary that
f (x0) = 0. If f (x) does not change its sign even if f (x0) = 0 then x0 cannot be
a point of inflection. Thus the conjoint of the above discussion is that for points
of inflections x0, f (x0) = 0 and in the immediate neighbourhood (a, b) of x0, f
62
Concave
downward
Fig. 5.46
(convexity)
of
the
y = 2 x2
y = 2x and y = 2 < 0 for x R
Here the curve is everywhere concave downwards (convex upwards).
Example 5.60 :
Determine the domain of convexity of the function y = ex.
y = ex ; y = ex > 0 for x
Solution :
Hence the curve is everywhere convex downward.
Solution :
63
curve
y=x
y
16
y =x4
12
y = 12x2 = 0 for x = 0
x =0
f (x) = 3x 3 = 3(x 1)
2
Fig. 5.48
Now f (x) = 6x
Thus f (x) > 0 when x > 0 and f (x) < 0 when x < 0.
The test for concavity then tells us that the curve is concave downward on
( , 0) and concave upward on (0, ). Since the curve changes from concave
downward to concave upward when x = 0, the point (0, f(0)) i.e., (0, 1) is a
point of inflection. Note that f (0) = 0
Example 5.63 :
Discuss the curve y = x4 4x3 with respect to concavity and points of
inflection.
Solution :
f(x) = x4 4x3 f (x) = 4x3 12x2
f (x) = 12x2 24x = 12x (x 2)
Since f (x) = 0 when x = 0
or 2, we divide the real line into
three intervals.
Fig. 5.49
( , 0), (0, 2), (2, ) and complete the following chart.
64
f (x) = 12x (x 2)
+
Inerval
( , 0)
(0, 2)
(2, )
concavity
upward
downward
upward
The point (0, f(0)) i.e., (0, 0) is an inflection point since the curve changes
from concave upward to concave downward there. Also (2, f(2)) i.e., (2, 16) is
an inflection point since the curve changes from concave downward to concave
upward there.
Note : The intervals of concavity can be obtained by taking and checking a
sample point in the sub-interval.
Example 5.64 : Find the points of inflection and determine the intervals of
convexity and concavity of the Gaussion curve y = ex
2
2ex (2x2 1) = 0
1
1
x=
, or x =
2
2
-1/2
1/2
Fig. 5.50
1
1
we have y > 0 and when x >
we have y < 0
when x <
2
2
The second derivative changes sign from positive to negative when passing
1
1
. Hence, for x =
, there is a point of inflection
through the point x =
2
2
1
, e 2
2
1
1
we have y < 0 and when x >
we have y > 0 . Thus
2
2
1
; its co-ordinates are
there is also a point of inflection on the curve for x =
2
When x <
1
1
, e 2. (Incidentally, the existence of the second point of inflection follows
directly from the symmetry of the curve about the y-axis). Also from the signs
of the second derivatives, it follows that
65
1
the curve is concave upward ;
2
1
1
<x<
the curve is convex upward ;
2
2
1
< x < the curve is concave upward.
2
Example 5.65 :
Determine
y = x3 3x + 2
the
points
of
inflection
if
any,
of
the
function
y = x3 3x + 2
dy
2
dx = 3x 3 = 3(x + 1) (x 1)
Solution :
d2y
= 6x = 0 x = 0
dx2
Now
d2y
( 0.1) = 6( 0.1) < 0 and
dx2
d2y
(0.1) = 6(0.1) > 0. In the neighbourhood ( 0.1, 0.1)
dx2
of 0, y ( 0.1) and y(0.1) are of opposite signs. Therefore (0, y (0)) i.e.,
(0, 2) is a point of inflection.
Note : Note that x = 0 is not a critical point since y (0) = 3 0.
Example 5.66 :
Test for points of inflection of the curve y = sinx, x (0, 2)
Solution :
y = cosx
y = sinx = 0 x = n, n = 0, 1, 2, ...
66
f(x) = (x 1)1/3
(2)
f(x) = x2 x
(3)
(4)
f(x) = x4 6x2
(5)
(6)
= 12x2 2x3 x4
67
f (x0) = 0 or is
Maximum point
discontinuous
f (x0) = 0 or is
Minimum point
discontinuous
f (x0) = 0 or is
discontinuous
f (x0) = 0 or is
discontinuous
Character of
the point
x = x0
f (x0)
f (x0)
x < x0
Maximum
point
Minimum
point
f (x0)
Critical point
of f
Critical point
of f
x > x0
Point of
Inflection
Point of
inflection
Unknown
Unknown
0 or 0
0 or 0
0 or 0
0 or 0
0
0
68
6. DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
APPLICATIONS-II
6.1 Differentials : Errors and Approximation
dy
dx to denote the derivative of
y with respect to x but we have regarded it as a single entity and not as a ratio.
In this section we give the quantities dy and dx separate meanings in such a way
that their ratio is equal to the derivative. We also see that these quantities, called
differentials, are useful in finding the approximate values of functions.
We have used the Liebnitz notation
69
R
Q
y =f (x) P
dy
dx = x
0
x + x
Fig. 6.1
Therefore dy represents the amount that the tangent line rises or falls
whereas y represents the amount that the curve y = f(x) rises or falls when x
changes by an amount dx.
dy
y
y dy
lim
Since dx = x 0
, we have
70
(ii)
1
3
1
x = x. Then dy = 3 x.
2
3
65.
dx
1
1
1
This gives dy = 3 (64) 3 (1) = 3(16) = 48
1
65 = f(64 + 1) f(64) + dy = 4 + 48 4.021
3
Note : The actual value of 65 is 4.0207257... Thus the approximation by
differentials is accurate to three decimal places even when x = 1.
Example 6.4 : The radius of a sphere was measured and found to be 21 cm with
a possible error in measurement of atmost 0.05 cm. What is the maximum error
in using this value of the radius to compute the volume of the sphere ?
4
Solution : If the radius of the sphere is r, then its volume is V = 3 r3. If the
error in the measured value of r is denoted by dr = r, then, the corresponding
error in the calculated value of V is V. which can be approximated by the
differential dV = 4r2 dr.
When r = 21 and dr=0.05, this becomes dV = 4(21)2 0.05 277.
The maximum error in the calculated volume is about 277 cm3.
Note : Although the possible error in the above example may appear to be
rather large, a better picture of the error is given by the relative error, which is
computed by dividing the error by the total volume.
V dV
277
V V 38,808 0.00714
71
dr
0.05
Solution :
If T = k l
= k l2
1
dT
k
Then dl = k 2 l 2 =
2 l and dl = 32.0 32.1 = 0.1 cm
= 0.156%
Hence the percentage error in the time of swing is a decrease of 0.156%.
Aliter :
T = k l
1
Taking log on both sides,
log T = log k + 2 log l
1 1
1
Taking differential on both sides, T dT = 0 + 2 l dl
T
1
1 1
i.e, T T dT = 0 + 2 l dl
T
1 dl
T 100 = 2 l 100
1 (0.1)
= 2 32.1 100
= 0.156%
ie., the percentage error in the time of swing is a decrease of 0.156.
1
Caution : Differentiation is carried out with the common understanding that the
function involved admit logarithmic differentiation.
72
1
= n times the percentage error in the number.
Example 6.8 : Find the approximate change in the volume V of a cube of side x
meters caused by increasing the side by 1%
Solution : The volume of the cube of side x is,
V = x3 ; dV = 3x2 dx
When dx = 0.01x,
EXERCISE 6.1
(1) Find the differential of the functions
4
(i) y = x5
(ii) y =
x2
(iv) y = 2x + 3
(v) y = sin 2x
73
(iii) y =
x4 + x2 + 1
(vi) y = x tan x
(2) Find the differential dy and evaluate dy for the given values of x and dx.
(i)
1
y = 1 x2 , x = 5, dx = 2
(ii)
y = x4 3x3+ x 1, x = 2, dx = 0.1.
(iii)
(iv)
y =
(v)
y = cos x, x = 6 dx = 0.05
1 x , x = 0, dx = 0.02
(3) Use differentials to find an approximate value for the given number
(i)
1
(ii) 10.1
36.1
(iii) y =
1.02 +
(iv) (1.97)6
1.02
74
75
(2) Symmetry Test : The symmetry test shows that the curve does not possess
any of the symmetry properties.
(3) Asymptotes : As x c (for c finite) y does not tend to and vice versa.
Therefore the curve doest not admit any asymptote.
(4) Monotonicity : The first derivative test shows that the curve is increasing
throughout (,) since y 0 for all x.
y
8
6
y =x3 +1
-6 -4 -2
2
0
-2
-4
-6
-8
Fig. 6.2
Example 6.10 : Trace the cure y2 = 2x3.
Solution :
(1) Domain, extent, Intercept and Origin :
When x 0, y is well defined. As x , y ,
The curve exists in first and fourth quadrant only
The intercepts with the axes are given by :
x = 0, y = 0 and when y = 0, x = 0
Clearly the curve passes through origin.
(2) Symmetry : By symmetry test, we have, the curve is symmetric about
x axis only.
(3) Asymptotes : As x + , y , and vice versa.
the curve does not admit asymptotes.
(4) Monotonicity : For the branch y = 2 x3/2 of the curve is increasing since
dy
3/2
dx > 0 for x > 0 and the branch y = 2x of the curve is decreasing
dy
since dx < 0 for x > 0
76
(0,0)
Fig. 6.3
Example 6.11 : Discuss the curve y2 ( 1 + x) = x2 (1 x)
for (i) existence (ii) symmetry (iii) asymptotes (iv) loops
Solution :
(i) Existence : The function is not well defined when x >1 and x 1 and the
curve lies between 1 < x 1.
(ii) Symmetry : The curve is symmetrical about the x axis only.
(iii) Asymptotes : x = 1 is a vertical asymptote to the curve parallel to
y axis.
(iv) Loops : (0,0) is a point through which the curve passes twice and hence a
loop is formed between x = 0 and x = 1.
x =-1
(0,0)
(-1,0)
(1,0)
Fig. 6.4
Example 6.12 : Discuss the curve a2 y2 = x2 (a2 x2), a > 0
for (i) existence (ii) symmetry (iii) asymptotes (iv) loops
Solution :
(i) Existence :
The curve is well defined for (a2 x2) 0 i.e., x2 a2 i.e., x a and x a
77
(ii) Symmetry : The curve is symmetrical about x-axis, y axis, and hence
about the origin.
(iii) Asymptotes : It has no asymptote.
(iv) Loops : For a < x < 0 and 0 < x < a, y2 > 0 y is positive and
negative a loop is formed between x = 0 and x = a and another loop is
formed between x = a and x = 0.
y
(0,0)
-a
Fig. 6.5
2
Fig. 6.6
EXERCISE 6.2
(1) Trace the curve y = x3
Discuss the following curves for (i) existence
(ii) symmetry
(iii) asymptotes
(iv) loops
(2) y2 = x2 (1 x2)
(3) y2 (2 + x) = x2 (6 x)
(4) y2 = x2 (1 x)
(5) y2 = (x a) (x b)2 ; a, b > 0, a > b.
78
79
Partial Derivatives :
Let (x0,y0) be any point in the domain of definition of f(x,y). Let u = f(x, y)
We define partial derivative of u with respect to x at the point (x0,y0) as the
ordinary derivative of f(x,y0) with respect to x at the point x = x0.
i.e.,
u
d
= dx f(x,y0)
x=x
x (x , y )
0 0
0
lim f(x0 + h, y0) f(x0,y0)
, (denoted by fx or ux at (x0, y0))
= h0
h
y=y
y (x , y )
0 0
0
lim f(x0, y0 + h) f(x0,y0)
(denoted by fy or uy at (x0, y0))
= h0
h
provided the limit exists.
A function is said to be differentiable at a point (at all points on a domain)
if its partial derivatives exist at that point (at all points of a domain). The
process of finding partial derivatives is called partial differentiation.
Remark :
Throughout we shall consider only continuous functions of two or three
variables possessing continuous first order partial derivatives.
Second Order Partial Derivatives : When we differentiate a function
u = f(x,y) twice we obtain its second order derivatives, defined by,
2f
f
2 = x
x
x
2f
f
and
2 = y
y
y
f
f
2f
2f
=
=
=
denoted respectively
x y
y x
x y
y x
as fxx or uxx, fyy or uyy and fxy = fyx or uxy = uyx
Note that since the function and its partial derivaties are continuous the
order of differentiation is immaterial (A result due to Euler)
80
u / y
u / x
x
du
f dx
f dy
dt = x dt + y dt
y
dy / dt
dx / dt
t independent variable
dx / dt
dy / dt
u / y
Fig. 6.8
Chain rule (function of a function rule) of three variables :
If u = f(x,y, z) is differentiable
u dependent variable
and x, y, z are differentiable functions
of t, then u is a differentiable
u / z
u / x
function of t and
y
du f dx
f dy f dz
x
z
dt = x dt + y dt + z dt
dz / dt
t independent variable
Fig. 6.9
Chain rule for partial derivatives :
If w = f(u,v), u = g(x,y), ; v = h (x,y) then
w u
w v
w
=
+
u x
v x
x
w w u
w v
=
+
y
u y
v y
w = f (u,v)
w = f (u,v)
w / v
w / u
u
v
v / y
u / y
v / x
u / x
w / v
w / u
Fig. 6.10
81
Homogeneous functions :
A function of several variables is said to be homogeneous of degree n if
multiplying each variables by t (where t > 0) has the same effect as multiplying
the original function by tn. Thus, f(x,y) is homogeneous of degree
n if f(tx, ty) = tn f(x,y)
Eulers Theorem :
f
f
+y
= nf
If f(x,y) is a homogeneous function of degree n, then x
y
x
Remark : Eulers theorem can be extended to several variables.
Example 6.14 : Determine :
u u 2u 2u 2u
2u
,
, 2, 2,
and
x y x y x y
yx
2 u
2u
=
due to continuity of u and its first order partial
x y
yx
derivatives.
