Environmental Hazards 1 (1999) 13 } 25

Sustainability and community resilience:

the holy grail of hazards planning?
Graham A. Tobin*
Department of Geography, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA

Abstract
Recent hazard literature frequently refers to sustainability and resilience as the guiding principles behind e!ective hazard planning.
Certainly, structurally organizing communities to minimize e!ects of disasters and to recover quickly by restoring socio-economic
vitality are laudable goals. However, while anticipating such outcomes is relatively easy from a theoretical standpoint, practical
implementation of comprehensive plans is much more elusive. Indeed, relationships between community sustainability/resilience and
hazards are complex involving many social, economic, political and physical factors. A conceptual framework for analysis of
sustainability and resilience, then, is described based on three theoretical models, a mitigation model, a recovery model, and a
structural-cognitive model. This framework is examined using data from Florida, USA, where local context, social and political
activities, and economic concerns present di$culties in application. The question remains, therefore, to what extent can communities
truly develop sustainable and resilient characteristics?  1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
In striving to comprehend the vicissitudes presented by
natural and technological hazards, many researchers
have recently incorporated new paradigms into their
studies; paradigms that focus our attention on community sustainability and societal resilience to disasters. In
this context, marginalized sectors of society have been
the subject of much of our concern and we have gradually developed re"ned concepts of vulnerability and risk.
Furthermore, we have seen this interest transferred
through decision-makers and planners into some innovative policies that encompass broader planning goals and
more sophisticated hazard mitigation programs than
previously implemented. The ultimate goal has been to
construct resilient communities that can survive and recover rapidly from e!ects of extreme geophysical events.
All this, of course, has been undertaken in an era of
globalization, as the interconnectedness of society, businesses, and industrial complexes has ushered in a di!erent world order, and further complicated contextual
issues in local planning. The questions that should be
asked, therefore, are how successful are such initiatives,
and is this the best way forward?

The focus of this paper is on the role of sustainability in

hazard mitigation, emphasizing the interconnectedness
of many issues at di!erent spatial scales, including aspects of globalization as it pertains to local community
resilience. Sustainable and resilient communities are
de"ned as societies which are structurally organized to
minimize the e!ects of disasters, and, at the same time,
have the ability to recover quickly by restoring the
socio-economic vitality of the community. However, the
relationship between community sustainability and hazards is complex, and cannot be adequately addressed
without consideration of social, economic, and political
factors. Indeed, there may be ethical questions and moral
arguments that actually challenge the viability or even
desirability of sustainability as a planning principle in
certain circumstances. To illustrate some of these arguments, the state of Florida, USA, is used as a microcosm
of these global concerns. Florida typi"es many of these
global concerns, from its arti"cial nature, to its hazardous environment; from its created communities, to its
social and economic inequities; from its bimodal demographic structure, to its ethnic and racial diversity.

2. Theoretical framework
* Tel.: #1-813-974-4932.
E-mail address: [email protected] (G.A. Tobin)

The approach taken here is primarily an ecological

one, utilizing aspects of the socio-political ideas put

1464-2867/99/$ - see front matter  1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 1 4 6 4 - 2 8 6 7 ( 9 9 ) 0 0 0 0 2 - 9

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G.A. Tobin / Environmental Hazards 1 (1999) 13 } 25

Fig. 1. Sustainable and resilient communities in hazardous environments: a framework for analysis

forward by Bates and Pelanda (1994), and the politicaleconomy and human ecology approach outlined by
Hewitt (1983). Understanding these issues through a theoretical framework is important if we are to apply concepts beyond the local arena. Thus, structural-functional
views, con#ict theory, competition for resources, and
other geo-sociological and anthropological principles are
raised here as possible frameworks in understanding
community resilience (see, for example, Kreps and Bosworth, 1994). The #owchart, shown in Fig. 1, provides
a framework for this analysis. Three separate models
have been adapted to demonstrate how sustainable and
resilient communities might be created; the mitigation
model proposed by Waugh (1996), the recovery model
described by Peacock and Ragsdale (1997), and a structural-cognitive model put forward by Tobin and Montz
(1997). The "gure depicts a dynamic system, not necessarily one that is in balance. The #ows or arrows indicate
important relationships between components of the system that must be understood from a structural context,

so that when one element changes, an appropriate response can be made to keep the system in some sort of
dynamic equilibrium. It is suggested that through these
three models, concepts of community sustainability can
be explored more fully. Thus, the ultimate goal is to
achieve community sustainability and resilience in the
face of prevailing natural and technological hazards.
2.1. Mitigation model
In a broad context, it is through mitigation programs
that exposure and risk are reduced. Flood embankments
and levee systems, for instance, generally protect communities up to their design standards and hence reduce
risk for those living in hazardous environments. However, not all projects are necessarily successful and can on
occasions exacerbate problems, as seen with the levee
e!ect. Thus, the implementation of mitigation policies
requires that certain conditions be met if success is to be
assured. Waugh (1996), utilizing the work of Mazmanian

