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OF

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ON

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THE

F INANCIAL A S P E C T S
OF

C ORPORATE G OVERNANCE

DE

C E M B E R

1992

0 0 REPORT

OF

THE

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ON

0 0

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F INANCIAL A S P E C T S
OF

C ORPORATE G OVERNANCE

0 1992 The Committee on the Financial Aspects of

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PAGE
PREFACE

TH E

11

INTRO D llc110 N
R EASONS

FOR

SETTING

C ORPORATE

UP

THE

COMMITTEE

GOVERNANCE

R EPORT C O N T E N T
T H E C ODE

OF

16

B EST P R A C T I C E

C OMPANIES

TO

WHOM

DIRECTED
Ai__

C ODE P R I N C I P L E S
S TATEMENT
K EEPING

CiL

.-

COMPLIANCE

OF

C ODE

THE

UP

TO

DATE

COMPLIANCE
20

T H E BOARD
_

B OARD E F F E C T I V E N E S S

__

T HE C H A I R M A N
N O N- EXECUTIVE
P ROFESSIONAL

DIRECTORS
ADVICE

DIKECTORS' TRAINING
B OARD S TRUCTURES
T HE C OMPANY

AND

PROCEDURES

SECRETARY

D IRECTORS ' RE SP ONSIBILITIES

S TANDARDS
N OMINATION

01: CO N D U C T
COMMITTEES

INTEKNAL CoNTRoLs
AUDIT COMMITTEES
INTEKNAL AU D I T
B OARD R E M U N E R A T I O N

,~~~

CONTENTS

PAGE

F INANCIAL R E P O R T S
R EPORTING P R A C T I C E
P ENSIONS G O V E R N A N C E
36
I MPORTANCE

OF

AUDIT

P ROFESSIONAL O B J E C T I V I T Y
QU A R A N T I N I N G AUDIT
R OTATION
W AYS

OF

TO INCREASE

FROM

O T H E R SERVICES

AUDITORS

E FFECTIVENESS

AND

V ALUE

OF THE

T HE EX P E C T A T I O N S G A P

AUDIT
_

INTERNAL C O N T R O L
~~~~__~
G OING C O N C E R N
FRAUD
O THER I LLEGAL A C T S
A U D I T O R S LI A B I L I T Y
A UDIT C O N F I D E N C E
TH

48

SHAREHOLDERS
A CCOUNTABILITY

OF

B OARDS

TO

SHAREHOLDERS

INSTITUTIONAL SHAREHOLDERS

SHAREHOLDER C O M M U N I C A T I O N S
S H A R E H O L D E R INFLUENCE

c 0 NC I, US I 0 N

53

SUMMAKY OI ~~liCOMMENl)A1IONS

54

CONTENTS

PAGE

61

A.PPENDICES
I

HE

O M M I T T E E S

EMBERSHIP

AND

T ERMS

OF

R EFERENCE
2

T HE R OLE OF B O D I E S R E F E R R E D T O I N T H E R E P O R T

D I R E C T O R S R E S P O N S I B I L I T Y S T A T E M E N T

A UDIT C O M M I T T E E S

C URRENT S TATUTORY

A U D I T O R S LI A B I L I T Y : TH E C A P A R O C A S E

C ONTRIBUTORS

AND

AND

O THER R E Q U I R E M E N T S

R ELEVANT P UBLISHED S T A T E M E N T S

When our Committee was formed just over eighteen months ago,
neither our title nor our work programme seemed framed to catch
the headlines. In the event, the Committee has become the focus
of far more attention than I e v e r e n v i s a g e d w h e n I a c c e p t e d t h e
invitation to become its chairman. The harsh economic climate is
partly responsible, since it has exposed company reports and
accounts to unusually close scrutiny. It is, however, the
continuing concern about standards of financial reporting and
accountability, heightened by BCCI, Maxwell and the controversy
over directors pay, which has kept corporate governance in the
public eye.
Unexpected though this attention may have been, it reflects a
climate of opinion which accepts that changes are needed and it
presents an opportunity to raise standards of which we should take
full advantage. Our draft proposals have been thoroughly aired
and have attracted a considerable weight of informed comment
from a wide range of individuals and bodies with an interest in
matters of corporate governance. While it has not been uncritical,
the great majority of our respondents have supported the
Committees approach and it is this consensus which gives us a
mandate to proceed. The Committee is being looked to for a lead,
which we have a duty to provide.
I wish to thank the members of the Committee for their diligence
and above all our Secretary, whose single-minded commitment to
the Committees progress has enabled us to complete the task we
were set in May of last year. The report represents a shared view
of the action which needs to be taken in the field of financial
reporting and accountability and it is one to which every member
of the Committee has contributed. The Committee has benefited
from the breadth of its representation, which has included
members o f t h o s e b o d i e s b e s t p l a c e d t o s u p p o r t t h e
implementation of its recommendations.
I would also like on behalf of the Committee to express our
gratitude to everyone who has contributed to our work either by
s u b m i t t i n g e v i d e n c e 10 us directly, or through the press or by
providing platforms for debates on governance issues.

PREFACE

Acceptance of the reports findings will mark an important

advance in the process of establishing corporate standards. Our
recommendations will, however, have to be reviewed
as circumstances change and as the broader debate on governance
develops. We will continue in existence as a Committee until a
successor body -is appointed, to act as a source of authority on our
recommendations and to review their implementation.

Adrian Cadbury
Chairman
1 December 1992

1.1

The countrys economy depends on the drive and efficiency

of its companies. Thus the effectiveness with which their
boards discharge their responsibilities determines Britains
competitive position. They must be free to drive their
companies forward, but exercise that freedom within a
framework of effective accountability. This is the essence
of any system of good corporate governance.

1.2

The Committees recommendations are focused on the

control and reporting functions of boards, and on the role
of auditors. This reflects the Committees purpose, which
was to review those aspects of corporate governance
specifically
r e l a t e d t o financial
reporting and
accountability. Our proposals do, however, seek to
contribute positively to the promotion of good corporate
governance as a whole.

1.3

At the heart of the Committees recommendations is a Code

of Best Practice designed to achieve the necessary high
standards of corporate behaviour. The London Stock
Exchange intend to require all listed companies registered
in the United Kingdom, as a continuing obligation of
listing, to state whether they are complying with the Code
and to give reasons for any areas of non-compliance. This
requirement will enable shareholders to know where the
companies in which they have invested stand in relation to
the Code. The obligation will be enforced in the same way
as all other listing obligations. This may include, in
appropriate cases, the publication of a formal statement of
censure.

1.4

The Committee will remain responsible for reviewing the

implementation of its proposals until a successor body is
appointed in two years time, to examine progress and to
continue the ongoing governance review. It will be for our
sponsors to agree the remit of the new body and to
establish the basis of its support. In the meantime. a
programme of research will be undertaken to assist the
future monitoring of the Code.

1.5

By adhering to the Code, listed companies will strengthen

both their control over their businesses and their public
accountability. In so doing. they will be striking the right
balance between meeting the standards of corporate
governance now expected of them and retaining the
essential spirit of enterprise.

THE SETTING FOR THE REPORT

1.6

Bringing greater clarity to the respective responsibilities of

directors, shareholders and auditors will also strengthen
trust in the corporate system. Companies whose standards
of corporate governance are high are the more likely to
gain the confidence of investors and support for the
development of their businesses.

1.7

The basic system of corporate governance in Britain is

sound. The principles are well known and widely followed.
Indeed the Code closely reflects existing best practice.
This sets the standard which all listed companies need to
match.

1.8

Our proposals aim to strengthen the unitary board system

and increase its effectiveness, not to replace it. In law. all
directors are responsible for the stewardship of the
companys assets. All directors, therefore, whether or not
they have executive responsibilities, have a monitoring role
and are responsible for ensuring that the necessary controls
over the activities of their companies are in place - and
working.

1.9

Had a Code such as ours been in existence in the past, we

believe that a number of the recent examples of unexpected
company failures and cases of fraud would have received
attention earlier. It must, however, be recognised that no
system of control can eliminate the risk of fraud without so
shackling companies as to impede their ability to compete
in the market place.

1.10

We believe that our approach, based on compliance with a

voluntary code coupled with disclosure, wi-II prove more
effective than a statutory code. It is directed at establishing
best practice, at encouraging pressure from shareholders to
hasten its widespread adoption, and at allowing some
flexibility in implementation. We recognise, however. that
if companies do not back our recommendations. it is
probable that legislation and external regulation will be
sought to deal with some of the underlying problems which
the report identifies. Statutory measures would impose a
minimum standard and there would be a greater risk of
boards complying with the letter, rather than with the
spirit, of their requirements.

THE SETTING FOR THE REPORT

1.11

The Committee is clear that action by boards of directors

and auditors on the financial aspects of corporate
governance is expected and necessary. We are encouraged
by the degree to which boards are already reviewing their
structures and systems in the light of our draft
recommendations. The adoption of our recommendations
will mark an important step forward in the continuing
process of raising standards in corporate governance.

INTRODUCTION
Reasons for setting up the Committee
2.1

The Committee was set up in May 1991 by the Financial

Reporting Council, the London Stock Exchange and the
accountancy profession to address the financial aspects of
corporate governance. The Committees membership and
terms of reference are set out in Appent/i.r 1. I t s s p o n s o r s
were concerned at the perceived low level of confidence
both in financial reporting and in the ability of auditors to
provide the safeguards which the users of company reports
sought and expected. The underlying factors were seen as
the looseness of accounting standards, the absence of a
clear framework for ensuring that directors kept under
review the controls in their business, and competitive
pressures both on companies and on auditors which made it
difficult for auditors to stand up to demanding boards.

2.2

These concerns about the working of the corporate system

were heightened by some unexpected failures of major
companies and by criticisms of the lack of effective board
accountability for such matters as directors pay.. Further
evidence of the breadth of feeling that action had to be
taken to clarify responsibilities and to raise standards came
from a number of reports on different aspects of corporate
governance which had either been published or were in
preparation at that time.

2.3

The Committee wherever possible drew on these

documents, and a wide range of submissions from
interested parties, in producing its draft report which was
issued for public comment on 27 May 1992.

2.4

Since then, the Committee has received over 200 written

responses to its proposals, the great majority of which
broadly support the Committees approach, and has
carefully considered the balance of opinions expressed on
particular issues. The Committee is most grateful to all
those who have taken the time and trouble to give us their
comments. They have helped to shape our final report and,
in addition, they are a valuable reference source for our
successors. A list of contributors and of relevant published
statements appears in Appcndis 7.

.,.,.

,.,.I, ~.~...,,,,,.....,..,,,,...~.

.,,. ,.,. ,. ,., .

INTRODUCTION

Corporate Governance
2.5

Corporate governance is the system by which companies

are directed and controlled. Boards of directors are
responsible for the governance of their companies. The
shareholders role in governance is to appoint the directors
and the auditors and to satisfy themselves that an
appropriate governance structure is in place. The
responsibilities of the board include setting the companys
strategic aims, providing the leadership to put them into
effect, supervising the management of the business and
reporting to shareholders on their stewardship. The boards
actions are s u b j e c t t o l a w s , r e g u l a t i o n s a n d t h e
shareholders in general meeting.

2.6

Within that overall framework, the specifically financial

aspects of corporat: g o v e r n a n c e (ihe Committees remit)
are the way in which boards set financial policy and
oversee its implementation, including the use of financial
c o n t r o l s , a n d t h e proces: w h e r e b y t h e y r e p o r t o n t h e
activities and progress of the company to the shareholders.

2.7

The role of the auditors is to provide the shareholders with

an external and objective check on the directors financial
statements which form the basis of that reporting system.
Although the reports of the directors are addressed to the
shareholders, they are important to a wider audience, not
least to employees whose interests boards have a statutory
duty to take into account.

2.8

The Committees objective is to help to raise the standards

of corporate governance and the level of confidence in
financial reporting and auditing by setting out clearly what
it sees as the respective responsibilities of those involved
and what it believes is expected of them.

Report Content
2.9

The report begins by reviewing the structure and

r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s o f b o a r d s o f d i r e c t o r s ; here we have
summarised our recommendations in a Code of Best
Practice. Next, we consider the role of auditors and address
a number of recommendations to the accountancy
profession.
W e t h e n d e a l with the r i g h t s and
responsibilities of shareholders. The report concludes with
several appendices, including at A p p e n d i x 2 notes on the
roles of some of the bodies referred to in the report.

,,,,,.I

Companies to whom directed

3.1

The Code of
to the boards
in the UK,
companies as

Best Practice (on pages 58 to 60) is directed

of directors of all listed companies registered
but we would encourage as many other
possible to aim at meeting its requirements.

Code Principles
3.2

The principles on which the Code is based are those of

openness, integrity and accountability. They go together.
Openness on the part of companies, within the limits set by
their competitive position, is the basis for the confidence
which needs to exist between business and all those who
have a stake in its success. An open approach to the
disclosure of information contributes to the efficient
working of the market economy, prompis boards to take
effective action and allows shareholders and others to
scrutinise companies more thoroughly.

3.3

Integrity means both straightforward dealing and

compteteness. What is required of financial reporting is
t h a t i t s h o u l d b e h o n e s t a n d th~at i t s h o u l d p r e s e n t a
balanced picture of the state of the companys affairs. The
integrity of reports depends on the integrity of those who
prepare and present them.

3.4

Boards of directors are accountable to their shareholders

and both have to play their part in making that
accountability effective. Boards of directors need to do so
through the quality of the information which they provide
to shareholders, and shareholders through the.ir willingness
to exercise their responsibilities as owners.

3.5

The arguments for adhering to the Code are twofold. First,

a clear understanding of responsibilities and an open
approach to the way in which they have been discharged
will assist boards of directors in framing and winning
support for their strategies. It will also assist the efficient
operation of capital markets and increase confidence in
boards, auditors and financial reporting and hence the
general level of confidence in business.

3.6

Second, if standards of financial reporting and of business

conduct more generally are not seen to be raised, a greater
reliance on regulation may be inevitable. Any further

THE CODE OF BEST PRACTICE

degree of regulation would, in any event, be more likely to

be well directed, if it were to enforce what has already
been shown to be workable and effective by those setting
the standard.
Statement of Compliance
3.7

We r e c o m m e n d that listed companies reporting in respect

o f y e a r s e n d i n g a f t e r 3 0 J u n e 1993 should state in the
report and accounts whether they comply with the Code and
identify and give reasons for any areas of non-compliance.
The London Stock Exchange intends to require such a
statement as one of its continuing listing obligations.

3.8

We envisage, however, that many companies will wish to

go beyond the strict terms of the London Stock Exchange
rule and make a general statement about the corporate
governance of their enterprises as some leading companies
have already done. We welcome such statements and leave
it to boards to decide the terms in which they make their
statement of compliance. Boards are not expected to
comment separately on each item of the Code witti which
they are complying, but areas of non-compliance will have
to be dealt with individually.

3.9

The continuing obligations laid down by the London Stock

Exchange should require companies statements of
compliance to have been the subject of review by the
auditors before publication. The review should cover only
those parts of the compliance statement which relate to
provisions of the Code where compliance can be
objectively verified (see footnote to the Code). The
auditors should not be required to report formally a