Example 6.15 : If u = log (tan x + tan y + tan z), prove that sin 2x
u
= 2
x
sec2x
u
= tanx + tany + tanz
x
Solution :
sin 2z
L.H.S. = sin 2x
2 tan z
u
= tan x + tan y + tan z
z
2 (tan x + tan y + tan z)
u
= tan x + tan y + tan z = 2 = R.H.S
x
82
Example 6.16 :
If U =(x y) (y z) (z x) then show that Ux + Uy + Uz = 0
Solution :
Ux = (y z) {(x y) ( 1) + (z x).1}
= (y z) [(z x) (x y)]
Similarly Uy = (z x) [(x y) (y z)]
Uz = (x y) [(y z) (z x)]
Ux + Uy + Uz = (y z) [(z x) (z x)] + (x y) [ (y z) + (y z)]
+ (z x) [(x y) (x y)]
=0
Example 6.17 : Suppose that z = ye
Solution :
x2
dz
where x = 2t and y = 1 t then find dt
z dx z dy
dz
dt = x dt + y dt
z
z
dy
x2
x2 dx
= ye 2x ;
= e ; dt = 2 ; dt = 1
x
y
dz
x2
x2
=
y
2x
e
(2)
+
e
(1)
dt
x2 x2
4t2
4t2
= 4 xy e e = e [(8t (1 t) 1)] = e (8t 8t2 1)
(Since x = 2t and y = 1 t)
x
w
w
and
Example 6.18 : If w = u2 ev where u = y and v = y log x, find
x
y
Solution : We know
w u w v
w w u w v
w
=
+
; and
=
+
u x v x
y
u y v y
x
w
w
= 2uev ;
= u2ev ;
v
u
1
u
x
u
=y ;
= 2
x
y
y
y
v
=x ;
x
v
y
= log x.
2uev
y
x
w
= y + u2ev x = xy 2 (2 + y)
x
y
83
x
w
= 2uev 2 + u2ev log x
y
y
x
x2
= 3 xy [ylog x 2], (since u = y and v = y log x)
y
dw
Example 6.19 : If w = x + 2y + z2 and x = cos t ; y = sin t ; z = t. Find dt
w dx w dy w dz
dw
+
+
Solution : We know dt =
x dt
y dt
z dt
dx
w
= 1 ; dt = sin t
x
dy
w
= 2 ; dt = cos t
y
dz
w
= 2 z ; dt = 1
z
dw
dt = 1 ( sin t) + 2 cos t + 2z = sin t + 2 cos t + 2 t
1
2 2
x + y2
1
= t f(x,y) = t1 f(x, y)
f(tx, ty) =
2 2
t x +t y
f
f
+y
= f
y
x
Verification :
1
fx = 2
2x
(x2 +y2)
/2
(x2 +y2)
3
/2
Similarly, fy =
(x2 +y2)
3
/2
x2 + y2
xfx + yfy =
(x
3
2 /2
+y
Hence Eulers theorem is verified.
84
1
x2 + y2
= f.
x(Uy)x + y (Uy)y = (n 1) Uy
i.e., xUyx + y Uyy = (n 1) Uy
i.e., x
2u
u
2u
+ y 2 = (n 1)
x y
y
y
u 1
u
+ y
= tan u if
y 2
x
xy
x + y
u = sin1
(1) Verify
x
(iv) u = tan1 y .
85
x2 + y2 , show that x
(2) (i) If u =
x
y
u
u
+y
=u
x
y
x
y
u
u
x
+y
= 0.
(ii) If u = e sin y + e cos x , show that x
x
y
dw
(3) Using chain rule find dt for each of the following :
(i) w = e xy where x = t2, y = t3
(ii) w = log (x2 + y2) where x = et, y = e t
x
(iii) w =
where x = cos t, y = sin t.
(x2 + y2)
(iv) w = xy + z where x = cos t, y = sin t, z = t
(4) (i) Find
w
w
and
if w = log (x2 + y2) where x = r cos , y = r sin
r
(ii) Find
w
w
and
if w = x2 + y2 where x = u2 v2, y = 2uv
v
u
(iii) Find
w
w
and
if w = sin1 xy where x = u + v, y = u v.
v
u
(i) If u = tan1
u
u
x
(ii) u = xy2 sin y , show that x
+y
= 3u.
x
y
(iii) If u is a homogeneous function of x and y of degree n, prove that
2u
u
2u
x 2 +y
= (n 1)
x
x
y
x
(iv) If V = zeax + by and z is a homogenous function of degree n in x and
V
V
+y
= (ax + by + n)V.
y prove that x
y
x
86
87
/2 sin x
Let I =
dx
1 + cos2x
0
Solution:
t = cos x
0
/2
1
0
Let t = cos x
x
dt = sin x dx (or) sin x dx = dt
t
0 dt
0
I =
= [tan1 t] 1 = 0 4 = 4
1 + t2
1
1
Example 7.2 : Evaluate x ex dx
Solution:
Using the method of integration by parts
Here
udv = uv
v du
x
x e dx =
1
(xex)0
dv = ex dx
1
ex dx
v = ex
= e
1
(ex)0
= e (e 1)
=1
a
Example 7.3 : Evaluate
a2 x2 dx
0
a
Solution:
x
a2 x2 dx = 2
a2
x
a2 x2 + 2 sin1 a
a2
a
= 0 + 2 sin1 a (0 + 0)
a2 a2
a2
= 2 sin1(1) = 2 2 = 4
88
u=x
du = dx
/2
Example 7.4 : Evaluate e2x cos x dx
0
Solution:
eax
We know eax cos bx dx = 2
(a cos bx + b sin bx)
a + b 2
/2
e2x
/2
(2
cos
x
+
sin
x)
e2x cos x dx = 2
2 + 12
0
0
e
e0
= 5 (0 + 1) 5 (2 + 0)
e 2 1
= 5 5 = 5 (e 2)
EXERCISE 7.1
Evaluate the following problems using second fundamental theorem :
/2
/2
1
(2) cos3x dx
(3) 9 4x2 dx
(1) sin2x dx
0
/4
(4) 2 sin2x sin 2x dx
0
1
dx
(5)
4 x2
0
1 (sin1x)3
0
2
dx
(7) 2
x + 5x + 6
1
1
(10) x2 ex dx
(8)
1 x2
dx
0
/2
(11) e3x cos x dx
0
/2 sin x dx
(6)
9 + cos2x
0
/2
(9) sin 2x cos x dx
0
/2
(12) ex sin x dx
a
a
Proof : Let F be any anti-derivative of f
b
f(x) dx = [F(b) F(a)]
89
(i)
a
b
From (i) and (ii)
(ii)
f(x) dx = f(y) dy
a
b
Proof : Let F be any anti-derivative of f
b
f(x) dx = [F(b) F(a)]
(i)
a
a
(ii)
b
b
a
f(x)
dx
=
f(x) dx
a
b
That is, if the limits of definite integral are interchanged, then the value of
integral changes its sign only.
b
b
Property (3) : f(x)dx = f(a + b x) dx
Proof :
Let u = a + b x
u=a+bx
du = dx
or dx = du
u
b
b
a
b
b
f(a + b x)dx = f(u) du = f(u) du = f(x) dx
90
a
a
Property (4) : f(x)dx = f(a x) dx
Proof :
0
Let u = a x
u=ax
x
o
a
du = dx
u
a
o
or dx = du
a
a
a
o
f(a x)dx = f(u) du = f(u) du = f(x) dx
a
0
0
0
Property (5) (Without proof) : If f(x) is integrable on a closed interval
containing the three numbers a, b and c, then
b
c
b
f(x) dx = f(x) dx + f(x) dx
a
a
regardless of the order of a, b and c.
2a
a
a
Property (6) : f(x)dx = f(x) dx + f(2a x) dx
0
0
0
2a
2a
a
Proof : Consider f(x)dx = f(x) dx + f(x) dx
(1)
u = 2a x
x
a
2a
u
a
o
a
a
= f(2a u) du
0
a
= f(2a x) dx
91
b
b
f(x) dx = f(y) dy
2a
a
a
Hence (1) becomes f(x) dx = f(x) dx + f(2a x) dx
0
0
0
2a
a
if f(2a x) = f(x)
Property (7) :
f(x)dx = 2 f(x) dx
=0
if f(2a x) = f(x)
Proof : We know that by property
2a
a
a
(1)
f(x)dx = f(x) dx + f(2a x) dx
0
0
0
If f(2a x) = f(x) then (1) becomes
2a
a
a
a
f(x)dx = f(x) dx + f(x) dx = 2 f(x) dx
0
0
0
0
If f(2a x) = f(x) then (1) becomes
a
a
2a
f(x)dx = f(x) dx f(x) dx = 0
Hence proved.
a
a
Property (8) : (i) f(x)dx = 2 f(x) dx,
a
a
if f is an even function.
(ii) f(x) dx = 0
if f is an odd function.
a
a
a
0
Proof : Consider f(x)dx = f(x) dx + f(x) dx
92
(1)
x
t
x=t
0
a
a
0
a
o
f(x)
dx
=
f(
t)
(
dt)
+
f(x) dx
a
0
a
a
0
= f( t) dt + f(x) dx
(1) becomes
= f( t) dt + f(x) dx
0
0
a
a
a
f(x) dx = f( x) dx + f(x) dx
0
0
a
Case (ii) : If f is an even function, then (2) becomes
a
a
a
f(x) dx = f(x) dx + f(x) dx
a
= 2 f(x) dx
0
Case (iii) : If f is an odd function then (2) becomes
a
a
a
f(x)
dx
=
(
f(x)
dx
+
f(x) dx
0
a
a
= f(x) dx + f(x) dx = 0
0
0
Hence proved.
/4
Example 7.5 : Evaluate x3 sin2x dx.
Solution:
/4
Let f(x) = x3 sin2x = x3 (sin x)2
f( x) = ( x)3 (sin ( x))2
= ( x)3 ( sin x)2
= x3 sin2x
= f(x)
93
(2)
f( x) = f(x)
/4
Example 7.6 :
1
3x
Evaluate log 3 + x dx
1
3x
Let f(x) = log 3 + x
3
+
x
= log (3 + x) log (3 x)
f( x) = log
3 x
= [log (3 x) log (3 + x)]
3x
= log 3 + x = f(x)
1
Example 7.7 :
/2
Evaluate : x sin x dx
Solution:
/2
Let f(x) = x sin x
Solution:
f( x) = ( x) sin ( x)
= x sin x ( sin ( x) = sin x)
f(x) is an even function.
/2
/2
x sin x dx = 2 x sin x dx
/2
= 2 {x ( cos x)}
94
/2
( cos x) dx
/2
= 2 0 + cos x dx = 2 [sin x]
0
= 2 [1 0] = 2
/2
Example 7.8 : Evaluate sin2x dx
/2
Solution:
/2
sin 2x
= x 2
/2
0
=2
/2
f(sin x)
Example 7.9 : Evaluate f(sin x) + f(cos x) dx
0
/2
f(sin x)
Let I = f(sin x) + f(cos x) dx
Solution:
f sin 2 x
/2
dx
=
f sin x + f cos 2 x
0 2
/2
f (cos x)
I = f(cos x) + f (sin x) dx
0
/2 f(sin x) + f(cos x)
/2
o
o
I=4
95
(1)
(2)
1
Example 7.10 : Evaluate x(1 x)n dx
Solution:
1
Let I = x(1 x)n dx
0
1
n
= (1 x) [1 (1 x)] dx
0
1
a
a
f(x) dx = f(a x) dx
1
= (1 x) xn dx = (xn xn + 1) dx
0
0
1
xn + 1 xn + 2
1
1
n + 2 (n + 1)
= n + 1 n + 2 = n + 1 n + 2 = (n + 1) (n + 2)
x(1 x)n dx = (n + 1) (n + 2)
0
/2
Example 7.11 : Evaluate log (tan x)dx
0
Solution:
/2
Let I = log (tan x)dx
(1)
/2
= log tan 2 x dx
0
/2
I = log (cot x) dx
0
(1) + (2) gives
/2
2I = [log (tan x) + log (cot x)] dx
96
(2)
/2
/2
= [log (tan x) . (cot x)] dx = (log 1) dx = 0
0
0
( log 1 = 0)
I=0
/3
dx
Example 7.12 : Evaluate
1 + cot x
/6
Solution:
/3
dx
Let I =
cot x
1
+
/6
/3
I=
sin x
dx
sin x + cos x
(1)
/6
sin 3 + 6 x dx
sin 3 + 6 x +
cos 3 + 6 x
b
b
f(x) dx = f(a + b x) dx
3
=
sin 2 x
sin 2 x +
cos 2 x
/3
I=
cos x
dx
cos x + sin x
/3
2I =
sin x + cos x
dx
cos x + sin x
/6
/6
97
dx
(2)
/3
/3
2I = dx = [x]
=3 6 = 6
/6
/6
I = 12
EXERCISE 7.2
Evaluate the following problems using properties of integration.
/2
1
/4
(1) sin x cos4 x dx
(2) x3 cos3x dx
(3) sin3x cos x dx
1
/2
/4
/2
cos3x dx
(4)
/2
1
1
(7) log x 1 dx
/2
3
(8)
0
/3
x dx
x+ 3x
0
/4
(6) x sin2x dx
/4
1
(9) x (1 x)10 dx
dx
(10)
1 + tan x
/6
1
n1
Result 1 : If In = sinnx dx then In = n sinn1x cos x + n In 2
1
n1
Result 2 : If In = cosnx dx then In = n cosn1x sin x + n In 2
Result 3 :
/2 n
/2 n
sin x dx = cos x dx =
Note : For the proofs of these above three results, refer Solution Book.
sin5x dx
Example 7.13 : Evaluate :
Solution :
n
If In =
sin x dx, then we have
n1
1
In = n sinn1x cos x + n In2
(I)
sin5x dx = I5
1
4
= 5 sin4x cos x + 5 I3
(when n=5 in I)
1
4 1
2
= 5 sin4x cos x + 5 3 sin2x cosx + 3 I1 (when n=3 in I)
1 4
4
8
5
2
(II)
sin x dx = 5 sin x cos x 15 sin x cosx + 15 I1
1
I1 =
sin x dx = cos x + c
1 4
4
8
5
2
sin x dx = 5 sin x cos x 15 sin x cos x 15 cos x + c
6
Example 7.14 : Evaluate :
sin x dx
n
Solution : If In =
sin x dx, then we have
1
n1
In = n sinn 1x cos x + n In 2
(I)
sin x dx = I6
1
5
= 6 sin5x cos x + 6 I4
(when n=6 in I)
1
5 1
3
= 6 sin5x cos x + 6 4 sin3x cosx + 4 I2
(when n=4 in I)
1
5
5
sin6x dx = 6 sin5x cos x 24 sin3x cos x + 8 I2
(when n=2 in I)
1
1
5
5 1
= 6 sin5x cos x 24 sin3x cos x + 8 2 sin x cosx + 2 I0
5
1
5
5
6
5
3
99
0
I0 =
sin x dx =
dx = x
5
1
5
5
sin6x dx = 6 sin5x cos x 24 sin3x cos x 16 sin x cos x + 16 x
/2
(ii) cos8x dx
2
x
(iii) sin9 4 dx
/6
(iv) cos73x dx
0
Solution : (i)We have
(ii)
(iii)
/2 n
n 1 n 3 ... 2
sin x dx = n .
