Ancient & Medeival India

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DIRECTION
INSTITUTE FOR IAS EXAM.
They cultivated land and grew fruits and corn.
Ancient India
History is a record of the achievements of man.
They also domesticated animals like the ox and
To begin with, these records consist almost
the goat.
They knew the art of producing fire by the
solely of the rude implements which the people
friction of bamboos or pieces of wood, and made
used in their daily lives.

(a)Palaeolithic Men Old Stone
pottery, at first by hand, and then with the potters
These are small pieces of rough undressed
wheel.
stones, chipped into various forms, which were
They live in caves and decorated their walls by
originally fitted with handles made of sticks or
painting scenes of hunting and dancing. A few
bones. They served as weapons for hunting wild
of these can be seen today both in Northern and
animals, and could also be used as hammers or
Southern India.
They constructed boats and went out to sea. They
for purposes of cutting and boring.
could spin cotton and wool and weave cloth.
They lived in constant dread of wild animals like

tigers, lions, elephants and the rhinoceros. They
They used to bury their dead, and Neolithic
had no idea of agriculture, but lived on the flesh
tombs have been discovered in some parts of
of animals and such fruits and vegetables as grew
India.
wild in jungles. They could not make pottery,
(c) Mesolithic
and probably did not even know how to make a
Scholars also distinguish a culture midway

between Palaeolithic and Neolithic, and call it
fire.
Mesolithic (from Greek meso = middle). Its
The Palaeolithic men belonged to the Negrito

race, like the modern people of the Andaman
two chief characteristics were, first, that the
Islands, and was characterized by short stature,
stone implements used were extremely small,
dark skin, woolly hair and flat noses.
only about an inch in length.

Secondly, that instead of quartzite they were
(b)Neolithic Men New Stone
made of chalcedony and other silicate varieties
The significance of this name lies in the fact that

in this age also men had to depend solely on
by a technical process differing from that
stone implements, and were ignorant of any
employed in the Palaeolithic Age.

The Age of Metals -Chalcolithic 1800 BC 1000
metals, except gold.
BC
They used stones other than quartzite, and these
Neolithic men were the ancestors of the people
were not merely chipped, but in most cases
who ushered in the next stage of civilization
ground, grooved and polished.
which is distinguished by the knowledge and use
The civilization of the Neolithic men shows
of metals.
distinct traces of advance.

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Culture extended from Chotanagpur plateau to
DIRECTION
nature urban civilization was already in
upper Gangetic basin
existence.
Other sites Brahmgiri (Near Mysore) Indus
Some of the most interesting and important
Valley
Harappan sotes are A,ro. Cjamji-daro (80 miles
THE HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION
south of Mohenjo-daro on the left plains of the
The earliest remains of a settled culture in the
Indus), kot Diji (25 miles east of Mohenjo-daro),
Indian subcontinent are of little agricultural
Kalibangan (Rajasthan) and Lothal (Gujarat).
villages in central and southern Baluchistan and
But the civilization of the Indus valley is still best
Sind (both areas now in Pakistan. The oldest of
known by the two sites, Mohenjo-daro (City of the
these goes back to about 3500 BC.
Dead) and Harappa on account of their size and of
Around the beginning of the third millennium
the diversity of finds that have come to light. Both
BC, a culture complex named after the type-site
these places are now in Pakistan.
of Amri (100 miles south of Mohenjo-daro and
General Layout
a mile away from the right bank of the Indus) to
To the west of each was a citadel, fortified by
the south-east of Baluchistan appeared.
crencilated walls.
It developed into a distinctive settlement, and
On this were erected the public buildings. The
after a series of evolving stages gave way to what
enclosed citadel area may have been used for
is known as the Indus valley or the Harappan
religious and governmental purposes.
civilization named after Harappa in the
Below the citadel mound, there was the town
Montgomery district (western Punjab), athough
proper extending, at both the sites, no less than
Mohenjo-daro situated in the Larkana district
a square mile.
(Sind) was no less an important centre.
The main street, some as much as 30 feet wide,
Origin of Harappan Civilization
were laid out on a grid plan.
1.It was a colonial offshoot of the Mesopotamia
The streets and buildings were provided with
civilization which was brought to the Indus
drains made of burnt bricks at Mohenjo-daro and
region by the Sumerians, the early inhabitants
Harappa as well as at several other Indus sites.
of south Mesopotamia.
The houses were equipped with rubbish-bins and
2.From the excavations of number of sites in
bathrooms, and occasionally with a privy on the
Baluchistan, Sind and the Punjab, it is clear that
ground or the upper floor. The bathrooms were
the emergence of civilized life in the Indus valley
connected by drains with sewers under the main
were indigenous in origin.
streets.
3.It is not unlikely that the situmulus for urban
The drainage system is one of the most
development in the Indus region came from
impressive achievements of the Harappa and
outside most likely from Mesopotamia where

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presupposes the existence of some kind of
DIRECTION
Other than Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, several
municipal organization.
sites have been excavated: Kalibangan, Chanhu-
Some buildings are conspicuous by their absence
daro, Lothal, Sutkagen-daro, Sotka Koh, and
in the Harappan sites, and burnt brick of good
Balakot.
quality seems to have been the only building
Script
material.
The recovery of about 2500 Harappan
The houses of varying sizes, often of two or more
inscriptions engraved on seals proves that the
storeys, consisted of rooms constructed round a
Indus people had a script. Several bold attempts
rectangular courtyard.
have been made to decipher it. According to some
The structural remains indicate that the big
scholars the language belonged to the Indo-
houses were meant for the rich. The parallel rows
European or Indo-Iranian family, while
of two room cottages unearthed at Mohenjo-daro
according to others it belonged to the Dravidian
and Harappa were perhaps used by the poorer
group.
sections of society and anticipates the coolie
Agriculture
lines of modern Indian towns. From this may be
Wheat and barley were the main food-crops. Two
inferred class differences in Harappan society.
varieties of wheat, the club wheat and the Indian
Of the few large buildings so far discovered, the
dwarf wheat were known.
Great Bath in the citadel at Mohenjo-daro is the
Barley of a small-seeded six-rowed variety has
most striking. This was a rectangular tank 39 23
been found both at Harappa and Mohenjo-daro.
and 8 deep, constructed of brick; the tank well
Dates and field peas were also grown and formed
was jacketed with bitumen. At the north and
items of Harappan diet.
south ends of the Great Bath brick steps led to
Sesamom and mustard were used for oil.
the bottom of the tank, which could be emptied
At Lothal and Rangpur (near Ahmedabad), rice
by a drain. The Great Bath was meant for some
husks and spikelets embedded in clay and pottery
elaborate ritual of vital importance of the people.
have been discovered.
Wet of the Great Bath, there lay a large granary,
The Harappan cultural zone fell in the low
originally 150 feet from east to west and 75 feed
rainfall area, and it is likely that irrigation was
wide. Also at Harappa, a remarkable group of
necessary for cultivation. But there is no
granaries, each 50 20 feet, has been found ranged
evidence to show that the Harappans practiced
in two rows of six, with a central passage 23
canal irrigation, which was known in as
feet wide. In an age when money was not in use,
Mesopotamia. A likely conjecture is that fields
the granaries must have reflected the solvency
were irrigated by irregular floods.
of the administrative organization.
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Food Habits
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A large variety of copper tools such as flat axes,
Harappan Region
(Style Food)
chisels, knives, spear and arrow heads, small
1. Sind
Wheat and Barley
saws, etc. has been found.
2. Punjab
Wheat and Barley
3. Rajasthan
Barley only
4. Gujarat
Rice and Millet
Various techniques of working in copper were

known, namely hammering, lapping, casting, etc.
Brick kilns, associated with copper working,
(Rangpur, Lothal and Surkotada)
have been discovered at various places.
Sesame seeds, Mustard, and Ghee were their
The authors of Harappan culture possessed the
sources of fat and oil; Seeds of Jujube and dates,
knowledge of gold. Beads, pendants, armlets,
discovered in the Harappan sites indicate that
brooches, needles and other personal ornaments
Harappans were consuming these fruits; bones of
of gold seem to have been reasonably common
deer, sheep goat and bear confirm that they ate all
though by no means prolific.
these animals; fish, milk and curd, too, were
Silver seems to have been first used by the Indus
available to them and they might have been aware
people: it was relatively more common than gold.
of bananas, pomegranates, melons, lemons, figs
Arts and Crafts
and mangoes.
Among them seal-cutting occupied a place of
Stock breeding
importance. The Harappan seal-intaglios form a
Three-quarters of the Harappan terracotta
class by themselves and seem to have been linked
represent cattle; the cow was not represented.
with trading activities.
Besides sheep and goats, dogs, humped cattle,
Bead-makers craft Beads were made of gold,
buffalo and elephant were certainly
silver, copper, faience, steatite, semiprecious
domesticated.
stones, shells and pottery they have been found
The camel was still rare.
in abundance.
A number of wild animals was hunted perhaps
Indus stone sculptures are recorded.
for food.
Terracottas have been found in great numbers
Several varieties of deer for example, seem to
indicating their universal popularity either as toys
have been the game of the Harappans.
or cult objects.
From Amri, a single example of the Indian
The potters craft was fairly well developed.
rhinoceros has survived.
Most of the Harappan pottery was wheel-turned.
Bronze Age
Commodity Production
Copper was in plentiful supply during the mature
Gold may have imported from south India,
phase of Harappan civilization.
especially Mysore, where it was in good supply

in antiquity and is still mined.
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Silver was imported probably from Afghanistan
DIRECTION
On one of these seals, he is shown as surrounded
and Iran.
by four wild animals, an elephant, a tiger, a
Copper may have been brought from south India
rhinoceros and a buffalo and beneath his stool
ad from Baluchistan and Arabia.
are to deer.
Lapis lazuli is rare in Harappan archaeological
Duration
material and came from Badakshan (in north-
The total time span of the Harappan civilization
east Afghanistan); Turquoise from Iran; amethyst
is now fixed between 2300 BC and 1750 BC.
from Maharashtra; agate, chalcedonies and
Mohen-jo-Daro and Harappa were the main
carnelian from Saurashtra and Western India.
centres of this civilization. Mohen-Jo-Daro is
Alabaster may have been brought from a number
situated in the Larkana District of Sind. Mohen-
of places both the east and the west.
jo-Daro literally means the Mound of the Dead.
Jade came from central Asia.
Mohen-jo-Daro is struck by the remarkable skill
Harappan Trade Link
in town-planning. Streets run straight, sometimes
Trade links extended to the cities of
as far as half a mile and they intersect at right
Mesopotamia where two dozen Harappan seals
angles. Nowhere was a building allowed to
have been found.
encroach on a public highway. Secondly, one is
From the Indus region, only three cylinder seals
struck by the remarkable skill of the people of
and a few metal objects of Mesopotamian origin
Mohen-jo-Daro in sanitation. The city had an
have been found.
elaborate drainage system consisting of street and
The archaeological evidence of trade with west
house drains and soak-pits. The great public Bath
Asia is thus scant.
is a significant part of infrastructure.
Mesopotamian literature speaks of merchants of

Harappa lies on the bank of the river Ravi It
Ur (in Mesopotamia) as cayying on trade with
was the capital of the northern region Wells at
foreign countries.
Harappa are rare as compared to Mohen-jo-Daro.
Among these, the most frequently mentioned are
The most remarkable building at Harappa is the
Tilmun or Dilmun, Magan and Meluhha.
Great Granary if Mohen-jo-Daro can boast of the
Religion
Great public bath Grid planning row of six
Numerous nude female figurines in terracotta
granaries evidences of coffin burial, evidence of
are believed to represent a Mother Goddess
fractional burial are significant..
connected with fertility.
Kalibangan Situated on the left bank of the now
The most striking divinity was the horned god

depicted on the seals, nude but for many bangles,
drived river Ghaggar in district in Rajasthan
necklaces and a peculiar head-dress consisting
ploughed field with grid of furrows, city
of a pair of horns.
(rectangular in shape) a citadel with fire altars,

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DIRECTION
Lothal Indus rivers site with an artificial brick
mainly upon the meaning of the frame of
dockyard , evidence of paddy cultivation( rice
references, historians have tended to convey. To
husk has been discovered) evidence of joint
be more simple, Aryans appeared on Indian scene
burial of a male and a female, found terracotta
as seminomadic people with mixed pastoral and
( model of a horse)
agricultural economy in which pastoralism

dominated the sedentary life, at least in the Rg Vedic
Chanhudaro Discovered of a small pot which
phase. Predomination of cattle-rearing over
was probably an ink-pot.
agriculture was the most basic factor for the social