G.A. Tobin / Environmental Hazards 1 (1999) 13 } 25

and Sabatier (1983) proposed six conditions for e!ective

implementation: (1) there must be sound theory with
causal linkages to assure that goals are reasonable and
appropriate; (2) the tasks or programs must be assigned
to sympathetic and capable agencies with adequate resources; (3) there must be leaders with substantial managerial and political skill; (4) there must be clear policy
objectives; (5) the commitment must be supported by an
organized constituency; and (6) there must be no undermining of the policy over time. While hazard theories are
generally well-founded (point (1)), it would seem that
more attention needs to be devoted to causal linkages
between elements if mitigation programs are to be successful. Similarly, goals must be clearly articulated, su$cient resources made available, and commitments made
for the long term. Through such strategies, then, communities might reduce exposure and risk to their constituents.
2.2. Recovery model
Given the severity of many geophysical events, combined with limited resources, it is certainly not possible
to eliminate all disasters, and many communities, because
of their spatial location, will always remain hazardprone. Therefore, a focus on recovery and those factors
that are conducive to facilitating recovery is pertinent.
Furthermore, recovery does not entail simple clean-up
and restoration operations to get a community back on
its feet, but requires long-term rehabilitation processes
that are a!ected by prevailing socio-economic conditions
and structural constraints (Tobin and Montz, 1994). In
addition, local participation is extremely important to
any success (Berke et al., 1993). In this respect, Peacock
and Ragsdale (1997) suggested that to understand recovery, attention must be focused on (1) re-accumulation of
capital and physical infrastructure; (2) policies and programs of government agencies, private organizations,
and businesses among others; and (3) resource distribution. They indicated, for example, that the recovery of
individual households is a re#ection of societal recovery
and capital re-accumulation e!orts, and hence urged
consideration of those networks that enhance this process. Indeed, to some, the very idea of disaster is indicative of a failed social system, since it is argued that e!orts
should have been made earlier to prevent such losses
(Peacock and Ragsdale, 1997).
Relief policies and programs can signi"cantly a!ect the
rate and patterns of recovery and can aggravate vulnerability issues after the disaster. For instance, many relief
programs strive to return communities to the status quo;
indeed, a common refrain from victims and politicians
alike following a disaster is `to get the community back
to normala. In other words, restoration wins out over
issues of equity and development, and root causes of the
hazard are never addressed. Hence, communities are

15

doomed to repeat the cycle of disaster}damage}

repair}disaster. Issues of equity and development are
further highlighted when we look at resource distribution. Social inequalities, community heterogeneity, program coordination, and competition for scarce resources
all impose other constraints on the recovery process. It is
quite clear that disasters do not impact all social groups
to the same degree, and it is usually those marginalized
sub-cultures that are more severely impacted and are less
likely to recover than wealthier segments of society.
2.3. Structural-cognitive model
Comprehensive planning for sustainability requires
a third "lter, one that incorporates changes in the structure and thinking of society to accommodate hazards
within the framework of day-to-day a!airs. Without such
modi"cation of societal processes, many factors can act
as constraints on mitigation policies. These constraints
might be structural in nature, whereby situational conditions serve to deter development by preserving the old
system, or cognitive, in which psychological and attitudinal perceptions create unfavorable environments. For
instance, physical, social, cultural, and economic factors
may all constrain (or promote) action. Therefore, age,
family structure, wealth, gender, ethnicity, education, and
neighborhood characteristics, among other situational
traits, may lead to varied outcomes (Ollenburger and
Tobin, 1998). For example, wealthier people generally
have a greater variety of options when confronted with
disaster and clean-up in comparison with economically
marginalized individuals. Similarly, culturally imposed
conditions can severely limit actions. In societies where
women are oppressed, it seems that women su!er more
than men, with higher numbers of deaths and reduced
levels of hospital treatment. Even in countries with
`equalitya, it is not unusual to "nd women experiencing
greater levels of stress and anxiety, possibly because of
their culturally de"ned roles as caretakers. Such cognitive and structural factors, while interdependent, will
a!ect attitudes towards mitigation and recovery e!orts
as shown in Fig. 1.
2.4. Sustainable/resilient communities
In theory, sustainable and resilient communities
should be able to withstand extreme geophysical processes and recover rapidly from disasters whenever they
occur. Sustainability and resilience, then, are contingent
upon careful planning and organization of society, both
to ameliorate the impacts of disasters and to facilitate
the recovery processes. Such comprehensive planning
must encompass mitigation strategies to reduce risk and
exposure, post-disaster plans to promote short- and
long- term recovery, and careful consideration of structural and cognitive factors that will in#uence program

16

G.A. Tobin / Environmental Hazards 1 (1999) 13 } 25

e!ectiveness. The three models are interrelated and will

have signi"cant bearing on sustainability goals. In this
sense, planning would be truly comprehensive, incorporating all the vagaries of the natural world with the needs
of the human-use system. It should be added that this is
not a new concept and there are other models or frameworks that could be used to `explaina strategies towards
hazard mitigation. Furthermore, the linkages between
the three models, shown in Fig. 1, are highly simpli"ed
and can operate in more than one direction.
It is suggested, therefore, that characteristics of sustainable and resilient communities must include:
E Lowered levels of risk to all members through reduced
exposure to the geophysical event. This might be
achieved through the implementation of structural or
non-structural measures, but ultimately must result in
a less hazard-prone community.
E Reduced levels of vulnerability for all members of society.
Unless vulnerability issues are addressed, social inequities will persist and the community will merely
perpetuate pre-disaster conditions. Hence, reduced
vulnerability must include strategies to help those individuals who are politically and economically marginalized.
E Planning for sustainability and resilience must be ongoing. In other words, commitments must be for the
long-term, recognizing that sustainability can only be
attained if such goals remain at the forefront of all
community planning e!orts.
E High level of support from responsible agencies and
political leaders. Unless the political will is present it is
highly unlikely that sustainability can be achieved.
E Incorporation of partnerships and cooperation at diwerent governmental levels. Partnerships between agencies
and organizations at all levels must be developed to
provide the appropriate leadership, skills, resources,
and local knowledge for the implementation of mitigation projects. All constituencies must buy into the
drive towards sustainability and this might be a!orded
through partnerships between di!erent levels of government.
E Strengthened networks for independent and interdependent segments of society. Social networks must be su$ciently resilient to withstand changes in the vertical
and horizontal relationships through which many decisions are made. Strengthening and maintaining social networks is not easy, although local community
initiatives, including educational and hazard awareness programs, can help promote interaction and favorable responses.
E Planning at the appropriate scale. Scale is confounded
in part because of increasing globalization of the economy. Vertical relationships of multi-national corporations, for example, are often heightened at the expense
of horizontal relationships which means that deci-

sion-making is often divorced from the local level.