3 when n is odd
n2
0
/2 7
6 4 2 16
sin x dx = 7 . 5 . 3 = 35
0
/2 n
n 1 . n 3 . n 5 ... 1 .
cos x dx = n n 2 n 4 2 2 when n is even
0
/2
7 5 3 1 35
cos8x dx = 8 . 6 . 4 . 2 . 2 = 256
0
2 9 x
sin 4 dx
0
t=x/4
x
x
0
2
Put 4 = t
t
0
dx = 4dt
/2
2
/2
x
512
8 6 4 2
sin9 4 dx = 4 sin9t dt = 4. 9 . 7 . 5 . 3 . = 315
100
(iv)
/6 7
cos 3x dx
t = 3x
Put 3x = t
3dx = dt
dx = 1/3 dt
/6 7
1
cos 3x dx = 3
/6
/2
/2 7
16
1 6 4 2
cos t dt = 3 7 . 5 . 3 . = 105
/2
Example 7.16 : Evaluate : sin4x cos2x dx
0
Solution :
/2 4
/2 4
2
2
sin x cos x dx= sin x (1 sin x) dx
0
/2
/2
/2
= (sin4x sin6x) dx = sin4x dx sin6x dx
0
0
0
3 1 5 3 1
= 4 . 2 . 2 6 . 4 . 2 . 2 = 32
Two important results : The following two results are very useful in the
evaluation of certain types of integrals.
(1) If u and v are functions of x, then
udv = uv uv1 + uv2 uv3 + ... + ( 1)n unvn + ...
where u, u, u ... are successive derivatives of u and v1, v2, v3 ... are
repeated integrals of v
The above formula is well known as Bernoullis formula.
Bernoullis formula is advantageously applied when u = xn (n is a positive
integer).
n
a
0
101
(ii) x e 4x dx
(iii) x5e4x dx (iv) emxx7 dx
(i) x3e2x dx
0
dv = e2x dx
Solution :
(1) x3e2x dx
Using Bernoullis formula
udv = uv uv1 + uv2 ...
We get
u = x3
v = 1/2 e2x
u = 3x2
v1 = 1/4 e2x
u = 6x
v2 = 1/8 e2x
u = 6
v3 = 1/16 e2x
1
1
1
1
x3 e2x dx = (x3) 2 e2x (3x2) 4 e2x + (6x) 8 e2x (6) 16 e2x
1
3
3x 3
= 2 e2x x3 2x2 + 2 4
u=x
dv = e4x dx
1
v = 4 e4x
u = 1
1
v1 = 16 e4x
1
(ii) x e 4x dx
0
Using Bernoullis formula we get
1
xe
4x
1
1
dx = (x) 4 e4x (1) 16 e4x
0
1
1
= 4 e4 0 16 (e4 e0)
1
5
= 16 16 e4
(iii) x5e4x dx
4
0
m
0
102
EXERCISE 7.3
(1) Evaluate :
(ii) cos5x dx
(i) sin x dx
/2
(2) Evaluate : (i) sin6x dx
0
/4 8
(3) Evaluate : (i) cos 2x dx
/2
(ii) cos9x dx
0
/6 7
(ii) sin 3x dx
0
1
0
6 x/2
(ii) x e
dx
x =a
x =b
a
a
103
x =b
b
b
Area = ( y) dx = ( f(x) dx)
a
Fig. 7.1
x =a
y =f(x)
Fig. 7.2
y=
(3/
2) (
x+
2)
Example 7.18 : Find the area of the region bounded by the line 3x 2y + 6 = 0,
x = 1, x = 3 and x-axis.
y
Since the line 3x 2y + 6 = 0 lies above
the x-axis in the interval [1, 3],
(i.e., y > 0 for x (1,3))
the required area
3
3 3
A = ydx = 2 (x + 2) dx
1
1
x
0
1 2 3
3
2
3 x
= 2 2 + 2x
Fig. 7.3
1
3
3 1
= 2 2 (9 1) + 2(3 1) = 2 [4 + 4]
(1/
y=
Fig. 7.4
4 1
3
= 5 (3x 15) dx = 5
x2
3
5x
(5
x)
dx
=
2
5
4
1
3
= 5 5(4 1) 2 (16 1)
15 9
3
= 5 15 2 = 2 sq. units.
104
2
3
-1
= (x2 5x + 4) dx
-2
2
3
x3
x2
Fig. 7.5
= 3 5 2 + 4x
2
8 20
45
13
13
= 9 2 + 12 3 2 + 8 = 6 = 6 sq. units
Fig. 7.6
y
c
y =d
x =f(y)
y =c
y=
2x
+1
Fig. 7.7
y =5
y =3
Fig. 7.8
105
5 y1
1 5
= 2 dy = 2 (y 1)dy
3
3
5
1 y2
1 25 9
= 2 2 y = 2 2 2 (5 3)
3
1
= 2 [8 2] = 3 sq. units
y=
2x
+4
1
3
y =1
y4
= 2 dy
3 2
Fig. 7.9
3
1 3
y2
1
1
= 2 (4 y)dy = 2 4y 2 = 2 [8 4] = 2 sq. units.
1
Remark :
f (x)
If the continuous curve f crosses
b
the x-axis, then the integral f(x) dx x
a
gives the algebraic sum of the areas
between the curve and the axis,
counting area above as positive and
below as negative.
c
d
b
f(x) dx = f(x) dx + ( f(x)) dx +
1 0
above axis
Fig. 7.10
b
f(x) dx
below axis
106
above axis
f (x)
5
Example 7.23: (i) Evaluate the integral (x 3)dx
1
(ii) Find the area of the region bounded by the line y + 3 = x, x = 1 and x = 5
Solution :
5
x2
5 25
1
= 2 15 2 3 = 12 12 = 0 I
(i)
3x
(x
3)
dx
=
1
1
(ii) The line y = x 3 crosses x-axis at x = 3
From the diagram it is clear that A1
y
3
x
=
lies below x-axis.
y
3
A2
A1 = ( y) dx.
1
As A2 lies above the x-axis
5
A2 = ydx
A1
Fig. 7.11
3
5
3
5
Total area = (x 3)dx = (x 3) dx + (x 3) dx
1
1
3
= (6 4) + (8 6)
= 2+2
= 4 sq. units (II)
Note :
From I and II it is clear that the integral f(x) is not always imply an area.
The fundamental theorem asserts that the anti-derivative method works even
when the function f(x) is not always positive.
Example 7.24:
Find the area bounded by the curve y = sin 2x between the ordinates x = 0,
x = and x-axis.
Solution :
The points where the curve y = sin 2x meets the x-axis can be obtained by
putting y = 0.
sin 2x = 0 2x = n , n Z
107
n
x = 2 .
i.e., x = 0, 2, , 3 2
The limits for the first arch are 0 and 2 and the curve lies above x-axis.
The limits for the second arch are 2 and and the curve lies below x-axis.
Required area
/2
0
/2
/2
0
y =sin 2x
/2
cos2x
cos2x
= 2
0 + 2 /2
Fig. 7.12
1
= 2 [cos + cos 0 + cos 2 cos ]
1
= 2 [1 + 1 + 1 + 1] = 2 sq. units.
Example 7.25:
Find the area between the curves y = x2 x 2, x-axis and the lines
x = 2 and x = 4
A2 = y dx
1
Hence required area
-2
2
A2
Fig. 7.13
108
x =4
x-2
-2
A1
y= 2
x
x =-2
Solution : y = x2 x 2
= (x + 1) (x 2)
This curve intersects x-axis at x = 1 and
x=2
Required area = A1 + A2 + A3
A3
4
4
1
2
= y dx + ( y)dx + y dx
2
2
1
4
1
2
= (x2 x 2) dx + (x2 x 2)dx + (x2 x 2) dx
2
2
1
9
26
11
= 6 + 2 + 3 = 15 sq. units
(b, f (b))
x =b
(a, f (a))
x =a
A
bo
ve
:y
=
x+
1
a
g
(a, g (a))
(b, g (b))
No restriction on f and g where
they lie. Both may be lie above or
Fig. 7.14
below the x-axis or g lies below and
f lies above the x-axis.
Example 7.26: Find the area between the line y=x + 1 and the curve y = x2 1.
Solution : To get the points of intersection of the curves we should solve the
equations y = x + 1 and y = x2 1.
y
we get,
x2 1 = x + 1
x2 x 2 = 0
(x 2) (x + 1) = 0
x = 1 or x = 2
The line intersects the curve at
x = 1 and x = 2.
x
b f(x)
g(x)
-1
1 2
a
Fig. 7.15
2
= [(x + 1) (x2 1)]dx
109
2
2
x2 x3
= [2 + x x2]dx = 2x + 2 3
1
1 1
8
9
= 4 + 2 3 2 + 2 + 3 = 2 sq. units
Example 7.27:
Find the area bounded by the curve y = x3 and the line y = x.
Solution : The line y = x lies above the curve y = x3 in the first quadrant and
y = x3 lies above the line y = x in the third quadrant. To get the points of
intersection, solve the curves y = x3, y = x x3 = x . We get x = {0, 1}
0
1
The required area = A1 + A2 = [g(x) f(x)]dx + [f(x) g(x)]dx
0
1
= (x3 x)dx + (x x3)dx
0
1
0
1
x4 x2
x2 x4
= 4 2 + 2 4
1
0
1
1
1 1
= 0 40 2+2 04 0
-1
y = x3
y = x3
x
1
(-1, -1)
1 1 1 1 1
= 4 + 2 + 2 4 = 2 sq. units.
y=
y=
(1, 1)
Fig. 7.16
110
2
Required area = (f(y) g(y) dy
1
2
2
y3
y2
= [(y + 2) y2]dy = 2 + 2y 3
1
4 1
8 1
= 2 2 + (4 + 2) 3 + 3
9 9
3
= 2 + 6 3 = 2 sq. units.
y=
(
16
x2
)
Example 7.29: Find the area of the region common to the circle x2 + y2 = 16
and the parabola y2 = 6x
y
Solution : The points of intersection
2
2
2
y =6x
of x + y = 16 and y = 6x are
D
C
(2,23)
(2, 2 3) and (2, 2 3)
Required area is OABC
Due to symmetrical property, the
B
x
required area
O
2
OABC = 2 OBC
i.e., 2{[Area bounded by y2 = 6x,
x = 0, x = 2 and x-axis] + [Area
A
2
2
bounded by x + y = 16, x = 2, x = 4
and x-axis]}
Fig. 7.18
2
= 2
4
6x dx + 2
x3/22
x
= 2 6 3/2 + 2 2
0
16 x2 dx
42
x
42 x2 + 2 sin1 4
8
8 12
3 2 12 + 8 3
4
= 3 (4 + 3)
=
111
4
2
Example 7.30: Compute the area between the curve y = sin x and y = cosx and
the lines x = 0 and x =
y
Solution : To find the points of
y=
intersection solve the two equations.
sin
1
x
1
x=4
Sin x = cos x =
x
0
2
3/2
/4 /2
-1
y=
5
1
co s
x= 4
sin x = cos x =
x
2
Fig. 7.19
From the figure we see that cos x > sin x for 0 x < 4 and sin x > cos x for
4<x<
/4
Area A = (cos x sin x) dx + (sin x cos x)dx
0
/4
/4
= (sin x + cos x)
0 + ( cos x sin x) /4
1
1
1
1
= + (0 + 1) + (1 0)
= 2 2 sq. units.
2
2
2
2
x2 y2
Example 7.31: Find the area of the region bounded by the ellipse 2 + 2 = 1
a b
Solution : The curve is symmetric
y
about both axes.
y =(b/a) (a2 x2)
Area of the ellipse = 4 Area
of the ellipse in the I quadrant.
a
I = 4 ydx
x
0
a b
= 4 a
a2 x2 dx
Fig. 7.20
112
4b a
= a
4b x
a2 x2 dx = a 2
a2
x
a2 x2 + 2 sin1 a
a
0
4b a2
a2
4b
= a 0 + 2 sin1(1) 0 = a 2 2
= ab sq. units.
a
/2
By using parametric form i.e., 4 y dx = 4 b sin ( a sin ) d, we
0
0
get the same area.
Example 7.32: Find the area of the curve y2 = (x 5)2 (x 6)
(i) between x = 5 and x = 6
(ii) between x = 6 and x = 7
Solution :
(i) y2 = (x 5)2 (x 6)
y = (x 5) x 6
This curve cuts the x-axis at x = 5 and at x = 6
y=
(x
a
7
= 2 (x 5) x 6 dx
6
(Since the curve is symmetrical
about x-axis)
7
= 2 (t + 1) t dt
6
1
= 2 (t3/2 + t1/2)dt
113
Fig. 7.21
Take t = x 6
dt = dx
t = x6
x
6
7
t
0
1
x =7
5)
(x
6)
2 2
6 + 10 32
t5/2 t3/2
= 2 5 + 3 = 2 5 + 3 = 2 15 = 15 sq. units
2
2 0
Example 7.33: Find the area of the loop of the curve 3ay2 = x(x a)2
Solution :
y
Put y = 0 ; we get x = 0, a
It meets the x-axis at x = 0 and x = a
Here a loop is formed between
the points (0, 0) and (a, 0) about
x-axis. Since the curve is symmetrical
about x-axis, the area of the loop is
twice the area of the portion above the
x-axis.
a
Required area = 2 y dx
(a,0)
Fig. 7.22
2 a
x (x a)
[x3/2 a x]dx
dx =
3a
3a
0
0
a
2 2 5/2 2a 3/2
8a2 8 3 a2
x
x
=
=
3
0 15 3 = 45
3a 5
a
= 2
Required area =
8 3 a2
45 sq. units.