Banawali is an important major settlement,
organization and economic activities in Rg Vedic
surrounded by massive brick defenses. One of
phase.
the most surprising discoveries, far outside the
Harappan Material Culture Vs Rg Vedic
central area of the Indus Civilization
Culture
I. The respective material culture of Harappan and
Two important Harappan Sites in Deccan
Vedic culture provides a striking contrast not

(a) At Daimabad, about 50 miles away from
only in the realm of the metals used by them but
Bombay, archeologists have excavated a site which
also in almost complete absence of to3wns in
produced from a level carbon-dated about 1200
the Rg Vedic period. Indra appeared only as
BC, a heavy bronze image of an ithyphallic male
destroyer of puras (towns) not as their builder. In
figure driving an ox-chariot, together with fine
this sense Rg Vedic economy marked a complete
bronze figures of a bull, an elephant, and a rhino.
break with the Harappan economy.
Stylistically, these images show clear influences
II. The most striking thing about Rg Vedic
of the Indus Valley Civilization. The people of
economy is the absence of iron. Although the term
Daimabad decorated with pottery with friezes of
ayas is used in the Rg Veda but only in the sense of
canines, either of wolves or of dogs.
copper or bronze and even these primate metals
(b) At Piklihal, about 300 miles (400 kilometers)
were used only in poor quantity.
away from Bombay in the same time-period
III. Again, so far no cereals have been discovered
comes the evidence of a community of cattle
at Rg Vedic sites, although the existence of many
herdsmen who kept their huge herds in large
potteries in varying shapes and size (and also of
communal pens and who decorated the rocks in
some pestles and querns) would suggest that Rg
the vicinity of the settlement with innumerable
Vedic people were using agricultural commodities.
paintings and scratching of cattle.
Rg Vedic Aryans are known to have familiarity

with yaya, which may be taken either as a generic
Rg Vedic Society and Economy: Pastoral Phase
name for various kinds of grain or for only
Vedic society has often been described as tribal,
barley, its literal meaning.
pastoral, nomadic or semi-pastoral, depending

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IV. Although the root ar, from which the term arya
DIRECTION
** Gods in the Rg Vedic text were divided into
has been derived, means to cultivate, the Family
four categories: (i) Divya (heavenly); (ii)
Books (Book II to Book VII) do not present
Parthiva (earthly); (iii) Gojala (cow born)and
agriculture as a dominant economic activity at this
(iv) Apya (watery).
stage and Rg Vedic people seem to be
Note: Guests in this period were known as
predominantly pastoral. As opposed to the wild
Goghana as cattle were slaughtered to feed them
animals (mriga), they domesticated pashu, mainly
VI. In comparison of very substantial linguistic
cattle which were evidently valued for non-
evidence for cattle-rearing in the Rg Veda,
vegetarian food (beef) and dairy products, although
agricultural activities find very few references.
the term also indicates horses and sometimes
Apart from yava (barley), no other grains are
human beings.
mentioned. The term krishi occurs only rarely in
V. Hymns of Rg-Veda yield extensive evidence of
the Family Books. The word Krishi occurs 33 times
the importance of cattle in the Rg Vedic society.
in them but only in the sense of people. The well
Many linguistic expressions in the Rg Veda are
known term hala does not appear, but two other
associated with cow, and cow (gau) in different
terms for plough, langala and Sira occur in the
declensions occurs 176 times in the Family Books.
earliest books; the varatra or a leather strap of
Cattle were considered synonymous with
plough is also mentioned. We hear of phala or
wealth (rayi) in the Rg Vedic phase.
ploughshare and furrows (Sita and Sunu) in Book

IV. In a later portion of Rg Vedia, Pushan is
Terms starting from gau
Meaning
described as marking furrows. The limited
1. Gomat
Wealthy men
references of agricultural activities signifies the
2.Gavisti, Goshu, Gauyat,
Terms used for
fact that cattle rearing predominates over
battle
agricultural activities.
Measure of
Terms related to
agricultural activities
1. Krishti
2. Hala, Langala, Sira
3. Phala
4. Varatra
Gauyu, Gaveshna
3.Gauyuti
distance
4.Gopa, Gopati
Tribal King
5.Duhitri*
Daughter
6.Gojata**
Cow-born gods
7.Gauri Gauala
Buffalo
8.Godhuli
Measure of time
9.Gotra
Kinship
5. Sita, Sunu
6. Khanitra
7. Datra/Srini
8. Parasu/Kulisha/Tejas/
Swadhiti, Vrikna
* Though not derived from gau but nonetheless

related to it.
7
9. Vasi
Meaning
People
Plough
Ploughshare
Leather strap of
plough
Furrows
Hoe
Sickle
Axe
Hand-axe
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VII. The pastoral life of the Rg Vedic people is
across Krinati (buying) but none for purchasing.
also indicated by the use of the term Vraja; Vraja
However, the term vikrita is found in the Rg
means cow-pen, and Vraja is obviously an
Veda.
extension from it. It is mentioned 45 times in the
The Rigveda is an important source of history
Rg Veda in its different forms.
about the Rigvedic period. Except the rigveda,
Pana in the Rg Veda
all other texts of the vedic literature are important
Pana, which later came to mean coin, and dhana,
sources of the history of the Later Vedic Period.
appear in the earliest portion of the Rg Veda as
The Vedic literature can be classified under the
prizes, wages, or stakes won as a result of either
following heads :-
war or competition.
I The Vedas : The Vedas are the earliest of the
VIII. In Rg Vedic phase, movable property was
Aryan books. Most of the Indians regard them as
synonymous with cows and was far more important
the Rigveda, the Yajurveda, the Samaveda and the
than immovable property, i.e. land. Even in the
Atharvaveda.
later Books of the Rg Veda, we have no evidence
a. The Rigveda : It is the oldest Veda and the
of the sale, transfer, mortgage or gift of land or its
historians, like Dr. Mookerji, places its period
disposal by an individual in any way. Rayi
of composition as early as 2,500 B.C. It has about
became synonymous with cattle wealth and prayers
1028 mantras or hymns written in praise of
were offered for acquisition of rayi which
various gods and goddesses representing the
included horses, sons, sheeps, chariots, plants and
various aspects of Nature.
possibly food-grains. Gold (hiranya at swarna)

and Copper (ayas) are mentioned in the Rg Veda,
b.The Samaveda : Its hymns are meant for priests
but they do not fall under rayi. However hiranya
who used to Sing them while performing Yajnas.
or desire for gold is expressed in the Rg Veda.
c. The Yajurveda : It contains chiefly hymns that
IX. The whole social fabric was possibly based
describe the rituals to be observed while
on some kind of gift economy. The term bali occurs
performing Yajnas or sacrifices.
several times in the sense of offering or tribute. It

d.Atharvaveda : It has hymns dealing with charms
seems that tribal kinsmen gave voluntary presents
and spells for subduing evil spirits and to control
to the tribal chief who, in turn, led them from
diseases.
victory to victory and allotted them a

shrare, amsha or bhaga in the spoils of war.
II.The Brahmanas : The Brahmanas are treatises
Distribution seems to have been an important
on the Vedas. They are in prose and explain the
function of vidatha.
hymns of the Vedas to the common people who
The term rina occurs in the early portion of the
could not otherwise understand them. They deal
Rig Veda; but it has no term for interest. We come
with rituals connected with sacrifice.

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Aitereya and Kaushitaki Brahmana, Samaveda :
and not by varna system; even the tribal chief
Tandya and Jaiminiya Brahmana, Yajurveda :
(king), warriors, purohitas and artisans were only
Tattiriya and Satpatha Brahmana, Atharvaveda :
the parts of the clan networks. We hear of a family
opatha BrahmanaUpvedas were appended to these
in which a member says: I am a poet, my father is
four Samhitas.
a physician, and my mother is a grinder. Earning
The Ayurveda to Rig Veda, Gandharva Veda to
livelihood from different means, we live
the Samaveda Dhaturveda to the Yajur Veda and
together..
Shilpa Veda was appended to the Atharvaveda
(ii) Varna, in this period, was a term used for colour

and it seems that the Aryans were fair and the
III.The Aranyakas : The Aranyakas are the
indigenous inhabitants dark in complexion. Colour
concluding parts of the Brahmanas. They were
might have provided some sort of social distinction
specially written for the hermits living in the
but not to the extent the western scholarship has
forests. They deal with mysticism and philosophy
tried to project. The factor which contributed most
rather than elaborate rituals and sacrifices.
in the social differentiation was the conquest of
IV. The Upanishads : The Upanishads deal with
indigenous inhabitants by Aryans who were treated
philosophical questions such as the true nature of
as dasas or dasyus. They were treated as slaves
God and the soul and the exact relation between
and sudras.
the two. They explain in detail the doctrines of
(iii) Gradually, the tribal society was divided into
Karma, Moksha and Maya. They are opposed to
three classes: the warriors, the priests and the
ritualism and sacrifices. According to the
common people. Evidences of the assimilation of
Upanishads, the knowledge of the self and the
non-Aryans into the Aryans fold are available.
practice of virture are the means of salvation.
Vasistha, Agastya, Kanva, Angeras etc. nonaryans priests were assimilated and even some
V. The Puranas : They are the old books of the
conquered chiefs were given higher status in Aryan
Aryans.They are 18 in number and each has five
social structure. Dasa cfhiefs such as Balbhuta
sections.The Bhagwat Purana and the Vishnu
and Turuksha are said to have made generous gifts
Purana are the most important. Though they are
to purohitas and they they earned praise and status
not historical in the strict sense of the term yet
in Aryan society.
they contain the history of various dynasties of
Important terms
kings. They help us to reconstructs the early history
Its meaning
1. Jana
Triba
2. Vis
Smaller unit
Social Formation in the Rg Vedic phase
3. Grama
Village
(i) Rg Vedic society has a pastoral society where
4. Kula
Family
social relations were determined by kinship ties
5. Kulapa
Head of the Family
of the Aryans in India.
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(iv) We have evidences of slaves who were given
Satapatha Brahmana states how Videgha
as gifts to the priests. But they were mainly female
Madhav went on burning the forests till he reached
slaves employed for domestic purposes. In any
Sadanira in North Bihar, an event which probably
case, slaves were not used directly in agricultural
took place towards the end of the Rg Vedic phase.
and other productive activities in Rg Vedic society.
PGW CULTURE
(v) Society was patriarchal, and therefore, birth
PGW culture coincided with the area represented
of son was a common desire. The people seem to
in the later Vedic texts. Although, PGW sites have
have been most keen on having brave sons (Suvira)
been noticed in eastern U.P. and even in Bihar, its
which could win the battles. Women, nevertheless,
epicenter seems to be Upper Ganga and Sutlej
enjoyed a respectable position in this patriarchal
basin. So far about 700 PGW sites have been
society. They were educated and had access to the
located in this region; all of them are undoubtedly
assemblies. We have instances where they
representatives of an agrarian economy,
composed hymns. They had Right to choose their
(i) We should always remember in this context that
partners and they married mostly after puberty. She
there is nothing like an exclusive PGW culture zone
could take part in sacrifice with her husband. A
as other wares such as black-and-red ware, black-
childless widow could cohabit with her brother-
slipped ware, red ware and plain grey ware are
in-law until the birth of a son, a practice known as
always associated with them. And also, PGW
myoga.
shreds are not numerically predominant at any
(vi) Various occupational groups such as those of
place. In other words, the PGW layer represents a
weavers, smiths, carpenters, leather works, chariot-
composite culture.
makes etc. are also mentioned in Rg Veda. The
(ii) Red ware pottery was the most popular in later
Chariot-makers occupied a special social status.
Vedic phase and has been found almost everywhere
There are no references to beggards, wage-earners
in western U.P.
or wages in Rg Veda. The Rg Vedic term for potter,
(iii) PGW culture covers the time period from 1000
Kulala has no parallel in other indo-European
B.C to 500 B.C. Keith placed Brahmanas between
languages.
800 and 600 B.C. which may be extended to 500

B.C. (Louis Renou).
LATER VEDIC PERIOD
Excavated sites
C-14 dating
Later Vedic Economy and Society
1. Atranjikhera
940 B.C.
During the later Vedic phase, Aryans extended their
2. Jodhapura
800 B.C.
area of activity to the region from Yamuna to the
3. Noh
725 B.C.
western borders of Bengal. To be more simple, they
4. Jodhpura
720 B.C.
occupied Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Western
(iv)The PGW mud-brick walls have been found at
Bihar and adjoining area of Rajasthan. The
Hastinapur. Seven brick names are mentioned in

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Taittiriya Samhita; nine in Kathak Samhita; and
(iv) Agni and iron played an important role in the
11 in Maitrayani Samhita; the building of
clearing of forests and we have description of
Uttravedi involves five layers of bricks, making
burning of the Khandavavana in the Mahabharata
10,800 bricks in all. Even after that, later Vedic
to build the city of Indraprastha.
phase did not yield fire-baked bricks; though
(v) Iron tipped weapons and horse chariots helped
Bhagwanpura along with few other places,
military activities which have been extensively
presents exception to the rule from where burnt
documented in Mahabharta.
bricks have been reported.
(vi) But iron technology had practically no role in
(v) A potters kiln of the PGW level has been
subsistence related activities in this stage of social
discovered in Atranjikhera (which is known as
formation.
Iron in Vedic Texts
apaka in the Vedic texts) but no term for brick-
(a) The term Shyama occurs in the Vajasaneyi
kiln is found in vedic sources.