Community resilience therefore, especially with regard
to economic recovery, may not be in the hands of local
business persons, but may be subject to the desires of
`absenteea employers. The implications for small urban communities are disturbing as large multinational
companies will make decisions based on shareholder
pro"ts rather than local concerns. Thus, balancing
practical sustainability goals with economic stability
may be a major challenge facing hazard managers.
Theoretical constructs, such as those outlined in the
models above, and indeed in other hazard models, are
useful in determining those factors that should be addressed in planning for sustainable communities. The
frameworks are conceptually sound, but in practice there
are many obstacles that must be overcome if the ultimate
goal of sustainability is to be achieved. A brief examination of Florida, USA, is used here to illustrate some of
these pragmatic concerns facing hazard managers over
the long-term.

3. Florida } long-term legacies

The State of Florida illustrates many of the complex
social, economic, and global issues that a!ect disaster
preparation and mitigation worldwide. The inequalities
and levels of marginalization among di!erent racial,
class, and ethnic groups are comparable in many respects
with other parts of the world. The degree of hazardousness throughout the state is extreme and the situation is
being exacerbated by rapid urban development, large
scale business ventures, combined with the possibility of
an increasingly hostile natural system from a growing
hurricane threat. The wider community exists purely
because of the historical legacy of the technological "x
that has encouraged development, particularly in the
southern part of the state. There are, therefore, many
lessons we can learn from the Floridian experience, particularly in the aftermath of Hurricane Andrew.
3.1. Historical context
The historical structural conditions associated with
the development of Florida have created a highly hazard-prone society where communities are especially vulnerable to a host of disasters. Florida has grown rapidly
in the last 100 years from approximately 530,000 people
in 1900 to an estimated 14.9 million in1998 with the
greatest increases occurring in the central and southern
parts of the state (U.S. Census, 1999a; Smith, 1990).
Between 1970 and 1990, the population rose by 9 million,
with about 85% now residing in urban communities
(Shermyen et al., 1991). While some of this increase has
been from periodically high birth rates, notably in the

G.A. Tobin / Environmental Hazards 1 (1999) 13 } 25

post-WWII period, Florida still has one of the lowest

birth rates in the USA. At the same time, the death rate is
one of the highest due to a large elderly population. Thus,
natural increase is generally small, approximately 12%
for the 1980s, and the substantial increases in population
have come from net in migration. Indeed, people have
#ocked to Florida both from within the USA and from
other countries, and by 1990 only 3.94 million residents
had been born in the state, while1.66 million were foreign
born (U.S. Census, 1999b). This has repercussions for
hazard management and community planning, since
many new-comers have little or no knowledge of the
hazard potential and probably only limited experience of
how to deal with such disasters.
This rapid population growth has drastically altered
the physical environment, and, at the same time, created
new social, political, and cultural lifestyles. The physical
environment is of particular concern because of the prevailing geophysical processes that inevitably lead to severe consequences for people living in the area. Florida's
location means that it is prone to many di!erent natural
events, including tropical storms, thunderstorms, lightning, hail, strong winds, heat waves, tornadoes, fog, frost,
#oods, drought, sinkholes, and wild "re. In addition,
environmental degradation in Florida has been considerable. Wetlands have been destroyed, the integrity of the
Everglades compromised, aquifers depleted, and the
coastline damaged.
Tropical storms are a particular problem in Florida
and Hurricane Andrew in 1992 was a stark reminder of
the destruction that can occur from such events. Andrew
was the third most intense storm to hit the USA mainland. The storm caused $20}25 billion damage in
Florida, killed 15 people, and another 50 died during the
recovery process (Sheets, 1995). In addition, 108,000 private homes were damaged, 49,000 of which were declared
uninhabitable, nearly 6600 mobile homes were destroyed,
and 180,000 people were made homeless (Morrow,
1997a). The impacts of Andrew were still being felt in
communities throughout southern Florida. It was fortunate that landfall was south of Miami, thus missing one
of the most densely populated parts of the state. The
socio-economic rami"cations of a category 4 or 5 hurricane striking one of the major urban areas are considerable, and raise the question of the feasibility of creating
and maintaining sustainable communities under such
conditions.
To its credit, the state has undertaken a major review
of its emergency management strategies since Andrew,
and completely revamped its Emergency Management
Centers. The huge databases, now integrated through
a Geographical Information System (GIS), are quite
sophisticated. However, this constitutes only an emergency response phase, which is certainly important, but
long-term mitigation planning is also necessary. On top
of this, the frequency of violent tropical storms may be