satisfactory conclusion to their review, but if they identify
an area of non-compliance which is not properly disclosed,
they should draw attention to it in their report on the
financial statements. We r e c o m m e n d that the Auditing
Practices Board should consider guidance for auditors
accordingly

THE CODE OF BEST PRACTICE

3.10

The Code is to be followed by individuals and companies in

the light of their own particular circumstances. They arc
responsible for ensuring that their actions meet the spirit of
the Code and in interpreting it they should give precedence
to substance over form.

Keeping the Code up to date

3.11

We have addressed those issues which appeared from the

evidence before us to require the most immediate attention.
The situation, however, is developing. The Accounting
Standards Board has in hand a programme of work on the
basis cf financial reporting. Revised accounting standards
and improved methods of financial presentation will result.
At the same time, views on best boardroom practice will
evolve in the light of experience, and European Community
directives and regulations may give rise to new issues. It is
e s s e n t i a l , t h e r e f o r e , that the Code, in addition to being
monitored, is kept up to date.

3.12 We recommend that our sponsors, convened by the

Financial Reporting Council, should appoint a new
Committee by the end of June 1995 to examine how far
compliance with the Code has progressed, how far our
other recommendations have been implemented, and
whether the Code needs updating in line with emerging
issues. Our sponsors should also determine whether the
sponsorship of the new Committee should be broadened and
whether wider matters of corporate governance should be
i n c l u d e d i n i t s b r i e f . In t h e m e a n t i m e , t h e p r e s e n t
Committee will remain responsible for reviewing the
implementation of its proposals and for identifying further
issues which its successor body might usefully consider.
T h e s e s t e p s w i l l e s t a b l i s h a c o n t i n u i n g p r o c e s s .of
governance review.
Compliance
3.13

Raising standards of corporate governance cannot be

achieved by structures and rules alone. They are important
because they provide a framework which will encourage
and support good governance, but what counts is the way in
which they are put to use.

3.14

The responsibility for putting the Code into practice lies

directly with the boards of directors of listed companies to

THE CODE OF BEST PRACTICE

whom it is addressed. Compliance itself, however, is a

matter for everyone concerned with corporate governance.
We look to the financial institutions and the wide range of
bodies backing our work to encourage the adoption of our
recommendations by companies in which they have an
interest. The media also have a part to play in drawing
attention to governance issues of public or shareholder
concern. It is vital to seize the opportunity presented by a
climate of opinion which accepts that changes are needed
and which is expecting the Committee to give the necessary
lead.
3.15

The Committee recognises that smaller listed companies

may initially have difficulty in complying with some
aspects o f t h e C o d e a n d w e h a v e g i v e n c a r e f u l
consideration to the responses to the draft report which
addressed this point. The boards of smatter listed
companies who cannot, for the time being, comply with
parts of the Code should note that they may instead give
t h e i r r e a s o n s ftir n o n - c o m p l i a n c e . W e b e l i e v e , h o w e v e r ,
t h a t full c o m p l i a n c e w i l l b r i n g b e n e f i t s t o t h e b o a r d s o f
such companies and it should be their objective to ensure
that the benefits are achieved. In particular, the
appointment of appropriate non-executive directors should
make a positive contribution to the development of their
businesses. Any practical issues which may arise in respect
of smatter listed companies wilt be thoroughly reviewed by
the Committee and its successor.

3.16 The Committee notes that companies will not be able to

comply with items 4.5 and 4.6 in the Code until the
necessary guidance for companies has been developed.

Board Effectiveness
4.1

Every public company should be headed by an effective

board which can both lead and control the business. Within
the context of the UK unitary board system, this means a
board made up of a combination of executive directors,
with their intimate knowledge of the business, and of
outside, non-executive directors, who can bring a broader
view to the companys activities, under a chairman who
accepts the duties and responsibilities which the post
entails.

4.2

Tests of board effectiveness include the way in which the

member,s of the board as a whole work together under the
c h a i r m a n , w h o s e r o l e i n c o r p o r a t e g o v e r n a n c e is
fundamental, and their collective ability to provide both
the leadership and the checks and balances which effective
governance demands. Shareholders are responsible for
electing board members and it is in their interests to see
that the boards of their companies are properly constituted
and not dominated by any one individual.

4.3

All directors are equally responsible in law for the boards

actions and decisions. Certain directors may have
particular responsibilities, as executive or non-executive
directors, for which they are accountable to the board.
Regardless of specific duties undertaken by individual
directors, however, it is for the board collectively to ensure
that it is meeting its obligations.

4.4

Whilst it is the board as a whole which is the final

authority, executive and non-executive directors are likely
to contribute in different ways to its work. Non-executive
directors have two particularly important contributions to
make to the governance process as a consequence of their
independence from executive responsibility. Neither is in
conflict with the unitary nature of the board.

4.5

The first is in reviewing the performance of the board and

of the executive. Non-executive directors should address
this aspect of their responsibilities carefully and should
ensure that the chairman is aware of their views. If the
chairman is also the chief executive, board members should
look to a senior non-executive director, who might be the
deputy chairman, as the person to whom they should
address any concerns about the combined office of
chairman/chief executive and its consequences for the

effectiveness of the board. A number of companies have

recognised that role and some have done so formally in
their Articles.
4.6

The second is in taking the lead where potential conflicts

of interest arise. An important aspect of effective corporate
governance is the recognition that the specific interests of
the executive management and the wider interests of the
company may at times diverge, for example over takeovers,
boardroom succession, or directors pay. Independent nonexecutive directors, whose interests are less directly
affected, are well-placed to help to resolve such situations.

The Chairman
4.7

The chairmans role in securing good corporate governance

is crucial. Chairmen are primarily responsible for the
working of the board, for its balance of membership subject
to board and shareholders approval, for ensuring that all
relevant issues are on the agenda, and for ensuring that all
directors, executive and non-executive alike, are enabled
and encouraged to play their full part in its activities.
Chairmen should be able to stand sufficiently back from the
day-to-day running of the business to ensure that their
boards are in full control of the companys affairs and alert
to their obligations to their shareholders.

4.8

It is for chairmen to make certain that their non-executive

directors receive timely, relevant information tailored to
their needs, that they are properly briefed on the issues
arising at board meetings, and that they make an effective
contribution as board members in practice. It is equally for
chairmen to ensure that executive directors look beyond
their executive duties and accept their full share of the
responsibilities of governance.

4.9

Given the importance and particular nature of the

chairmans role, it should in principle be separate from that
of the chief executive. If the two roles are combined in one
person, it represents a considerable concentration of power.
We recommend, therefore, that there should be a clearly
accepted division of responsibilities at the head of a
c o m p a n y , which will ensure a balance of power and
authority, such that no one individual has unfettered
powers of decision. Where the chairman is also the chief

THE BOARD

executive, it is essential that there should be a strong and

independent element on the board.

Non-Executive Directors
4.10 The Committee believes that the calibre of the nonexecutive members of the board is of special importance in
setting and maintaining standards of corporate governance.
The emphasis in this report on the control function of nonexecutive directors is a consequence of our remit and
should not in any way detract from the primary and
positive contribution which they are expected to make, as
equal board members, to the leadership of the company.
4.11

Non-executive directors should bring an independent

judgement to bear on issues of strategy, performance,
resources, including key appointments, and standards of
conduct. We recommend that the calibre and number of
non-executive directors on a board should be such that
their views will carry significant weight in the boards
decisions. To meet our recommendations on the
composition of sub-committees of the board, all boards will
require a minimum of three non-executive directors, one of
whom may be the chairman of the company provided he or
she is not also its executive head. Additionally, two of the
three should be independent in the terms set out in the next
paragraph.

4.12 An essential quality which non-executive directors should

bring to the boards deliberations is that of independence
of judgement. We recommend that the majority of none x e c u t i v e s o n a b o a r d s h o u l d b e independent o f t h e
company. This means that apart from their directors fees
and shareholdings, they should be independent. of
management and free from any business or other
relationship which could materially interfere with the
exercise of their independent judgement. It is for the board
to decide in particular cases whether this definition is met.
Information about the relevant interests of directors should
be disclosed in the Directors Report.

4.13 On fees, there is a balance to be struck between

recognising the value of the contribution made by nonexecutive directors and not undermining their
independence. The demands which are now being made on
conscientious non-executive directors are significant and

THE BOARD

their fees should reflect the time which they devote to the
companys affairs. There is, therefore, a case for paying for
additional responsibilities taken on, for example, by
chairmen of board committees. In order to safeguard their
independent position, we regard it as good practice for
non-executive directors not to participate in share option
schemes and for their service as non-executive directors
not to be pensionable by the company.
4.14

Non-executive directors lack the inside knowledge of the

company of the executive directors, but have the same right
of access to information as they do. Their effectiveness
turns to a considerable extent on the quality of the
information which they receive and on the use which they
make of it. Boards should regularly review the form and the
extent of the information which is provided to all directors.

4.15

Given the importance of their distinctive contribution, nonexecutive directors should be selected with the same
impartiality and care as senior executives. We recommend
that their appointment should be a matter for the board as a
whole and that there should be a formal selection process,
which will reinforce the independence of non-executive
directors and make it evident that they have been appointed
on merit and not through any form of patronage. We regard
it as good practice for a nomination committee (dealt with
below) to carry out the selection process and to make
proposals to the board.

4.16

Companies have to be able to bring about changes in the

composition of their boards to maintain their vitality. Nonexecutive directors may lose something of their
independent edge, if they remain on a board too long.
F u r t h e r m o r e , the make-up of a board needs to change in
line with new challenges. We recommend, therefore, that
non-executive directors should be appointed for specified
terms. Their Letter of Appointment should set out their
duties, term of office, remuneration and its review.
Reappointment should not be automatic, but a conscious
decision by the board and the director concerned.

4.17

O u r e m p h a s i s o n t h e q u a l i t i e s t o b e l o o k e d fo.r i n n o n executive directors, combined with the greater demands

now being made on them, raises the question of whether the
supply of non-executive directors will be adequate to meet
the demand. When companies encourage their executive
d i r e c t o r s t o a c c e p t a p p o i n t m e n t s o n t h e h o a r d s o f 0th;~

THE BOARD

companies, the companies and the individuals concerned all

gain. A policy of promoting this kind of appointment will
increase the pool of potential non-executive directors,
particularly if the divisional directors of larger companies
are considered for non-executive posts, as well as their
main board colleagues.
Professional Advice
4.18 Occasions may arise when directors have to seek legal or
financial advice in the furtherance of their duties. They
should always be able to consult the companys advisers.
If, however, they consider it necessary to take independent
professional advice, we r e c o m m e n d that they should be
entitled to do so at the companys expense, through an
agreed procedure laid down formally, for example in a
B o a r d Resolutiot;, in the Articles, or in the Letter of
Appointment.
Directors Training
4.19

The weight of responsibility carried by all directors and the

increasing commitment which their duties require
emphasise the importance of the way in which they prepare
themselves for their posts. Given the varying backgrounds,
qualifications and experience of directors, it is highly
desirable that they should all undertake some form of
internal or external training; this is particularly important
for directors, whether executive or non-executive, with no
previous board experience. Newly-appointed board
members are also entitled to expect a prope,r process of
i n d u c t i o n i n t o t h e c o m p a n y s a f f a i r s . I t is' then u p t o
individual directors to keep abreast of their legislative and
broader responsibilities.

4.20

There are already courses for newly-appointed directors run

by the Institute of Directors and business schools. With the
support of the Bank of England, the Confederation of
British Industry, the Institute of Directors, and PRO NED,
a new c o u r s e c o v e r i n g t h e f u l l r a n g e o f b o a r d
responsibilities will be open to directors shortly. The
training and development of directors is of importance to
good governance and it is one of the issues which we
suggest our successor body should keep under review.

THE BOARD

Board Structures and Procedures

4.21

The effectiveness of a board is buttressed by

and procedures. One aspect of structure is the
of committees of the board, such as the audit,
and nomination committees, referred to later in

4.22

Another is that boards should recognise the importance of

the finance function by making it the designated
responsibility of a main board director, who should be a
signatory to the accounts on behalf of the board, and
should have the right of access to the Audit Committee.

its structure
appointment
remuneration
the report.

4.23 The basic procedural requirements are that the board

should meet regularly, with due notice of the issues to be
discussed supported by the necessary paperwork, and
should record its conclusions. We recommend that boards
should have a formal schedule of matters specifically
reserved to them for their collective decision, to ensure
that the direction and control of the company remains
f i r m l y i n t h e i r h a n d s a n d a s a- s a f e g u a r d a g a i n s t
misjudgements and possible illegal practices. A schedule of
these matters should be given to directors on appointment
and should be kept up to date.
4.24

We envisage that such a schedule would at least include:

(a) acquisition and disposal of assets of the company or
its subsidiaries that are material to the company;
(b) investments, capital projects, authority levels, treasury
policies, and risk management policies.
Boards should lay down rules to determine material,ity for
any transaction, and should establish clearly which
transactions require multiple board signatures. Boards
should also agree the procedures to be followed when,
exceptionally, decisions are required between board
meetings.

The Company Secretary

4.25

The company secretary has a key role to play in ensuring

that board procedures are both followed and regularly
reviewed. The chairman and the board will l o o k t o t h e
f o r g u i d a n c e o n what their
secretary
company
responsibilities are under the rules and regulations to
which they are subject and on how those responsibilities

THE BOARD

should be discharged. All directors should have access to

the advice and services of the company secretary and
should recognise that the chairman is entitled to the strong
and positive support of the company secretary in ensuring
the effective functioning of the board. It should be
standard practice for the company secretary to administer,
attend and prepare minutes of board proceedings.
4.26

Under the Companies Act the directors have a duty to