(vi) In total, picture of PGW settlement does not
Samhita, the youngest of the Yajus collection
present an idea of urbanized settlement as Wheeler
(800 B.C.)
(b) The term Shyamena occurs in Atharva Veda
believe, but, at best, of a proto-urbanized
(1800 B.C.).
settlement. The term nagara occurs in an
(c) The term Shyam ayas is also found in the
Aranayaka and nagarin in two Brahmanas but
Atharva Veda (800 B.C.).
they are the texts of not earlier than 600 B.C.
(d) The term Krishna-ayas occur in Jamini
Technology in the Later Vedic Phase
Upanisad Brahmana around 600 B.C.
(i) Technologically, the later Vedic part of PGW

period is distinguished by the use of iron; the Rg
Economy in Later Vedic Phase
Vedic part of PGW did not have iron as is evident
(i) Pastoralism no longer remained the main
from the excavations of Bhagwanpura in Haryana
subsistence activity; mixed farming, which
and few other sites in Punjab.
included cultivation and herding, became the
(ii) Archeological sites in the Indo-Gangetic divide
occupational norm of this period. Later Vedic texts
and upper Gangetic plain reveal PGW in
reflect continued importance of pastoralism.
association with iron artifacts such as spearheads,
(ii) Animal ritualistic decorational remains from
arrow heads, hooks, etc. Two furnaces for iron
Atranjihera include bones of cattle and other
smelting have been discovered in Suneri village
animals bearing cut-marks and it proves that they
in Jhunjhunu district in Rajasthan.
were used for food. Sacrificial altars have not been
(iii) One ploughshare has been reported from
discovered so far, although such a claim is made
Jakhera which probably belongs to the end of this
for
period
Purusaamedha. Although remains of horse have
Kaushambi
in
connection
with
been found at Hastinapur, it is not clear whether

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this animal was used for food. So far the remains
(vi) While rice was a commodity used in rituals,
of horse have not been found from any other
same cannot be claimed about wheat. Various kinds
PGW sites. Horse-goods belonging to 900 B.C.
of lentil were also produced in this age.
have been reported from Gandhara grave.
(vii) According to ancient legend, Janaka, the king
(iii) Although Atharva Veda contains innumerable
of Videha and father of Sita, lent his hand to
prayers for increase of cattle, agriculture became
plough and Balarama, the brother of Krishna, is
more important economic activity. The later Vedic
said to be the wielder of plough (Haladhara). These
texts speak of four, six, eight, twelve and even
instances show increasing significance of
twenty-four oxen being yoked to plough.
agriculture.
Satapatha Brahmana devotes one whole
(viii) They were advanced in the knowledge of
Brahmana to the ploughing rites. Besides barley,
metals. In addition to gold and ayas found in
rice, wheat, bean-pulse, sesamum, millet and
Rigveda, there is mention of tin, lead, silver and
sugarcane were the important crops. Sugarcane
iron.
mentioned in Atharva Veda might have been
References to corporation (ganas) and aldermen
valued as wild produce.
(Sresthins) indicate the organization of merchants
Later Vedic Crops
into guilds.
Term used ion Vedic texts
1 Barley
Yava
2. Rice
Vrihi, Tandula,. Sali,Shasatika
3. Wheat
Godhuma
4. Bean-pulse
Masha
5. Sesamum
Tila
6. Millet
Syamaka
Nisk, Satamans and Krisnala were used as

convenient units of value.
Ancient name
Chandra
Jatarupa
Hiranya
Suvama
Harita
Rajata
Krisnayas
Shyamayas
Lohitayasa
Loha
Sisa
Trapu
Muktika
Mani
Vajra
Pravala
(iv) Rice became staple diet of the people as

archeological and literary sources documented.
The twelve sacrifices prescribed in Artharva Veda
for material benefits recommend the gifts of cows,
calves, oxen, gold, cooked rice, thatched houses,
and well cultivated field.
Note: A Multiple hearth with baked brick walls
has been discovered from the Mauryan level in
Purana Qila which can retain four pots at a time.
(v) Remains of rice, ascribable to about 800 B.C.
have been discovered at Hastinapur but it seems
to be of an untransplanted variety.
12
Metal/Stone Machine
Gold
Gold
Gold
Gold
Gold
Silver
Copper
Iron
Copper
Iron
Lead
Tin
Pearl
Jewel
Diamond
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(a) The Atharva Veda gives an instance of a ritual
(a) Atharva Veda in all twelve sacrifices (sava),
where water from leading rivers was channelised
mentioned peasants as important participants and
to canals; it also speaks of spells to avoid drought
these sacrifices meant mostly for acquiring material
and excess of rains.
benefits and some for obtaining heaven.
(b) The importance of horse and chariot is attested
(b) Cow, horses, property (dhana or gold) and
by Rg Veda and subsequent Vedic texts which
sometimes wives (Atharva Veda) were placed as
prescribe a place for the horse in the asvamedha,
stakes in game of dice.
rajasuya, manavrata, vajapeya ceremonies.
(xi) Land was still not an item of property and the
(c) The importance of cereals (anna) has been
practice of making land gifts to the peasants did
emphasized in the Chhandogya Upanisad where
not prevail on any scale. (In the later Vedic period,
we have been told how the rains contributed to
land could theoretically be granted by king or
the origin of anna and the sun to its ripening.
tribal chief only with the consent of vis of clan.)
(d) The largest deposit of iron weapons discovered
(a) Several texts belonging to this age ban the grant
so far belongs to Atranjikhera, meaning that
of land and human beings as sacrificial fees.
Panchala people enjoyed military edge over other
(b) The idea of land tax found in Panini and the
people. It also signifies that Kuru-Panchala kings
Jatakas, is alien to the Vedic texts.
were militarily superior to the Rg-Vedic kings.
Weaponry in Later Vedic Age
(ix) The PGW/later Vedic people seem to have
1.Most iron artifacts from the PGW levels
practiced field agriculture, but iron did not play
comprise arrow heads and spear heads
any significant role in agricultural production; the
supplemented by nails.
PGW-Iron phase was, therefore, primarily an age
2.Asi is the Vedic reference of an iron knife used
of iron weapons and not of iron tools.
for cutting pieces of animal flesh.
In other words, later Vedic Aryans were no longer
3.Although we have no reference to iron arrow-
nomads, they enjoyed a settled life in their wattle-
heads, bow was the main weapon of Vedic
and-doab houses with agriculture as primary
people.
productive activity and cattle as the most important
4.Asi also signified an iron shield.
form of movable property. Transition from pastoral
5.Lance/spear was the second important Vedic
to agricultural economy led to the differentiation
weapon.
of economic functions, though this did not bring
(xii) Later Vedic period saw the rise of diverse arts
any fundamental change in economy.
and crafts. Copper objects have been found from
(x) Settled and sedentary life of the later Vedic
PGW sites. Leather work, pottery and carpentry
period led to the beginning of property in land and
work made great progress. Glass hoards and
houses; these were in addition to the Rg Vedic
bangles found in the PGW layer may have been
notion of property in women slaves, animals,
used as prestige objects used by very few persons.
weapons and ornaments.

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Jewel workers are also mentioned in the later Vedic
this four-fold varna division should not be
texts.
confused as actual mechanism of caste at this
(xiii) Though later Vedic texts were familiar with
stage as the first three varnas/castes were only a
the term nagara, we can trace only the faint
theoretical division into which they systematically
beginning of towns towards the end of this phase.
arranged various professions. Combinations
The later Vedic towns such as Hastinapur and
permutations within this system was inevitable in
Kaushambi can at best be defined as proto-urban
this stage resulting in inter-mixing.
centres.
(i) The four-fold division was given religious
LATER VEDIC SOCIETY
sanction in later Vedic society resulting in the
The rise growth of occupational divisions due to
decline of vis (clan) and ascendancy of the
sedentary life of later Vedic period as a result of
Ksatriyas and Brahminis as in evident from Purusa
the emergence of agrarian economy (though not
Sukta of Rg Veda (from the latest tenth mandala)
very developed or complex) resulted into the
where origin of varnas has been traced from the
beginning of social differentiation. Society in the
body of universal creator, Prajapati.
later Vedic phase tended to become more complex.
(ii) The symbolism which is hidden in Purusa
We no longerhear the references such as a a bard
Sukta is that in social life Brahmins were
am I, my father is a leech and my mother grinds
considered the highest varna because society could
corn. Later Vedic society transcended the limit
communicate with gods only with the help of
of Rg Vedic social division between Aryans and
Brahmins. Sudras, on the other hand, held the
non-Aryans and the varna which previously meant
lowest position in social hierarchy. The hierarchical
only colour now acquired the meansing of caste
order of later Vedic society was as:
(jati), though not in strict sense. In other words,
Brahmanas > Ksatriyas > Vaisyas > Sudras
the transition from pastoralism to settled life, the
(iii) Again, it should be remembered that the above
Ancient Indian society experienced the process of
mentioned four social statuses are only
social differentiation and class division.
occupational and ritualist, and therefore,
Varna and Caste in Later Vedic Period
cannot be regarded as four separate social classes
In later Vedic phase, Aryans became dwija or twice
in the sense that some of them owned land, cattle
born castes (the first being physical birth and the
and pastures and implements and others were
second the initiation into caste status after thread
deprived of these privileges.
ceremony) consisting of the Ksatriyas (warriors
(iv) However, we have clear indication of such
and aristocracy; in Rg Veda they were called
beginning. Supported by the Brahmins, the
Rajanya), the Brahmins (priests) and the vaisyas
Rajanyas claimed the grain taxes from Vaisyas but
(cultivators); the forth caste, Sudras were the
there was still no mechanism for the assessment
Dasas and those of mixed Aryan-Dasa origin. But
and its collection. By evolving adequate rituals,