17

increasing. First, the pattern of hurricanes may be somewhat cyclical, and it is possible that we have been in
a quiet period for the last 20 years. Herbert et al. (1995)
pointed out that during the 1960s and 1970s both the
number and intensity of hurricanes in the United States
decreased sharply compared with previous decades.
However, it is possible that we are entering a period of
renewed activity. If this is the case, then considerably
more people are now exposed to the problem given the
large population increases since the 1970s. Second, any
global climate change that leads to a warming of the
Atlantic Ocean will precipitate even more severe tropical
storms and further test the hazard mitigation practices of
Florida communities. Mitigation models that seek to
reduce exposure and risk, therefore, are facing an ever
increasing problem.
Tornadoes are also a continuing problem in Florida.
For instance, the state has more tornadoes per
25,000 km than any other USA state and is ranked third
in the nation in total number occurring (Grazulis, 1993).
The outbreak of devastating tornadoes in the Orlando
area in February 1998, that killed 40 people and caused
over $40 million in damage, was a reminder of the level
of risk from such hazards in Florida. Similarly, #oods
and droughts are ongoing problems, as are frost, fog,
sinkholes, and thunderstorms. Once again, community
and individual vulnerability are exacerbated by social,
cultural, and economic di!erences.
Popular wisdom in the state claims that Florida would
be an uninhabitable place had it not been for DDT and
air conditioning, which allowed the control of insects,
especially mosquitoes, and modi"cation of indoor climates. These certainly played an important role in attracting large numbers of migrants to the state and are
classic examples of the technological "x. However, hazard planners must now face the legacy of these actions.
Pest control and air conditioning, in bringing people to
Florida, have exposed huge numbers to the extremes of
the sub-tropical climate that eventually will take their
toll. Indeed, global warming, if it occurs on any large
scale, will mean a continual challenge to communities in
Florida particularly those located along the coastline,
and rising sea levels and greater storms will present ever
more dangerous conditions. Thus, the hazard problem in
Florida is evolving } dynamic environmental conditions
combined with changing social, economic, and political
realities make this a very hazardous environment.

3.2. Sociological and cultural factors

Not all Floridians face the challenge of the physical
environment on equal terms. When we consider the community response to this hazardous place, we must look
closely at the variety of socio-economic and cultural
groups that make up the state's population.

18

G.A. Tobin / Environmental Hazards 1 (1999) 13 } 25

3.2.1. Population
Florida's demographic structure must be addressed if
we are to attain any level of sustainability in our communities. We have already seen the rapid growth of population in the state, with a 33% increase for the 1980s, and
an annual growth rate of 3.3% (Shermyen et al., 1991).
This trend alone means that large numbers of people are
now hazard-prone and this will inevitably lead to increased disaster losses. These increases in population are
similar to those in some of the poorest nations in the
world. For example, Bangladesh had an average annual
population increase of 2.7% between 1980 and 1985,
although in actual numbers of people this is higher than
Florida (World Resources Institute, 1994). The "gure for
the United States for the same period was 0.9%. With
more people exposed to potential disaster, it is imperative that ideas of sustainability and long-term rehabilitation are incorporated into the planning process.
3.2.2. Spatial patterns
Many immigrants have been located in coastal areas,
and the sprawl of communities along the coastline can be
identi"ed on maps of the state. In fact, Florida leads the
nation in coastal development with over 3.2 million residential units constructed between 1970 and 1989 (World
Resources Institute, 1994). All these dwellings are at risk
from hurricanes and #ooding. Thus, controlling development has become a major issue in the state. In the
mid-1980s, Florida did adopt a state-wide land-use policy to manage growth, but this was tied more to providing needed infrastructure than addressing concerns of
natural hazards. The Concurrency Act, as it became
known, requires developers to anticipate water and sewage needs in planning development, although there is no
reason the law could not be used to facilitate and enhance hazard mitigation planning. Similarly, the Land
Development Act was designed to curtail urban sprawl
by con"ning new urban tracts to contiguous urban areas
(Smith, 1990). In 1990, the state committed $300 million
annually for 10 years to acquire land in environmentally
sensitive areas with a focus on barrier islands. Whether
all this has had an e!ect on growth patterns remains
to be seen. The additional problem with this strategy,
though, is that inland residents may become complacent
about hurricanes believing that they are not vulnerable
to such severe storms. Certainly, storm surge may be
ruled out, but the threat of #ooding and strong winds is
ever present as witnessed at the town of Homestead
during Hurricane Andrew.
3.2.3. Age/family structure
The age structure of Florida presents additional problems with regard to hazards and sustainability (Table 1).
By 1998, nearly 20% of the population was estimated to
be 65 years of age or older, and 24% 18 or under (U.S.
Census, 1999a), which, in terms of developing sustainable

Table 1
Florida age structure and gender (1990)
AGE

Male

Female

0}14
15}24
25}44
45}64
65 and over

18.6
12.9
30.4
19.8
18.3

51.1
51.2
49.7
47.0
42.6

48.9
48.8
50.3
53.0
57.4

Source: Shermyen et al. (1991)

communities, presents di!erent problems. An aging

population has speci"c demands and requires di!erent
services in the event of a disaster than a young population. Although stereotypes of Florida assume an a%uent
population of elderly retirees, Morrow (1997a) pointed
out that the elderly were disproportionally poor in the
area impacted by Hurricane Andrew, with 73% relying
solely on social security. Furthermore, a number of studies has shown that elderly generally experience higher
levels of stress following disasters (Cutrona et al., 1986;
Krause, 1987; Phifer, 1990). This is particularly true
for those elderly who have little income, a combination
that could be important in developing sustainable
communities.
Thus, planning must take into account demographic
traits of the communities involved, and relief strategies,
evacuation plans, and medical supplies must accommodate the needs of the large percentage of elderly. However,
it should not be assumed that retirees constitute a homogeneous group, since there exists substantial di!erences
among them. For instance, created communities, such as
Sun City, may provide strong support networks among
a relatively a%uent, homogeneous population. But even
in Florida, such communities do not constitute the norm,
and most elderly live in more traditional, heterogeneous
situations, where factors of wealth, and class may be
more relevant than age.
Nevertheless, age is an important variable in the state,
and the bimodal population distribution in Florida creates a need for attention not only to the elderly but also
to the younger members of society, and single-parent
families. Hurricane Andrew, for example, showed that
planning must take into account family structures and
characteristics within the community. Morrow (1997b)
demonstrated that domestic violence increased in the
months following the disaster, divorce rates climbed by
30%, and the number of deaths rose, compared to similar
periods before the storm. Community resilience and
long-term recovery e!orts, therefore, must be questioned
in the light of these data.
3.2.4. Gender
Natural hazards are not gender neutral, but have implications during both the event itself and the recovery