Example 7.34:
Find the area bounded by x-axis and an arch of the cycloid
x = a (2t sin 2t), y = a (1 cos 2t)
Solution : The curves crosses x-axis when y = 0.
a(1 cos 2t) = 0
cos 2t = 1
2t = 2n, n z
t = 0, , 2,
One arch of the curve lies between 0 and
114
b
Required area = y dx
y = a(1 cos2t)
x = a (2t sin 2t)
dx = 2a(1 cos 2t) dt
0
0
0
/2
= 2 8a2 sin4t dt
2a
f(x) dx = 2 f(2a x)dx
0
0
3 1
= 16a2 4 2 2 = 3a2 sq. units.
Fig. 7.23(a)
When this region is revolved about the x-axis, it generates a solid having
circular cross sections (Fig. 7.23(b)]. Since the cross section at x has radius f(x),
the cross-sectional area is A(x) = [f(x)]2 = y2
The volume of the solid is generated by moving the plane circular disc
[Fig.6.23(b)] along x-axis perpendicular to the disc.
115
b
b
Therefore volume of the solid is V = [f(x)]2dx = y2 dx
a
y
g(y)
d
d
V = [g(y)]2dx = x2 dy
c
Fig. 7.24
Example 7.35:
Find the volume of the solid that results when the ellipse
x2 y2
+ = 1 (a > b > 0) is revolved about the minor axis.
a2 b2
Solution :
Volume of the solid is obtained by
revolving the right side of the curve
x2 y2
+ = 1 about the y-axis.
a2 b2
Limits for y is obtained by putting
x = 0 y2 = b2 y = b
a2
From the given curve x2 = 2 (b2 y2)
b
Volume is given by
y
b
-a
a
-b
Fig. 7.25
b
a2 2 y3
a2 2 2
V = x dy = 2 (b y ) dy = 2 2 b y 3
0
b
b
c
b
d
= 2
a2 3 b3 4 2
b 3 = 3 a b cubic units
b2
Example 7.36:
Find the volume of the solid generated when the region enclosed by
y = x, y = 2 and x = 0 is revolved about the y-axis.
116
y =x
y =2
Fig. 7.26
y5 2 32
4
= y dy = 5 = 5 cubic units.
0
0
c
2
EXERCISE 7.4
(1) Find the area of the region bounded by the line x y = 1 and
(i) x-axis, x = 2 and x = 4
(ii) x-axis, x = 2 and x = 0
(2) Find the area of the region bounded by the line x 2y 12 = 0 and
(i) y-axis, y = 2 and y = 5 (ii) y-axis, y = 1 and y = 3
(3) Find the area of the region bounded by the line y = x 5 and the x-axis
between the ordinates x = 3 and x = 7.
(4) Find the area of the region bounded by the curve y = 3x2 x and the
x-axis between x = 1 and x = 1.
(5) Find the area of the region bounded by x2 = 36y, y-axis, y = 2 and y = 4.
(6) Find the area included between the parabola y2 = 4ax and its latus rectum.
x2 y2
(7) Find the area of the region bounded by the ellipse 9 + 5 = 1 between the
two latus rectums.
(8) Find the area of the region bounded by the parabola y2 = 4x and the line
2x y = 4.
(9) Find the common area enclosed by the parabolas 4y2 = 9x and 3x2 = 16y
(10) Find the area of the circle whose radius is a
Find the volume of the solid that results when the region enclosed by the given
curves : (11 to 14)
(11) y = 1 + x2, x = 1, x = 2, y = 0 is revolved about the x-axis.
(12) 2ay2 = x(x a)2 is revolved about x-axis, a > 0.
117
(i) If the function f(x) and its derivative f (x) are continuous on [a, b]
then the arc length L of the curve y = f(x) from x = a to x = b is defined
b
dy 2
to be L =
1 + dx dx
a
(ii) Similarly for a curve expressed in the form x = g(y), where g is
continuous on [c, d], the arc length L from y = c to y = d is given by
d
dx 2
L=
1 + dy dy
c
(iii) When the equation of the curve y = f(x) is represented in parametric
form x = (t), y = (t), t where (t) and (t) are continuous
function with continuous derivatives and (t) does not vanish in the
118
f(x)
x
Fig. 7.27
g(y)
dx 2
1 + dy dy
d
S.A. = 2 y
Fig. 7.28
(iii) When the equation of the curve y = f(x) is represented in parametric
form x = g(t), y = h(t), t where g(t) and h(t) are continuous
function with continuous derivatives and g(t) does not vanish in the
t=
interval, then S.A. = 2 y (g(t))2 + (h(t)) 2 dt.
t=
Example 7.37: Find the length of the curve 4y2 = x3 between x = 0 and x = 1
y
Solution :
2
3
4y2 =x3
4y = x
Differentiating with respect to x
dy
8y dx = 3x2
x =1
x
2
dy 3x
dx = 8y
dy 2
1 + dx =
1+
9x4
64y2
Fig. 7.29
9x
9x
9x
1+
1 + 16
2 =
3 =
16 4y
16x
The curve is symmetrical about x-axis.
The required length
1
1
dy 2
9x 1/2
1 + dx dx = 2 1 + 16 dx
L = 2
1+
119
9x
1 + 16
1 64 9x 3/21
= 2 9 3 = 27 1 + 16
0
16 2 0
3/2
61
64 125
= 27 64 1 = 27
x 2/3
y 2/3
Example 7.38: Find the length of the curve a + a = 1
Solution :
x = a cos3t, y = a sin3t is the
parametric form of the given astroid,
where 0 t 2
dx
2
dt = 3a cos t sin t ;
-a
dy
2
dt = 3a sin t cos t
-a
Fig. 7.30
2
dx + dy =
dt dt
Since the curve is symmetrical about both axes, the total length of the
curve is 4 times the length in the first quadrant.
dx + dy dt
dt dt
/2
/2
= 4 3a sin t cos t dt = 6a sin 2t dt
0
0
= 6a .
cos 2t
2
/2
= 3a [cos cos 0]
= 3a [ 1 1] = 6a
120
Example 7.39: Show that the surface area of the solid obtained by revolving the
arc of the curve y = sin x from x = 0 to x = about x-axis is
2 [ 2 + log (1 + 2)]
Solution : y = sin x
dy
Differentiating with respect to x dx = cos x.
dy 2
1 + dx =
1 + cos2x
b
Surface area = 2y
dy 2
1 + dx dx
a
when the area is rotated about the x-axis.
S = 2 sin x
1 + cos2x dx
t = cos x
Put cos x = t
sin x dx = dt
0
1
= 2
1
t
= 4 2
1
1 + t2 ( dt) = 4
1 + t2 (dt)
0
1
1 + t2 + 2 log
(t +
1
1 + t2)
0
= 2 [ 2 + log (1 + 2)] 0
= 2 [ 2 + log (1 + 2)]
Example 7.40: Find the surface area of the solid generated by revolving the
cycloid x = a(t + sin t), y = a(1 + cos t) about its base (x-axis).
Solution : y = 0 1 + cos t = 0 cos t = 1 t = ,
x = a (t + sin t) ; y = a (1 + cos t)
dy
dx
dt = a (1 + cos t) dt = a sin t
2
dx + dy =
dt dt
t
a2 (1 + cos t)2 + a2 sin2t = 2a cos 2
121
t
Surface area = 2a (1 + cos t) 2a cos 2 dt
t
t
t
= 2 a . 2 cos2 2 . 2 a cos 2 dt = 16 a2 cos3 2 dt
/2
t
= 16a2 2cos3 x dx Take 2 = x
0
2
= 32a2I3 = 32a2 3
64
= 3 a2 sq. units.
EXERCISE 7.5
(1) Find the perimeter of the circle with radius a.
(2) Find the length of the curve x = a(t sin t), y = a(1 cos t) between t = 0
and .
(3) Find the surface area of the solid generated by revolving the arc of the
parabola y2 = 4ax, bounded by its latus rectum about x-axis.
(4) Prove that the curved surface area of a sphere of radius r intercepted
between two parallel planes at a distance a and b from the centre of the
sphere is 2r (b a) and hence deduct the surface area of the sphere.
(b > a).
122
9. DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
Discrete Mathematics deals with several selected topics in Mathematics
that are essential to the study of many Computer Science areas. Since it is very
difficult to cover all the topics, only two topics, namely Mathematical Logic,
and Groups have been introduced. These topics will be very much helpful to
the students in certain practical applications related to Computer Science.
156
157
(ii)
158
In (ii) both the sub-statements have truth value T and hence by (A1). (ii)
has truth value T.
The truth values of (iii) and (iv) are F.
Disjunction :
If two simple statements p and q are connected by the word or, then the
resulting compound statement p or q is called the disjunction of p and q and is
written in symbolic form as p q.
Example : Form the disjunction of the following simple statements :
p
: John is playing cricket.
q
: There are thirty students in the class room.
p q : John is playing cricket or there are thirty students in the class
room.
Example : Convert the following statement into symbolic form.
5 is a positive integer or a square is a rectangle.
Let p : 5 is a positive integer.
q : A square is a rectangle.
The given statement in symbolic form is p w q.
Rule : (A3) The statement p q has the truth value F whenever both p
and q have the truth value F.
(A4) The statement p q has the truth value T whenever either p
or q or both have the truth value T.
Example :
(i) Chennai is in India or 2 is an integer.
(ii) Chennai is in India or 2 is an irrational number.
(iii) Chennai is in China or 2 is an integer.
(iv) Chennai is in China or 2 is an irrational number.
By (A4), we see that the truth values of (i), (ii) and (iv) are T and by (A3),
the truth value of (iii) is F.
Negation :
The negation of a statement is generally formed by introducing the word
not at some proper place in the statement or by prefixing the statement with It
is not the case that or It is false that.
If p denotes a statement, then the negation of p is written as p or p. We
use the symbol p to denote the negation of p.
159
Rule :
Example :
p : All men are wise.
p : Not all men are wise. (or)
p : It is not the case that all men are wise (or)
p : It is false that all men are wise.
Note : Negation is called a connective although it does not combine two or
more statements. It only modifies a statement.
EXERCISE 9.1
Find out which of the following sentences are statements and which are not?
Justify your answer.
(1) All natural numbers are integers.
(2) A square has five sides.
(3) The sky is blue.
(4) How are you?
(5) 7 + 2 < 10.
(6) The set of rational numbers is finite.
(7) How beautiful you are!
(8) Wish you all success.
(9) Give me a cup of tea.
(10) 2 is the only even prime.
Write down the truth value (T or F) of the following statements :
(11) All the sides of a rhombus are equal in length.
(12) 1 + 8 is an irrational number.
(13) Milk is white.
(14) The number 30 has four prime factors.
(15) Paris is in France.
(16) Sin x is an even function.
(17) Every square matrix is non-singular.
(18) Jupiter is a planet.
(19) The product of a complex number and its conjugate is purely imaginary.
(20) Isosceles triangles are equilateral.
160
161
162
Example 9.4 : Construct the truth table for the following statements :
(ii) (( p) q)
(iv) (( p) ( q))
(iv)
p
q
p
q
( p) ( q)
(( p) ( q))
T
T
F
F
F
T
T
F
F
T
F
T
F
T
T
F
F
T
F
F
T
T
T
F
Example 9.5 : Construct the truth table for (p q) ( r)
Solution: The compound statement (p q) ( r) consists of three simple
statements p, q and r. Therefore, there must be 23(= 8) rows in the truth table of
(p q) (r). The truth value of p remains at the same value of T or F for each
of four consecutive assignments of logical values. The truth value of q remains
at T or F for two assignments and that of r remains at T or F for one
assignment.
163
p
q
r
pq
r
(p q) (r)
T
T
T
T
F
T
T
T
F
T
T
T
T
F
T
F
F
F
T
F
F
F
T
T
F
T
T
F
F
F
F
T
F
F
T
T
F
F
T
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
T
T
Example 9.6 : Construct the truth table for (p q) r
Solution:
p
q
r
pq
(p q) r
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
F
T
F
T
F
T
T
T
T
F
F
T
F
F
T
T
T
T
F
T
F
T
F
F
F
T
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
EXERCISE 9.2
Construct the truth tables for the following statements :
(1) p ( q)
(2) ( p) ( q)
(3) (p q)
(4) (p q) ( p)
(5) (p q) ( q)
(6) (p ( q))
(7) (p q) [ (p q)]
(8) (p q) ( q)
(9) (p q) r
(10) (p q) r
Logical Equivalence :
Two compound statements A and B are said to be logically equivalent or
simply equivalent, if they have identical last columns in their truth tables.
In this case we write A B.
Example 9.7 : Show that (p q) ( p) ( q)
164
Solution:
Truth table for (p q)
p
q
pq
(p q)
T
T
T
F
T
F
T
F
F
T
T
F
F
F
F
T
Truth table for (( p) ( q))
p
q
p
q
(( p) ( q))
T
T
F
F
F
T
F
F
T
F
F
T
T
F
F
F
F
T
T
T
The last columns are identical. (p q) (( p) ( q))
Negation of a negation :
Negation of a negation of a statement is the statement itself. Equivalently
we write ( p) p
p
p
( p)
T
F
T
F
T
F
In the truth table, the columns corresponding to p and ( p) are identical.
Hence p and ( p) are logically equivalent.
Example 9.8 : Verify ( p) p for the statement p : the sky is blue.
Solution:
p
: The sky is blue
: The sky is not blue
p
( p) : It is not the case that the sky is not blue or
It is false that the sky is not blue or
The sky is blue
Conditional and bi-conditional statements :
In Mathematics, we frequently come across statements of the form If p
then q. Such statements are called conditional statements or implications. They
are denoted by p q, read as p implies q. The conditional p q is false only
if p is true and q is false. Accordingly, if p is false then p q is true regardless
of the truth value of q.
165
9.1.3 Tautologies :
A statement is said to be a tautology if the last column of its truth table
contains only T, i.e., it is true for all logical possibilities.
A statement is said to be a contradiction if the last column of its truth table
contains only F, i.e., it is false for all logical possibilities.
Example 9.9 : (i) p ( p) is a tautology. (ii) p ( p) is a contradiction
Solution:
(i)
Truth table for p ( p)
p
p
p ( p)
T
F
T
F
T
T
The last column contains only T. p (p) is a tautology.