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Brahmins tended to perpetuate this social
Echoes of conflict over the question of extraction
inequality, resulting in a fitting belief Nobility
of surplus can be found in the later Vedic texts.
is the feeder and the people are the food; When
1.The conflict between Sudas and his priest
there is abundant food for feeder, that realm is
Vaisisthas can be shows as an example.
indeed prosperous and thrives (Satapatha
2.Another example is that of Srinjay Vaitanavyas
Brahmana).
and Bhrigus.
(v) The explanatory part of the later Vedic rituals,
3.We have still other examples of such conflict as
especially towards the end of this phase, states that
between Visvantara Saushadmana and
the Brahmins and Rajanyas should cooperate to
Syaparnas or between Janamejaya and
rule over the Vaisyas or peasantry. All the available
Asitmrigas.
evidences makes it clear that only the peasants
(vii) The family tended to become more and
were meant for paying taxes (taxes were
more patriarchal; the birth of a son was more
necessarily not regular), and therefore, kind was
welcome than that of a daughter. Princes could
called Vismatta, the devourer of peasants.
take several wives, though polyandry also existed
That Brahmins were conciliated in this process of
side by side. Women became the commodity of
exploitation from Vaisyas is evident from the term
gift and were presented to the priests by the
of payment as gift to the priests by Rajanya. Atraya
Rajanya.
Brahmana of about 6th century BC, on the
Womanhood and Sati L.V.S.
occasion of Rajasuya ceremony, Anga is said to
The position of women, on the whole, was better
have given to his priest Udamaya Atreya 10,000
than post-Maurya and post-Gupta phase, but it is
rich maidservants wearing gold necklaces, millions
curious to note that, unlike the Greeks, the Indo-
of cows and 88,000 white horses. Thus, through
Aryans did not attribute much power to their
the rituals the authority of Brahmins and rajanyas
goddesses. Parallel to this, dowry and bride-price
was strengthened over vaisyas.
were recognized in an Aryan family where a widow
(vi) The Sudras, at this stage, were only a small
was to perform a symbolic self-immolation at
serving class who could be oppressed and beaten
the death of her husband. It is not clear whether
at will by the king but they still were not serfs as
such rites were restricted to the aristocracy alone.
Keith has tried to project.
Sati was merely symbolic during the Vedic period
Brahmins Vs. Rajanyas
seems to be obvious from the fact that later Vedic
There happened to a conflict between Brahmins
literatures refer to the remarriage of widows,
and rajanyas over the extraction of surplus from
generally to the husbands brother.
vaisyas. The vaishyas were considered fit to be
The period c.600 to 322 B.C. constituted an
eaten not only by rajanya but also by Brahmins.
important phase in Ancient Indian history not only

because it experienced the widespread use of iron15
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technology, extensive cultivation of rice, sugar and
by the absence of burnt brick structures and ring
cotton and the production of relatively huge
vests and comparatively lesser use of NBP shreds,
surplus in agrarian economy but also because it
coins, terra cottas and iron-tools, glass and
witnessed the rise and growth of cities, further
sometimes ivory objects are also found in this
diversification of crafts and their organization into
phase.
guilds and most importantly brisk inland and
Iron-ploughshare in Archeology
foreign trade. In other words, in this phase of
1.At ropar of Ganga-Sutlej basin, an ironploughshare has been discovered.
historical development, there emerged an urban
2.Another ploughshare belonging to the PGW
economy with a strong and powerful base in

agrarian sector.
phase of period aroud 500 BC has been
Literary texts belonging to c.500-300 B.C.
reported from Jakhera in Itah district of U.P.

3.An iron-share of mid NBP phase has been found
1. Jatakas
2. All Nikayas except Khuddaka Nikaya
at Kaushambi from where two socketed
3.
Suttanipata except Atthakavagga and
iron-axes of early NBP phase have also been
Parayanavagga
reported.
4.It has also been reported in association with the
4. Prose portion of Digha Nikaya.
NBP phase at Raghuasoi in Vaishali
Note:
district.
1.Three Suttas from Suttanipata and several others

from Digha, Nikaya and Vinaya Pilaka are
(ii) We have, for the first time, references of iron
quoted in Bhabru Edict. Also the prose portion
in other context that war and weapon.
of Brahmanas.
(iii) The difficulty, however, emerges due to fact

that the literary references of iron tools are not
2.Pali texts mainly describe the state of arrairs in
matched by archeological discoveries.
eastern U.P. and Bihar.

Material Culture/Technology
(iv) The spread of plough-cultivation is indicated
(i) It is significant that the 6th century B.C.
by the term nangala in Pali texts; Suttanipata
experienced the emergence of North Black
mentions a village known as Icchanangal. For this,
Polished Ware (NBPW) which can be roughly
panini uses the term hala and provides us the
divided into two phases:
detailed knowledge of agricultural operations. In
(a) First Phase: c.600 t0 300 B.C.
Grihyasutra, various types of sacrifices for
(b) Second Phase: c. 300 to 100 B.C.
promoting agriculture and animal husbandry have
While the Second Phase is characterized by a
been mentioned.
relatively profused use of NBPW, coins, terra cotta

figures, iron tools, burnt brick structures,
occasional tiles, and ring wells; the first is marked
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Important terms
DIRECTION
(b) Iron tools helped in the extension of agriculture
Meaning
1. Ropana/Ropeti
Plant sapling of paddy
and cereals like rice, barley, wheat and millets were
2. Vrihi
Paddy cultivated in rainy
produced over the wide space of land.
season
(c) Literary texts of the period show a knowledge
Paddy cultivated in
of irrigation and also the practice of keeping the
winter
land fallow along the familiarity of an agricultural
Land for transplanted
calendar based on six seasons and 27 nakshatras.
paddy crop
(d) This period is also marked by the utilization of
5. Patitthapeti
Planning
new plants and fruit trees. Mango groves, sala
6. Mariyad
Dike
groves, Jambu, Madhuka, Palasa and others are
7. Bijagara
Paddy seed bed
mentioned in the contemporary texts.
8. Mori/Moriyar
Paddy seeding/seed bed
(e) An attempt to ban the slaughter of cattle wealth
9. Godhuma
Wheat
helped in agrarian production.
3. Sali
4. Kedara
Economy
(f) The beginning of rice-transplantation helped
(v) The extensive details, we have already gone
in the generation of greater surplus.
through, of NBPW clearly that the people of Upper
(vii) A distinctive feature of post-Vedic phase is
Gangetic basin maintained their material
the emergence of second urbanization in Ancient
development of the first half of the first millennium
India history, after a lapse of not less than 1000
B.C. in the second half as well
years. The Pali texts speak of 20 towns, six of them
(vi) The excavation of more than 450 sites in the
being associated with the death of Buddha.
area comprising eastern U.P. and Bihar clearly
Archaeology attests many urban settlements in this
suggests that there existed in this phase relatively
phase. Cities like Champa, Vaishali, Varanasi,
huge agricultural settlements and emerged a good
Kaushambi, Kushinagara, and Sravasti are
many new villages. They also suggest close links
witnessed not only by the Pali texts but also by
between the town and country as the same kinds
Archaeology. The Buddhist literature refers to six
of pottery have been found both at urban sites as
Mahanagaras including Champa, Rajagriha, Kasi,
well as their adjacent countryside.
Sravasti, Kaushambi and Saketa. Chirand,
Factors responsible for Expansion in Agrarian
Sringaverpur, Piprahwa, Tilaurakot and
Economy
Lauriyanandangarh were other urban settlements
(a) Clearance of thick vegetation cover of the
of this age.
Gangetic basin with combined use of iron tools
(viii) Pura, Drga, Nigama, Nagar etc. were the
and fire.
terms denoting urban settlement in Ancient Indians

literature. It appears that Pura and Durga are among
the earliest terms used for twon/city in earlier
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literature and both these terms meant fortified
SOCIETY IN POST VEDIC PHASE
towns. Pura is mentioned even in the early Vedic
The changing features of economic organization
literature, others, such as Nigama or Nagara came
such as extension of agricultural production,
into existence in subsequent phases. While Nigama
growth of towns, emergence of monetary exchange,
was the term for cities in the Pali texts; Nagara
expansion of crafts and rapid development of trade
was the most common word used for cities in other
and commerce were closely related to the transition
literary sources. It should be remembered that Jain
in social relations.
canonical texts mention different kinds of urban
(i) The new forces of production in the Post-Vedic
settlements such as scot-free town, a town with an
age caused the generation of enough surplus for
earthern wall, a town with a small wall, an isolated
the rise of a class-based and state-oriented society
town, a large town, a sea town and a capital. It is
in which ruling class and its beneficiary, i.e. princes
also worth mention that Aristobulus saw the
and warriors and priests and monks, were able to
remains of over a thousand towns.
extract taxes, tributes and tithes.
(ix) Whatever may be the origin of town, it
(ii) Brahmanical ideologues gave it legal
eventually became a market. Groups of merchants
expression and devised an elaborate social
specializing in the procurement and selling of
mechanism for surplus extraction, which was
commodities could be seen in the contemporary
defined by them as Varna-System. For the first
texts. Obviously artisans and traders (setthis)
time in this phase, the functions of all four varnas
accounted for a large proportion of the city
were defined.
population and they were engaged in trade and
(iii) The Ksatriya appears to be the most powerful
industry. There were various kinds of traders: the
and visible section of society; though in
shopkeepers (apanika), retailers (kraya-
brahmanical texts, they were placed below the
vikrayika), and money investors (Setthi-
Brahmins in social hierarchy. In Buddhist
Ganapati).
literature, Kshatriyas were characterized as the

supreme social class. In one of the discourses, Lord
(x) Trade was facilitated by the use of punch-
Buddha claimed, even when a kshatriya has fallen
marked coins, ascribed stratigraphically to fifth
into the lowest depths, he is still the best and the
century BC, whose more than 300 hoards are so
Brahmins are lower in status to him.
far known to us. The coin of the highest value at
(iv) In this phase brahmins seem to be a case group.
this stage was Satamana of silver. The copper
A Brahmin was one who was born as Brahmin. He
masas and Kakani were of the lowest
might change his profession but he remained a
denomination. The Karsapana can be evaluated
Brahmin. In brahmanical texts, they were given
in between. In other words, metal money made its
privilege of mediation between man and god. There
advent in 5th century B.C. and with it began the
were seventeen kinds of Brahmins, but the Brahmin
practice of usury.
category among them remained at top.

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Ksatriyas in Ganasamghas
(c) Vanaprastha: Well advanced in middle age, he
Unlike the Brahmanical texts, Kshatriyas in the
entered Vanaprastha and after its completion he
Buddhist texts are described differently. They are
was supposed to leave his home.
mentioned as the ruling class of the Ganasamghas
(d) Samnyasa: It was the last stage of life where
such as those of Vaishali and Kapilvastu, and were
he was expected to lead the life of a homeless
referred to as the Shakyas, Licchavis, Mallas, etc.
wanderer.
they were groups who owned land collectively and
(v) In Vedic times the Vaisya was a poor third in
their communal land was cultivated by Dasas and
social hierarchy, though he was entitled to the
Karmakaras. They do not seem to abide by
services of priesthood and sacred thread of
brahmanical rituals and they did not have
initation. According to the Manu, the duty of Vaisya
compactness and strict rules of marriage
was cattle herding, agriculture and trade. But, in
characteristic f caste system. In these areas, there
the post-Vedic phase, they became richer and,
was only two-fold social division into high and
therefore, socially and politically a significant
low caste which was contrary to the four-fold varna
social class. The power of Ganapati in rural area
division of Brahmanical order. Brahmanical notion
and Setthi and Jetthaka in urban centres increased
of Kshatriya as warrior class was acceptable only
considerably.
to ruling classes; otherwise they might be a learned
(vi) Land was worked by Sudra cultivators, except
man, a preacher, a thinker, a teacher and even
in the case of privately owned land where hired
traders as well as peasants.
labour was used. But private ownership was not
Asramas in Ancient Indian Society
widespread. The fact that many of the Sudras were
The concept of Asrama succeeded that of varna
landless labourers weakened their social status. The
was therefore, more artificial. While the varna
Pali literature frequently mentions them as dasas,
typified fourfold division of Aryan society, the
Karmakaras and dalidda.
Asramas divided the life of the individual into four
(vii) Dasasuddas are frequently mentioned in the
stages as follows:
contemporary literature. They were slaves who did
(a) Brahmacarya: After investiture with sacred
not have any legal status.
thread, a child became brahmacarin and was
(viii) A category lower than the sudras came to be
expected to lead a celibate and austere life as a
recognized during this period. They were the
student at the home of his guru.
untouchables.
(b) Grhastha: Having completed his education, he
(ix) The position of women experienced a decline.
returned to his parental home and was married to
They were not granted the right to sit in public
become a householder (Grhastha).
meetings. They became permanently subordinate

to men father, husband, brother or son. Even if
they joined samgha, they were treated inferior.
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JAINISM AND BUDDHISM
human beings with the cycle of birth-death-rebirth,
6th century BC did not mark a breakthrough only
was the Karman which led them to the acts of
in the material basis of Ganga valley culture but it
violence, and, thus ascetics were expected to avoid
also witnessed a rapid advance in the philosophical
even accidental killing, necessary to avoid the evil,
aspect of life. Religiously the Ganga basin became
Karman. These commonalities among the various
a melting pot which gave birth to numerous
sects drive us to search for common origin of these
heterodox sects including Ajivakavadins,
movements (it is not required to deal more on this
Buddhists and Jainas. Historians are of the
matter at the Prelims stage of the examination).
opinion that this philosophical metamorphosis had
Thus, numerous heterodox sects arose in the
its definite roots in the prevailing socio-economic
middle Gangetic plain around sizty century BC,
and political conditions though the exact
numbering not less than 62 religious sects, having
evidence of such relationship is wanting.
regional specificities and philosophical diversities.
Notwithstanding these technicalities (obviously
Buddhism, Jainism, Uchchhedavada, Lokayata,
because our requirement do not demand it), the
Ajivaka were important among them.
relationship between the cultural growth and
(i) Uchchhedavada: The propagator of this sect
appearance of small cities, a fine new type of
was Ajita Keshakambalin who rejected the
pottery with a lustrous black polish NBPW, punch-
immaterial and supernatural altogether, and
marked coins and probably script and languages,
preached thorough going materialism.
can more or less be accepted. That emergence of
From this school, Lokayat or Charvaka School
new heterodox sects was the result of similar socio-
of philosophy is believed to have derived
economic base, is clear from the fact that all of
a great deal.
them had many things similar to one another. All
(ii)Lokayat or Charvaka School: Brihaspati
these movements clearly and completely rejected
Sutra or Lokyatsutra is the text where the
Vedas, the sacrificial cult and the brahmanical
philosophy of Lokayata is believed to be explained,
domination; all however, except the materialists
as we are told by patanjali. The only existing
who followed Ajita Keshakambalin, accepted the
materialist text is Tattvopaplavasimha of
truth of transmigration and advisability of escaping
Jayarashi, complied in the 8th century A D .
from the cyle of rebirth. All of them, however,
Charvaka was the chief exponder of this
rejected the idea of creation, whether by a personal
materialistic philosophy of Lokayata which means
God or by an impersonal absolute; for them, the
ideas derived from common people. This
universe was the product of natural law. All the
philosophy underlined the importance of intimate
new sects aimed at releasing their followers from
contact with the world Loka, and showed lack of
the bonds of birth, death and rebirth by the quickest
belief in the other world (Parloka). Here the
method. For all of them, the greatest evil that tied
existence or reality of only those things, which