G.A. Tobin / Environmental Hazards 1 (1999) 13 } 25

phase, and di!erent consequences can be seen for men

and women. However, the concept of gender cannot be
treated in isolation, since there are close ties with race,
ethnicity, culture and class. Female heads of households,
for example, are often older, poorer, and members of
minority groups in comparison with males, and the majority of single-parent families are headed by women. It is
reasonable to assume, therefore, that under many conditions, women are more vulnerable than men in disasters
and their ability to recover is less favorable, a characteristic demonstrated in various works (Enarson and Morrow, 1998).
In Florida, the ratio of females to males is not high
compared to other national data, although the pattern
changes signi"cantly with increasing age, as shown in
Table 1. This presents special needs with regard to sustainable communities, and strategies to strengthen community resilience must address the complex relationships
that come from linkages of age and gender. Once again,
research has shown that women su!er more severely
during disasters than men, and usually exhibit higher
levels of stress (Melick and Logue, 1985}86; Solomon
et al., 1987). However, the relationship is confounded by
other factors such as family structure, age, level of social
involvement, socio-economic status, religious taboos,
and other cultural values (Coyne and DeLongis, 1986;
Madakasira and O'Brien, 1987; Ollenburger and Tobin,
1998). For instance, women in the middle age groups are
invariably responsible for taking care of children and the
elderly, which places even greater stress on them in
emergency situations. Community resilience, therefore,
may be compromised if long-term care and consideration
of stress is not forthcoming. Morrow (1997a) states that
15% of households in the area directly impacted by
Hurricane Andrew were headed by women. Thus, it is
probable that women absorb the social costs of being
excluded from disaster planning, response, and recovery
e!orts to a much greater extent than men. And yet,
women play a pivotal role linking the household level
with the community in the recovery process (Enarson
and Morrow, 1997).
3.2.5. Education
Levels of education may be important with respect to
access to knowledge, and many authors have stressed the
need for sound education to enhance understanding of
environmental issues and improve community planning
(Pepper, 1990). While the State of Florida has a welldeveloped educational system, there are many criticisms
of its practical functioning. Schools are overcrowded and
there is a shortage of teachers } issues it seems that the
state legislature has not taken very seriously for some
time. Florida has one of the highest school drop-out rates
in the nation (33%) and about 25% of adults are functionally illiterate (West, 1990). This not only reduces the
quality of the labor force, but may also place structural

19

blocks on building sustainable communities. Opportunities for mitigation strategies and other planning may be
curtailed if residents are not in position to participate.
Therefore, better use could be made of schools as a focus
for hazard awareness, and women, who are usually more
involved in Parent}Teacher Associations than men,
could help facilitate this education process. To what
extent level of education is important, however, needs to
be examined in community planning.
3.2.6. Social/racial/ethnic networks
In maintaining community, there is a question of the
social, racial, and ethnic mix, and how di!erent groups
might interact. This is certainly nothing new, as noted by
Form and Nosow (1958). Others have cautioned against
assuming that even small rural communities are homogeneous in outlook (Hoggart and Buller, 1987). Thus, any
mitigation strategy that ignores the signi"cance of this
social heterogeneity is probably going to fail, for many
others have demonstrated the importance of social acceptability of mitigation projects (Tobin and Montz,
1997).
Most of the population of Florida is White, 10.4% is
Black, and over 12% is Hispanic (Smith, 1990). However,
it would be wrong to treat any of these groups as either
entirely separate, or as internally cohesive units. Indeed,
there are many di!erences among and within ethnic and
racial groups. This is particularly evident in Dade
County (see Table 2), where there is a large ethnic and
racial mix. The signi"cance of this mix to community
resilience and recovery after disaster is signi"cant. In
a study of tent cities, set up for the homeless following
Hurricane Andrew, Yelvington (1997) found that ethnic
di!erences led to a considerable degree of hostility between groups and at times active racism. O$cials had
stated that assignments to multi-family tents had been
made without regard to racial and ethnic make-up, and
Table 2
Population of Dade County, 1990
Hispanic group

Ethnic groups

Cuba
Nicaragua
Puerto Rica
Colombia
Dominica
Mexico
Honduras
Peru
Guatemala
Ecuador
Salvador
Panama
Other
% of total pop.

59.2
7.8
7.6
5.6
2.5
2.4
1.9
1.7
0.9
0.8
0.8
0.7
8.1
49.2

Black
United States
Haiti
Jamaica
Bahamas
Other
% of Total Pop.

70.6
11.4
6.8
1.9
9.3
20.6

Anglos (Non-Hisp)
% of Total Pop.

30.2

Source: Morrow, 1997a.