(ii)
Truth table for p ( p)
p
p
p ( p)
T
F
F
F
T
F
The last column contains only F. p (p) is a contradiction.
166
167
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
Show that p q ( p) q
Show that p q (p q) (q p)
Show that p q (( p) q) (( q) p)
Show that (p q) (( p) ( q))
Show that p q and q p are not equivalent.
Show that (p q) (p q) is a tautology.
9.2 Groups :
9.2.1 Binary Operation :
We know that the addition of any two natural numbers is a natural number,
the product of any two natural numbers is also a natural number. Each of these
operations associates with the two given numbers, a third number, their sum in
the case of addition, and their product in the case of multiplication. In this
section we are going to deal with the notion of a binary operation or a binary
composition on a set which is nothing but a generalisation of the usual addition
and usual multiplication on the number systems.
Definition :
A binary operation * on a non-empty set S is a rule, which associates to
each ordered pair (a, b) of elements a, b in S an element a * b in S. Thus a
binary operation * on S is just a map, * : S S S by (a, b) a * b.
Where we denote by a * b, the image of (a, b) in S under *.
From the definition we see that, if * is a binary operation on S then
a, b S a * b S.
In this case, we also say that S is closed under *. This property is known as
the closure axiom or closure property.
List of symbols used in this chapter :
N
- The set of all natural numbers.
Z
- The set of all integers.
W
- The set of all non-negative integers (whole numbers).
E
- The set of all even integers.
O
- The set of all odd integers.
Q
- The set of all rational numbers.
R
- The set of all real numbers.
C
- The set of all complex numbers.
Q {0} - The set of all non-zero rational numbers.
R {0} - The set of all non-zero real numbers.
C - }0} - The set of all non-zero complex numbers.
- for every
- there exists
- such that
168
Illustrative examples :
The usual addition + is a binary operation on N.
Since a, b N a + b N. i.e., N is closed under +.
But the usual subtraction is not binary on N. Since 2, 5 N,
but 2 5 = 3 N.
N is not closed under subtraction.
At the same time, we see that is a binary operation on Z. From this we
see that, an operation becoming binary or not binary depends on the set. The
following table gives which number systems are closed under the usual
algebraic operations, namely addition, subtraction, multiplication and division
denoted by +, , . , respectively.
Number Systems
Q {0}
R {0}
C {0}
binary
binary
binary
binary
binary
not
binary
not
binary
not
binary
not
binary
binary
binary
binary
binary
not
binary
not
binary
not
binary
binary
binary
binary
binary
binary
binary
binary
binary
not
binary
not
binary
not
binary
not
binary
not
binary
binary
binary
binary
Operations
Apart from the usual algebraic operations, some new operations on the
number systems can also be defined. For example, consider the operation * on
N defined by a * b = ab.
It is clear that * is binary on N, a, b N a * b = ab N.
Some more facts about binary operations :
(1) Let the set S be R or any subset of real number system.
Define * as
(i)
a * b = minimum of {a, b}
(ii)
a * b = maximum of {a, b}
(iii) a * b = a
(iv) a * b = b
All the above operations (*) are binary operations on the corresponding
sets.
169
(2) (N, *)
* is defined as a * b = ab + 5. Since ab and 5 are natural numbers,
ab + 5 is also a natural number. * is a binary operation on N.
On the other hand, the operation * defined by a * b = ab 5 is not binary
on N because 2 * 1 = (2)(1) 5 = 3 N.
(3) (Z, *), where * is defined by, a * b = ab, is not a binary operation on z.
Since take a = 2, b = 1
1
ab = 21 = 2 Z
Note that * is also not a binary operaton on R {0}
1
ab = ( 1)1/2 R {0}
because take a = 1, b = 2
(4) (R, *)
Define a * b = a + b + ab
Clearly * is a binary operation on R since a + b and ab are real numbers
and their sum is also a real number.
(5) (O, +)
Addition is not a binary operation on the set of odd integers, since addition
of two odd integers is not odd.
(6) (O, .)
Multiplication is a binary operation on the set of odd integers. Since
product of two odd integers is an odd integer.
(7) Matrix addition is a binary operation on the set of m n matrices. Since
sum of two m n matrices is again an m n matrix.
(8) Matrix addition is not a binary operation on the set of n n singular
matrices as well as on the set of n n non-singular matrices. Because, sum
of two non-singular matrices need not be non-singular and sum of two
singular matrices need not be singular.
(9) Matrix multiplication is a binary operation on the set of singular matrices
as well as on the set of non-singular matrices.
(10) Cross product is a binary operation on the set of vectors, but dot product is
not a binary operation on the set of vectors.
Multiplication table for a binary operation
Any binary operation * on a finite set S = {a1, a2 ... an} can be described by
means of multiplication table. This table consists of n rows and n columns.
Place each element of S at the head of one row and one column, usually taking
them in the same order for columns as for rows. The operator * is placed at the
left hand top corner. The n n = n2 spaces can be filled by writing ai * aj in the
space common to the ith row and the jth column of the table.
170
a2
a1
aj
*
..................................
...
a1
.
.
.
.
ai
ai * aj
.
.
.
This table is also known as Cayleys table or composition table. In the
next section we will see that these composition tables are very much helpful in
exhibiting finite groups.
9.2.2 Groups :
Given any non-empty set S, the possibility of combining two of its
elements to get yet another element of S endows S with an algebraic structure. A
non-empty set S together with a binary operation * is called an algebraic
structure. Group is the simplest of all algebraic structures. It is the one
operational algebraic system. The study of groups was started in the nineteenth
century in connection with the solution of equations. The concept of group
arises not only in Mathematics but also in other fields like Physics, Chemistry
and Biology.
Definition :
A non-empty set G, together with an operation * i.e., (G, *) is said to be a
group if it satisfies the following axioms
(1) Closure axiom
: a, b G a * b G
(2) Associative axiom : a, b, c G, (a * b) * c = a * (b * c)
(3) Identity axiom
: There exists an element e G
such that a * e = e * a = a, a G.
(4) Inverse axiom
171
Definition :
If a group satisfies the commutative property then it is called an abelian
group or a commutative group, otherwise it is called a non-abelian group.
Note (1) :
If the operation * is a binary operation, the closure axiom will be satisfied
automatically.
Note (2) :
We shall often use the same symbol G to denote the group and the
underlying set.
Order of a group :
The order of a group is defined as the number of distinct elements in the
underlying set.
If the number of elements is finite then the group is called a finite group
and if the number of elements is infinite then the group is called an infinite
group. The order of a group G is denoted by o(G).
Definition :
A non-empty set S with an operation * i.e., (S, *) is said to be a
semi-group if it satisfies the following axioms.
(1) Closure axiom
: a, b S a * b S
(2) Associative axiom : (a * b) * c = a * (b * c), a, b, c S.
Definition :
A non-empty set M with an operation * i.e., (M, *) is said to be a monoid if
it satisfies the following axioms :
(1) Closure axiom
: a, b M a * b M
(2) Associative axiom : (a * b) * c = a * (b * c) a, b, c M
(3) Identity axiom
: There exists an element e M
such that a * e = e * a = a, a M.
(N, +) is a semi-group but it is not a monoid, because the identity element
O N.
(N, *) where * is defined by a * b = ab is not a semi-group, because,
consider
(2 * 3) * 4 = 23 * 4 = 84 = 212 and
2 * (3 * 4) = 2 * 34 = 2 * 81 = 281
(2 * 3) * 4 2 * (3 * 4) i.e., associative axiom is not satisfied.
(Z, .) is a monoid. But it is not a group, because, the inverse axiom is not
1
satisfied. (5 Z, but 5 Z). (Z, +) and (Z, .) are semi-groups as well as
monoids. From the definitions, it is clear that every group is a monoid.
172
173
2
(i) all the entries in the table are members of G.
1
1
2
So, the closure property is true.
(ii) multiplication is always associative.
2 1
(iii) the identity element is 1 and it satisfies the
identity axiom.
2 2 1
(iv) The inverse of 1 is 1
The inverse of is 2
the inverse of 2 is
and it satisfies the inverse axiom also. (G, .) is a group.
(v) the commutative property is also true.
(G, .) is an abelian group.
(vi) Since G is a finite set, (G, .) is a finite abelian group.
Example 9.15 : Prove that the set of all 4th roots of unity forms an abelian group
under multiplication.
Solution: We know that the fourth roots of unity are 1, i, 1, i.
Let G = {1, i, 1, i}. The Caylelys table is
1 1
i
.
i From the table,
1
1 1
i
i (i) the closure axiom is true.
(ii) multiplication is always associative in C and
i
1 1 1
i
hence in G.
i
i
i 1 1
(iii) the identity element is 1 G and it satisfies
i
1 1
i i
the identity axiom.
(iv) the inverse of 1 is 1 ; i is i ; 1 is 1 ; and i is i. Further it satisfies
the inverse axiom. hence (G, .) is a group.
(v) From the table, the commutative property is also true.
(G, .) is an abelian group.
Example 9.16 : Prove that (C, +) is an infinite abelian group.
Solution:
(i) Closure axiom : Sum of two complex numbers is always a complex number.
174
i.e., z1, z2 C z1 + z2 C
Closure axiom is true.
(ii) Associative axiom : Addition is always associative in C
i.e., (z1 + z2) + z3 = z1 + (z2 + z3) z1, z2, z3 C
Associative axiom is true.
(iii) Identity axiom :
The identity element o = o + io C and o + z = z + o = z z C
Identity axiom is true.
(iv) Inverse axiom : For every z C there exists a unique z C such that
z + ( z) = z + z = 0. Inverse is true. (C, +) is a group.
(v) Commutative property :
z1, z2 C , z1 + z2 = z2 + z1
the commutative property is true. Hence (C , +) is an abelian group.
Since C is an infinite set (C, +) is an infinite abelian group.
Example 9.17 : Show that the set of all non-zero complex numbers is an abelian
group under the usual multiplication of complex numbers.
Solution:
(i) Closure axiom : Let G = C {0} Product of two non-zero complex
numbers is again a non-zero complex number.
Closure axiom is true.
(ii) Associative axiom :
Multiplication is always associative.
Associative property is true.
(iii) Identity axiom :
1 = 1 + io G, 1 is the identity element and 1.z = z . 1 = z z G.
Identity axiom is true.
(iv) Inverse axiom :
Let z = x + iy G. Here z 0 x and y are not both zero.
x2 + y2 0
1
x iy
x iy
x
1
y
z = x + iy = (x + iy) (x iy) = x2 + y2 = x2 + y2 + i x2 + y2 G
1
1
1
Further z . z = z . z = 1 z has the inverse z G.
Thus inverse axiom is satisfied. (G, .) is a group.
175
Q {0}
R {0}
C {0}
Semi
group
group
group
group
group
not closed
not closed
not closed
semi-group
monoid
monoid
monoid
monoid
group
group
group
not closed
not closed
not closed
not
not
group
.
monid
not
not
not
not
not
not
closed
associative
associative
associative
associative
associative
not
not closed
not closed
not closed
not closed
not closed
closed
not
associative
associative associative
Example 9.18 : Show that (Z, *) is an infinite abelian group where * is defined
as a * b = a + b + 2.
Solution:
(i) Closure axiom : Since a, b and 2 are integers a + b + 2 is also an integer.
a * b z a, b z
Thus closure axiom is true.
(ii) Associative axiom :
Let a, b, c G
(a * b) * c = (a + b + 2) * c = (a + b + 2) + c + 2 = a + b + c + 4
a * (b * c) = a * (b + c + 2) = a + (b + c + 2) + 2 = a + b + c + 4
(a * b) * c = a * (b * c)
Thus associative axiom is true.
176
a1, a * a1 = e = 2
By the definition of
*, a * a1 = a + a1 + 2
a + a1 + 2 = 2
a1 = a 4
Clearly a 4 Z. Inverse axiom is true. (Z, *) is a group.
(v) Commutative property :
Let a, b G
a * b = a + b + 2 = b + a + 2 = b * a * is commutative.
(Z, *) is an abelian group. further, Z is an infinite set. The group is an
infinite abelian group.
Example 9.19 : Show that the set of all 2 2 non-singular matrices forms a
non-abelian infinite group under matrix multiplication, (where the entries
belong to R).
Solution:
Let G be the set of all 2 2 non-singular matrices, where the entries belong
to R.
(i) Closure axiom : Since product of two non-singular matrices is again
non-singular and the order is 2 2, the closure axiom is satisfied.
i.e., A, B G AB G.
(ii) Associative axiom : Matrix multiplication is always associative and hence
associative axiom is true. i.e., A (BC) = (AB) C A, B, C G.
1 0
(iii) Identity axiom : The identity element is I2 =
G and it satisfies
0 1
the identity property.
177
(iv) Inverse axiom : the inverse of A G, exists i.e. A1 exists and is of order
2 2 and AA1 = A1A = I. Thus the inverse axiom is satisfied. Hence the
set of all 2 2 non-singular matrices forms a group under matrix
multiplication. Further, matrix multiplication is non-commutative (in
general) and the set contain infinitely many elements. The group is an
infinite non-abelian group.
Example 9.20 : Show that the set of four matrices
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
,
,
,
form an abelian group, under
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
multiplication of matrices.
Solution:
1 0
1 0
1 0
1 0
Let I =
and let
, B =
, C =
, A =
0 1
0 1
0 1
0 1
G = {I, A, B, C}
By computing the products of these matrices, taken in pairs, we can form
the multiplication table as given below :
I
A
B
C
.
I
I
A
B
C
A
A
I
C
B
B
B
C
I
A
C
C
B
A
I
(i) All the entries in the multiplication tables are members of G. So, G is
closed under . Closure axiom is true.
(ii) Matrix multiplication is always associative
(iii) Since the row headed by I coincides with the top row and the column
headed by I coincides with the extreme left column, I is the identity
element in G.
(iv)
I . I = I I is the inverse of I
A . A = I A is the inverse of A
B . B = I B is the inverse of B
C . C = I C is the inverse of C
178
x x
Example 9.21 : Show that the set G of all matrices of the form
, where
x x
x R {0}, is a group under matrix multiplication.
Solution:
x x
Let G =
/ x R {0} we shall show that G is a group under
x x
matrix multiplication.
(i) Closure axiom :
x x
y y
A=
G, B =
G
x x
y y
2xy 2xy
AB=
G , ( x 0, y 0 2xy 0)
2xy 2xy
i.e., G is closed under matrix multiplication.