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could be sensed by human beings, is accepted. For
5.Its rejection of Varna system made it popular
hi, all the rituals are meant only for Dakshina of
among the lower classes.
Brahmins.
6.Emphasis on Ahimsa made them popular among
(iii) Ajivakas: Makkhali Gosala was the founder
the peasants as it served the purpose of protecting
of Ajivaka sect about which both Panini and
animal-power, so necessary to the agrarian
Patanjali were referring in their texts. The
economy in that period.
followers of this sect disciplined themselves as
7.Admission of women to Samgha also contributed
rigorously as those of Jains. They seemed to have
in its popularity among women.
combined with those of other teachers such as
8.Considerable support from Vaishyas, the
Purana Kasyapa (the antinomian) and Pakuda
business community.
Katyayana (the atomists). Though no scriptures
9.Use of pali (or prakrit), the language of the
of this sect have survived, still we are sure that the
people.
sect was certainly atheistic, and its chief feature
10.Patronage from the existing monarchies.
was strict determinism and denial of Karman
Few Informations about Buddha
doctrine. For them, the whole universe was
(i) Birth of Siddhartha or Gautam Buddha 563
conditioned and determined to the minutest detail,
BC.
by an impersonal cosmic principle, Niyati, or
(ii) Birth Place Lumbini (a grove of sal trees).
destiny. It was impossible to influence the course
(iii) Lumbini was very near to Shakya capita,
of transmigration in any way. The Dravidian
Kapilvastu.
Ajivikas developed their doctrine following the
(iv) Gotra Gautama.
line dictated by Mahayanism and Goshala acquired
(v) Father Suddoodhana, the Shakya king.
divinity like that of Buddha.
(vi) Mother - Mahamaya.
(iv) Buddhism
(vii) Wife Yashodhara.
(a) Factors that contributed in the rise and growth
(viii) Cousin Davadatta.
of Buddhism (and to some extent Jainism):
(ix) Son Rahul.
1.Rigidityof Varnasarma dharma.
(x) Horse Kanthaka
2.Excessive cost of sacrificial rituals in
(xi) Charioteer Channa.
Brahmanical order.
(xii) Great Going Forth Mahabhinishkramana
3.Theoretical superiority of Kshatriyas over
to become a wandering ascetic (at the age of 29).
Brahmins.
(xiii) Teacher of Meditation Alara Kama
4.Emergence of new material culture as the result
(xiv)The daughter of peasant who gave him
of new agricultural economy combined with the
milked rice Sujata.
process of urbanization demanding a
(xv) Place of enlightenment nirvana (at the age
permutation and combination in societal and
of 35) Gaya in Magadha.
religious adjustments.
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(xvi) Tree under which he attained enlightenment
(1) Four Noble Truths
Pipal
(a)The Noble Truth of Sorrow: Birth is sorrow, age
(xvii) Bodhi Tree Pipal
is sorrow, death is sorrow. In short all
(xviii) Mara the king of spirits and demons.
the five components of Individuality are sorrow.
(xix) Witness of Buddhas goodness and
(b) Desire (thrust or tanha) is the cause of sorrow
benevolence Earth.
which leads to rebirth.
(xx) The famous words Iam his witness by
(c) The suffering could be removed by destroying
Earth.
the desire. It is complete stopping of that
(xxi) Tree of Wisdom Bodhi Tree.
thirst so that no passion remains.
(xxii) First nun and his foster mother Gautami.
(d) Thirst can be completely controlled through
Dhammachakkaparavattan Deer Park, Sarnath
the Noble Eight Fold Path (Arya Astangika
(Varanasi)
Marg).
(xxiii) Died at Pava, after consumption of Pork.
(2) The Noble Eight Fold Path:

(a) Right view
(b) Buddhist Philosophy: The basic propositions
(b) Right Resolve
of Buddhism are not metaphysical but
(c) Right Speech
psychological. Sorrow, suffering, dissatisfaction
(d) Right Conduct
and all manifold unpleasantness which are referred
(e) Right Livelihood
to by the world dukkha are more psychological
(f) Right Effort
than metaphysical.The fundamental teaching of
(g) Right Recollection
Buddhism
(h) Right Meditation
that
is
contained
in
the
Dhammachakkapavattan Sutta (Sermon of the
This noble eight fold path was the Middle way of
Turning of the Wheel of Law) is centred around
Tathagata (Buddha).
Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eight Fold Path
(3) Patichcha Sammupad (The Chain of
to deal effectively with these psychological
Dependent Organistion): This very simple doctrine
problems of humanity.
of Buddhism is in rather pedantil forms most
Symbols in Buddhism
important of which was the patichchasammupada,
(i) Birth Lotus and Bull
a series of twelve terms. It goes as: Out of
(ii)Great Renunciation (Mahabhi-nishkramana)
ignorance arises imagination; from imagination,
Horse.
Self-consciousness; from self-consciousness Name
(iii) Nirvana (enlightenment) Bodhi tree.
and Form; thence Six senses (the sixth being
(iv)Dhammachakkapavattan (enlightenment)
thought); thence Contact; thence Feeling; thence
Dharma Chakra, or wheet.
Craving; thence attachment; thence Becoming;
(v) Mahaparinirvana (death) Stupa.
thence Rebirth, and finally the manifold ills.

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(4) Dukka Anichcha and Anatta: The
8.Refrain from the use of garlands, perfumes,
mechanisms of this doctrine are indeed obscure
unguents and jewellery.
but at the bottom of human misery is ultimately
9.Refrain from the use of high or broad bed.
ignorance, a cosmic ignorance which lead to the
10. Refrain from receiving gold and silver.
delusion of self-hood. The ignorance primarily

concerns the fundamental nature of universe with
Three Pitakas
three salient characteristics:
(i) Pali canon of Sthavarradins consists of three
(a) Dukkha (Sorrow)
Pitakas or baskets.
(b) Anichcha (Transient)
(a) Vinay Pitaka: Rules and conduct of the order.
(c) Anatta (Soulless).
(b) Sutta Pitaka: Sermons of Buddha.
(5) Nibbana (State of bliss); Buddhism says that
(c) Abhidhamma Pitaka: Metaphysics of
the world is full of sorrows and people suffer due
Buddhism.
to desires. If desires are conquered, nibbana will
(ii) The largest and the most important of the three
be attained, that man will be free from the cycle
pitakas is the Sutta Pitaka which was
of birth and earth. Parinibbana in Buddhism is,
divided into five nikayas (groups)
however, the term used for death.
(a) Diggha Nikaya: Collection of long sermons.
(c) Buddha, Dhamma and Samgha have been
(b) Manjjhima Nikaya: Collection of shorter
regarded as the three jewels of Buddhism.
sermons.
Amongst these three jewels, Samgha means the

Buddhist order, the entry into which was not
(c) Samyukta Nikaya being pronouncement on
restricted for any caste, but slaves, soldiers,
kindred topics.
debtors, and other persons under any obligation
(d) Anguttara Nikaya a collection of over 2,000
or in tutelage except the permission of its superior
brief statements artificially arranged in eleven
could not enter it. The rites of admission were
section.s
simple, involving putting on the three yellow robes
(e) Khuddaka Nikaya: Collection of miscellaneous
(it may also be orange) of the order by pronouncing
works including Dhammapada, Theragatha
Three Jewels and Ten Precepts
Terigatha and Jataka.
1.Refrain from harming living beings.
(v) Jainism: Jainism, the religion of Jina (the
2.Refrain from taking what is not given.
conquerors), was founded by first tirthankara,
3.Refrain from evil behaviour in passion.
Vardhamana Mahavira, a contemporary of Lord
4.Refrain from false speech.
Buddha,was twenty fourth tirthankara.
5.Refrain from Sura, meraya, and majja.

6.Refrain from eating at forbidden time.
7.Refrain from dancing, singing, music and drama.
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Buddhist Councils at a Glance

1.First Council
3.Third Council
4.Fourth Council
DIRECTION
(c) Unlike the cosmology of Buddhists and Hindus,
Rajagriha Under
that of the Jainas involves no cataclysms of
Mahakassapa.
2.Second Council
universal destruction.
VaishaliUnder
(d) The universe functions through the interaction
Mahakassapa.
of living souls (jives) and five categogies of non-
Patliputra Under
living entities (ajiva), i.e. akasha, dharma, adharma,
Moggaliputra Tissa.
kala, pudgala (matter).
Kashmir Under
(e) Mahavira believed that soul (Jiva) and Matter
Vasumitra.
(ajiva) are two basic existing elements. According

to him, the soul is in a state of bondage created by
Important informations about the Councils
desire accumulated through previous birth. Bye
(i) First Council (483 BC) resulted in the writing
means of continued efforts, the soul can be made
of Sutta Pitaka and Vinay Pitaka by Ananda and
free of bondage. This is called Moksa, the final
Upali respectively.
liberation.
(ii) Second Council (383 BC) resulted in the
(f) The annihilation (nirjara) of karma comes about
division of Buddhist order into Sthavarvadins
through penance and the prevention (samvara) of
or Thervadins and Mahasamghika.
the influx (asrava) and fixation9bandha) of karma
(iii) Third Council (250 BC) made Sthavarvadins
can be ensured by carefully disciplined conduct.
as the legitimate Buddhist order and resulted in
(g) Doctrine of Saptabhangi is believed to be the
the final compilation of tripitakas.
cornerstone of the Jainism.
(iv) Fourth Council (1st century AD) was
(h) Full salvation is not possible to layman in
convened for the settlement of disputes among
Jainism, Hinduism and Buddhism, however,
18 Buddhist sects.
permitted it in exceptional condition.
(v) Buddhist got divided into three vehicles:
Few Facts about Mahavira and Jainism
(i) Hinyana (lesser vehicle)
(i)Number of Tirthankaras in Jainism 24 (First
(ii) Mahayana (Greater vehicle)
22 not confirmed till date).
(iii) Vajrayana (Vehicle of Thundervolt)
(ii)23rd Tirthankara Parswanath.
Philosophy of Jainism
(iii)24th Tirthankara Mahavira.
(a) Parswanath advocated the four principles: (i)
(iv)Date of birth of Mahavira 540 BC.
Truth, (ii) non-violence, (iii) non-possession and
(v)Place of Birth Kundangrama (Basukunda) in
(iv) brahmacharya.
Vaishali.
(b) For Mahavira, the universe is eternal which
(vi)Name of Father Siddhartha, head of Jnatrika
can be divided into infinite number of cycles, each
tribe. Trishala, Lichchhavi Princess and Sister of
consisting of a period of improvement (utsarpini).
Chetaka, Lichchhavi Chief.

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(vii) Marriage at the age of 30.
14. Gandhara (Afghanistan) Capital Taxila
(viii) Nigrantha Those who were free from every
15. Sursena (U.P.) Capital Mathura
bond.
16. Kamboja (N.W.Frontier Province) Capital
(ix) Period of asceticism 12 years of Mahavira.
Rajpur
(x) Attainment of Nirvana at 43 years of age.