20

G.A. Tobin / Environmental Hazards 1 (1999) 13 } 25

yet there was a tendency for Haitians to be segregated

away from the center in at least one encampment. In
addition, there were incidents of tension among groups,
expressed fears of a `Latina take-over, and concern that
aid was going to `illegala Mexicans. This is typical in the
pursuit of limited resources. Requests to change tents
were also not uncommon. Yelvington estimated that the
tent cities comprised 50}69% Latino, 30% Black, and
10}20% Anglo dwellers. Even these broad categories of
ethnicity do not really identify the many sub-groups
within the community, for social divisions within Latino,
Black, or White groups are often more signi"cant than
their similarities (Yelvington, 1997).
Structural issues connected with ethnicity also appeared to play a role in relocation strategies after Hurricane Andrew and hurt recovery strategies. Girard and
Peacock (1997) found that Blacks' relocation plans were
impeded and that they had limited options compared
to Whites and Hispanics. While Whites and Hispanics
often moved to wealthier White areas, Blacks invariably
relocated to poorer Black communities, thus sustaining
the status quo and further marginalizing the Black
community. Such trends were evident in Florida City,
where the proportion of Blacks increased by more
than 10 to 71.4% of the total population, and more
Anglos relocated than Blacks (Dash et al., 1997).
Similar trends were found in Homestead where the proportion of Blacks rose by 6.5%. However, both communities ultimately lost over 30% of their populations
which further compromises the ability of the community
to recover.
The role of ethnicity and race "ts the classic con#ict/competition structure. After a disaster di!erent
groups are competing for limited resources and perceive
that others may be receiving greater bene"ts. This attitude is heightened by pre-existing con#icts that are often
manifested through ethnic di!erences. However, it would
be incorrect to say that the con#ict ensues purely because
of ethnic di!erences, as attention to the political economy demonstrates. These groups typically are marginalized and less wealthy members of the greater
community. Often they have lost virtually everything and
their ability to recover is seriously impaired by lack of
resources. These represent social and economic traps
from which many individuals "nd it di$cult to escape.
If resources are distributed based on given ways of life,
what may be termed the `culture of ethnicitya, then
di!erences between groups may be exaggerated in the
post-disaster community. For example, the Federal
Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) distributed
money to heads of households without taking into account the great variation of household styles. The traditional two parent/children model was not necessarily the
norm, and hence money did not always reach those who
most needed it. In some cases, individuals even posed as
head of households for a number of units within a dwel-

ling and then absconded with the money (Yelvington,

1997).
3.2.7. Migrant workers and homeless people
The Florida economy thrives in part because of a large
migrant labor force from Mexico and Central America.
These individuals are an important part of the agribusiness and yet have little access to wealth, education, social
services, and other advantages associated with modern
society. Migrant workers are often treated as a #exible,
easily managed workforce that imposes little overhead
on the employers. The temporary nature of the migrant
workers as they move from one harvest/planting area
to another only serves to heighten the problem. They are
certainly not part of what constitutes the traditional
sense of community, being more akin to nomadic groups
found in other parts of the world. For instance, following
Hurricane Andrew, it was reported that many migrant
workers refused to enter the tent cities for fear of being
arrested by the Immigration and Naturalization Service,
and many had been living in trailers and low-income
housing provided by the large agribusinesses in south
Florida (Yelvington, 1997). What exactly would constitute a `return to a stable communitya for such people?
Disaster relief is much more likely to be channeled towards those who control the destinies of such groups
rather than the individuals themselves. Indeed, some of
the political aspects of the distribution of aid after Andrew raised additional questions about community sustainability and resilience. However, these political factors
are not addressed here.
In addition to the migrant community, Florida also
has a very high number of homeless people, in part, of
course, because of its attractive warm climate. In 1998,
there were reported to be at least 55,000 homeless in the
state, more than a third of whom were families. Currently, the state has only 5800 beds and 146 shelters available
for these people. In 1991, there were over 6000 homeless
in Miami alone. The homeless present new challenges
during disasters and certainly added to the di$culties
following Hurricane Andrew. In fact, FEMA refused to
deal with the issue and would not let the homeless enter
the tent cities, so eventually a new state-run one had to be
established. Thus, once again, any long-term mitigation
plan that does not address the issue of the homeless, will
have inherent weaknesses. The same goes for squatter
settlements elsewhere.
3.2.8. Cognitive factors } popular culture
The popular culture of a community will also in#uence
how it meets the challenges of hazards. All the evidence
shows that it is through the perceived environment rather
than reality that behavior and attitudes are organized.
Thus, individual awareness and community action may,
in part, be dependent upon media attention to the problem. For example, looting is frequently highlighted by the

G.A. Tobin / Environmental Hazards 1 (1999) 13 } 25

media as a critical problem in disaster zones. In reality,

most disasters reduce local crime and lead to enhanced
community spirit at least for a short period following the
event (Wenger, 1978). The immediate post-disaster period is typically represented by: (1) a decrease in internal
con#ict as all members concentrate their energies and
e!orts on the problem at hand; (2) a convergence of social
values centering on clean-up and recovery e!orts that
override pre-disaster di!erences; and (3) the emergence of
a new, but temporary, organizational structure, characterized by a high level of consensus in the community. In
this way many organizational ties are strengthened and
a new `synthetic communitya is created (Quarantelli and
Dynes, 1976). This phase of the disaster, however, may be
short-lived once the realities of the new conditions set in,
as demonstrated above.
Fisher (1994) pointed out that myths pervade public
perception of human response to disaster and that the
media play a role in perpetuating these myths. In most
disasters, these patterns seem to emerge at some time,
and it is not unusual to hear disaster victims state that
the situation has brought the community together. On
the other hand, as recovery gets underway, old values
return, long-standing con#icts re-emerge, and the synthetic community structure disappears. The old power
status also re-emerges and is another force operating to
return conditions to what they were prior to the disaster.
To some degree, therefore, communities are already resilient, in that they do survive and do tend to return to
`normala after a disaster (Wright et al., 1979). However,
other structural factors will determine whether this has
been a positive or negative experience over the long-term
for the community (Haas et al., 1977), and as shown in
the tent cities, internal con#icts between and within subcultures can quickly materialize. Again, more marginalized groups, for instance those hampered by lack of
English skills or by legal uncertainty, are least likely to
have been a!ected by o$cial hazard education, and most
likely to rely on word of mouth reports, many of which
will be inaccurate.
3.3. Economic factors
The Florida economy is heavily dependent on two
primary activities, agriculture and tourism. Gross sales
from agriculture in 1987 were over $16 billion (Mulkey
and Clouser, 1990) and from tourism in 1990 $32 billion
(Shermyen et al., 1991). There are many other economic
activities in Florida, such as phosphate mining, manufacturing, international trade, and other light industrial
pursuits, but for the most part, they play a lesser role
than the other two. This has repercussions for planning
and disasters in at least two ways; "rst through globalization of the economy especially in large-scale agribusiness, and second because of the volatile nature of the
tourist industry.