(ii) Matrix multiplication is always associative.
e e
(iii) Let
E=
G be such that AE = A for every A G.
e e
x x e e x x
AE = A
=
x x e e x x
1
2xe 2xe x x
=
2xe = x e = 2 ( x 0)
2xe 2xe x x
1/2 1/2
G is such that AE = A, for every A G
1/2 1/2
Thus E =
179
Note : The above group is abelian since AB = BA. But in general matrix
multiplication is not commutative.
Example 9.22 : Show that the set G = {a + b 2 / a, b Q} is an infinite
abelian group with respect to addition.
Solution:
(i) Closure axiom :
Let x, y G. Then x = a + b 2, y = c + d 2 ; a, b, c, d Q.
x + y = (a + b 2) + (c + d 2) = (a + c) + (b + d) 2 G,
since (a + c) and (b + d) are rational numbers.
G is closed with respect to addition.
(ii) Associative axiom : Since the elements of G are all real numbers, addition
is associative.
(iii) Identity axiom :
There exists 0 = 0 + 0 2 G such that for all x = a + b 2 G,
x + 0 = (a + b 2) + (0 + 0 2)
= a+b 2=x
Similarly, we have 0 + x = x.
0 is the identity element of G and
satisfies the identity axiom.
(iv) Inverse axiom :
For each x = a + b 2 G, there exists x = ( a) + ( b) 2 G
such that
x + ( x) = (a + b 2) + (( a) + ( b) 2)
= (a + ( a)) + (b + ( b)) 2 = 0
Similarly we have ( x) + x = 0
( a) + ( b) 2 is the inverse of a + b 2 and satisfies the inverse
axiom. G is a group under addition.
(v) Commutative axiom :
x + y = (a + c) + (b + d) 2 = (c + a) + (d + b) 2
= (c + d 2) + (a + b 2)
= y + x, for all x, y G. The commutative property is true.
(G, +) is an abelian group. Since G is infinite, we see that (G, +) is an
infinite abelian group.
Example 9.23 : Let G be the set of all rational numbers except 1 and * be
defined on G by a * b = a + b ab for all a, b G. Show that (G, *) is an
infinite abelian group.
Solution: Let G = Q {1}
Let a, b G. Then a and b are rational numbers and a 1, b 1.
180
a * b = a + b ab
= b + a ba
= b*a
* is commutative in G and hence (G, *) is an abelian group. Since G is
infinite, (G, *) is an infinite abelian group.
Example 9.24 : Prove that the set of four functions f1, f2, f3, f4 on the set of nonzero complex numbers C {0} defined by
1
1
f1(z) = z, f2(z) = z, f3(z) = z and f4(z) = z z C {0} forms an
abelian group with respect to the composition of functions.
Let
G = {f1, f2, f3, f4}
Solution:
(f1 f1) (z) = f1(f1(z)) = f1(z)
f1f1 = f1
f2 f1 = f2 , f3f1 = f3, f4f1 = f4
Again
f2f2 = f1
Similarly
f2f3 = f4, f2f4 = f3
1
(f3f2) (z) = f3 (f2 (z)) = f3( z) = z = f4(z)
f3f2 = f4
Similarly
f4f2 = f3
Similarly
f4f3 = f2, f4f4 = f1
Using these results we have the composition table as given below :
f1
f2
f3
f4
f1
f2
f3
f4
f1
f2
f2
f1
f4
f3
f3
f3
f4
f1
f2
f4
f4
f3
f2
f1
182
Inverse of f2 is f2
Inverse of f3 is f3 ;
Inverse of f4 is f4
183
Congruence modulo n :
Let a, b Z and n be a fixed positive integer.
We say that a is congruent to b modulo n (a b) is divisible by n
Symbolically,
a b (mod n) (a b) is divisible by n.
15 3 (mod 4) is true because 15 3 is divisible by 4.
17 4 (mod 3) is not true because 17 4 is not divisible by 3.
Congruence classes modulo n :
Let a Z and n be a fixed positive integer.
Collect all numbers which are congruent to a modulo n. This set will be
denoted as [a] and is called the congruence class modulo n or residue class
modulo n.
Thus
[a] = {x Z / x a (mod n)}
= {x Z / (x a) is divisible by n}
= {x Z / (x a) is a multiple of n}
= {x Z / (x a) = kn}, k Z
= {x Z / x = a + kn}, k Z
consider the congruence classes modulo 5.
[a] = {x Z / x = a + kn}
[0] = {x Z / x = 5k, k Z} = {... 10, 5, 0, 5, 10...}
[1] = {x Z / x = 5k + 1, k Z} = {... 9, 4, 1, 6, 11, ...}
[2] = {x Z / x = 5k + 2, k Z} = {... 8, 3, 2, 7, 12, ...}
[3] = {x Z / x = 5k + 3, k Z} = {... 7, 2, 3, 8, 13, ...}
[4] = {x Z / x = 5k + 4, k Z} = {... 6, 1, 4, 9, 14 ...}
[5] = {x Z / x = 5k + 5, k Z} = {... 5, 0, 5, 10, ...} = [0]
Similarly [6] = [1] ; [7] = [2] ; etc.
Note that, we have only 5 distinct classes whose union gives the entire Z.
Thus the set of congruence classes corresponding to 5 is
[0],
[1], [2], [3], [4]} and it will be deonoted by Z5.
{
i.e., Z5 = {[0], [1], [2], [3], [4]}
If we take the modulo 6, we have Z6 = {[0], [1] .... [5]}.
Thus for any positive integer n, we have Zn = {[0], [1] ... [n 1]}
Here [n] = [0] and the union of these classes gives Z.
184
In Z8 ,
where l + m = q . n + r 0 r < n
In both the cases, [l + m] Zn and [r] Zn
Closure axiom is true.
(ii) Addition modulo n is always associative in the set of congruence classes
modulo n.
(iii) The identity element [0] Zn and it satisfies the identity axiom.
(iv) The inverse of [l] Zn is [n l]
Clearly [n l] Zn and
185
[l] + n [n l] = [0]
[n l] + n [l] = [0]
The inverse axiom is also true. Hence (Zn, +n) is a group.
Note : (Zn, +n) is a finite abelian group of order n.
Example 9.26 : Show that (Z7 {[0]}, .7) forms a group.
Solution: Let G = [[1], [2], ... [6]]
The Cayleys table is
.7
[1] [2]
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[2]
[4]
[6]
[1]
[3]
[5]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[3]
[6]
[2]
[5]
[1]
[4]
[4]
[1]
[5]
[2]
[6]
[3]
[5]
[3]
[1]
[6]
[4]
[2]
[6]
[5]
[4]
[3]
[2]
[1]
187
Theorem :
The identity element of a group is unique.
Proof : Let G be a group. If possible let e1 and e2 be identity elements in G.
Treating e1 as an identity element we have e1 * e2 = e2
Treating e2 as an identity element, we have e1 * e2 = e1
From (1) and (2), e1 = e2
Identity element of a group is unique.
Theorem :
The inverse of each element of a group is unique.
Proof :
Let G be a group and let a G.
If possible, let a1 and a2 be two inverses of a.
188
(1)
(2)
Proof : (i)
a * b = a * c a1 * (a * b) = a1 * (a * c)
(a1 * a) * b = (a1 * a) * c
e*b=e*c
b=c
(ii)
b * a = c * a (b * a) * a1 = (c * a) * a1
b * (a * a 1) = c * (a * a1)
b*e=c*e
b=c
= a for every a G.
1
G. Clearly a * a1 = a1 * a = e
= (a1) * a1 = e
a * a1 = (a1)
a = (a1)
Theorem : (Reversal law)
* a1
(by Right Cancellation Law)
189
(ii)
(b1 * a1) * (a * b) =
=
=
b1 * (a1 * a) * b
b1 * (e) * b
b1 * b = e
,
,
0 1 0 2 0 1 0 0 2 0
where 3 = 1, 1 form a group with respect to matrix multiplication.
(7) Show that the set M of complex numbers z with the condition | z | = 1
forms a group with respect to the operation of multiplication of complex
numbers.
(8) Show that the set G of all rational numbers except 1 forms an abelian
group with respect to the operation * given by a * b = a + b + ab for all a,
b G.
(9) Show that the set {[1], [3], [4], [5], [9]} forms an abelian group under
multiplication modulo 11.
(10) Find the order of each element in the group (Z5 {[0]}, .5)
a o
(11) Show that the set of all matrices of the form
, a R {0} forms
o o
an abelian group under matrix multiplication.
(12) Show that the set G = {2n / n Z} is an abelian group under
multiplication.
190
191
Example :
1. The number of heads obtained when two coins are tossed is a discrete
random variable as X assumes the values 0, 1 or 2 which form a
countable set.
2. Number of Aces when ten cards are drawn from a well shuffled pack of
52 cards.
The random variable X assumes 0, 1, 2, 3 or 4 which is again a countable set.
i.e., X (No aces) = 0, X (one ace) = 1, X (two aces) = 2,
X (three aces) = 3, X (four aces) = 4
Probability Mass Function :
The Mathematical definition of discrete probability function p(x) is a
function that satisfies the following properties :
(1) The probability that X can take a specific value x is p(x)
ie., P(X = x) = p(x) = px.
(2) p(x) is non negative for all real x.
(3) The sum of p(x) over all possible values of X is one. That is
pi = 1 where j represents all possible values that X can have and pi
is the probability at X = xi
If a1, a2, . . . am, a, b1, b2, . . bn, b be the values of the discrete random
variable X in ascending order then
(i) P(X a) = 1 P(X < a)
(ii) P(X a) = 1 P(X > a)
(iii) P(a X b) = P(X = a) + P(X = b1) + P(X = b2) + . . .
. . . + P(X = bn) + P(X = b).
Distribution function : (Cumulative Distribution function)
The distribution function of a random variable X is defined as
F(x) = P(X x) = p(xi) : ( < x < ).
xi x
2)
192
3)
4)
5)
Lt
F(x) = 0
x
Lt
F() = x
F(x) =1
+
P(X = xn) = F(xn) F(xn 1)
F( ) =
Illustration :
Find the probability mass function and cumulative distribution function for
getting number of heads when three coins are tossed once.
Solution : Let X be the random variable getting number of Heads. Sample
space when three coins are tossed is
S
= HHH HHT HTH THH HTT THT TTH TTT
R
:
3
2
2
2
1
1
1
0
(No.of Heads)
Since X is the random variable getting the number of heads, X takes the
values 0, 1,2 and 3. (X : S R).
1
P (getting no head)
= P (X = 0) = 8
3
P (getting one head)
= P (X = 1) = 8
3
P (getting two heads) = P (X = 2) = 8
1
P (getting three heads) = P (X = 3) = 8
P(x)
probability mass function is given by
1
1/8 if x = 0
3/8 if x = 1
OR
P (X= x) = 3/8 if x = 2
1/8 if x = 3
X
0
1
2
3
1/
P(X = x) 1/8 3/8
3/8
1/8
8
0
Fig. 10.1
x
We have F(x) =
P(X =
xi =
193
xi)
1
When X = 0, F(0) = P(X = 0) = 8
1
P(X =
When X = 1, F(1) =
xi)
i=
3
4
1
1
= P(X = 0) + P(X = 1) = 8 + 8 = 8 = 2
2
P(X =
When X = 2, F(2) =
xi)
i=
= P (X = 0) + P(X = 1) + P(X = 2)
1
3
3
7
= 8 + 8 + 8 =8
3
When X = 3, F(3) =
P(X =
xi)
i=
F(x)
1O
7/8 O
1/2 O
1/8 O
0
Fig. 10.2
Example 10.1 :
Find the probability mass function, and the cumulative distribution
function for getting 3s when two dice are thrown.
Solution :
Two dice are thrown. Let X be the random variable of getting number of
3s. Therefore X can take the values 0, 1, 2.
194
25
P(no 3) = P(X = 0) = 36
Sample Space
(1,4)
(1,3)
(2,4)
(2,3)
(1,5)
(2,5)
(1,6)
(2,6)
(3,4)
(3,5)
(3,6)
(4,1) (4,2)
(4,4)
(4,3)
(5,1) (5,2)
(5,4)
(5,3)
(6,1) (6,2)
(6,4)
(6,3)
probability mass function is given by
x
0
1
2
P(X = x) 25/36
10/36 1/36
Cumulative distribution function :
(4,5)
(5,5)
(6,5)
(4,6)
(5,6)
(6,6)
10
P(one 3) = P(X = 1) = 36
1
P(two 3s) = P(X = 2) = 36
(1,1)
(2,1)
(1,2)
(2,2)
(3,1)
(3,2)
(3,3)
We have F(x) =
P(X =
xi)
xi =
25
F(0) = P(X = 0) = 36
10
35
25
F(1) = P(X = 0) + P(X = 1) = 36 + 36 = 36
25 10 1 36
F(2) = P(X = 0 ) + P(X = 1) + P(X =2) = 36 + 36 + 36 = 36 = 1
x
0
1
2
F(x)
25/36
35/36
1
Example 10.2 A random variable X has the following probability mass function
x
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
5k
7k
9k
11k 13k
P(X = x)
k
3k
(1) Find k.
(2) Evaluate P(X < 4), P(X 5) and P(3< X 6)
1
(3) What is the smallest value of x for which P (X x) > 2 .
Solution :
6
(1) Since P(X = x) is a probability mass function P(X = x) = 1
x=0
ie.,P(X=0) + P(X = 1) +P(X = 2) +P(X = 3) +P(X = 4) +P(X = 5)+P(X = 6) = 1.
1
k + 3k + 5k + 7k + 9k + 11k + 13k = 1 49 k = 1 k = 49
195
(2)
144
48
= 3 343 = 343
P(X = 2) = P(RRw) + P(RwR) + P(wRR)
3 4
4 3
3 3
3
3
4
= 7 7 7 + 7 7 7 + 7 7 7
3
3
4
36 108
= 3 7 7 7 = 3 343 = 343
196
3 3 3
27
P(X = 3) = P(RRR) = 7 7 7 = 343
The required probability distribution is
X
0
1
2
P(X = x)
64/343 144/343
108/343
Clearly all pis are 0 and pi = 1.