(xi)Arhant one who attained the Nirvana
Kashi : was famous for its cotton textiles and
(worthy).
marker for horses. Buddhist monks were called
(xii) Died at 72 due to self-starvation.
Kashaya in Sanskrit which was made in Kashi.
(xiii) Place of Death Pava near Rajagriha.
The Buddha calls himself a Kosalan in the
(xiv) Date of his death 468 BC.
Majjhima Nikaya. Champa has been considered
(xv) Digambaras Space-clad, naked.
one of the six great cities in the sixth century B.C.
(xvi) Svetambaras White clad.
The Walls of Rajagriha represent the earliest
MAHAJANAPADAS
evidence of fortification in the history of India.
Sixteen Mahajanapadas.
Vajjis had a different kind of political organisation.
1.Anga (East Bihar) Capital Champa,
The contemporary texts refer to them as a

Ganasamgha, Malla : A Republican State. Mallas
2 Magadha (South Bihar) Capital Rajgriha,
were great admirers of the Buddha. This republic
3 Kasi (Benares) Capital Banaras,
had two parts. Kusinara and Pava were two capitals

of the two parts. The Buddha fell ill at Pava and
4 Kosala (Oudh) Capital Shravasti
died at Kusinara. Mahavira died at Pava. Buddhist

5 Videha (North Bihar) Capital Vaishali,
and Jain books have many references about Mallas
6. Malla (Gorakhpur) Capital Kushinara, Pawa
and these two places. Magadha : Patna and Gaya

areas roughly. Capital city Rajagriha and later
7. Chedi (Bundelkhand) Capital Shuktimati
Pataliputra. Chedi : Chedi territory corresponded
8. Vatsa (Allahabad Region) Capital Kaushambi
to present Bundelkhand.
9. Kuru (Thaneswar, Delhi, Meerut) Capital
Vatsa : Capital at Kausambi, 38 miles from
Hastinapur/Indraprastha
Allahabad. A very prosperous city of millionaire

merchants. Udayana was its most effective ruler
10. Panchala (Bareilly) Capital Ahichhatra (W.
in 6th B.C. who had to face aggression from
Panchala) Kampilya (Southern . Panchala)
Magadha and Avanti. He saved Kausambi through

11. Matsya (Jaipur) Capital Virat nagari
matrimonial alliances and by fortifications. He
12. Asmaka (Godavari Valley) Capital Pratishthan
embraced Buddhism and made it a state religion.

Kuru : Their area corresponded to Delhi and
13. Avanti (Malwa) Capital Ujjain

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Meerut regions. Kuru country was not a shadow
trade grew rapidly.) A Symbol of Power ( When
of its past glory. Panchala : Roughly identified
Alexander invaded India, Magadha had became so
with modern Rohilkhand but no more prominent.
powerful that the Greeks could not dare to advance
Important cities was Kampilla Matsya : Identified
further. Thus undoubtedly added to the prestige of
with former state areas of Jaipur. Saurasena :
the Magadhan kingdom.)
Capital Mathura; area South of Matsyas.
Bimbisara (547 to 495 B.C.)
Assaka : Area in adjoining Avanti. Its capital was
The first well-known and important king of
Paithan and its settled areas on Godavari.
Magadha was Bimbisara who ruled from 547 B.C.
Avanti : Mostly identical with Malwa. Capital city
to 495 B.C.
Ujjayni ruler in Buddhas time was Pradyota.

Avanti became a know centre of Buddhism.
Ajatassatru (495 to 462 B.C.)
Gandhara : Roughly identified with Kashmir and
After Bimbisaras death, his son Ajatasatru, also
taxila. Taxila, the centre of trade, and the seat of
known as Kunika, became the king of
learning as a University, was its capital. Kamboja
Magadha.Devadatta, lived 6th century bc, Buddhist
: Located in modern NWFP with capital named
monk, cousin and notoriously disloyal follower of
Dwarka.
the founder of Buddhism, Gautama Buddha.
Rise and Growth of Magadha
Devadatta joined the sangha (community of

Buddhist monks) 20 years after the Buddha began
The growth of the kingdom of Magadha has got
teaching. About eight years before the Buddha's
an importance of its own in the history of India. It
death, Devadatta suggested that his master should
heralded the foundation of the first great empire
retire and pass leadership of the sangha to him.
in India. Magadhan empire gave strength and unity
Rebuked by the Buddha, who did not want a leader
to the country and saved the people from internal
for the community, Devadatta began plotting with
conflicts and foreign invasions. The growth of the
Ajatasatru, prince of the kingdom of Magadha
Magadhan empire provided comparative freedom
(modern Bihar, India). Ajatasatru arranged three
from orthodoxy and consequent commingling of
unsuccessful attempts on the Buddha's life through
diverse cultures. Some other factor also Ambitious
assassins, a falling boulder, and a runaway
Ruler , Natural Resources , Strategic Situation
elephant. Devadatta then proposed a more rigorous
of its Capital city( Rajgriha the earliest capital of
regime for the sangha. He later led about 500
Magadha was surrounded by five hills. Pataliputra
monks into a new, separate community. His
the new capital was situated on the confluence of
followers soon returned to the Buddha, and
the Ganga.) Military Power , Fertile Area ,
Devadatta fell ill and died.After the death of
Growth in Trade (The road were safe .There
Ajatasatru and a series of ineffectual rulers, isunaga
being no fear of being plundered or robbed the

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founded a new dynasty, which lasted for about half
caste-system became hereditary, Separate laws
a century until ousted by Mahajanapadas Nanda.
were made for these castes. Position of women
The Nandas are universally described as being of
seemed to have deteriorated in religious and social
low origin, perhaps .Despite these rapid dynastic
spheres. They could not take part in politics and
changes, Magadha retained its position of strength.
sit in the meetings of the assembly Evils like dowry,
The Nandas continued the earlier policy of
polygamy and slavery had crept into the society.
expansion. They are proverbially connected with
Their daughters in the open market. The law-
wealth, probably because they realized the
makers had divided life into four Ashramas, i.e.
importance of regular collections of land revenue.
the Brahmacharya, the Grihastha, the Vanaprastha

and the Sanyasa.
The Nanda Dynasty (345 to 322 B.C.)
Economic Life
Mahapadma Nanda was a great conqueror, a strong

and powerful ruler. He extended the boundaries
The arable land was divided among the heads of
of the Magadha Empire. He and his eight sons
the families who managed their own holdings,
ruled in succession. Jointly, they are known as Nav
Large holding were rare.
Nandas or the Nine Nandas. When Alexander
Crafts
invaded India in 326 B.C. Ghan Nanda was the

Various crafts and industries developed during this
ruler of Magadha.
period and handicraftsmen formed a large part of

Social and Economic Life During the
the population both in rural and urban areas. There
Magadhan Empire Social Life
were about 64 kinds of crafts. The carpenters,
Roads, pathways and waterways along the rivers
ivory-workers , weavers, jewellers, workers in
connected these villages with one another. Each
metals, etc.were considered superior to hunters,
village had a headman or Gramini. He worked for
fishermen, butchers, actors shoe-makers and
the village had a the king. He was appointed by
potters, etc. Eighteen of the more important crafts
the king; so, he served as a link between the
were organished into guilds or Srenis. The heads
villagers and the king. The kings, educational
of the guilds were called Sresthins as also
centres, trade centres, pilgrimage centres, and sea-
Pramukhas and above them stood the Bhandagarika
ports, developed into big cities, Rajagriha,
who was the State Treasurer.
Pataliputra, Champa (in Bihar), Kashi, Ayodhya,
Trade : Trade, both inland and external, had made
Kaushambi, Haridwar, (all in U.P.), Ujjain (in
much progress. Before coins were used, goods were
Malwa), Tamralipti (in the Ganges Delta) were the
bartered or exchanged. The coins of this period
important and the most famous centres of this
were not very beautiful. The merchants carried
period. The caste-system had taken deep roots. The
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across the Bay of Bengal. Trade with Arabia and
Rudradamans Junagarh inscription. Prufadarshi
western countries of the Roman Empire was
inscription, Nagarguna Cave etc.In Ashoka Period
carried through the persian Gulf and the Red Sea.
40 inscriptions have being found. Four scripts have

been used Brahmi , Karosthti , Greek & Aramaic
MAURYAS
was used in Ashokas inscriptions . Text sources
The Mauryas
includes Kautilyass Arthashastra (Political

After Alexanders retreat, a powerful empire was
information) Indica (Administration, Social
established in India. It was known as the Mauryan
believes information) Cyrne Mudrarakshash by
empire. The rise of the Maurya was a great
Vishakhadutt, Chandragupta Katha by Chanakya.
landmark. It ushered in the most glorious period
Among the religious sources Puranas. Buddishts
of the Indian history. India was united politically
scriptures and Jainism epics are important.
for the first time. During the Mauryan period, India
Parishistparva is the Jain epic that provides
tried to build a new world, based on peace,
information about Chandragupta .
brotherhood and cultural unity. Some scholars date

his accession to 324 B.C. while now it is generally
accepted as 321 B.C.
Chandragupta, the founder of the Maurya
324-300 BC
Chandragupta Maurya
300-273 BC
Bindusara Amitraghata
273-232 BC
Asoka (vardhana)
232-185 BC
later Mauryas
dynasty, succeeded Ghan Nanda to the Nanda

The Society and Economy in Mauryan State
throne about 321 BC at the age of 25, Tradition
We have already seen that in pre-Mauryan
has been said that the brahmana Kautilya, also
phase, the early pastoral economy transformed into
known as Chanakya (According to the traditions)
an agrarian economy with greater surplus-
was the prime minister of Chandragupta .He wrote
generation which became instrumental in the
the Asthashastra or Vishnugupta, about Mauryan
emergence of second urbanization in the post
rulers we have epigraphically sources, literary
Vedic phase. Obviously, relative permanence of
sources, foreign accounts and materials obtained
settlements enhanced social stratification and
from archaeological excavations. The Arthashastra
occupational activities giving rise to urban
gives us detailed information about the
economy and trading activities which finally led
administrative system of the Mauryan empire. The
to the establishment of mercantile community
work was written by Kautilya who is also known
arranged in the system of guilds.
as Chanakya.
The evidences of the Maurya Age : The
Adhayakshas
Function
inscriptions ; the oldest written evidence about
1.Sitadhayksa
Superintendent of
Chandragupta
Maurya
is
available
in
Agriculture
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2.Panayadhayaksa
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Superintendent of
(iii) The
Commerce
development of this period was the structure of
Superintendent of
ringwells probably used to supply water for
Weights and Measures
domestic
4.Shulkadhayksa
Superintendent of Tolls
breakthrough of this phase was thus the use of burnt
5.Sutradhayksa
Superintendent of Thread
bricks and ring wells.
6.Akaradhayaksa
Superintendent of Mines
(iv) Archaeology provided the evidences of
7.Lohadhayksa
Superintendent of Iron-
furnaces establishing the fact that iron in this
working
phase was used diversely and even Arthasastra
Superintendent of
throws light over sophisticated techniques of
Digging
making different kinds of iron tools.
Superintendent who
(v) With Mauryan phase, this subcontinent,
distinguished between
entered the second phase of NBP culture.
different objects
Economy in Mauryan Empire
Superintendent of Salt
(A) Agrarian Economy
3.Pautuadhayksa
8.Khanyadhayksa
9.Lakshanadhayaksa
10.Lavanadhayksa
11.KosthagrahadhayksaSuperintendent of Store-
most
important
purposes.
The
technological
technological
(i) By the third century B.C. the economy of
house
northern India was predominantly agrarian, though
12.Samsthadhayksa
Superintendentof Market
economic activities other than agrarian were not
13.Navadhayksa
Superintendent of Ships
unknown or discouraged.
14.Ganikadhayksa
Superintendent of
(ii) Mauryans made an important contribution to
Prostitutes
the growth of urban economy by founding new