appoint as secretary someone who is capable of carrying
out the duties which the post entails. The responsibility for
ensuring that the secretary remains capable, and any
question of the secretarys removal, should be a matter for
the board as a whole.

4.27

The Committee expects that the company secretary will be

a source of advice to the chairman and to the board on the
implementation of the Code of Best Practice.

Directors Responsibilities
4 . 2 8 S o t h a t shareholders a r e c l e a r w h e r e t h e b o u n d a r i e s
between the duties of directors and auditors lie, we
recommend that a brief statement of directors
responsibilities for the accounts should appear in the report
and accounts, as a counterpart to a statement by the
auditors about their reporting responsibilities. The ground
which would need to be covered by the directors statement
is set out in A p p e n d i x 3. The appropriate position for the
d i r e c t o r s statement is immediately before the auditors
report, which in future will include a statement of auditors
responsibilities. The two statements will thus. c o m p l e m e n t
each other.
Standards of Conduct
4.29

It i s i m p o r t a n t t h a t a l l e m p l o y e e s s h o u l d k n o w w h a t
standards of conduct are expected of them. We regard it as
good practice for boards of directors to draw up codes of
ethics or statements of business practice and to publish
them both internally and externally.

THE BOARD

Nomination Committees
4.30

One approach to making board appointments. which makes

clear how these appointments are made and assists boards
in making them, is through the setting up of a nomination
committee, with the responsibility of proposing to the
board, in the first instance, any new appointments, whether
of executive or of non-executive directors. A nomination
committee should have a majority of non-executive
directors on it and be chaired either by the chairman or a
non-executive director.

internal Controls
4.31

Directors are responsible under s.221 of the Companies Act

1985 for maintaining adequate accounting records. To meet
these responsibilities directors need in practice to maintain
a system of internal control over the financial management
of the company, including procedures designed to minimise
the risk of fraud. There is, therefore, already an implicit
requirement on directors to ensure that a proper system of
internal control is in place.

4.32

Since an effective internal control system is a key aspect of

the efficient management of a company, we r e c o m m e n d
that the directors should make a statement in the report and
accounts on the effectiveness of their system of internal
c o n t r o l a n d t h a t t h e a u d i t o r s shoul~d r e p o r t t h e r e o n . T h e
criteria for assessing effectiveness and the detailed
guidance for auditors will need to be established and our
recommendation to this effect is in paragraph 5.16.

Audit Committees
4.33

Since 1978, the New York Stock Exchange has required all
listed companies to have audit committees composed solely
o f i n d e p e n d e n t d i r e c t o r s a n d t h e 1987 r e p o r t o f t h e
A m e r i c a n Treadway C o m m i s s i o n c o n c l u d e d t h a t a u d i t
committees had a critical role to play in ensuring the
integrity of US company financial reports. While
experience of audit committees in this country is shorter, it
is encouraging, and around two-thirds of the top 250 UK
listed companies now have them in place.

4.34

Experience in the United States has shown that, even where

audit committees might have been set up mainly to meet

THE BOARD

listing requirements, they have proved their worth and

developed into essential committees of the board.
S i m i l a r l y , recently published research in the United
Kingdom concludes that the majority of companies with
audit committees are enthusiastic about their value to their
businesses. They offer added assurance to the shareholders
that the auditors, who act on their behalf, are in a position
to safeguard their interests.
4.35

The Committee therefore recommends that all listed

companies should establish an audit committee. Our further
recommendations on audit committees are as follows:
(a) Audit committees should be formally constituted to
ensure that they have a clear relationship with the
boards to whom they are answerable and to whom they
shnuld r e p o r t r e g u l a r l y . T h e y shou_fd b e g i v e n w r i t t e n
terms of reference which deal adequately with their
membership, authority and duties, and they should
normally meet at least twice a year.
(b) .There s h o u l d b e a m i n i m u m o f t h r e e m e m b e r s .
Membership should be confined to the non-executive
directors of the company and a majority of the nonexecutives serving on the committee should be
i n d e p e n d e n t , as defined in paragraph 4.12 above.
Membership of the committee should be disclosed in
the annual report.

(cl

The external auditor should normally attend audit

committee meetings, as should the finance director. As
the board as a whole is responsible for the financial
statements, other board members should also have the
right to attend. The committee should have a
discussion with the external auditors, at least once a
y e a r , w i t h o u t e x e c u t i v e b o a r d m e m b e r s p r e s e n t , .to
ensure that there are no unresolved issues of concern.

(d) The audit committee should have explicit authority to

investigate any matters within its terms of reference,
the resources which it needs to do so, and full access
to information. The committee should be able to obtain
external professional advice and to invite outsiders
with relevant experience to attend if necessary.
(e) The audit committees duties should be determined in
the light of the companys needs but should normally
include:
(i)

making recommendations to the board on the

THE BOARD

4.37 The Committee therefore regards the appointment of

properly constituted audit committees as an important step
in raising standards of corporate governance. Their
effectiveness depends on their having a strong chairman
who has the confidence of the board and of the auditors,
and on the quality of the non-executive directors.
Membership of an audit committee is a demanding task
requiring commitment, training and skill. The directors
concerned need to have sufficient understanding of the
issues to be dealt with by the committee to take an active
part in its proceedings. This is why committees should, if it
is appropriate and within their authority, be able to invite
outsiders with relevant experience to attend meetings.
4.38 The external auditors should be present at the board
meeting when the annual report and accounts are approved
and preferably when the half-yearly report is considered as
well.
Internal Audit
4.39

The function of the internal auditors is complementary to,

but different from, that of the outside auditors. We regard
it as good practice for companies to establish internal audit
functions to undertake regular monitoring of key controls
and procedures. Such regular monitoring is an integral part
of a companys system of internal control and helps to
ensure its effectiveness. An internal audit function is well
placed to undertake investigations on behalf of the audit
committee and to follow up any suspicion of fraud. It is
essential that heads of internal audit should have
unrestricted access to the chairman of the audit committee
in order to ensure the independence of their position.

THE BOARD

Board Remuneration
4.40

The overriding principle in respect of board remuneration

is that of openness. Shareholders are entitled to a full and
clear statement of directors present and future benefits,
and of how they have been determined. W e r e c o m m e n d
that in disclosing directors total emoluments and those of
the chairman and highest-paid UK director, separate figures
should be given for their salary and performance-related
elements and that the criteria on which performance is
measured should be explained. Relevant information about
stock options, stock appreciation rights, and pension
contributions should also be given.

4.41

In addition, we r e c o m m e n d that future service contracts

should not exceed three years without shareholders
approval and that the Companies Act should be amended in
line with this recommendation. This would strengthen
shareholder control over levels of compensation for loss of
office.

4.42 We also recommend that boards should appoint

remuneration committees, consisting wholly or mainly of
non-executive directors and chaired by a non-executive
director, to recommend to the board the remuneration of
the executive directors in all its forms, drawing on outside
advice as necessary. Executive directors should play no
part in decisions on their own remuneration. Membership
of the remuneration committee should appear in the
Directors Report. Best practice in this field is set out in
PRO NEDs Remuneration Committee guidelines, published
in 1992.
4.43 The Committee has received proposals for giving
shareholders the opportunity to determine matters such as
directors pay at general meetings, but does not see how
these suggestions could be made workable. A directors
remuneration is not a matter which can be sensibly reduced
to a vote for or against; were the vote to go against a
particular remuneration package, the board would still have
to determine the remuneration of the director concerned. In
addition, there are such practical considerations as the need
to agree directors remuneration on appointment.

THE BOARD

4.44 Shareholders require that the remuneration of directors

should be both fair and competitive. Striking this balance
involves detailed consideration of the kind which a
remuneration committee, whose members have no personal
interest in the outcome, can give to the matter.
Remuneration committees need to have the interests of the
company and the shareholders always in mind in coming to
their decisions and the chairman of the committee should
be available to respond to any concerns of shareholders at
the Annual General Meeting.
4.45 The Annual General Meeting provides the opportunity for
shareholders to make their views on such matters as
directors benefits known to their boards. It is the
Committees view that shareholders can play a more
,oractical g o v e r n a n c e r o l e b y a i m i n g t o i n f l u e n c e b o a r d
policies in this way, than by seeking to make the detail of
board decisions subject to their vote.
4.46

Further changes to the rules for disclosure, such as

lengthening the list of directors whose remuneration is
individually identified, and the role which shareholders
could play, either in voting on particular aspects of
remuneration or in tabling advisory resolutions along lines
now developing in the USA, will need to be reviewed in the
light of experience. Directors contracts and pay are
aspects of board accountability which the Committee will
continue to monitor in the expectation that they will be on
the agenda of our successor body.

Financial Reports
4.47

A basic weakness in the current system of financial

reporting is the possibility of different accounting
t r e a t m e n t s b e i n g a p p l i e d to,essentially the same facts, with
the consequence that different results or financial positions
could be reported, each apparently complying with the
overriding requirement to show a true and fair view.
Regardless o f h o w f a r t h e m a r k e t c a n u n d e r s t a n d t h e
i m p l i c a t i o n s o f a l t e r n a t i v e accounting treatments or see
through presentational techniques designed to show a
companys figures in the most flattering light, there are
a d v a n t a g e s t o i n v e s t o r s , analysts, other accounts users and
ultimately to the company itself in financial reporting rules
which limit the scope for uncertainty and manipulation.

THE BOARD

4.48

The lifeblood of markets is information and barriers to the

flow of relevant information represent imperfections in the
market. The need to sift and correct the information put out
by companies adds cost and uncertainty to the markets
pricing function. The more the activities of companies are
transparent, the more accurately will their securities be
valued.

4.49

In addition, the wider the scope for alternative treatments,

the less useful financial reports become in terms of
comparability - over time and between companies.

4.50

What shareholders (and others) need from the report and

accounts is a coherent narrative, supported by the figures,
of the companys performance and prospects. We
r e c o m m e n d that boards should pay particular attention to
their duty to present a balance,: and understandable
assessment of their companys position. Balance requires
that setbacks should be dealt with as well as successes,
while the need for the report to be readily understood
emphasises that words are as important as figures.

4.51

The cardinal principle of financial reporting is that the

view presented should be true and fair. Further principles
are that boards should aim for the highest level of
d i s c l o s u r e c o n s o n a n t w i t h prese,nti~ng reports which are
understandable and with avoiding damage to their
competitive position. They should also aim to ensure the
integrity and consistency of their reports and they should
meet the spirit as well as the letter of reporting standards.

4.52

The Committee wholeheartedly endorses the objectives of

the Financial Reporting Council and the Accounting
Standards Board in setting reporting standards. It also
welcomes the action being taken by the Financial Reporting
Review Panel over companies who.se accounts fall below
accepted reporting standards.

4.53

The Committee recognises the advantage to users of reports

and accounts of some explanation of the factors likely to
influence their companys future progress. The inclusion 01
an essentially forward-looking Operating and Financial
Review, along the lines developed by the Accounting
Standards Board for consultation, would serve this purpose.

THE BOARD

Reporting Practice
4.54

Listed companies publish full financial statements annually

and half-yearly reports in the interim. In between these
major announcements, b o a r d s m a y n e e d t o k e e p
shareholders and the market in touch with their companys
progress. The guiding principle once again is openness and
boards should aim for any intervening statements to be
widely circulated, in fairness to individual shareholders
and to minimise the possibility of insider trading.

4.55

If companies reported quarterly, the need for more informal

methods of keeping investors informed would be
diminished. Quarterly reporting would, however, involve
additional costs for companies and ultimately for their
shareholders and has not been recommended to us by
s h a r e h o l d e r b o d i e s , 4.ho a c c e p t t h e p r e s e n t p a t t e r n o f
reporting by boards.

4.56

We consider that interim reports should be expanded in

order to increase their value to users. We recommend that:

(a) balance sheet information should be included with the

interim report. There should not be a requirement for a
full audit, but the interim report should be reviewed by
the auditors, who should discuss their findings with
the audit committee;

(b) the continuing obligations laid down by the London

Stock Exchange on UK companies admitted to listing
should be amended to that effect and the Auditing
Practices Board should develop appropriate review
guidance;
.

(c)

the Accounting Standards Board in conjunction with

the London Stock Exchange should clarify. the
accounting principles which companies should follow
in preparing interim reports;

Cd) a requirement for inclusion of cash flow information in

interim reports should be considered by our successor
body.
4.57

Research has shown that the most widely read

company reports is the opening statement, normally
chairman. It is therefore of special importance
should provide a balanced and readable summary
companys performance and prospects and that it
represent the collective view of the board.

part of
by the
that it
of the
should

THE BOARD

4.58 The demand for an ever-increasing amount of detail in

reports and accounts has to be weighed against the need for
them to be understandable by the reasonably informed
shareholder. Simplified forms of report, including the
shortened version of the accounts, allow boards to address
shareholders who would prefer such a statement, but make
the need for the assessment to be balanced even more
exacting.
4.59 Although a companys published reports and its Annual
General Meeting are its primary channels of communication
with shareholders, companies and their major shareholders
may need to be in touch more frequently. The Institutional
Shareholders Committees Statement on the Responsibilities of Institutional Shareholders gives practical
guidance on how shareholders can best exercise their
responsibilities as owners in this regard. We fully endorse
their recommendation that there should be regular contact
between companies and their major institutional
shareholders at senior level and that such matters as board
strategy and structure should be kept under review.
Pensions Governance
4.60 There are governance issues relating to company pension
funds, highlighted by the Maxwell affair, but they fall
within the remit of the Pension Law Review Committee
under the chairmanship of Professor Goode, which is
currently reviewing the framework of pension fund
legislation and regulation. In the light of this, the
Committee decided that it would be inappropriate for it to
deal specifically with pension fund governance issues.

Importance of Audit
5.1

The annual audit is one of the cornerstones of corporate

governance. Given the separation of ownership from
management, the directors are required to report on their
stewardship by means of the annual report and financial
statements sent to the shareholders. The audit provides an