21

3.4. Agriculture
Agriculture, particularly citrus production and sugar
cane growing, is controlled to all intents and purposes by
international companies, and production decisions for
sugar and citrus are often made in places spatially separated from the "eld areas. The globalization of business,
therefore, is just as serious to the Florida economy and its
people as anywhere else. This globalization was most
apparent after Hurricane Andrew. The agribusinesses
had been dependent upon migrant workers and had
housed many in trailers, a large number of which were
destroyed by the storm. As the winter harvest season
approached, the agribusinesses lobbied hard to have permanent housing for the 7000 expected workers. Federal
and state money was then used to erect a mobile home
village and bids were solicited for more permanent
structures (Yelvington, 1997). By providing "nancial
resources to these agribusinesses, the government was in
e!ect subsidizing agriculture. Money was not provided
directly to migrant workers themselves to recover from
the disaster.
3.5. Tourism
Similarly, tourism is a very important part of the
economic base of Florida, although it takes two tourist
jobs to make the money generated through one manufacturing job (West, 1990). Take for example, the Walt
Disney Corporation, which operates several large theme
parks in central Florida. In fact, DisneyWorld, at Orlando, is now one of the largest tourist attractions in the
world and its in#uence is felt throughout the state. If the
Disney operations were to fail, perhaps due to a major
hurricane disaster, the whole state would be negatively
a!ected. The question might be whether Disney would
decide to return to Florida if the site was destroyed by
a severe storm, and people died. Even the perception of
an unsafe environment can a!ect tourist spending. This
was evident in the early 1990s when tourism in many
parts of the state su!ered a severe setback because several
tourists had been murdered. Hotel and #ight bookings
were down and the state responded by trying to ensure
tourist safety. The multiplier e!ect meant that impacts
were felt quite widely, thus demonstrating the tenuous
nature of Florida's economy. The synergistic e!ects resulting from the combination of the political-economy
and the hazardousness of place will signi"cantly a!ect
the viability and sustainability of tourist-based communities.
Another consequence of disasters, of course, is the
actual damage and loss incurred. After Hurricane Andrew, many business were completely destroyed. It was,
however, the vertical integration that allowed some to
recover more rapidly, and there were several national
franchises that reopened and were serving customers

22

G.A. Tobin / Environmental Hazards 1 (1999) 13 } 25

even before the rubble had been cleared (Dash et al.,

1997). What actually happened to many of the smaller
business is not known. Other parts of the economy, such
as the construction industry, pro"ted during the recovery
period as Federal and other money was brought into the
state for the purposes of reconstruction. This had signi"cance for some of the poorer parts of the state where the
average income is more than 39% below the state average (West, 1990).

3.6. Insurance industry

The insurance industry, lost extensively after Hurricane Andrew passed through the state. Losses were so
high that many insurance companies pulled out of insuring dwellings in the state altogether, and the state
had to write policies through its own initiatives
to maintain the viability of Florida communities.
Without this state support, it is doubtful whether development or construction could have continued at the
current pace. The communities in southern Florida,
therefore, would have been stymied, having su!ered the
damage from Andrew, but unable to rebuild due to the
absence of insurance. In this context, the resilience of
the communities must be questioned, for by stepping in,
the state has essentially ensured that another disaster
will prevail, since homes have been rebuilt in hazardous
areas.
While several insurance companies are now returning
to Florida there is still a feeling of unease. Again, this is
the typical vertical structure of businesses where decisions are made at remote sites. Economically, it does not
make sense to insure property in Florida because of the
extremely high risk, hence company decisions to pull out.
The state government has essentially subsidized the
population living there, which may not be an inherently
stable situation. Indeed, Florida has the second highest
incidence of repeat claims under the National Flood
Insurance Program (NFIP).
The issue of insurance is further complicated by race.
Peacock and Girard (1997) found that many Black
homeowners not only had inadequate insurance on their
dwellings, but also had taken out policies with companies
on the `peripherya of the insurance industry. They suggested that this situation had come about from a series of
circumstances that resulted in Blacks being guided to
homes in poorer areas. These poorer quality homes
would then su!er greater damage, which, when combined
with insu$cient insurance and inadequate insurance
settlements, would result in slower recovery for Black
areas. As note, Peacock and Ragsdale `In policy decisions, pro"ts, not "eld sustainability, nor the ability of
the built environment to withstand potentially hazardous environmental impacts, typically take precedence.a
(1997, p. 23).