settlements and rehabilitating the decaying ones
Technology in Mauryan Phase
by drafting surplus settlers from populated areas.
(i) Megasthenes gives us an impression about
Not only ordinary peasants but also sudras, who
planned urban settlements in this period which,
were earlier meant for rendering services to three
however, Archaeology has failed to support. But
higher varnas, were also encouraged to take the
we can not deny the fact that Mauryans used burnt
profession of agriculture in these newly
bricks in their buildings for the first time after a
rehabilitated areas and cultivators of these areas
gap of 1500 years.
were encouraged by remission of taxes and
(ii) According to Megasthenes, houses were also
provision of cattle, seeds and money.
built with substantial use of timber and
(iii) Although extent of these new settlements
archeological evidence, especially from
founded as a result of Janapadanivesha or
Kumrahar near modern Patna, supports this point.
Sunyanivesha is not known exactly, it would be
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reasonable to assume that entire Ganga basin was
(ii) Towns were important for Mauryan state not
brought under cultivation.
only because it helped in the maintenance of state
(iv) Though these newly settled agricultural farms
control over crafts and commerce but also because
were generally granted to the Brahmins and retired
they were important source of state revenue. In this
village officials, but such land could not be sold,
context, it may be pointed out that towns (durga)
mortgaged or inherited. State, therefore, maintain
and countryside (rastra) were the two chief sources
control over it.
of state revenue.
(v) Though Megasthenes refers to the absence of
(C) Industry
slavery in Mauryan state; considerable number of
(i) One of the oldest Indian industries is that of
slaves and hired labourers were employed in these
textile manufacture. Rg Veda mentions the term
firms during the reign of Chandragupta.
tantu (warp) and otu (wool) and Yajus Samhita,
(vi) The state-owned farms (Sitaland) working
along with other texts, speak of tasara (shuttle)
under Sitadhaksa (usually of 500 or 1000 karisas
and veman (loom), all related to the textile industry.
unit) constituted a major part of the income of the
The early Buddhist texts have praised Benares
state.
cloth (Kasikuttama or Kasi-Vattha) as well as the
(vii) The classical sources inform us that the
cloth of Sivi country (Siveyyaka). We have a full
cultivators were without arms. Megasthenes also
list in Arthasastra where Madura, Aparantaka,
mentions that the peasants were left untouched
Kasi, Vanga, Vatsa and Mahish are said to produce
during the war.
the best cotton fabrics (Karpasika). In this context,
(viii) The most important reason for success of
it also mentions specifically three varieties of
state-owned agriculture was the facility of
dukula.
irrigation provided by the state. There were rules
(ii) Another important industry was that of wool.
for the regulation of water supply for the benefits
(iii) Wood-work was also an old Indian industry.
of agriculturists. According to Arthasastras,
Rg Veda mentions carpenters (takshan or tashtri)
peasants had to pay irrigation tax amounting one
and his tools. We find the references of Vaddhaki
fourth to the third of the produce.
who were engaged in all kind of woodwork
(B) Urban Settlements
including ship-building, making of carts and
(i) Kautilyas instructions regarding durganivesa
chariots and house building.
or durgavidhana and archeological evidences
(iv) The use of ivory ear-rings is noted by Arrian
clearly shows that Mauryan state could be credited
as a characteristic of wealthy people of India.
with the erection of walled towns peopled not only
(v) The art of polishing hard stone was carried to
by priests, nobles and soldiers but also by artisans,
such perfection that it is said to become a lost art
merchants, and others.
beyond modern powers. The Mauryan polish is
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seen at its best on the walls of the Barabar caves
metal in varying shapes, sizes and weights which
which are brushed like glass mirrors.
have one or more symbol punched on it. The most
(vi) The literary evidence suggests that gold, silver,
common symbols on these coins were those of
copper, lead, tin, iron and bitumen were worked.
elephants, tree-in-railing symbols and mountains.
(D) Trade
Coins
(i) If agrarian economy helped to build a political
1.Niska
empire, the latter, in turn, furthered another form
2.Satamaha
of economic activity, i.e. trade. Efficiency in
Related Metal
Period
Gold
Vedic
Gold - Silver
Vedic
3.Suvarna
Gold
Vedic
administration rendered the organization of trade
4.Niska (Kautilya)
Gold
Vedic
easier, and crafts were gradually converted into
5.Suvarna (Kautilya)
Gold
Mauryan
small scale industries. Jataka stories contain many
6.Karshapana
Silver
Mauryan
references to caravan traders carrying large
7.Dharna
Silver
Mauryan
quantities of goods to different part of the
8.Pana
Silver
Mauryan
countries.
9.Purana
Silver
Mauryan
(ii) The main trade routes in northern India were
10.Masika
Copper
Mauryan
along the river Ganges and Himalayan foot-hills.
11.Kakini
Copper
Mauryan
The northern route going to such sites connected

Rajgriha, Kaushambi, Kapilvastu, Shravasti,
MAURYAN SOCIETY
Vaishali, Kalsi, Hazra and Peshawar. Patliputra,
(i) Megasthenes, in his Indika, informs us that
the capital of Mauryas, having strategic location,
Mauryan society was divided into seven castes
was well connected to this route through road and
including philosophers, farmers, soldiers,
waterways.
herdsmen artisans, magistrates and councilors, with
(iii) In south, this route was connected to Central
an important instruction saying, No one is allowed
India and in South-east to Kalinga. The eastern
to marry outside his own caste or exercise any
route turned southward to finally reach Andhra and
calling or art except his own.
Karnataka. Other part of eastern route continues
(ii) According to him, the philosophers were
down to Tamralipti.
exempt from taxation which is also corroborated
(iv) From Kaushambi moving westwards, there
by other sources.
was another route which led to Ujjain and further
(iii) In those areas where settled agricultural life
south constituting dakshinapatha.
came in existence, social organization was based
(E) Coins (Punch-marked coins)
on varna division which became sufficiently rigid
(i) By the term punch-marked coins we mean
in this phase resulting in frictions in brahmanical
early Indian coins, largely of silver and with a few
order. The first three class known as dvija were
copper coins as well, which were in fact pieces of
more privileged than sudras and outcastes resulting

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in social upheavals. Even among dvijas, the vaisyas
the child was entitled to the legal status of masters
were not adequately platched in social hierarchy
son. Still, technically, there was no large scale
according to their economic power and wealth.
slavery for production.
Conflict between them and socially superior
Asokan inscriptions have been divided into:
classes was inevitable. Asokas emphatic appear
(a) Major Rock Edicts: 14 Edicts and two
for social harmony proves the existence of social
separate Edicts at Kalinga.
tension.
(b) Minor rock Edicts: Can be divided into two
(iv) Increasing power of king was accompanied by
subgroups.
a similar increase in the power of purohitas who,
(i) The first group includes Minor Rock Edicts,
by now, begun to assume the function of chief
Queens Edict, Barbar Cave Inscription and
minister.
Kandahar Bilingual Inscription.
(v) For the first time during Mauryan phase a
(ii) The second group is entirely concerned with
section of Shudras was provided with land in
the Buddhist community and includes Bhabra
newly settled or rehabilitated areas. Forced labour
Insription, the Rummindei Pillar Inscription,
(visti was imposed on them on a much larger scale
Nigalisagar Pillar Inscription and Schiem Edict.
than the earlier period.)
(c) The Pillar Edicts are seven in number.
(vi) In addition to four varnas, Kautilya also speaks
Major Rock Edicts
of not less than 15 mixed castes as antyavasin.
(i) 1st Major Rock Edict: prohibited animal
Members of such mixed casts such as chandala
sacrifice, especially during festive gatherings, but
and suapaka were treated as untouchables.
at the same time killing of three animals in royal
(vii) Though Megasthenes emphatically claimed
kitchen (i.e. two peacocks and a deer) have been
that there were no slaves in India, Kautilya gives
approved by him.
us detailed laws about slavery and manumission.
(ii) 2nd Major Rock Edict:
They were mostly shudras but in specific cases,
(a) The land of Cholas, Pandyas, Satyaputras and
even the higher varna individuals could also
Keralaputra along with Ceylon is mentioned.
mortgaged himself and Kautilya calls them
(b) Two medical services, one for human beings
ahitakas.
and other for animals, were provided by the state.
(viii) Arthasastra states that a man could be a slave
(c) Emphasis on plantation of trees and digging
either by birth or by selling himself voluntarily, or
at road for wells have been recorded.
by capture in a war, or even as a result of
(iii) 3rd Major Rock Edict:
punishment. Slavery in this phase, if we believe
(a) It mentioned about his order to yuktas, rajukas
Kautilya, became a recognized institution with
and pradesikas about their traveling across the
defined legal relationship. If a female slave bore
empire at every five years interval.
her master a son, not only was she legally free but
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(b) Cordial relationship between son and parent,
(ix) 9th Major Rock Edict: Instruction against
friends and relatives and generosity toward
trivial and useless ceremonies and emphasis on
Brahmins and shramanas has been emphasized.
ceremony of dhamma.
(c) Prohibition of killing and spending.
(x) 10th Major Rock Edict:
(iv) 4th Major Rock Edict: His firm convictions
(a) Desirability of Asoka not for worldly fame and
of dhamma and harmonious social relationships
glory but the glory in sphere of dhamma.
have been claimed.
(b) Criticism of evil inclination.
(v) 5th Major Rock Edict: Emphasis of good
(xi) 11th Major Rock Edict: Glorification of the
doing by him and his family; appointment of office
gift of dhamma, the praise of dhamma, sharing and
of Dhamma; welfare of people including Greeks,
fellowship of dhamma.
Kambojas, Gandharas, Risthikas, Pitinikas,
(xii)12th Major Rock Edict:
welfare of prisoners, nobles, old, poor and servants,
(a) Speaks of the similar attitude of Asoka towards
and thus spread of dhamma have been claimed and
different sects.
emphasized.
(b) Contains the famous statement: Whosoever
(vi) 6th Major Rock Edict:
honours his own sect or disparages that of another
(a) Emphasizes on efficient administrative order.
man, wholly out of devotion to his own, with a
(b) Contains famous instruction: At all times,
view to showing it in a favourabled light, harms
whether I am eating, or am in the womens
his own sect even more seriously.
aprartments or in my inner apartments, or at the
(xiii) 13th Major Rock Edict:
cattle-shed, or in my carriage, or in my gardens
(a) Tells about conquest of Kalinga where a
where ever I may be, my informants should keep
hundred and fifty thousand people were deported,
me in touch with public business.
a hundred thousand were killed and therefore
(c) Also contains another famous instruction And
Ashoka felt remorse and felt that conquest by
whatever I may order by word of mouth, whether
dhamma was the foremost victory.
it concerns a donation or a proclamation, or
(b) Was the longest Asokan edict.
whatever urgent matter is entrusted to my officers,
(xiv) 14th Major Rock Edict: Speaks about the
if there is any dispute or deliberation in the council,
texture of other edicts.
it is to be reported to me immediately, at all places,
Few Important Informations about Edicts:
at all times.
(i) The 6th Major edict contains the famous claim
(vii) 7th Major Rock Edict: Co-ordination, self
of Asoka, All men are my children.
control and purity of mind among all sects has been
(ii) Longest pillar edict The Bhabra Edict.
urged.
(iii) Seven major pillar edicts Appendix to rock
(viii) 8th Major Rock Edict: Talks about
edicts.
Dhammayatras.
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(iv) Four Minor pillar edicts: Signs of Ashokas
improvement or deterioration. It is also worth
feneticism to Dhamma.
questioning, especially after the recent work of
(v) The minor rock edict of Yerragudi is written
Romila Thapar, whether the notion of a well
in boustrophedon style.
centralized and bureaucratic Mauryan state is still
(vi) Nigalisagar Inscription confirms the existence
an acceptable position or it has been
of Buddha Konakamma.
misrepresented in our history text books? We have
(vii) Bhabra rock edict informs us about Asokas
also to consider the possibility of almost a linear
conversion to Buddhism.
historical development from Indus valley
(viii) Asokan pillar of Nandangarh bears the
civilization to Gupta period and afterwards
figure of a peacock, pointing to the association
especially in the context of recent works and
of Mauryan kings with it.
projected correctiveness on Indus valley
(ix) Barabar cave inscription talks about grant of
civilization to Gupta period and afterwards
Banyan cave to Ajivkas by Asoka.
especially in the context of recent works and
(x) Kandhar Rock inscription exists in bilingual
projected correctives on Indus Valley Civilization,
form, one in Greek and another in Aramaic
Vedic period, post-Vedic period, Mauryan period,
version.
post-Mauryan period, Gupta period and post-Gupta

period. But here, only accepted facts about socio-
THE POST MAURYAN PHASE
economic change have been outlined.
The period between c. 200 BC and 300 AD has
Economy in Post-Mauryan Phase
often been described as dark age in the Ancient
(i) On the economic front, we witness a gradual
Indian history, especially in the background of
development and increase in the generation of
Gupta phase which is characterized by the same
agrarian surplus which provided relatively a
group of historians as golden age. Both these
wider base for urbanization and trading activities
meanings and interpretations of Indian society are
along with industrial and handicraft production. It
clearly the product of over emphasis on the
was not accidental that proto-urbanized phase
political aspects of those existing societies at the
which we have witnessed in the post-Vedic
cost of existing pattern of societal and economic
developed considerably under so-called Mauryan
behaviour which are clearly elite-oriented and
centralized and over-bureaucratized state and
feudalized. It is, however, an altogether a
became mature enough in this phase, a fact that is
different question whether the transition from
clearly borne out from archeological excavations.
egalitarian and pastoral society to more complex
Archaeology clearly establishes the fact that the
stratified society with a sense of work-
pace of urbanization took an accelerated path
differentiation (though in a rigid Varna system) of
during this phase and the number of urban
post-Mauryan phase was a case of socio-economic
settlements increased considerably. We have