e x t e r n a l a n d o b j e c t i v e c h e c k on the way in which the
financial statements have been prepared and presented, and
it is an essential part of the checks and balances required.
The question is not whether there should be an audit, but
how to ensure its objectivity and effectiveness.

5.2

Audits are a reassurance to all who have a financial

interest in companies, quite apart from their value to
boards of directors. The most direct method of ensuring
that companies are accountable for their actions is through
open disclosure by boards and through audits carried out
against strict accounting standards.

5.3

The framework in which auditors operate, however, is not

well designed in certain respects to provide the objectivity
which shareholders and the public expect of auditors in
carrying out their function. The main reasons are as
follows:

(a) Accounting standards and practice sometimes allow

boards too much scope for presenting facts and the
figures derived from them in a variety of ways.
Auditors cannot stand firm against a particular
accounting treatment if it is permitted within the
standards.
.

(b) A l t h o u g h t h e s h a r e h o l d e r s f o r m a l l y a p p o i n t t h e
auditors, and the audit is carried out in their interests,
the shareholders have no effective say in the audit
negotiation and have no direct link with the auditors.
Indeed the Committee can see no practicable way of
establishing one. Auditors do, however, have to work
closely with those in management who have prepared
the financial statements which they are auditing in
order to carry out their task, and audit firms, like any
other business, will wish to have a constructive
relationship with their clients.

AUDITING

(cl Audit firms are in competition with each other for

business. They wish to maximise their business with
companies, of which auditing may only be a part. To
the extent that they compete on the basis of their
professional reputation, this will act as an incentive to
maintain high standards. So will the ethical guidance
of the profession, and the threat of litigation. To the
extent however that audit firms compete on price and
on meeting the needs of their clients (the companies
they audit), this may be at the expense of meeting the
needs of the shareholders.

Cd) Companies too are subject to competitive pressures.

They will wish to minimise their audit costs and they
are likely to have a clear view as to the figures they
wish to see published, in order to meet the
expectations of th-eir shareholders.
5.4

A further problem is the lack of understanding of the

nature and extent of the audi:ors role. This is the so-called
expectations gap - the difference between what audits do
a c h i e v e , and what it is thought they achieve, or should
achieve. The expectations gap is damaging not only
because it reflects unrealistic expectations of audits but
also because it has led to disenchantment with their value
in the wake of the Capar-o judgment (paragraphs 5.31 to
5.35 below).

5.5

Steps have already been taken, within the last three years,
to strengthen the audit system through the establishment of
a new regulatory framework. The Financial Reporting
Council and its associated bodies - the Accounting
Standards Board, the Urgent Issues Task Force, and the
Financial Reporting Review Panel - have been set up to
improve and tighten accounting standards, to deal with
problem areas as they emerge, and to examine departures
by individual companies from the statutory requirements
and accounting standards. The new statutory regime for
regulating auditors requires all auditors to satisfy a
supervisory body as to their competence, experience and
training, and to be subject to regular monitoring. The
arrangements for setting auditing standards have also been
reformed with the establishment of the Auditing Practices
Board.

AUDITING

5.6

The new system has only recently been established and its
full impact has yet to be felt. In the following paragraphs
we endorse the steps that are being taken and recommend
additional action to strengthen public confidence in the
audit approach.

Professional objectivity
5.7

The central issue is to ensure that an appropriate

relationship exists between the auditors and the
management whose financial statements they are auditing.
Shareholders require auditors to work with and not against
management, while always remaining professionally
o b j e c t i v e - that is to say, applying their professional skills
impartially and retaining a critical detachment and a
consciousness of their accountability to those who formally
appoint them. Maintaining such a professional and
objective relationship is the responsibility both of boards
of directors and of auditors, as is that of taking appropriate
action if the basis for that relationship no longer holds.

5.8

An essential first step must be the development of more

effective accounting standards. Accounting standards
provide important reference points against which auditors
exercise their professional judgement. Their position is
strengthened if standards do not allow alternative
accounting treatments. The work of the Accounting
Standards Board is well in hand and has our full support.

5.9

A second step should be the formation by every listed

company of an audit committee which gives, the auditors
direct access to the non-executive members of the board.
Shareholders look to the audit committee to ensure that the
relationship between the auditors and management remains
objective and that the auditors are able to put their views
in the event of any difference of opinion with management.

Quarantining audit from other services

5.10

Among the propositions made to the Committee to

strengthen the objective relationship between auditors and
management, one was that audit firms should not provide
other types of service to their audit clients. The argument
runs that such a prohibition would remove any pressure on
the auditors to give way to management on audit matters in
order not to jeopardise their other business services; and

AUDITING

that it would remove any incentive for auditors to take on

audits at rates which could risk corner-cutting in the hope
of obtaining more remunerative non-audit work.
5.11

Such a prohibition would limit the freedom of companies to

choose their sources of advice and could increase their
costs. The Committee was not persuaded that any potential
gains in objectivity would outweigh these disadvantages. It
does, however, strongly support full disclosure of fees paid
to audit firms for non-audit work. The essential principle is
that disclosure must enable the relative significance of the
companys audit and non-audit fees to the audit firm to be
assessed, both in a UK context and, where appropriate, a
w o r l d w i d e c o n t e x t . W e r e c o m m e n d t h a t t h e 1991
Regulations under the Companies Act on the disclosure of
remuneration for non-audit work should be reviewed and
amended as necessary in order to apply this principle. We
also regard it as good practice for audit committees to keep
under review the non-audit fees paid to the auditor both in
relation to their significance to the auditor and in relation
to the companys total expenditure on consultancy.

Rotation of auditors
5.12

Another proposal was that some form of compulsory

rotation of audit firms should be introduced, to prevent
relationships between management and auditors becoming
too comfortable. The Committee felt that any advantages
which this could bring would be more than outweighed by
the loss of the trust and experience which are built up when
the relationships are sound, and by the risk to audit
effectiveness at the changeover. The Committee agreed,
however, that in the case of listed companies a periodic
change of audit partners should be arranged to bring a fresh
approach to the audit. We recommended in our draft report
that the accountancy profession should draw up appropriate
guidelines and we support the steps which it is now taking
to do so. We would expect the guidelines to allow a
measure of flexibility over timing to take account of the
incidence of other changes in senior personnel, both in the
audit team and in the client company, which have helped to
keep a distinction in relationships between client and
auditor.

AUDITING

Ways to increase effectiveness and value of the audit

The Expectations Gap
5.13

An essential first step is to be clear about the respective

responsibilities of directors and auditors for preparing and
reporting on the financial statements of companies, in order
to begin to narrow the expectations gap.

5.14

The auditors role is to report whether the financial

statements give a true and fair view, and the audit is
designed to provide a reasonable assurance that the
financial statements are free of material misstatements. The
a u d i t o r s role is not (to cite a few of the misunderstandings) to prepare the financial statements, nor to
provide absolute assurance that the figures in the financial
statements are correct, nor to provide a guarantee that the
company will continue in existence. The Auditing
Practices Board is at present developing proposals for an
expanded report which would describe the key features of
the audit process. The Committee supports this initiative.
Auditors reports should state clearly the auditors
responsibilities for reporting on the financial statements, as
a counterpart to a statement of directors responsibilities
for preparing the financial statements (see paragraph 4.28
above).

5.15

The Committee strongly supports the lead which the

Auditing Practices Board is taking on the development of
auditing practice generally. We believe that there should be
an extension of the audit which will add to its value to all
users of accounts and bring it closer into line with public
expectations. We discuss below some of the proposals
currently under consideration and have set out background
infol-mation on the current r,ules at Apper~clis 5. W i d e n i n g
the scope of the audit is likely to require boards to widen
the scope of their reports, since auditors can normally only
audit matters on which the directors have themselves
reported.

AUDITING

Internal Control
5.16

The Committee is convinced that an effective internal

control system is an essential part of the efficient
management of a company. We have already recommended
that directors should report on the effectiveness of their
system of internal control, and that the auditors should
report on their statement. A great deal of detailed work is
now necessary to develop these proposals, and we
t I1 a t
the accountancy profession, in
recommend
conjunction with representatives of preparers of accounts,
should take the lead in:
(a) developing a set of criteria for assessing effectiveness;
(b) developing guidance for companies on the form in
which directors should report; and
(c) developing guidance for auditors on relevant audit
procedures and the form in which auditors should
report.

5.17 W e r e c o m m e n d t h a t t h e q u e s t i o n o f l e g i s l a t i o n t o b a c k
t h e s e d e v e l o p m e n t s s h o u l d b e d e c ided i n t h e l i g h t o f
experience.

Going Concern
5.16 U n d e r c o m p a n y l a w , a c c o u n t s a r e p r e p a r e d o n t h e
assumption that the company is a going concern. There is,
however, no explicit requirement for directors to satisfy
themselves that it is reasonable to make this assumption,
for example by the preparat-ion of an adequate cash flow
forecast. There is also scope for amending auditing
guidelines to require the auditor to take a more active role
in testing going concern assumptions.
5.19

In view of the understandable public criticism of the audit

process when companies collapse without apparent
w a r n i n g , there are strong arguments for amending company
law to place an explicit requirement on directors to satisfy
themselves that the going concern basis is appropriate, and
to report accordingly to shareholders. There is also a
strong case for extending the scope of the audit, to test
going concern assumptions more specifically, and for
requiring the auditors to give an opinion on the directors
report. Many proposals have been made to the Committee
along these lines.

AUDITING

b e l i e v e s t h a t g o i n g c o n c e r n p r o b l e m s are
more likely to be addressed successfully if they are
identified early. There are, however, two grounds for
concern:

5.20 The Committee

(a) There must be a risk that any qualification about the

companys financial viability, however it is expressed,
will precipitate the companys collapse. There is a fine
balance to be drawn between drawing proper attention
to the conditions on which continuation of the business
depends, and not thereby bringing the business down.
(b) The Committee does not believe that the implications
of the legal presumption that the accounts are prepared
on a going concern basis are widely understood by
directors. In particular the Committee doubts that it is
generally appreciated that going concern is
interpreted in present auditing guidelines as meaning
that the company will still be operating six months
following the date of the audit report or one year after
the date of the balance sheet, whichever is the later.
This may be further ahead than many companies can
see, for example in a recession.
5.21

The Committee concludes that as a fundamental concept of

accounting the going concern principle should be
conscientiously applied and that new guidelines should be
developed. It emphasises however that new guidelines must
strike a careful balance between drawing proper attention
to the conditions on which the continuation of the business
depends, and not requiring directors to express
unnecessarily cautious reservations that could of
themselves jeopardise the business. Directors should be
required to satisfy themselves that the business is a going
concern on the basis that they have a r e a s o n a b l e
e x p e c t a t i o n that it will continue in operation for the time
period which the guidelines d,efine. Directors should not be
expected to give a firm guarantee about their companys
prospects because there can never be complete certainty
about future trading. The guidelines should also recognise
the position of smaller companies.

AUDITING

5.22

The Committee recommends that:

(a)

directors should state in the report and accounts that

the business is a going concern, with supporting
assumptions or qualifications as necessary;

(b)

the auditors should report on this statement;

(c)

the accountancy profession in conjunction with

representatives of preparers of accounts should take
the lead in developing guidance for companies and
auditors;

(d) the question of Legislation should be decided in the

light of experience.
Fraud
5.23

The prime responsibility for the prevention and detection

of fraud (and other illegal acts) is that of the board, as part
of its fiduciary responsibility for protecting the assets of
the company. The auditors responsibility, as defined in
auditing guidance, is properly to plan, perform and
e v a l u a t e h i s a u d i t w o r k s o asi;. h a v e a r e a s o n a b l e
expectation of detecting material misstatements in the
financial statements.

5.24

One problem for the auditors is that by its very nature

fraud, if it involves forgery, collusion or management
o v e r r i d e o f c o n t r o l s y s t e m s , is hard to detect. It is no
solution, as some have suggested, simply to place a duty on
the auditor to detect material fraud because he will never
be in a position to guarantee that no such fraud has taken
place. A higher level of safeguard against some categories
of fraud can be attempted by carrying out a more extensive
audit, but at a cost. The question is whether that extra cost
is justified.

5.25

Another problem for the auditors is when they suspect that

top management itself is implicated in the fraud, without
having the necessary evidence to back up their suspicions.
They are not in a strong enough position to confront
management, nor have they a case to report to the
appropriate authorities.

5.26

These are not easy problems to resolve, but an effective

and independent-minded audit committee is an essential
safeguard. It has an important role to play in considering

AUDITING

whether any extra work should be undertaken in addition to

the normal audit procedures to investigate defences against
fraud. and in reviewing reports on the adequacy of internal
contol systems. The audit committee also provides a forum
in which auditors can discuss at board level any concern
they may have about the possibility of fraud by senior
It
can
then
commission
management.
whatever
investigations are necessary to resolve the matter.
5.27

One proposal made to the Committee was that auditors

should have a duty to report fraud to the appropriate
authorities. The auditors duty is normally to report fraud
t o s e n i o r m a n a g e m e n t ( s e e Appendix 5 ) . W h e r e , h o w e v e r ,
he no longer has confidence that senior management will
deal adequately with the matter, he is encouraged by
professional guidance to report fraud to the proper
authorities. Lord Justice Bingham, in his recent report on
BCCI, has recommended that in the case of banks it would
be better for there to be a statutory duty, and the
Government, in accepting the recommendation, has
announced that a similar approach will be extended to the
r e s t o f t h e regulate;! s e c t o r ( n a m e l y b u i l d i n g societies:~.
insurance, and investment business).

5.28

The Committee does not recommend that a statutory duty to

r e p o r t fr,aud s h o u l d b e e x t e n d e d b e y o n d t h e r e g u l a t e d
sector to the generality of companies. The Committee does
however see scope for extending to the auditors of all
companies the statutory provisions applying to auditors in
the regulated sector which enable them to report reasonable
suspicion of fraud freely to the appropriate investigatory