3
27/343
7c
63
18
= 35 = 35
(iii) P(2 red ball)
4c 3c
P(X = 2) =
7c
43
12
= 35 = 35
(iv)P(3 red ball)
4c 3c
P(X = 3) =
7c
3
3
4
+ 7 6 5
36 36 18
= 3 210 = 70 = 35
(iii) P(RRw) + P(RwR) + P(wRR)
2
4
4
2
3
3
= 7 6 5 + 7 6 5
3
2
4
+ 7 6 5
24
12
= 3 210 = 35
(iv)
11
1
= 35 = 35
197
3
2
1
P(RRR) = 7 6 5
1
= 35
P(X = x)
4
35
18
35
12
35
1
35
P(a x b) =
f(x) dx
a
198
The probabilities are measured over intervals and not at single points. That
is, the area under the curve between two distinct points defines the probability
for that interval.
P(a x b) = P(a X < b) = P(a < x b) = P(a < x < b)
Discrete Probability function are referred to as probability mass function and
continuous probability function are referred to as probability density function.
The term probability function covers both discrete and continuous distribution.
Cumulative Distribution Function :
If X is a continuous random variable, the function given by
x
F(x) = P(X x) = f(t)dt for < x < where f(t) is the value of the
lt
f(x)
dx
=
(iii) F( ) = x
f(x) dx = 0
lt
f(x)
dx
=
(iv) F() = x
f(x) dx = 1
(v) For any real constant a and b and a b, P(a x b) = F(b) F(a)
d
(vi) f(x) = dx F(x)
i.e., F(x) = f(x)
Example 10.4 : A continuous random variable X follows the probability law,
k x (1 x )10, 0 < x < 1
f(x) =
elsewhere
0
Find k
199
By properties of definite
integral
a
a
f(x)
dx
=
f(a x)dx
10
kx(1 x) dx = 1
i.e.,
k(1 x) [1 (1 x)]10dx = 1
i.e.,
0
1
i.e.,
k (1 x)x10dx = 1
x11 x12
1
1
i.e., k (x x )dx = 1 k 11 12 = 1 k 11 12 = 1 k = 132
10
11
0
Example 10.5 : A continuous random variable X has p.d.f. f(x) = 3x2,
0 x 1, Find a and b such that.
(i) P(X a) = P(X > a) and (ii) P(X > b) = 0.05
Solution :
(i) Since the total probability is 1, [Given that P(X a) = P (X > a]
P(X a) + P(X > a) = 1
i.e., P(X a) + P(X a) = 1
1
P(X a) = 2
a
1
f(x) dx = 2
3x dx = 2
0
3x3
1 3
1
1
i.e., 3 = 2 a3 = 2 i.e., a = 2
0
(ii) P(X > b) = 0.05
1
1
2
3x dx = 0.05
f(x) dx = 0.05
b
b
1
3x3
3 = 0.05 1 b3 = 0.05
b
1
19 3
95
b = 1 0.05 = 0.95 = 100 b = 20
3
200
x3
1
k x 3 = 1 k 1 3 = 1
0
0
3
2
3 k = 1 or k = 2
x
(ii) The distribution function F(x) =
f(t) dt
2
k(1 x ) dx = 1
(a) When x ( , 0]
x
F(x) = f(t) dt = 0
x
x 3
0
3
= f(t) dt + f(t) dt = 0 + 2 (1 t2) dt = 2
0
0
x3
x 3
3 t3
= 2 t 3 = 1
<x0
0
F(x) = 3/2 (x x3/3) 0 < x < 1
1x<
1
201
1
+ tan1 x < x < is a distribution
2
function of a continuous variable X, find P(0 x 1)
1
F(x) = 2 + tan1 x
Solution:
P(0 x 1) = F(1) F(0)
1
1
+ tan1 1 2 + tan1 0
=
2
1
1
1
1
= 2 + 4 2 + 0 =
2 + 4 2 = 4
A, 1 < x < e3
is a probability density function of
Example 10.8 : If f(x) = x
0, elsewhere
a continuous random variable X, find p(x > e)
3
3
A dx = 1 A[log x] e = 1
1
x
1
e
1
1
1
P(x > e) = 3 x dx =3 [log x]
e
e
1
2
1
= 3 [log e3 log e] = 3 [3 1] = 3
Example 10.9 :For the probability density function
2e2x, x > 0
f(x)=
, find F(2)
,x0
0
2
Solution : F(2) = P(X 2) =
f(x) dx
202
e2x
e4 1
2x
= [e4 1] = 1 e4 = 4
=
dx = 2 .
2e
2 0
e
0
Example 10.10 : The total life time (in year) of 5 year old dog of a certain
breed is a Random Variable whose distribution function is given by
, for x 5
0
F(x) = 1 25 , for x > 5 Find the probability that such a five year old dog
x2
will live (i) beyond 10 years (ii) less than 8 years (iii) anywhere between
12 to 15 years.
Solution : (i) P(dog living beyond 10 years)
P(X > 10) = 1 P(X 10)
25
= 1 1 2 when x = 10
x
25
3
1
= 1 1 100 = 1 4 = 4
8
2
(iii) P(dog living any where between 12 and 15 years ) = P(12 < x < 15)
25
25
1
= F(15) F(12) = 1 2 1 2 = 16
15 12
EXERCISE 10.1
(1) Find the probability distribution of the number of sixes in throwing three
dice once.
(2) Two cards are drawn successively without replacement from a well
shuffled pack of 52 cards. Find the probability distribution of the number
of queens.
(3) Two bad oranges are accidentally mixed with ten good ones. Three
oranges are drawn at random without replacement from this lot. Obtain
the probability distribution for the number of bad oranges.
(4) A discrete random variable X has the following probability distributions.
X
0 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
P(x) a 3a 5 a 7 a 9 a 11 a 13 a 15 a 17 a
(i) Find the value of a (ii) Find P(x < 3) (iii) Find P(3 < x < 7)
203
(1 + x2)
0
elsewhere
3,
0<x<1
(6) For the p.d.f f(x) = cx (1 x)
elsewhere
0
1
find (i) the constant c
(ii) P x < 2
1 x
e
, x, , > 0 . Find (i) k (ii) P(X > 10)
f(x) = kx
0
, elsewhere
x<0
0
2
(8) For the distribution function given by F(x) = x 0 x 1
1
x>1
find the density function. Also evaluate
(i) P(0.5 < X < 0.75)
(ii) P(X 0.5)
(iii) P(X > 0.75)
(9) A continuous random variable x has the p.d.f defined by
ceax, 0 < x <
f(x) = 0
elsewhere . Find the value of c if a > 0.
(10) A random variable X has a probability density function
k , 0 < x < 2
f(x) = 0 elsewhere
204
i=1
i=1
pi xi where pi = 1
Thus E(X) is the weighted arithmetic mean of the values xi with the
Proof :
E(X) = pi xi
E(c) = pi c = c pi = c as pi = 1
Result (2) :
Proof :
Result (3) :
Proof :
E(c) = c
E(cX) = c E(X)
E(cX) = (cxi)pi = (c x1) p1 + (c x2) p2 + . . . (c xn) pn
= c( p1 x1 + p2x2 +. . . . pn xn)
=
E(aX + b) =
E(aX + b) =
=
c E(X)
a E(X) + b.
(a xi+ b) pi
(a x1+ b) p1 + (a x2 + b)p2 + (a xn + b) pn
= a( p1 x1 + p2x2 +. . . . pn xn) + b pi
= a E(X) + b. Similarly E(aX b) = aE(X) b
Moments : Expected values of a function of a random variable X is used for
calculating the moments. We will discuss about two types of moments.
(i) Moments about the origin
(ii) Moments about the mean which are called central moments.
Moments about the origin :
If X is a discrete random variable for each positive integer r (r = 1, ...) the
th
r moment
r = E(Xr) = pi xir
1 = E(X) = pi xi
First moment :
This is called the mean of the random variable X.
Second moment : 2 = E(X2) = pi xi2
205
n = E(X X )n = (xi x )n pi
i i
i i
= E(X) E(X) = 0
The algebraic sum of the deviations about the arithmetic mean is always
zero
Result (4) :
Proof :
= E[X X ]2 = Var X
Similarly Var (X c) = Var (X)
Variance is independent of change of origin.
Result (5) :
Proof :
= a2 E[X E(X)]2 =
Change of scale affects the variance
206
a2 Var X
Result (6) :
Proof :
Var (c) = E[c E(c)]2 = E[c c]2 = E(0) = 0
Example 10.11 : Two unbiased dice are thrown together at random. Find the
expected value of the total number of points shown up.
Solution : Let X be the random variable which represents the sum of the
numbers shown in the two dice. If both show one then the sum total is 2. If both
show six then the sum is 12.
The random variable X can take values from 2 to 12.
(1, 1)
(1, 2) (2, 1)
(1, 3) (2, 2) (3, 1)
(1, 4) (2, 3) (3, 2) (4, 1)
(1, 5) (2, 4) (3, 3) (4, 2) (5, 1)
(1, 6) (2, 5) (3, 4) (4, 3) (5, 2) (6, 1)
(2, 6) (3, 5) (4, 4) (5, 3) (6, 2)
(3, 6) (4, 5) (5, 4) (6, 3)
(4, 6) (5, 5) (6, 4)
(5, 6) (6, 5)
(6, 6)
The probability distribution is given by.
X
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10 11 12
2
3
4
5
6
5
4
3
2
1
1
P(X = x) 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36
E(X) = pi xi = xi pi
1
2
3
1
252
= 2 36 + 3 26 + 4 36 + . . . .+ 12 36 = 36 = 7
207
qp
q p
...
n ...
n1
p...
q
E(X) = pi xi
= 1 . p + 2qp + 3q2p + . . . + nqn1 p . .
= p[1 + 2q + 3q2 + . . .+ nqn1 + ... ]
p
1
= p[1 q]2 = p(p)2 = 2 = p
p
Example 10.13 : An urn contains 4 white and 3 Red balls. Find the probability
distribution of the number of red balls in three draws when a ball is drawn at
random with replacement. Also find its mean and variance.
Solution : The required probability distribution is [Refer Example 10.3]
X
0
1
2
3
144
108
27
64
P(X = x) 343 343
343
343
Mean E(X) = pi xi
64
144
108
27
9
= 0 343 + 1 343 + 2 343 + 3 343 = 7
36
9 2
117
Variance= 49 7 = 49
Example 10.14 :A game is played with a single fair die, A player wins Rs. 20 if
a 2 turns up, Rs. 40 if a 4 turns up, loses Rs. 30 if a 6 turns up. While he neither
wins nor loses if any other face turns up. Find the expected sum of money he
can win.
Solution : Let X be the random variable denoting the amount he can win. The
possible values of X are 20,40, 30 and 0.
1
P[X = 20] = P(getting 2) = 6
1
P[X = 40] = P(getting 4) = 6
1
P[X = 30] = P(getting 6) = 6
208
1
The remaining probability is 2
X
20
40
0
30
P(x)
1/6
1/6
1/6
1/2
Mean E (X) = pi xi
1
1
1
1
= 20 6 + 40 6 + (30) 6 + 0 2 = 5
Expected sum of money he can win = Rs. 5
Expectation of a continuous Random Variable :
Definition : Let X be a continuous random variable with probability density
function f(x). Then the mathematical expectation of X is defined as
E(X) =
xf(x) dx
Note : If is function such that (X) is a random variable and E [ (X)] exists
then
E[ (X)] =
(x) f(x) dx
2
E(X ) =
x f(x) dx
c
f(x)
dx
=
c
E(c) =
f(x) dx = c
(2)
as
f(x) dx = 1
E(aX b) = a E(X) b
E(aX b) =
(ax b) f(x) dx =
ax f(x) dx
b f(x) dx
=a
x f(x) dx b
f(x) dx = a E(X) b
209
0
Find the mean and the variance of the distribution.
2
3
E(X) =
Solution :
x f(x) dx = x. 4 x(2 x) dx
0
2
3
3
2
2
3
= 4
x (2 x) dx = 4
(2x x ) dx
0
3
=4
x
x
3 2
16
2 3 4 = 4 3(8) 4 = 1
Mean = 1
2
x2f(x) dx =
E(X ) =
x2 3 x(2 x) dx
4
0
2
3 x4
x5
3 16 32
6
3
(2 x3 x4) dx = 4 2 4 5 = 4 2 5 = 5
= 4
0
0
6
1
Variance = E(X2) [E(X)]2 = 5 1 = 5
Example 10.16 : Find the mean and variance of the distribution
3e3x,0 < x <
f(x) =
,elsewhere
0
Solution :
E(X) =
x f(x) dx
xn e x dx = n + 1
1 1
3x
3x
=
dx = 3. 2 = 3
x (3e ) dx = 3
xe
3
0
0
0
When n is a positive
integer
2 2
2
2 3x
3x
x
E(X2) =
(3e
)
dx
=
3
dx = 3 . 3 = 9
x e
3
0
0
210
2 1 2 1
Var(X) = E[X2] E[X]2 = 9 3 = 9
1
Mean = 3
1
; Variance = 9
EXERCISE 10.2
(1) A die is tossed twice. A success is getting an odd number on a toss. Find
the mean and the variance of the probability distribution of the number of
successes.
(2) Find the expected value of the number on a die when thrown.
(3) In an entrance examination a student has to answer all the 120 questions.
Each question has four options and only one option is correct. A student
gets 1 mark for a correct answer and loses half mark for a wrong answer.
What is the expectation of the mark scored by a student if he chooses the
answer to each question at random?
(4) Two cards are drawn with replacement from a well shuffled deck of 52
cards. Find the mean and variance for the number of aces.
(5) In a gambling game a man wins Rs.10 if he gets all heads or all tails and
loses Rs.5 if he gets 1 or 2 heads when 3 coins are tossed once. Find his
expectation of gain.
(6) The probability distribution of a random variable X is given below :
X
P(X = x)
0
0.1
1
0.3
2
0.5
3
0.1
1 ,12 x 12
(i) f(x) = 24
0
,otherwise
xex
(iii) f(x) =
e x
(ii) f(x) =
, if x > 0
,otherwise
211
, if x > 0
,otherwise
qn
nc1pqn1
nc2 p2qn2
...
pn
The table shown above is called the Binomial distribution. The 2nd row of
the table are the successive terms in the binomial expansion of (q + p)n.
Binomial probability function B(n,p,x) gives the probability of exactly
x successes in n Bernoullian trials, p being the probability of success in a trial.