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evidence of greater uses of burnt bricks, both for
(iv)Again, though, state-owned big farms like
residential and fortification purposes, wider use
those of Mauryans did not exist in this period, it
of money as exchange material, larger trading
however does not mean that the idea of state-
networks, bigger production engagements, more
ownership was completely absent. The Milind
frequent international communication and
Panho clearly recognizes state-ownership over all
therefore better socio-economic stability, resulting
the towns, seaports, mines, etc., which existed on
in more producers and larger consumers making
this earth. But it, in all its probability, symbolized
the system dynamic and self-perpetuating.
general territorial sovereignty only.
(a) Agrarian Sector
(v) In India, earliest inscriptional evidence of land
(ii) With the decline of a centralized and strong
grants belongs to the first century B.C. whereby a
Mauryan state, the tradition of state-controlled
village was granted by Satavahanas in
huge farms also vanished, agriculture became
Maharashtra to the priests on the occasion of
small household activity and, therefore, big farms
asvamedha sacrifice. This land was supposed to
were replaced by small, run by individual farmers,
be immune from governmental interference,
who became the real owners of land. Milind
government officials and troops and also supposed
Panho and Manu Smriti testify this
to be free from all taxes. Land grants made in this
transformation. According to Manu, sages
phase were qualitatively different from Mauryan
declared that land belongs to him who cleared
phase as it was to serve religious purposes but
away the timber and a deer to him wounded it.
grants for extension of agrarian economy were also
Divyavadan refers to individual farmers in large
made.
numbers who were engaged in cultivation and
(vi)It seems that land grant on the aksayanivi
worked hard.
system of land-tenure (which implied perpetual
(iii)According to Manu, the acceptance of
endowment of land-revenues) were first made
uncultivated land by a Brahmin is less blamable
during Kusanas which became very popular in
than those of cultivated one and thus makes it
Gupta and post-Gupta phase.
perfectly clear that landgrants were meant for
(vii) As far as size of land is concerned, some
agrarian extension, an idea that had its root in the
inscriptions refer to the field to two to twenty six
Mauryan phase. Existence of Bhogagamas in
nivartanas; one nivartana was roughly equal to 1
South and references of land donation to the
acre. We have. However, an evidence of land
Buddhist monks by Satavahana rulers suggest that
grant of 100 nivartanas which signifies that the land
the tradition of land grant was in vogue but it is
was still not very much fragmented.
doubtful whether it was sold in the market for

secular purposes as we do not have such evidences.
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Scientific and Technological Development in
(iii)The evidence of ivory, working from Rajghat
this Phase
in Varanasi, clay seals and sealings from Vaishali,
(i) In Indian astronomy and astrology found a great
a mudrampart in Chandraketgarh and
encouragement as a result of Greek contacts.
fortification from Ujjain should be remembered
From the Greek term horoscope, the Sanskrit term
in this context.
horasastra came into existence and another
(iv)In Kushana phase, we notice an improvement
term dramma was derived from another Greek
in building technology.
term drachma. Even Greek rulers were influenced
The use of Surkhi (bricks concrete mixed with
by the Brahmi script and some Indian motifs and
lime) and that of baked tile for roofing were the
represented these on their coins.
most distinguished traits of this period.
(ii) The technology of coinage was transformed
(c) Trade: Internal and External
in this phase due to Greek interaction whose coins
(i) Evidences
were properly shaped and stamped than the punch-
(a) Literary sources such as Milind Panho and
marked coins. Gold coins were struck by Kusanas
Jatakas speak about trading organization in
in this phase.
this phase.
(iii) Charaka and Susruta were famous chemists
(b) Periplus tell us about imports and exports in
and medicine experts of this phase and gave
this phase.
these disciplines a clear direction.
(c) The Ayodhya-shred of rouletted ware (typical
(iv) The technology of leather shoe production was
Roman pottery) gives a substantial focus on
probably the contribution of this phase.
trade.
(v) Working in glass became more sophisticated
(d) A couple of shreds of red polished ware (typical
due to foreign influenced and emerged as a
of western India and Kusana territory) with
profitable craft.
Kharosthi inscription incised on it have been
(b) Urban Centres
witnessed in archeological excavation around
(i) Archeaology clearly shows that though the city
Satanikot in Kurnool district and it clearly
of Taxila came into existence earlier, it acquired a
proves the trading relationship between Andhra
planned form of development only under the
and northern India.
post-Mauryan phase. We also witness here, burnt
(e) The Mathura image of a goddess which is made
bricks along with wedge-shaped bricks for circular
up of blue schist of Gandhara establishes a
structures.
close connection between Mathura and
(ii) Purana
Qila,
Mathura,
Kaushambi,
Gandhara.
Ahichhatra, Vaishali, Tamluk, Chandraketugarh,
(f) Arikmedu was known to Periplus as Padouke,
Ujjain etc. were other urban settlements as is
Barbaricum and Barygaza (modern Broach)
evidenced by archeological excavations.
were other trading centres of this phase.

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(ii) (a) Commodities of export: Spices, turguoise,
(c) Milind Panho enumerates as many as 75
lapislazuli, muslin, silk-yarn, indigo, copper, teak,
occupations, existy of them associated with
abody spikehard, malabathrum (used in preparing
various kinds of crafts and eight with working of
ointments), diamonds, sapphires and precious
mineral products including gold, silver, lead,
stones. Also exported were the commodities such
copper, tin, brass, iron and precious stones and
as rice, wheat, textiles, female slaves, etc.
jewels.
(b) Commodities of Import: Tortoise shell,
(d) Indian iron and steel are mentioned by
pearls, purple dye, textiles, wine, dates, gold,
Periplus.
slaves, linen, topaz, coral, storax frankincense,
(e) A brick-built dying vat has been unearthed
glass, silver, goldplate, copper, tin, lead, gauze,
from Uraiyur and another from Arikamedu.
sweet clover, realgar, antimony, medicinal
(f) The Tailikachakra wheel is mentioned in
ointments and gold and silver coins.
Divyavadan.
(iii)Important trade routes
(g) We are told that Gautami, the aunt of Buddha
(a) Bacteria (in Oxus valley) - Kapisa and Kabul
used five processes of cloth manufacture.
core region of the Kusana empire.
(h) Mathura, in this period, was known for Sataka,
(b) Uttarapatha: Pushkalvati (origin) - Taxila -
a special kind of cloth.
Mathura - Kaushambi - Varanasi - Pataliputra -
(iii)We have epigraphic evidences of guilds of
Champa - Chndraketugarh.
artisans in the post-Mauryan phase who were
(c) Mathura to Sindh (horse-route).
organized under their headmen (gamasamika).
(d) Mathura - Ujjain - Bharuch
(a) Literary evidence informs us about increase in
(e) Dakshinapatha
the number of guilds. Besides traditional 18 guilds,
(f) Sea-route dealt by Periplus of the Eruthraean
Mahavastu informs us about eleven more kinds
sea
of artisans working under their respective heads.
Note: From the excavation of Arikamedu, a
(e) Coinage in Post-Mauryan Phase
sizeable Roman settlement with trading station and
(i) The coinage system in the post-Mauryan phase
a port is witnessed.
experienced a qualitative transformation. While in
(d) Industry and Craft
the Mauryan state, silver punch-marked coins along
(i) Unlike Mauryans, the state hardly exercised
with uninscribed copper coins were in circulation;
any control over arts and crafts.
in the post-mauryan phase, the variety, number and
(ii) Evidences of industry and craft in this phase.
types of coins being minted increased rapidly.
(a) Digha Nikaya mentions two dozen existing arts
(ii) Inscriptions were introduced on coins and
and crafts
techniques of minting coins showed a great
(b) From Mahavastu, we obtain a list of 36 kinds
improvement. Several thousand moulds for casting
of workers living in the town of Rajagriha.
coins of this phase have been discovered from

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Khokrakot in Rohtak, Sunet in Ludhiana, Taxila
(vi)The economic distinction between Shudras and
and Sanchi.
Vaisyas tended to be blurred.
(iii)Thew Indo-Greek kings of North-West
(vii)
introduced a splendid series of portrait coinage
deteriorated. Patanjali informs us that dasi and
in both silver and copper in which they inscribed
vrishali (shudra women) were meant for satisfying
bilingual inscriptions.
the pleasures of the people of upper classes.
(iv)In addition to those of copper, the Kusanas
(viii)
minted a large number of goild coins having a
became more complex and more differentiated.
The overall conditions of women
In short, the social conditions in this phase
variety of Indiann, Greek, and Iranian deities.

(v) In this phase, a large variety of coins were in
vogue: these were nishka, suvarna and pala (gold
Refer : Ancient India ( NCERT ) Or

Medeival India ( NCERT) Old Ncert
coins), Satamana (silver coins), Kakani (copper

coin) and that of lead. The most commonly used
coins was the Karsapana in all four metals.
Note: The credit for discovery of monsoon goes
to Hippalus, who discovered it in 46 A.D.
Societal Changes in this Phase
(iii)Emergence of strangers in India in a big way
in this phase created a problem for their
assimilation in Varna-based, caste-oriented Indian
society. The status of fallen Ksatriya was confereed
on Greek and Saka rulers and others were treated
as sub-case of Sudras.
(iv)Expansion in crafts and producing activities
meant an increase in guilds of artisans through
which they improved their caste status with
specific local variations.
(v) Education in this phase was treated as
prerogative of upper castes; the Brahmins had the
monopoly of knowledge and kshatriyas and
Vaisyas were expected to reconcile themselves
with limited knowledge. The possibility of
education for the Shudras exited, but references
to it are extremely infrequent.
38

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They cultivated land and grew fruits and corn.

They also domesticated animals like the ox and

To begin with, these records consist almost

solely of the rude implements which the people

friction of bamboos or pieces of wood, and made

used in their daily lives.

pottery, at first by hand, and then with the potters

These are small pieces of rough undressed

stones, chipped into various forms, which were

They live in caves and decorated their walls by

originally fitted with handles made of sticks or

painting scenes of hunting and dancing. A few

bones. They served as weapons for hunting wild

of these can be seen today both in Northern and

animals, and could also be used as hammers or

for purposes of cutting and boring.

could spin cotton and wool and weave cloth.

They lived in constant dread of wild animals like

They used to bury their dead, and Neolithic

had no idea of agriculture, but lived on the flesh

tombs have been discovered in some parts of

of animals and such fruits and vegetables as grew

wild in jungles. They could not make pottery,

and probably did not even know how to make a

Scholars also distinguish a culture midway

Mesolithic (from Greek meso = middle). Its

The Palaeolithic men belonged to the Negrito

two chief characteristics were, first, that the

Islands, and was characterized by short stature,

stone implements used were extremely small,

dark skin, woolly hair and flat noses.

only about an inch in length.

(b)Neolithic Men New Stone

made of chalcedony and other silicate varieties

The significance of this name lies in the fact that

by a technical process differing from that

stone implements, and were ignorant of any

employed in the Palaeolithic Age.

metals, except gold.

They used stones other than quartzite, and these

Neolithic men were the ancestors of the people

were not merely chipped, but in most cases

who ushered in the next stage of civilization

ground, grooved and polished.

which is distinguished by the knowledge and use

The civilization of the Neolithic men shows

distinct traces of advance.

Culture extended from Chotanagpur plateau to

Ultimate Learning Experience (P) LTD

nature urban civilization was already in

upper Gangetic basin

Other sites Brahmgiri (Near Mysore) Indus

Some of the most interesting and important

Harappan sotes are A,ro. Cjamji-daro (80 miles

THE HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION

south of Mohenjo-daro on the left plains of the