authorities. This would strengthen the positiqn of auditors
who report fraud against the risk of a suit brought against
them by their client for (for example) breach of duty to
maintain a confidential client relationship or defamation.
We recommend that the Government should consider
introducing legislation accordingly.

Other illegal Acts

5.29

Companies are now subject to a wide range of legal

requirements, many of which fall outside the scope of an
audit of the financial statements. Auditing guidance on the
respective responsibilities of management and the auditor
is in preparation but there are a number of difficult issues
on which there is no clear consensus at present.

AUDITING

5.30

The Committees view is that it is the responsibility of

boards to establish what their legal duties are and to ensure
that they monitor compliance with them. It is also our view
that this would be enhanced if the auditors role were to
check that boards had established their legal requirements
and that a working system for monitoring compliance was
in place. There would be difficulty in ascribing a wider
role to auditors, for example requiring them to investigate
any identified failures in the system and any suspected
illegal acts which are encountered, because they are
unlikely to have the appropriate expertise. They will not
know the legal requirements in fields which are outside
their scope, nor are they likely to have the expertise to
investigate the legality of particular acts if their suspicions
are aroused. We recommend that this subject should be
further considered by the accountancy and legal professions
and representatives of preparers of accounts.

Auditors Liability
5.31

In the Caparo juagment, the House of Lords laid down that

auditors owed a legal duty of care to the company and to
the shareholders collectively, but not to the shareholders as
individuals nor to third parties. It was established in
particular that in the absence of special features, no duty of
care was owed to subscribers to new shares (whether
existing shareholders or not), purchasers or intending
purchasers of shares from third parties including those
conducting takeover bids, bankers or other lenders, or
persons doing business with the company.

5.32

A discussion of the principles established by the Capar-o

case is at Appendix 6. The case has aroused controversy
because it exposed two widely held misconceptions:
(a) that the audit report is a guarantee as to the accuracy
of the accounts, and perhaps even as to the soundness
of the company;
(b) that
rely
very
they

anyone (including investors and creditors) can

on the audit, not only in a general sense but also
specifically by being able to sue the auditors if
are negligent.

In deciding the case, the House of Lords studied with great

care the complex issues involved in balancing the interests
of the parties involved and the public interest in having a

AUDITING

fair, viable and affordable system. The size of auditors

potential liabilities, the difficulties in defining wider
liability in any fair yet practicable way, and the likely
difficulties in establishing whether third party losses were
in fact due to reliance on the accounts were among the
principal concerns underlying the conclusions reached by
the House of Lords. Rearing in mind the wide range of
users of accounts, the Committee is unable to see how the
House of Lords could have broadened the boundaries of the
auditors legal duty of care without giving rise (in the
w o r d s o f C a r d o z o C J d e c i d i n g a c a s e i n 1931 a n d
frequently quoted since) to a liability in an indeterminate
amount for an indeterminate time to an indeterminate
class. Nor, in consequence, do we recommend that the
legal position with regard to civil liability laid down by
Cupar-o should be altered by statute at the present time.
5.33

In coming to thts conclusion, we recognise that the current

position is a source of concern to both auditors and
investors. There are two main reasons:

(a)

the scale of existing litigation against auditors or

former auditors. Auditors are fully liable in negligence
to the companies they audit and their shareholders
c o l l e c t i v e l y , a n d Caparo h a s n o t c h a n g e d t h i s . T h e
size of settlements has been increasing in Britain and
auditors are concerned that this trend may continue;

(b)

t h e b e l i e f o f s o m e t h a t , n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g Capa~o,
auditors should in principle be liable to those (such as
individual investors and creditors) who rely on audited
accounts.

Auditors are naturally concerned about the increased

litigation that would result if their liability were extended
to other accounts users. They are also concerned about
increased litigation that could arise from adapting the audit
to meet changing needs and.expectations - a process which
the Committees report itself is intended to encourage.
5.34

Proponents of change argue that a better balance between

the interests of the parties involved would be achieved if
a u d i t o r s duty of care were to be extended on a defined
basis, but at the same time the present system under which
auditors can be liable for the full loss caused were to be
replaced by one of proportionate liability, and/or a ceiling
were placed on auditors liability. There would, however,
be major problems over such changes, some of which are

AUDITING

outlined in A p p e n d i x 6 . Changes could not be undertaken

without a detailed review and wide consultation and might
well require major legal reform.
5.35

At present there is no consensus on a satisfactory way of

reconciling the conflicting interests of all those involved.
As the debate on the nature and extent of auditors liability
continues, however, the Committee will keep watch on
developments.

Audit Confidence
5.36 The accounting profession has done much recently to
improve its standards and procedures. It is essential that
this effort should continue. We welcome the initiatives
which are being taken on professional conduct issues particularly the professions ethical rules and disciplin&ry
arrangements. We also support the work which is being
done by the professions Joint Ethics Committee to tackle
problem areas such as opinion shopping and partner
rotation. A lead on these and other matters such as audit
tendering will strengthen the standing and independence of
auditors.
5.37

We have indicated our strong support for tighter accounting

standards, effective audit committees, rigorous and
objective auditing and action by the accountancy profession
to improve and enforce auditing standards. This
combination of actions uncompromisingly pursued will
enhance the perceived value of the audit system.

Accountability of Boards to Shareholders

6.1

The formal relationship between the shareholders and the

board of directors is that the shareholders elect the
directors, the directors report on their stewardship to the
shareholders and the shareholders appoint the auditors to
provide an external check on the directors financial
statements. Thus the shareholders as owners of the
company elect the directors to run the business on their
behalf and hold them accountable for its progress. The
issue for corporate governance is how to strengthen the
accountability of boards of directors to shareholders.

6.2

A number of proposals addressing this issue were put

forward by individual shareholders and shareholder
organisations. One was that shareholders should be more
closely involve-d in the appointment of directors and
auditors through the formation of shareholders
committees. Other proposals were directed at making it
easier for shareholders. individually or collectively, to put
forward resolutions at general meetings.

6.3

On the first proposal, we have not seen evidence explaining

how it would be possible to form shareholder committees in
such a way that they would be both truly representative of
all the companys shareholders and able to keep in regular
touch with their changing constituencies. Unless these tests
of legitimacy are met, the Committee is unable to see how
shareholder committees can become the accepted link
between a board and its shareholders.

6.4

The second set of proposals raises such questi.ons as what

legislation would be needed to alter the present thresholds
for tabling shareholder resolutions, and where the costs
involved in circulating shareholder communications should
fall. How far these suggestions are followed up should
depend, in the Committees view, on the degree of support
which they command from the shareholder body as a whole.
This may be a matter which our successor body will wish to
review,

6.5

In the meantime, shareholders can make their views known

to the boards of the companies in which they have invested
by communicating with them direct and through their
attendance at general meetings. Shareholder organisations
set up to represent shareholder interests generally may
provide individual shareholders with the choice of acting

THESHAREHOLDERS

collectively in the case of particular companies if they

prefer.
6.6

Shareholders have delegated many of their responsibilities

as owners to the directors who act as their stewards. It is
for the shareholders to call the directors to book if they
appear to be failing in their stewardship and they should
use this power. While they cannot be involved in the
direction and management of their company, they can insist
on a high standard of corporate governance and good
governance is an essential test of the directors
stewardship. The accountability of boards to shareholders
will, therefore, be strengthened if shareholders require
their companies to comply with the Code.

6.7

Reports and accounts are presented to shareholders at the

Annual General Meeting, when they have the opportunity to
comment on them and to put their questions. In particular,
the Annual General Meeting gives all shareholders,
whatever the size of their shareholding, direct and public
access to their boards. If too many Annual General
Meetings are at present an opportunity missed, this is
because shareholders do not make the most of them and, in
some cases, boards do not encourage them to do so.

6.8

In the Committees view, both shareholders and boards of

directors should consider how the effectiveness of general
meetings could be increased and as a result the
accountability of boards to all their shareholders
strengthened. Possible ways forward include providing
forms in annual reports on which shareholders could send
in written questions in advance of the meeting, in addition
to their opportunity to ask questions at the meeting itself,
and the circulation of a brief summary of points raised at
the Annual General Meeting to all shareholders after the
event. Consideration might also be given to ways of boards
keeping in touch with their shareholders, outside the annual
and half-yearly reports. The Committee encourages boards
to experiment with ways of improving their links with
shareholders along the above lines and shareholders to put
proposals to their boards to the same end.

THESHAREHOLDERS

Institutional Shareholders
6.9

The proportion of shares held by individuals and by

institutions has broadly reversed over the last thirty years,
so that institutional shareholders now own the majority of
shares of quoted companies. They are, however, largely
holding their shares on behalf of individuals, as members
of pension funds, holders of insurance policies and the
like. As a result, there is an important degree of common
interest between individual and institutional shareholders.
In particular, both have the same stake in the standards of
financial reporting and of governance in the companies in
which they have invested.

6 . 1 0 Given the weight of their votes, the way in which

institutional shareholders use their power to influence the
standards of corporate governance is of fundamental
importance. Their readiness to do this turns on the degree
to which they see it as their responsibility as owners, and
in the ir:terest of those whose money they are investing, to
bring about changes in companies when necessary, rather
than selling their shares.
6.11 The Committee, therefore, warmly welcomes the statement
recently published by the Institutional Shareholders
Committee on the Responsibilities of Institutional
Shareholders in the UK and we draw attention to three key
conclusions which are basic to the development of a
constructive relationship between companies and their
owners.
Institutional investors should encourage regular,
s y s t e m a t i c c o n t a c t a t s e n i o r executive l e v e l t o
exchange views and information on strategy,
performance, board membership and quality of
management.
institutional investors should make positive use of
their voting rights, unless they have good reason for
doing otherwise. They should register their votes
wherever possible on a regular basis.
Institutional investors should take a positive interest
in the composition of boards of directors, with
p a r t i c u l a r r e f e r e n c e t o c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f decisionmaking power not formally constrained by appropriate

THESHAREHOLDERS

checks and balances, and to the appointment of a core of

non-executive directors of the necessary calibre,
experience and independence.
6.12 The Institutional Shareholders Committees advice to its
members to use their voting rights positively is important
in the context of corporate governance. Voting rights can
be regarded as an asset, and the use or otherwise of those
rights by institutional shareholders is a subject of
legitimate interest to those on whose behalf they invest.
We recommend that institutional investors should disclose
their policies on the use of voting rights.
Shareholder Communications
6.13

These conclusions on the role of institutional shareholders

raise issues over the lines of communication between
boards and their shareholders. The first issue is one of
parity between shareholders. The institutions are in a
position to keep in touch with the boards of the companies
in which they have invested, in a way which is not feasible
for the. individual shareholder. It is not possible in this
respect to put both classes of shareholder on the same
footing. What boards must do, however, is to ensure that
any significant statements concerning their companies are
made publicly and so are equally available to all
shareholders.

6.14

A second issue which arises over communications between

institutional investors and companies is the danger of
imparting inside information. If price-sensitive information
is to be given (and it is the companys responsibility to
decide what might be price-sensitive), it must only be with
the prior consent of the shareholder, who will then be
unable to deal in the companys shares until that
information has been made public. It is for shareholders to
decide whether their longer-term interests are impaired by
becoming insiders, because of the short-term constraints t 31
share dealing which that position imposes.

6 . 1 5 I f l o n g - t e r m r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e t o b e d e v e l o p e d , i t i,
important that companies should communicate the i
strategies to their major shareholders and that the i
shareholders should understand them. It is equally
important that shareholders should play their part in the
communication process by informing companies if there are

THESHAREHOLDERS

aspects of the business which give them cause for concern.

Both shareholders and directors have to contribute to the

building of a sound working relationship between them.
Shareholder Influence

6 . 1 6 Because of the importance of their collective stake, we

look to the institutions in particular, with the backing of
the Institutional Shareholders Committee, to use their
influence as owners to ensure that the companies in which
they have invested comply with the Code. The widespread
adoption of our recommendations will turn in large measure
on the support which all shareholders give to them. The
obligation on companies to state how far they comply with
the Code provides institutional and individual shareholders
with a ready-made agenda for their representations to
boards. It is up to them to put it to good use. The
Committee is primarily looking to such market-based
regulation to turn its proposals into action.

7.1

The Committees proposals are mutually supportive and

should be taken as a whole. The Code reflects existing best
practice and few of our recommendations require
legislation. We believe that they will reinforce good
corporate governance without stifling entrepreneurial
initiative.

7.2

No system of corporate governance can be totally proof

against fraud or incompetence. The test is how far such
aberrations can be discouraged and how quickly they can
be brought to light. The risks can be reduced by making the
participants in the governance process as effectively
accountable as possible. The key safeguards are properly
constituted boards, separation of the functions of chairman
and of chief executive, audit committees, vigilant
shareholders and financial reporting and auditing systems
which provide full and timely disclosure.

7.3

Although the great majority of companies are both

competently run and audited under the present system of
corporate governance, it is widely accepted that standards
within the corporate sector have to be raised.

7.4

The way forward is through clear definitions of

responsibility and an acceptance by all involved that the
highest standards of efficiency and integrity are expected
of them. Expectations of corporate behaviour are
continually rising and a corresponding response is looked
for from shareholders, directors and auditors. The
machinery is in place. What is needed is the will to
improve its effectiveness.

7.5

This will involve a sharper sense of accountability and

responsibility all round - accountability by boards to their
shareholders, responsibility on the part of all shareholders