4. Discussion
The Florida case-study shows that problems will be
encountered at virtually every step if sustainablility and
resilience become accepted planning goals. Those characteristics indicative of sustainable and resilient communities, shown in Fig. 1, just do not exist in Florida. The
risk from certain hazards remains high and is possibly
increasing in the case of hurricanes. Furthermore, vulnerability has been exacerbated by rapidly changing
demographics. Not only has the population increased
signi"cantly, exposing more people to the hazard risk,
but so too has the proportion of those living at or below
the poverty line, the number of elderly and young, and
the proportion of newcomers. These groups are known to
exhibit higher levels of vulnerability than others and
unquestionably su!er more during disasters. A closer
examination also reveals that planning has not kept pace
with this population explosion and o$cials appear to
have paid little attention to curtailing activities in hazardous environments. The urban sprawl along the coastline, the development of #oodplains, and the draining of
wetlands attest to this. Such rapid change also means
that social networks have not evolved in traditional ways
and may not be su$ciently sophisticated to withstand
the rigors of a disaster.
Utilizing the framework proposed in Fig. 1, two features stand out in particular if we are to achieve the goal
of sustainable and resilient communities; (1) mitigation
and recovery models must work in cooperation; and (2)
the roles of structural and cognitive factors must be fully
understood. The issue is further complicated because the
system is constantly changing as the networks of interactions among elements respond to di!erent inputs. The
system has an inherent instability within its dynamism.
Planning for sustainability and resilience, therefore,
requires a complete understanding of the interactions
between the various elements of the system.
Mitigation and recovery models must work together if
we are to create sustainable and resilient communities.
Clearly, some elements of the model are locally controlled and initiated, while others are more appropriate at
the national level. Therefore, questions might center
around the appropriate level at which remedial action
should be taken, and whether there is an acceptable level
of government intervention. This issue has been debated
for some time, and there are arguments in support of
centralized and local government initiatives. Principally,
it is argued that centralized governments have the resources and expertise and hence are more able to undertake major initiatives. This is particularly important
when expensive projects are proposed. Furthermore,
centralization can minimize unfair advantages amongst
communities if one adopts strategies and another does
not. Some form of national directive is usually necessary
in all societies because disasters tend to transcend

G.A. Tobin / Environmental Hazards 1 (1999) 13 } 25

administrative boundaries. On the other hand, local

governments are more aware of local needs and the
peculiarities of particular locations. Hence, we often see
developments of partnerships between di!erent levels of
governments, such as FEMA sponsored projects and the
NFIP in the U.S.A. Those residing in hazard-prone areas
invariably support the notion of government intervention up to a point, but would prefer #exibility in how
projects are implemented (Turner et al., 1986; Tobin,
1992).
One example of such partnerships is Project Impact,
a country-wide initiative in the United States to help
communities become disaster resistant (FEMA, 1997a).
Deer"eld Beach in Florida has become one of the pilot
communities, and has received $1 million as seed money
from FEMA for implementing disaster resistant actions.
Local and national businesses have joined a partnership
of local and federal governments to enhance community
resilience (FEMA, 1997b). However, to date only piecemeal e!orts have been accomplished and it is questionable to what extent the whole fabric of any community
can be modi"ed through Project Impact, although the
educational and awareness aspects of the project should
not be underestimated.
It is abundantly clear that structural and cognitive
factors act as important "lters in the hazard planning
system. The social, economic, and political elements that
prevail at di!erent levels in society will signi"cantly in#uence the outcomes of hazard planning. Thus, there is an
urgent need to understand how each element, presented
in Fig. 1, plays out in terms of pre-disaster planning and
in post-disaster studies. Indeed, it is doubtful that successful mitigation and recovery can be accomplished
without due consideration of the contextual issues of
place, whether these are of a physical nature or humaninduced. In this case, Florida shows both promise and
problems. The e!orts already underway, such as the
partnership at Deer"eld, and the re-organization of the
emergency response centers, are steps in the right direction. On the other hand, di!erences among ethnic
groups, the seemingly large proportion of marginalized
communities, and the signi"cant spatial inequalities in
the distribution of wealth, present major structural constraints on governments and planning initiatives.
In addition, the dynamic nature of society means that
many communities are constantly in a state of #ux, as
new people move into the area and others move out or
die, as businesses come and go, and as di!erent issues
spark the public debate. The speed of change in many
places has been unprecedented and now these newly
imposed conditions can have severe long-term consequences for local communities. Certainly, much could be
done to ameliorate the e!ects of hazards in Florida;
simple regulations raising building standards and restricting new development in storm surge zones would
have reduced losses, but also would have cramped the

23

kind of wholesale `developmenta that has been Florida's

hallmark. However, this legacy including piecemeal adjustments will not signi"cantly a!ect the Florida situation nor does it makes it unique. Similar di$culties can
be found in other communities throughout the USA.

5. Conclusions
Experience has shown that current hazard response
and mitigation practices often sustain communities as
they are, and merely perpetuate the disaster-damage
cycle rather than addressing the root causes of the problems. For example, in Florida we are attempting to maintain communities that exist in a completely arti"cial
environment, whereas in hazard planning we are trying
to work with the natural environment. Do we want to do
this? The practical application of these conceptual ideas
may prove elusive at best, and `living with hazardsa may
be the only realistic option. This is not say that e!orts to
minimize the e!ects of disasters are not important, only
that truly sustainable and resilient communities are not
feasible in the current socio-political-economic environment.
In other contexts, should we seek to protect or sustain
societies in which there are signi"cant social injustices?
Is it ethically appropriate, for instance, to sustain marginalized, semi-permanent communities by subsidizing
international agribusiness as they rebuild after a disaster?
Sustainability and resilience, of course, mean much more
than this, and planning with such goals in mind usually
requires signi"cant changes in the structure of society.
Thus, to be truly sustainable, communities must develop
comprehensive on-going planning strategies that encompass all aspects of the hazard problem, including
socio-economic and political elements. Over the shortterm this may be unrealistic, but the long-term goal is
laudable. A change in political awareness and motivation
is required to get the process going.

Acknowledgements
I would like to thank the editors, S.E. Bird, B.E.
Montz, and K.A. Yelvington for help and advice on this
paper. However, any errors remain mine.

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