The constants n and p are called the parameters of the distribution.
212
n px qn x, x = 0, 1, . . .n
P(X = x) = p(x) = Cx
0
otherwise
Constants of Binomial Distribution :
Mean = np
Variance = npq
Standard deviation =
variance = npq
Solution :
np = 2
npq = 4/3
npq
q = np
npq
2
3
4 2
6 =3
2
1
p = 1q = 13 = 3
1
np = 2 n 3 = 2 n = 6
The probability function for the distribution is
1 x 2 6x
P[X = x] = 6C 3 3
, x = 0, 1, 2,
x
4/3
= 2
213
1 4 5 6
(a) P(4 successes) = P[X = 4] = 10C 6 6
4
=
(b)
210 56
35 5 6
= 216 6
10
6
5 10 = 5 10
6
6
P(X = x) = nC px qnx
x
p = 2q
2
3p = 2 ; p = 3
Example 10.20 : If the sum of mean and variance of a Binomial Distribution is
4.8 for 5 trials find the distribution.
np + npq = 4.8 np(1 + q) = 4.8
Solution :
5 p [1 + (1 p) = 4.8
p = 2 (1 p)
Example 10.21 : The difference between the mean and the variance of a
Binomial distribution is 1 and the difference between their squares is 11.Find n.
Solution : Let the mean be (m + 1) and the variance be m from the given
data.[Since mean > variance in a binomial distribution]
(m +1)2 m2 = 11 m = 5
mean = m + 1 = 6
5
1
np = 6 ; npq = 5 q = 6 , p = 6
214
n = 36.
EXERCISE 10.3
(1) The mean of a binomial distribution is 6 and its standard deviation is 3. Is
this statement true or false? Comment.
(2) A die is thrown 120 times and getting 1 or 5 is considered a success. Find
the mean and variance of the number of successes.
(3) If on an average 1 ship out of 10 do not arrive safely to ports. Find the
mean and the standard deviation of ships returning safely out of a total of
500 ships
(4) Four coins are tossed simultaneously. What is the probability of getting
(a) exactly 2 heads (b) at least two heads (c) at most two heads.
(5) The overall percentage of passes in a certain examination is 80. If 6
candidates appear in the examination what is the probability that atleast 5
pass the examination.
(6) In a hurdle race a player has to cross 10 hurdles. The probability that he
5
will clear each hurdle is 6. What is the probability that he will knock
down less than 2 hurdles.
215
Solution :
e x e 0 e 1 e 2
=
+
+
+ ...
x
0
1
2
x=0
p(x) =
x=0
2
+ . . . ] = e . e
= e [1 + +
2
= e0 = 1
e 1 e221
=
= 0.1363 2 = 0.2726
1
1
e x 3 e2(2)x
2
22 23
=
= e2 1 +
+
+
x
2
3
1
x=0 x
0
19
= e2 3 = 0.8569
3
216
Example 10.24 : Suppose that the probability of suffering a side effect from a
certain vaccine is 0.005. If 1000 persons are inoculated, find approximately the
probability that (i) atmost 1 person suffer. (ii) 4, 5 or 6 persons suffer.
[e5 = 0.0067]
Solution : Let the probability of suffering from side effect
n =
(i)
be p
= np = 5.
1000 , p = 0.005 ,
e 0 e1
+
= e [1 + ]
0
1
= e5 (1 + 5) = 6 e5
= 6 0.0067 = 0.0402
(ii) P(4, 5 or 6 persons suffer) = p(X = 4) + p(X = 5) + p(X = 6)
=
e 4 e 5 e 6 e 4
2
1 + 5 + 30
+
+
=
4
5
6
4
e5 54
5
25 e5 54 17
10625
1
+
+
24
5
30 = 24 6 = 144 0.0067
= 0.4944
Example 10.25 : In a Poisson distribution if P(X = 2) = P(X = 3) find P(X =5)
[given e3 = 0.050].
Solution : Given P(X = 2) = P(X = 3)
e 2 e 3
=
2
3
32 = 3
2 (3 ) = 0
P(X = 5) =
As
0. = 3
217
Example 10.26 : If the number of incoming buses per minute at a bus terminus
is a random variable having a Poisson distribution with =0.9, find the
probability that there will be
(i) Exactly 9 incoming buses during a period of 5 minutes
(ii) Fewer than 10 incoming buses during a period of 8 minutes.
(iii) Atleast 14 incoming buses during a period of 11 minutes.
Solution :
for number of incoming
(i)
= 0.9
buses per minute
for number of incoming
buses per 5 minutes = 0.9 5 = 4.5
P exactly 9 incoming buses e 9
during 5 minutes =
9
i.e., P(X = 9) =
(ii)
e4.5 (4.5)9
9
Required probability =
(iii)
Required probability = 1
218
(3) 20% of the bolts produced in a factory are found to be defective. Find the
probability that in a sample of 10 bolts chosen at random exactly 2 will
be defective using (i) Binomial distribution (ii) Poisson distribution. [e2
= 0.1353].
(4) Alpha particles are emitted by a radio active source at an average rate of
5 in a 20 minutes interval. Using Poisson distribution find the probability
that there will be (i) 2 emission (ii) at least 2 emission in a particular 20
minutes interval. [e5 = 0.0067].
(5) The number of accidents in a year involving taxi drivers in a city follows
a Poisson distribution with mean equal to 3. Out of 1000 taxi drivers find
approximately the number of drivers with (i) no accident in a year
(ii) more than 3 accidents in a year [e3 = 0.0498].
2
1
e
f(x) =
2
219
x =
The graph of the normal curve is -
z =0
shown above.
Fig. 10.3
Properties of Normal Distribution :
(1) The normal curve is bell shaped
(2) It is symmetrical about the line X = ie., about the mean line.
(3) Mean = Median = Mode =
1
(4) The height of the normal curve is maximum at X = and
is the
2
maximum height (probability).
(5) It has only one mode at X = . The normal curve is unimodal
(6) The normal curve is asymptotic to the base line.
(7) The points of inflection are at X =
(8) Since the curve is symmetrical about X = , the skewness is zero.
(9) Area property :
P( < X < + )
= 0.6826
P( 2 < X < + 2) = 0.9544
P( 3 < X < + 3) = 0.9973
(10) A normal distribution is a close approximation to the binomial
distribution when n, the number of trials is very large and p the
probability of success is close to 1/2 i.e., neither p nor q is so small.
(11) It is also a limiting form of Poisson distribution i.e., as Poisson
distribution tends to normal distribution.
220
2 z2
1
e
; < z <
(z) =
2
The distribution does not contain any parameter. The standard normal
distribution is denoted by N(0,1).
The total area under the normal probability curve is unity.
i.e.,
f(x)
dx
=
(z)dz
=
1
(z)dz =
(z)dz = 0.5
0
P( < X < + ) =
f(x) dx
substituting X = and X = + in Z =
= 2
(z)dz (by symmetry)
-1
Fig. 10.4
221
=
f(x) dx
2
2
-2
Fig. 10.5
= 2
(z)dz , (by symmetry)
0
= 2 0.4772 = 0.9544
Similarly P( 3 < X < + 3)
=
+3
(z)dz
f(x) dx =
-3
= 2 0.49865 = 0.9973
Fig. 10.6
Therefore the probability that a normal variate X lies outside the range
3 is given by
P( | X | > 3) = P( | Z | >3) = 1 p(3 < Z < 3) = 1 0.9973 = 0.0027
Note : Since the areas under the normal probability curve have been tabulated
interms of the standard normal variate Z, for any problem first convert X to Z.
The entries in the table gives the areas under the normal curve between the
mean (z = 0) and the given value of z as shown below :
Therefore entries corresponding to
negative values are unnecessary because
the normal curve is symmetrical. For
-
z
0
example
P(0 Z 1.2) = P(1.2 Z 0)
Fig. 10.7
Example 10.27 : Let Z be a standard normal variate. Calculate the following
probabilities.
(i)
P(0 Z 1.2)
(ii) P(1.2 Z 0)
222
Solution :
(i) P(0 Z 1.2)
P(0 Z 1.2) =
=
area between
Z = 0 and Z = 1.2
0.3849
z =0 z =1.2
Fig. 10.8
(ii) P(1.2 Z 0)
P(1.2 Z 0)
= P(0 Z 1.2)
by symmetry
= 0.3849
(iii) Area to the right of Z = 1.3
P(Z > 1.3) = area between Z = 0 to Z =
area between Z = 0 to Z = 1.3
= P(0 < Z < ) P(0 Z <1.3)
= 0.5 0.4032 = 0.0968
(iv) Area of the left of Z = 1.5
= P(Z < 1.5)
= P( < Z< 0) + P(0 Z < 1.5)
= 0.5 + 0.4332
= 0.9332
(v) P(1.2 Z < 2.5)
= P( 1.2 < Z < 0) + P(0 < Z < 2.5)
= P(0 Z < 1.2) + P(0 Z 2.5)
[by symmetry]
= 0.3849 + 0.4938
= 0.8787
(vi) P(1.2 Z 0.5)
= P(1.2 < Z < 0) P(0.5 < Z < 0)
= P(0 < Z < 1.2) P(0 < Z < 0.5)
[due to symmetry]
= 0.3849 0.1915 = 0.1934
223
z =-1.2 z =0
Fig. 10.9
z =0 z =1.3
Fig. 10.10
z =0 z =1.5
Fig. 10.11
-1.2 z =0
2.5
Fig. 10.12
z =0
z =-1.2 z =-.5
Fig. 10.13
Solution :
(i) P(Z < c) = 0.05 i.e., P( < Z < c) = 0.05
As area is < 0.5, c lies to the left of Z = 0.
From the area table Z value for the area
0.45 is 1.65. c = 1.65
. 45
-
Fig. 10.14
. 94
. 47
. 47
-
z =-c
z =c
z =0
Fig. 10.15
(iii) P(Z > c) = 0.05 P(c < Z < ) = 0.05
From the data it is clear that c lies to the right of Z = 0
The area to the right of Z = 0 is 0.5
P(0 < Z < ) P(0 < Z < c) = 0.05
0.5 P(0 < Z < c) = 0.05
. 45
z =0
0.05
z =c
Fig. 10.16
c = 1.65
224
Solution : Given = 6, = 5
(i) P(0 X 8)
X
We know that Z =
06
6
-
When X = 0, Z = 5 = 5 = 1.2
z =-1.2 z =0 z =.4
2
86
Fig. 10.17
When X = 8, Z = 5 = 5 = 0.4
P(0 X 8) = P(1.2 < Z < 0.4)
= P(0< Z <1.2) + P(0 < Z < .4) (due to symmetry)
= 0.3849 + 0.1554
= 0.5403
(ii) P( | X 6| < 10) = P(10 < (X 6) < 10) P(4 < X < 16)
4 6
10
When X = 4, Z = 5
= 5 = 2
-
10
16 6
z =-2
z =2
z =0
= 5 = 2
When X = 16, Z = 5
Fig. 10.18
P( 4 < X < 16) = P(2 < Z < 2)
= 2 P(0 < Z < 2) (due to symmetry)
= 2 (0.4772) = 0.9544
Example 10.30 : The mean score of 1000 students for an examination is 34 and
S.D is 16. (i) How many candidates can be expected to obtain marks between
30 and 60 assuming the normality of the distribution and (ii) determine the limit
of the marks of the central 70% of the candidates.
Solution : = 34, = 16,
N = 1000
X
(i) P(30 < X < 60) ; Z =
30
30 34
=
X = 30, Z1 =
16
4
x =30
x =34 x =60
= 16 = 0.25
z1
z2
Z1 = 0.25
Fig. 10.19
60 34
26
Z2 = 16
= 16 = 1.625
Z2 1.63 (app.)
P(0.25 < Z < 1.63) =P(0 < Z< 0.25) + P(0 < Z < 1.63) (due to symmetry)
225
Similarly Z2 = 1.04
. 35
z1
. 35
z =0
z2
Fig. 10.20
X 34
= 1.04
Z2 = 16
X2 34 = 1.04 16 + 34
X2 = 16.64 + 34
X 34
= 1.04
16
X1 = 16 1.04 + 34
Z1 =
= 16.64 + 34
X1 = 50.64
X2 = 17.36
< X <
Solution : Consider
2x2 + 4x = 2 (x2 2x) = 2 [(x 1)2 1] = 2 (x 1)2 + 2
2
2
e2x + 4x = e2. e2(x 1)
1 (x 1)
2
1/4
= e2. e
Comparing it with f(x) we get
2x2 + 4x
ke
2
ke
1 x 1 2
2 1
e /2
1 x 1 2
2 1/2
= e2. e
1 x
2
1
=
e
2
1 x 2
2
1
=
e
2
1
1
2e2 2 1
we get = 2 = = 1 and k = 1
, =4
. e2 =
2
2 2
226
Example 10.32 : The air pressure in a randomly selected tyre put on a certain
model new car is normally distributed with mean value 31 psi and standard
deviation 0.2 psi.
(i) What is the probability that the pressure for a randomly selected tyre
(a) between 30.5 and 31.5 psi (b) between 30 and 32 psi
(ii) What is the probability that the pressure for a randomly selected tyre
exceeds 30.5 psi ?
Solution : Given = 31 and = 0.2
(i) (a) P(30.5 < X < 31.5) ; Z =
When X = 30.5, Z =
30.5 31 0.5
= 0.2 = 2.5
0.2
When X = 31.5, Z =
31.5 31 0.5
= 0.2 = 2.5
0.2
x =30.5
=31
x =31.5
Fig. 10.21
Required probability
P(30.5 < X < 31.5) = P( 2.5 < Z < 2.5)
= 2 P(0< Z < 2.5)
[since due to symmetry]
= 2(0.4938) = 0.9876
(b) P(30 < X < 32)
When X = 30,
Z=
30 31 1
0.2 = 0.2 = 5
When X = 32,
Z=
32 31 1
0.2 = 0.2 = 5
=31
Fig. 10.22
P(30 < X < 32) = P(5 < Z < 5) = area under the whole curve = 1 (app.)
(ii)
When X = 30.5 , Z =
30.5 31 0.5
= 0.2 = 2.5
0.2
z =-2.5
Fig. 10.23
227
EXERCISE 10.5
(1) If X is a normal variate with mean 80 and standard deviation 10,
compute the following probabilities by standardizing.
(i) P(X 100)
228