to the companies they own. and, accountability by
professional officers and advisers to those who rely on
their judgement. All three groups have a common interest
i n c o m b i n i n g t o i m p r o v e the w o r k i n g o f t h e c o r p o r a t e
system.

Compliance with the Code of Best Practice

1

The boards of all listed companies registered in the UK

should comply with the Code of Best Practice set out on
pages 58 to 60. As many other companies as possible
should aim at meeting its requirements (paragraph 3.1).

Listed companies reporting in respect of years ending after

30 June 1993 should make a statement about their
compliance with the Code in the report and accounts and
give reasons for any areas of non-compliance (paragraph
3.7).

C o m p a n i e s statements of compliance should be reviewed

by the auditors before publication. The review should cover
only those parts of the compliance statement which relate
to provisions of the Code where compliance can be
objectively verified. The Auditing Practices Board should
consider guidance for auditors accordingly (paragraph 3.9).

All parties concerned with corporate governance should use

their influence to encourage compliance with the Code
(paragraph 3.14). Institutional shareholders in particular,
with the backing of the Institutional Shareholders
Committee, should use their influence as owners to ensure
that the companies in which they have invested comply
with the Code (paragraph 6.16).

Keeping the Code up to date

5

The Committees sponsors, convened by the Financial

Reporting Council, should appoint a new Committee by the
end of June 1995 to examine how far compliance with the
Code has progressed, how far our other recommendations
have been implemented, and whether the Code needs
updating. Our sponsors should also determine whether the
sponsorship of the new Committee should be broadened and
whether wider matters of corporate governance should be
included in its brief. In the meantime the present
Committee will remain responsible for reviewing the
implementation of its proposals (paragraph 3.12).

SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS

Directors service contracts

6

The Companies Act should be amended to come into line

with the requirement of the Code that directors service
contracts should not exceed three years without
shareholders approval (paragraph 4.41).

Interim reporting
7

Companies should expand their interim reports to include

balance sheet information. The London Stock Exchange
should consider amending the continuing obligations
accordingly. There should not be a requirement for a full
audit, but interim reports should be reviewed by the
auditors and the Auditing Practices Board should develop
appropriate guidance. The Accounting Standards Board in
conjunction with the London Stock Exchange should clarify
the accounting rules which companies should follow in
preparing interim reports. The inclusion of cash flow
information should be considered by the Committees
successor body (paragraph 4.56).

Enhancing the perceived objectivity of the audit

8

Fees paid to audit firms for non-audit work should be fully

disclosed. The essential principle is that disclosure should
enable the relative significance of the companys audit and
non-audit fees to the audit firm to be assessed, both in a
UK context and, where appropriate, a worldwide context.
The 1991 Regulations under the Companies Act should be
reviewed and amended as necessary (paragraph 5.1 I).

The accountancy profession should draw up guidelines on

the rotation of audit partners (paragraph 5.12).

Enhancing the effectiveness of the audit

10

Directors should report on the effectiveness of their system

of internal control, and the auditors should report on their
statement. The accountancy profession together with
representatives of preparers of accounts should draw up
criteria for assessing effective systems of internal control
and guidance for companies and auditors (paragraphs 4.32
and 5.16).

SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS

11

Directors should state in the report and accounts that the

business is a going concern, with supporting assumptions
or qualifications as necessary, and the auditors should
report on this statement. The accountancy profession
together with representatives of preparers of accounts
should develop guidance for companies and auditors
(paragraph 5.22).

12

The question of legislation to back the recommendations on

additional reports on internal control systems and going
concern should be decided in the light of experience
(paragraphs 5. I7 and 5.22).

13

The Government should consider introducing legislation to

extend to the auditors of all companies the statutory
protection already available to auditors in the regulated
sector (banks, building societies, insurance, and investment
business) so that they can report reasonable suspicicn of
fraud freely to the appropriate investigatory authorities
(paragraph 5.28).

14

The accountancy profession together with the legal

p r o f e s s i o n a n d r~epresentatives of prepareisof a c c o u n t s
should consider further the question of illegal acts other
than fraud (paragraph 5.30).

15

The accounting profession should continue its efforts to

improve its standards and procedures so as to strengthen
the standing and independence of auditors (paragraph
5.36).

Voting by institutional investors

16

Institutional investors

should disclose their policies on the

use of their voting rights (paragraph 6.12).

SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS

Endorsement of work by others

17

The Committee gives its full support to the objectives of

the Financial Reporting Council and the Accounting
Standards Board. It welcomes the action by the Financial
Reporting Review Panel over companies whose accounts
fall below accepted reporting standards (paragraphs 4.52
and 5.8).

18

The Committee supports the initiative of the Auditing

Practices Board on the development of an expanded audit
report. It also gives its full support to the lead which it is
taking on the development of auditing practice generally
(paragraphs 5.14 and 5.15).

19

The Committee welcomes the statement by the Institutional

Shareholders Committee on the Responsibilities of
Institutional Shareholders in the UK (paragraph 6.1 I).

Issues for the Committees successor body

20

Issues which the Committee has identified that its

successor body may wish to review or consider in greater
depth include: the application of the Code to smaller listed
companies (paragraph 3. IS); directors training (paragraph
4.20); the rules for disclosure of directors remuneration,
and the role which shareholders could play (paragraph
4.46); a requirement for inclusion of cash flow information
in interim reports (paragraph 4.56); and the procedures for
putting forward resolutions at general meetings (paragraph
6.4). The Committee and its successor will also keep watch
on developments regarding the nature and extent of
auditors liability (paragraph 5.35).

The Board of Directors

1.1

The board should meet regularly, retain full and effective

control over the company and monitor the executive
management.

1.2

There should be a clearly accepted division of

responsibilities at the head of a company, which will
ensure a balance of power and authority, such that no one
individual has unfettered powers of decision. Where the
chairman is also the chief executive, it is essential that
there should be a strong and independent element on the
board, with a recognised senior member.

1.3

The board should include non-executive directors of

sufficient calibre and number for their views to carry
significant weight in the boards decisions.

1.4

The board should have a formal schedule of matters

specifically reserved to it for decision to ensure that the
direction and control of the company is firmly in its hands.

1.5

There should be an agreed procedure for directors in the

furtherance of their duties to take independent professional
advice if necessary, at the companys expense.

1.6

All directors should have access to the advice and services

of the company secretary, who is responsible to the board
for ensuring that board procedures are followed and that
applicable rules and regulations are complied with. Any
question of the removal of the company secretary should be
_
a matter for the board as a whole.

Non-Executive Directors

2.1

Non-executive directors should bring an independent

j u d g e m e n t 10 b e a r o n i s s u e s o f s t r a t e g y , p e r f o r m a n c e ,
resources, including key appointments, and standards of
conduct.

2.2

The majority should be independent of management and

free from any business or other relationship which could
materially interfere with the exercise of their independent
judgement. apart from their fees and shareholding. Their
fees should reflect the time which they commit to the
company.

THE CODE OF BEST PRACTICE

2.3

Non-executive directors should be appointed for specified

terms and reappointment should not be automatic.

2.4

Non-executive directors should be selected through a

formal process and both this process and their appointment
should be a matter for the board as a whole.

Executive Directors

3.1

Directors service contracts should not exceed three years

without shareholders approval.

3.2

There should be full and clear disclosure of directors total

emoluments and those of the chairman and highest-paid UK
director, including pension contributions and stock options.
Separate figures should be given for salary and
performance-related elements and the basis on which
performance is measured should be explained.

3.3

Executive directors pay should be subject to the

recommendations of a remuneration committee made up
wholly or mainly of non-executive directors.

Reporting and Controls

4.1

It i s t h e b o a r d s d u t y t o p r e s e n t a b a l a n c e d a n d
understandable assessment of the companys position.

4.2

The board should ensure that an objective and professional

relationship is maintained with the auditors.

4.3

The board should establish an audit committee of at least

three non-executive directors with written terms of
reference which deal clearly with its authority and duties.

4.4

The directors should explain their responsibility for

preparing the accounts next to a statement by the auditors
about their reporting responsibilities.

4.5

The directors should report on the effectiveness of the

companys system of internal control.

4.6

The directors should report that the business is a going

concern, with supporting assumptions or qualifications as
necessary.

THE CODE OF BEST PRACTICE

Footnote
The companys statement of compliance should be reviewed
by the auditors in so far as it relates to paragraphs 1.4, 1.5,
2.3, 2.4, 3.1 to 3.3, and 4.3 to 4.6 of the Code.

APPENDIX 1
Terms of Reference
The Committee was set up in May 1991 by the Financial
Reporting Council, the London Stock Exchange, and the
accountancy profession. It adopted as its terms of
reference:
To consider the following issues in relation to
financial reporting and accountability and to make
recommendations on good practice:

(a) t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s o f e x e c u t i v e a n d n o n executive directors for reviewing and reporting on

performance to shareholders and other financially
interested parties; and the frequency, clarity and
form in which information should be provided;

(b) t h e c a s e f o r a u d i t c o m m i t t e e s o f t h e b o a r d ,
including their composition and role;

Cc) the principal responsibilities of auditors and the

extent and value of the audit;

Cd) t h e l i n k s b e t w e e n s h a r e h o l d e r s , b o a r d s , a n d
auditors;

(e) any other relevant matters.

Membership
The Committees members were as follows:
Sir Adrian Cadbury (Chairman)
Ian Butler
Coutlcil M e m b e r . C B I and
Commitfee

former

Chairman, CBI Companies

Jim Butler
S e n i o r Partner, K P M G P e a t Marwick

Jonathan Charkham
Adviser- to the Gover~lor. Bunk o f E n g l a n d

Hugh Collum
Chairman. Hundred Group of Finance Directors

Sir Ron Dearing

Chairman,

Financial

Reporting

Council

THECOMMITTEES MEMBERSHIP AND TERMS OF

REFERENCE

Andrew Likierman
Professor of A c c o u n t i n g a n d F i n a n c i a l C o n t r o l , L o n d o n
Business School
Nigel Macdonald
Vice President, Institute of Chartered Accountants of Scotland
Mike Sandland
Chairman, Institutional Shareholder-s Committee
Mark Sheldon
President, Law Society
Sir Andrew Hugh Smith
Chairman, London Stack Exchange
Sir Dermot de Trafford, Bt
Chairman, Institute of Directors
O b s e r v e r s : M r s S a r a h B r o w n ( u n t i l O c t o b e r 1991), M r A r t h u r
Russell (from November 1991). Head of Companies Division, DTf
Secretary: Nigel Peace (on secondment from DTI)
Sir Christopher Hogg (Chair-man, Reuters Holdings PLC,
Courtaulds plc, and Courtaulds Textiles plc) acted as an adviser
to the Committee.

APPENDIX 2
Auditing Practices Board
1

The Auditing Practices Board is responsible for the

standa5ds.
from the Auditing Practices Committee in 1991.
has outside representation and the ability to issue auditing

Financial Reporting Review Panel

2

The Financial Reporting Council was set up in 1990 to

establish and support the two bodies under its aegis, the
A c c o u n t i n g S t a n d a r d s B o a r d a n d t h e F i n a n c i a l Reporting
Review Panel, and to promote good financial reporting
generally. The three bodies draw their funding broadly
equally from the accountancy profession, the City, and the
Government.
The role of the Accounting Standards Board is to make,
amend, and withdraw accounting standards. It took over
from the former Accounting Standards Committee on 1
A u g u s t 1 9 9 0 . T h e B o a r d i s a u t o n o m o u s - although it
consults widely on its proposals, it does not need outside
approval for its actions.

The Secretary of State has authorised the Financial

Reporting Review Panel to examine departures from the
a c c o u n t i n g r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e C o m p a n i e s A c t 1985 and if
necessary to seek an order from the court to remedy them.
T h e P a n e l s ambit i s p u b l i c a n d l a r g e p r i v a t e c o m p a n i e s ,
the Department of Trade and Industry dealing with all other
cases. The Panels main focus is on material departures
from accounting standards where this results in the
accounts in question not giving a true and fair view as
required by law. Where a companys accounts are defective
the Panel will. wherever possible. endeavour to secure
revision by voluntary means; but if this approach fails it
will make an application to the court for an order
compelling the revision. Where accounts are revised at the
insistence of the Panel, but the companys auditors have
not qualified their audit report on the defective accounts,

THE ROLE OF BODIES REFERRED TO IN THE REPORT

the panel will draw this fact to the attention of the

auditors professional body.
Institutional Shareholders Committee
5

The Institutional Shareholders Committee (ISC) has five

members: the Association of British Insurers, the National
Association of Pension Funds, the Association of
Investment Trust Companies, the British Merchant Banking
and Securities Houses Association, and the Unit Trust
Association. Together they represent the overwhelming
majority of institutional shareholders in the UK. The ISC
provides a channel of communication and forum for
discussion between institutional shareholders, corporate
management and others on wider issues. It also seeks to
identify areas of common ground amongst its members and
thereafter to promulgate those jointly held views. It does
not normally become involved in matters concerned with
particular investments or companies.

London Stock Exchange

6

The London Stock Exchange is empowered through its

Competent Authority status to grant listings of securities
under the Financial Services Act 1986 and it has
responsibility for the Unlisted Securities Market.

The Exchange through its rules contained in the Admission

of Securities to Listing (often known as the Yellow Book)
requires issuers of securities not only to meet certain
disclosure requirements at the time of listing but also to
comply with a number of continuing obligations. The
p u r p o s e o f t h i s i s t o e n s u r e t h a t all p o t e n t i a l l y pricesensitive information, or information about the company
which might have an effect on its share price or trading in
its shares, is released to the market promptly. These
requirements impose specific content a n d I i m i n g
requirements in relation to the issuers interim and final
accounts and impose guidelines governing dealings by
directors of listed companies in their own companies
securities.

THE ROLE OF BODIES REFERRED TO IN THE REPORT

The Hundred Group of Finance Directors

8

The Hundred Group of

one hundred and forty
of the finance directors
FT-SE 100 and also
capitalisation.

Finance Directors has approximately

members, including more than 90%
of those companies included in the
those with the highest market

The main purpose of The Hundred Group is to provide a

forum for discussion and to make contributions and
representations on issues of importance for financial
management. Members are actively involved to ensure that
the views of users and preparers of accounts are fully
understood. Submissions are made to Government and other
organisations highlighting the practical implications of
existing financial procedures, related legislation and
proposed changes.

APPENDIX 3
1

In paragraph 4.28 of the report, and in the Code of Best

Practice, the Committee recommends that a brief statement
of directors responsibility for preparing the accounts
should appear in the report and accounts. The purpose of
such a statement is to make clear that responsibility for
preparing the accounts rests with the board of directors,
and to remove any misconception that the auditors are
responsible for the accounts. The directors statement
should be placed immediately before the auditors report
which in future will include a separate statement (currently
being developed by the Auditing Practices Board) on the
responsibility of the auditors for expressing an opinion on
the accounts. Positioning the two statements alongside each
other in this way will achieve maximum clarity about
respective responsibilities.

The explanation of directors responsibilities will require a

relatively formal statement, which should cover the
following points:

(a)

the legal requirement for directors to prepare financial

statements for each financial year which give a true
and fair view of the state of affairs of the company (or
group) as at the end of the financial year and of the
profit and loss for that period;

(b) t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f t h e d i r e c t o r s f o r m a i n t a i n i n g
adequate accounting records, for safeguarding the
assets of the company (or group), and for preventing
and detecting fraud and other irregularities;

(c) c o n f i r m a t i o n t h a t s u i t a b l e a c c o u n t i n g p o l i c i e s ,
consistently applied and supported by reasonable and
prudent judgements and estimates, have been used .in
the preparation of the financial statements;

Cd ) confirmation that applicable accounting standards have

been followed, subject to any material departures
disclosed and explained in the notes to the accounts.
3

Boards may also wish to use the above statement as a

vehicle for reporting that they have maintained an
effective system of internal control, and that the business
is a going concern, with supporting assumptions or
qualifications as necessary, once the necessary guidance on
these subjects has been developed (see paragraphs 5.16 and
5.22 of the main report).

DIRECTORS RESPONSIBILITY STATEMENT

4
statement in the notes to the accounts disclosing whether
the accounts have been prepared in accordance with
applicable accounting standards.

APPENDIX 4

I
i

In the main body of the report the Committee recommends

that all listed companies which have not already done so
should establish an audit committee, and places great
emphasis on the importance of properly constituted audit
committees in raising standards of corporate governance.

Many UK companies already have an audit committee, and

a recent research study (Audit Committees in the United
K i n g d o m , published by the ICAEW, April 1992) has found
a steady growth in their number. Audit Committees are now
established in 53% of the top 250 industrial firms in the
Times 1000, and the figure rises to 66% if unlisted
companies and foreign subsidiaries are excluded from the
calculation. Most major UK listed financial institutions
have also formed an audit committee.

Audit Committees are well established in the United States,

where they have been a listing requirement of the New
York Stock Exchange since 1978. A 1989 study revealed
that 97% of major corporations had them. In Canada, they
are a legal requirement.

If they operate effectively, audit committees can bring

significant benefits. In particular, they have the potential
to:

(a)

improve the quality of financial reporting, by

reviewing the financial statements on behalf of the
Board;

(b)

create a climate of discipline and control which will

reduce the opportunity for fraud;

Cc)

enable the non-executive directors to contribute an

independent judgement and play a positive role;

Cd)

help the finance director., by providing a forum in

which he can raise issues of concern, and which he can
use to get things done which might otherwise be
difficult;

(e)

strengthen the position of the external auditor, by

providing a channel of communication and forum for
issues of concern;

(0

provide a framework within which the external auditor

can assert his independence in the event of a dispute
with management;

AUDIT COMMITTEES

Chapter 3 of the Report by the Institute of Chartered

Accountants
of Scotland entitled Corporate
G o v e r n a n c e - Directors Responsibilities for Financial
Statements, February 1992

Guidance booklets produced by individual firms of

accountants

Chapter 2, section IV of the Report of the National

Commission on Fraudulent Financial Reporting (the
Treadway Commission), USA, October 1987

Audit Committees in the United Kingdom by

P. Collier, published by the Institute of Chartered
Accountants of England and Wales, April 1992.

AUDIT COMMITTEES

ANNEX
Specimen Terms of Reference for an Audit Committee
FOR GUIDANCE ONLY

Constitution
1

The Board hereby resolves to establish a Committee of the

Board to be known as the Audit Committee.

Membership
2

The Committee shall be appointed by the Board from

amongst the Non-Executive Directors of the Company and
shall consist of not less than three members. A quorum
shall be two members.

The Chairman of the Committee shall be appointed by the

Board.

Attendance at meetings
4

The Finance Director, the Head of Internal Audit, and a

representative of the external auditors shall normally
attend meetings. Other Board members shall also have the
right of attendance. However, at least once a year the
Committee shall meet with the external auditors without
executive Board members present.

The Company Secretary shall be the Secretary, of the

Committee.

Frequency of meetings
6

Meetings shall be held not less than twice a year. The

external auditors may request a meeting if they consider
that one is necessary.

Authority
7

The Committee is authorised by the Board to i,nvestigate

any activity within its terms of reference. It is authorised
to seek any information it requires from any employee and
all employees are directed to co-operate with any request
made by the Committee.

AUDIT COMMITTEES

The Committee is authorised by the Board to obtain outside

legal or other independent professional advice and to
secure the attendance of outsiders with relevant experience
and expertise if it considers this necessary.

Duties
9

The duties of the Committee shall be:

(a) to consider the appoi,ntment of the external auditor, the

audit fee, and any questions of resignation or
dismissal;
to discuss with the external auditor before the audit
commences the nature and scope of the audit, and
ensure co-ordination where more than one audit firm is
involved;

(cl to review the half-year and annual financial statements

before submission to the Board, focusing particularly
on:
(i)

any changes in accounting policies and practices

(ii) major judgemental areas

(iii) significant adjustments resulting from the audit
(iv) the going concern assumption
(v) compliance with accounting standards
(vi) compliance with stock exchange and legal
requirements.

Cd) to discuss problems and reservations arising from the

interim and final audits, and any matters the auditor
may wish to discuss (in the absence of management
where necessary);

(e)

to review the external auditors management letter and

managements response;

(0

to review the Companys statement on internal control

systems prior to endorsement by the Board;

(8) (where an internal audit function exists) to review the

internal audit programme, ensure co-ordination
between the internal and external auditors, and ensure
that the internal audit function is adequately resourced
and has appropriate standing within the Company;

AUDIT COMMITTEES

to

(h)

consider the m a j o r f i n d i n g s o f
investigations and managements response;

(i)

to consider other topics, as defined by the board.

internal

Reporting procedures
10

The Secretary shall circulate the minutes of meetings of the

Committee to all members of the Board.

APPENDIX 5
1

This
appendix
summarises
the
main
statutory
responsibilities of directors and auditors relating to the
accounts and audit, as background to the recommendation
in the Code of Best Practice that directors should explain
their responsibility for preparing the accounts alongside a
statement by the auditors about their reporting
responsibilities. It also summarises current requirements on
internal control, going concern, and fraud, as background
to the recommendations on these issues in the report.

The statutory responsibilities of directors and auditors

2

The statutory responsibilities of directors and auditors

relating to accounts and audit are laid down in Part VII
(sections 221 to 262) of the Companies Act 1985. Among
the main provisions are the following:

(i) directors
221.-(l) E v e r y c o m p a n y s h a l l k e e p a c c o u n t i n g r e c o r d s
which are sufficient to show and explain the companys
transactions and are such as to (a) disclose with reasonable accuracy, at *any time, the
financial position of the company at that time, and
(b) enable the directors to ensure that any balance sheet
and profit and loss account prepared under this Part
complies with the requirements of this Act.
226.-(l) The directors of every company shall prepare for
each financial year of the company (a) a balance sheet as at the last day of the year, and
(b) a profit and loss account
(2) The balance sheet shall give a true and fair
state of affairs of the company as at the
financial year; and the profit and loss account
true and fair view of the profit or loss of the
the financial year.

view of the
end of the
shall give a
company for

227.-(l) If at the end of a financial year a company is a

parent company the directors shall. as well as preparing
individual accounts for the year, prepare group accounts.

CURRENT STATUTORY AND OTHER REQUIREMENTS

234.-(I) The directors of a company shall for each

financial year prepare a report (a) containing a fair review of the development of the
b u s i n e s s o f t h e c o m p a n y a n d its s u b s i d i a r y
undertakings during the financial year and of their
position at the end of it, . . .
(3) The report shall also comply with Schedule 7 as
regards the disclosure of matters mentioned there.
(ii) auditors
235.-(l) A companys auditors shall make a report to the
companys members on all annual accounts of the
company...
(2) The
auditors
prepared
whether a
(a)

auditors report shall state whether in the

opinion the annual accounts have been properly
in accordance with this Act, and in particular
true and fair view is given -

in the case of an individual balance sheet, of the state

of affairs of the company as at the end of the financial
year

(b) in the case of an individual profit and loss account, of

the profit or loss of the company for the financial year
(c)

in the case of group accounts, of the state of affairs as

at the end of the financial year, and the profit or loss
for the financial year, of the undertakings included in
the consolidation as a whole, so far as concerns
members of the company.

(3) The auditors shall consider whether the information

given in the directors report for the financial year for
which the annual accounts are prepared is consistent with.
those accounts; and if they are of the opinion that it is not
they shall state that fact in their report.
237.-(l) A companys auditors shall, in preparing their
report, carry out such investigations as will enable them to
form an opinion as to (a) whether proper accounting records have been kept by
the company and proper returns adequate for their
audit have been received from branches not visited by
them, and

CURRENT STATUTORY AND OTHER REQUIREMENTS

(b) whether the companys individual accounts are in

agreement with the accounting records and returns.
(3) If the auditors fail to obtain all the information and
explanations which, to the best of their knowledge and
belief, are necessary for the purposes of the audit, they
shall state that fact in their report.
Current requirements on Internal Control

.~

Under s.221 of the Companies Act directors are required to

maintain adequate accounting records to enable them to
disclose with reasonable accuracy, at any time, the
financial position of the company and in order to meet this
responsibility they must in practice maintain some form of
control system over the companys process of financial
management. However, there is no explicit requirement in
company law for them to maintain an effective system of
internal control.

Auditors in turn, as part of their usual audit procedures,

will consider how ~f-2 t h e y c a n r e l y o n t h e c o m p a n y s
internal control systems in carrying out their audit of the
financial statements. As a normal part of their audit
procedures the auditors thus evaluate the internal control
systems and, if they plan to rely on them in reaching their
audit opinion, they will test the operation of those systems.
As a by-product of this auditors will usually comment to
management on their findings in what is commonly known
as the management letter. However, there is at present
no Companies Act requirement for auditors to report on the
adequacy of internal control systems.

,,

Current requirements on Going Concern

5

Schedule 4 of the Companies Act 1985 requires accounts to

be prepared on the presumption that the company is a going
concern. The going concern concept is defined in
accounting standards (SSAP 2) as the assumption that the
enterprise will continue in operation for the foreseeable
future. This means in particular that the profit and loss
account and the balance sheet assume no intention or
necessity to liquidate or curtail significantly the scale of
operation. The SSAP does not define foreseeable future
but auditing guidance states while the foreseeable future
must be judged in relation to specific circumstances, it
should normally extend to a minimum of six months

CURRENT STATUTORY AND OTHER REQUIREMENTS

following the date of the audit report or one year after the
balance sheet date whichever period ends on the later date.
6

Whilst the requirement for directors to prepare financial

statements giving a true and fair view creates a
presumption that they will satisfy themselves that the
company is not in financial difficulties and that the going
concern basis is appropriate, there is no explicit obligation
in company law that they should do so. There is similarly
no requirement in law for the directors to report to
shareholders that they have satisfied themselves about the
going concern basis or the adequacy of financial resources.

Auditors in turn, whilst obliged by auditing guidance to be

satisfied that the going concern basis is appropriate, are
not obliged to perform any procedures specifically
designed to identify any indications that the going concern
basis may be no longer valid.

Current requirements on Fraud

8

Auditing~guidance makes clear that the prime responsibility

for preventing and detecting fraud rests with management,
as part of its fiduciary responsibility for protecting the
assets of the company. It goes on to state that the auditors
responsibility is properly to plan, perform and evaluate his
audit work so as to have a reasonable expectation of
detecting material misstatements in the financial
statements. It points out, however, that even a properly
designed and executed audit may not detect material fraud
involving forgery or collusion, and that the auditors
report, based as it is on the concept of reasonable
assurance, does not constitute a guarantee that the financial
statements are free of misstatement.

So far as reporting fraud is concerned, the present legal

position is that confidentiality is an implied term of an
auditors contract, and there is a public interest in
maintaining confidential client relationships. Normally,
therefore, it is the auditors duty to report fraud to senior
management. However, there is also a public interest in
fraud being dealt with expeditiously and this may entail
disclosing matters to a proper authority. An auditor who
discloses in such circumstances without malice is protected
from the risk of breach of confidence or defamation. In
recent years the legislation applying to the special,

CURRENT STATUTORY AND OTHER REQUIREMENTS

regulated sectors (banks, building societies, insurance and

investment business) has been amended so as to remove any
obstacles there might be to an auditor reporting directly to
the relevant regulator reasonable suspicion of fraud, or
other matters relevant to the regulators functions. The
legislation also gives the Government powers to specify
circumstances in which information is to be communicated
to the regulators, as an alternative to rules or guidance by
the professional bodies. In fact the accountancy profession
has developed auditing guidelines for each of the special
sectors and the Government has not exercised its powers up
to now. However, in his report on the BCCI affair, Lord
Justice Bingham recommended that auditors of banks
should be placed under a statutory duty to report relevant
matters to the Bank of England. The Government has
announced that it accepts the recommendation and intends
to impose a similar duty on auditors to inform the
regulators in the other regulated sectors. For the generality
of companies, the profession has also developed guidance
which encourages the auditor to report fraud to the proper
authorities where he no longer has confidence that
~
management itself will deal adequately with the matter.

APPENDIX 6
Outline of the case
1

Caparo Industries plc owned shares in a public company,

Fidelity plc, whose accounts for the year ended 31 M a r c h
1984 showed profits far short of the predicted figure which
resulted in a dramatic drop in the quoted share price. After
receipt of the audited accounts for the year ended 31 March
1984 Caparo purchased more shares in Fidelity and later
that year made a successful takeover bid for the company.
Following the takeover, Caparo brought an action against
the auditors of the company, alleging that Fidelitys
accounts were inaccurate and misleading in that they
showed a pre-tax profit of fl.2m when in fact there had
been a loss of over &0.4m, t h a t t h e a u d i t o r s h a d b e e n
negligent in auditing the accounts, that Caparo had
purchased further shares and made their takeover bid in
reliance on the audited accounts, that they had thereby
suffered loss, and that the auditors owed them a duty of
care to prevent that loss either as potential bidders for
Fidelity because they ought to have foreseen that the 1984
results made Fidelity vulnerable to a takeover bid from one
quarter or another, or as an existing shareholder of Fidelity
interested in buying more shares.

The case went to the House of Lords which held that the
auditors did not owe Caparo a duty of care to prevent the
loss suffered in consequence of purchasing additional
shares, either as potential investors or as existing
shareholders (Caparo I n d u s t r i e s plc v. Dickman and others
[I9901 I All ER 568).

Basis for the decision

I

In broad terms, the House of Lords considered the issues on

the following basis:
(a)

If A makes a negligent statement, he may

(independently of any contractual or fiduciary
relationship) be liable to B if B relies on that
statement and thereby suffers loss, provided A is under
duty of care to B to avoid or prevent that loss.

THE CAPARO CASE

(b) Such a duty of care will exist where a three-pronged

test of foreseeability, proximity, and fairness is
satisfied:
(i) f o r e s e e a b i l i t y : when making the statement, A
should reasonably have foreseen that B might
suffer that loss if the statement proved to be
wrong;
there must, in relation to the
(ii) p r o x i m i t y :
statement, be a sufficient relationship between A
and B. Such a relationship will exist if, at the
time he made the statement, A knew:
l

that the statement would be communicated to

B, either as an individual or as a member of
an identifiable class;

that the statement would be so communicated

specifically in connection with a particular
transaction, or transactions of a particular
kind; and

that B would be very likely to rely on it in

deciding whether or not to enter into that
transaction or a transaction of that kind;

(iii) f airness: the Court must consider it to be fair,

just and reasonable that the law should impose the
specified duty of care on A for the benefit of B.
(c) In suggesting this three-pronged test, the House of
Lords nevertheless recognised that there would often
be an overlap between the three elements, that the
elements themselves were labels rather than
precisely applicable definitions, and that there was a
necessary element of pragmatism in applying the test
to any given set of circumstances.
(d) So far as concerns audited accounts, whilst it cannot
fairly be said that the purpose of the statutory
provisions as to publication is solely to assist members
and debenture holders to an informed supervision and
appraisal of the stewardship of the companys
directors, that is nevertheless the original, central and
primary purpose of these provisions.
4

Caparos case foundered as a matter of law because in the

view of the House of Lords the necessary proximity did not
exist. A relationship of proximity could not be deduced
between an auditor and a member of the public who relied

THECAPAROCASE

on the accounts to buy shares in the company when to do so

would give rise to an unlimited liability on the part of the
auditor. Nor could a relationship of proximity be deduced
between an auditor and an individual shareholder in the
company in relation to further purchases of shares in the
company by that shareholder, since an individual
shareholder stood in no different position from any other
investing member of the public to whom the auditor owed
no duty, and the auditors statutory duty to prepare
accounts was owed to the body of shareholders as whole, to
enable them as a body to exercise informed control of the
company and not to enable individual shareholders to buy
shares with a view to profit.
Principles established
5

The case has established that in t h e absence o f s p e c i a l

features, auditors are not regarded as owing a duty of care
to prevent loss to anyone relying on their report except (a)
the company, and (b) the shareholders as a body. In the
absence of special features, no duty of care is owed in
partictilar to-individual shareholders, subscribers to new
shares, purchasers or intended purchasers of shares from
third parties including those conducting takeover bids,
bankers or other lenders to the company, or persons doing
business with the company.

Arguments for and against extending auditors duty of care

6

Some of the arguments that have been expressed for and

against extending auditors duty of care to individual
shareholders, purchasers of shares, and possibly bther third
parties are as follows.

Arguments for extension

(a) Third parties, to the knowledge of all, in fact rely to a

considerable extent on the integrity of the audited
accounts - if legal liability is not imposed there is an
allegedly justified expectation gap.

(b) Professional men are paid - they should therefore be

accountable in a wide sense.

Cc) The auditors liability to the company may provide an

effective remedy where the auditors have negligently
failed to discover fraud or theft from the company -

THE CAPARO CASE

but in general not where, for example, the directors

have been overvaluing assets or otherwise inflating
profits. In any case, the companys loss may be less
than that suffered in aggregate by the shareholders.
(d) The case is bad publicity for the accounting profession
and has prompted the perception that, for example:
(i)

auditors are answerable to no-one;

(ii) the requirement for the auditors to exercise due

care and skill has been lessened;
(iii) having accounts audited is of little or no benefit.
Arguments against extension

(a) To hold the auditors liable to all and sundry for any
purpose for which they may choose to rely on the
auditors statement would result, in the classic words
of Cardozo CJ, in liability in an indeterminate amount
for an indeterminate time to an indeterminate class.

(b) Quite apart from the difficulty of defining the extent

o f l i a b i l i t y , t h e r e w o u l d b e endlessproblems in
determining where liability was due to reliance on
audited accounts and where not.

(cl The principal purpose of the statutory provisions for

audit and the publication of the accounts is to assist
shareholders and debenture holders collectively in
monitoring the stewardship of the directors - there is
no basis for assuming that the legislature had a
secondary purpose to provide protection for the public
at large and investors in particular.

Cd) The potential magnitude of the liability is out of all

proportion to the size of the audit fee.

(e) The primary responsibility for producing true and fair

a c c o u n t s l i e s w i t h t h e d i r e c t o r s - and it would be
unfair if, in practice, the auditors (and their insurers)
had to foot the bill on their own, or substantially on
their own.

(0

It is, in practice, difficult for auditors to obtain

adequate insurance cover.

(s) The third parties have themselves paid nothing to the

auditors - why should they be able to call the auditors
to account?

THE CAPARO CASE

(h) The scope and cost of audit work might rapidly

become uneconomic if wide-scope liability to all users
of accounts were accepted.
The Committees view
7

The Committee recognises that the House of Lords

judgment involved a careful and complex balancing of
interests - not just those of users of accounts and auditors,
but more generally the interests of professional people and
those who suffer loss as a result of professional
negligence, and the public interest in having a viable and
fair system. The principal practical concerns which lay
behind the conclusions reached by the House of Lords
included the size of auditors potential liabilities, the
difficulties in defining wider liability in any fair yet
realistic way, and the likely difficulties in establishing
whether third party losses were due to reliance on the
accounts. Bearing in mind the wide range of users of
accounts, the Committee is unable to see a practical and
equitable way in which the House of Lords could have
broadened the boundaries of auditors legal duty of care
without giving rise to a liability that was indeterminate in
scope, time and amount, nor does it consider that the
decision should be altered by statutory intervention at the
present time.

Possible ways of extending duty of care without creating open-ended

liability
8

If, notwithstanding the Committees recommendation, it

w e r e d e c i d e d t o c h a n g e t h e p r i n c i p l e s laiddown b y
Caparo, it would be necessary to amend the law by statute
to impose a liability on auditors to compensate accounts
users in general, or specified classes of user such as
investors, who suffer loss by relying on negligently audited
accounts. Those proposing such a change have suggested as
a quid pro quo that auditors liability should be
proportionate only, or that it should be limited. There are,
however, serious objections in both cases:
(a) Proportionate liability o n l y : it is proposed that the
law should be changed so that those who together
cause damage should not, as at present, each be liable
for the whole of the loss, but should each only assume
a reasonable proportion of the loss. However, there are
considerable technical difficulties in this proposition,

THECAPAROCASE

not least because not all the potential defendants may

be before the court. The proposition would also need
to be considered in relation to the law as a whole, and
there is no particular reason for singling out the
auditors for special treatment. It should in any event
be recognised that even with liability limited to a
proportion of the claimants loss, the amount payable
by the auditors could still put them out of business.
( b ) L i m i t e d l i a b i l i t y : it is proposed that the law should
be changed to permit auditors to limit their liabilities
by contract with the relevant company. Apart from any
practical problems in reaching agreement with the
company, there is a fundamental legal problem in
establishing a basis on which an auditor might found a
limitation of his liability to those with whom he has no
contractual tie. Another possibility would be to impose
a statutory cap on an auditors liability, either fixed
for all auditors or related to variables such as the size
of audit fee or the size of audit firm. However this
suggestion would be an unsatisfactory compromise.
When the cap operated it would prevent plaintiffs from
recovering the full loss suffered, whilst if the auditors
faced more claims in relation to one year than their
insurance provided cover for, they might still be put
out of business and not all the successful plaintiffs
would be able to recover the amount of the cap.

APPENDIX 7
The Committee is nrateful to the following for submitting comments on
its draft report:
Mr R J Alexander

British Petroleum Company plc

Mr Gary Allen
Managing Director and Group
Chief Executi\le. IMI plc

British Rail Pension Trustee

Company Ltd

Alliance & Leicester Building Society

Alliance of Independent Retailers and
Businesses

Mr Robin Broadley
Deputy Chairman, Baring Brothers
& co L&i

Mr Michael Arnold

Mr C R E Brooke
Chairman, Candover Investments
plc

Arthur Andersen & Co

Mr Derek Broome

Association of Authorised Public

Accountants

Mr A C Bryant
Chairman, Bryant Group plc

Association of British Chambers of

Commerce

Mr Donald Brydon

Association of British Insurers

.Association of Investment Trust
Companies
Auditing Practices Board
Mr H S Axton
Chairman, Brixton Estate plc
BDO Binder Hamlyn
Mr Neville Bain
Group Chief Executive, Coats
Viyella plc

Building Societies Association

Building Societies Commission
Mr Gavin Burnett
Burson-Marsteller
Centre for Business and Public Sector
Ethics
Chartered Association of Certified
Accountants
Chartered Institute of Management
Accountants

Barratt Developments plc

Chartered Institute of Marketing

Mr Nicholas Beale
Scifeh

Mr Jonathan Chaytor

Mr V W Benjamin
Mr A G Biggart
Mr D A V Boyle
University of Excler

City Capital Markets Committee

Mr J R Clark
English & Overseas Properties plc
Clark Whitehill & Co

Mr E A Bradman

Dr K Cleaver
University of Liverpool

Mr C B Brayshaw

Cleveland County Council

British Bankers Association

Mr Paul Collier
University of Exeter

British Merchant Banking and

Securities Houses Association

Confederation of British Industry

CONTRIBUTORS TO THE COMMITTEE

Mr P D Cooper
Coopers & Lybrand
Sir Colin Corness
Chairman, Redland plc
Courtaulds plc
Sir Michael Craig-Cooper
Mr David Craine
Mr Paul Dare
Mr P A Davis
Deputy Chairman, Sturge Holdings
plc
Mr Nicholas Dimsdale
The Queens College Oxford
Dr J P Dobrowolski
Chief of Internal Auditing, Argos
Ptc
Mr Eric Dodson
Mr Stewart Douglas-Mann
Guinness Mahon & Co Ltd
Mr J C Dwek
Chairman, Bodycote
International plc
Dr Christopher Eaglen
English China Clays plc
Ernst & Young

Mr Mark Gifford-Gifford
University of Exeter
Sir Paul Girolami
Chairman, Glaxo Holdings plc
Mr Dermot Glynn
National Economic Research
Associates
Catherine Gowthorpe
Lancashire Business School
Mr Nigel Graham Maw
Grand Metropolitan plc
Grant Thornton
Mr Donald Green
Sir Owen Green
Chairman, BTR plc
Sir Richard Greenbury
Chairman, Marks and Spencer plc
Mr T J Grove
Mr Anthony Habgood
Chief Executive, Bunzl plc
Mr Charles Hambro
Chairman, Hambros plc
Mr R W D Hanson
Chairman and Managing Director,
Hardys and Hansons plc
Hay Management Consultants Ltd

Mr Noel Falconer

Mr R M Heard
Company Secretary, BPB
Industries plc

Federation of Small Businesses

Mr A L Hempstead

Mr David Fifield

Professor Brian Houlden

Warwick Business School

Foreign Banks and Securities Houses

Association
Mr John Franks
Mr Gavin Fryer
GKN plc
Mr Matthew Gaved
The Social Market Foundation
The General Electric Company plc

Gerard Howe
Howe Associates
Mr D J Hughes
Humberside County Council
The Hundred Group of Finance
Directors
Mr A Hyslop
Group Chief Internal Auditor,
Crown Agents

CONTRIBUTORS TO THE COMMITTEE

IBM United Kingdom Ltd

Institute of Business Ethics

Mr Christopher King
Director, BP Europe

Institute of Chartered Accountants in

England and Wales

Mr G W King

Institute of Chartered Accountants in

Ireland

Mr Adam Kounine

Institute of Chartered Accountants of

Scotland

Lord Lane of Horse11

Institute of Chartered Secretaries &

Administrators

Mr John Lavery
Newcastle Business School

Institute of Directors

Law Society (Company Law

Committee)

Institute of Internal Auditors

Institute of Investment Management
and Research
Institute of Personnel Management
Institutional Fund Managers
Association
Investor Relations Society
Mr Michael Jackaman
Chairman, Allied-Lyons plc
Mr Edmond Jackson
Mr J B H Jackson

Mr Tim Knowles

Law Society of Scotland

Legal and General Group plc
Mr J L Leonard
Chairman, Eurotherm plc
The Liberal Democrats
Mr L E Linaker
Deputy Chairman & Managing
Director, M&G Group plc
~.
Mr Norman Lindsay
Mr Martin Lipton
Sir Richard Lloyd
Chairman, Vickers plc

Mr J N C James
Executive Deputy Chairman,
Grosvenor Estate Holdings

Lloyds Bank plc

Mr David Jefferies
Chairman, The National Grid
Company plc

London Stock Exchange Listed

Companies Advisory Committee

London Stock Exchange

Sir Desmond Lorimer

Mr J Jeffreys
Mr David Jinks
Group Finance Director, Cadbury
Schweppes plc

Dr A D McCann
McCann Research

KPMC Peat Marwick

Mr Colin McLean
Managing Director, Scottish Value
Management Ltd

Mr Stanley Kalms
Chairman. Dixons Group plc
MrJCKay
Mr Noel Kelleway
Kidsons Impey

McKenna & Co

Mr D S McMullen
Managing Director, McMullen &
Sons Ltd
Mr Ewan Macpherson
Chief Executive, 3i Group plc
Mr D F Macquaker

CONTRIBUTORS TO THE COMMITTEE

Mr Donald Main
Mr Geoffrey Maitland Smith,
Chairman, Sears plc
Christine Mallin
University of Nottingham
Management Consultancies
Association Ltd
Mr W H Melly
Mr Paul Meredith
Chief Executive, Phillips & Drew
Fund Management Ltd
Mr Tony Merrett
Mr Ian Michell
Mr D E Midgley

Mr B T ODriscoll
Group Chief Internal Auditor, ICI
plc
Mr J F OMahoney
Vice Chairman, Ladhroke Group
Plc
Mr P Ormrod
University of Lil*erpool
Mr G J Osborn
General Auditor. Europe. Eli Lilly
& Company Ltd
Mr Simon Pallett
Newcastle Business School
Pannell Kerr Forster

The Midlands Industry Group of

Finance Directors

Mr Bruce Pattullo
Cover-nor & Group Chief
Executive, Bank of Scotland

Rowena Mills
Rowena Mills Associates Ltd

Pensions Investment Research

Consultants Ltd

Sir Nigel Mobbs

Chairman and Chief Executive,
Slough Estates plc

Professor J P Percy

Morgan Grenfell Group plc

Mr James Morton

Mr D E Philpot
Sir David Plastow
Chairman, Inchcape plc

Mr Roger Morton

Portsmouth and Sunderland

Newspapers plc

Mr Tony Morton

Price Waterhouse

Mr Geoffrey Mulcahy
Chair-man and Group Chief
Executive, Kingfisher plc

ProShare

Mr Michael Mumford
Lancaster- Univer%ty
Mr Paul Myners
Chairman Audit Committee,
PowerGen plc

Public Interest Research Centre Ltd

Dr Derek Purdy
University of Reading
Sir Alick Rankin
Chairman, Scottish &
Newcastle plc
Reads & Co

National Association of Pension Funds

Nationalised Industries Finance Panel
Neville Russell
New Bridge Street Consultants

Professor William Rees

City of London Polytechnic
Mr D E Reid
Director-, Tesco plc
Mr Andrew Robb
Director, Pilkington plc

CONTRIBUTORS TO THE COMMITTEE

Sir Lewis Robertson

TSB Group plc

Sir George Russell

Chairman, Marley plc

Thames Valley Commercial Group

Mr David Sainsbury
Deputy Chairman, .I Sainsbury plc
Mr Saleem Sheikh
City of London Polytechnic:

Mr A R Threadgold
Chief Executive, Pastel Investment
Management Ltd
Lord Tombs of Brailes
Chairman, Rolls-Royce plc
Mr R C Tomkinson

Mr John Salter
Demon Hall Burgin & Warren,

Top Pay Research Group

Mr John Sclater
Chairman, Foreign and Colonial
Investment Trust plc

Touche Ross.& Co

Mr John Scott-Oldfield
The Corporate Consutting Group

Mr P G Totty
Mr J D Traynor
Chairman, CRH plc

Securities and Investments Board

Unilever plc

Serious Fraud Office

Union of Independent Companies

Shareholder Monitor Ltd

Unit Trust Association

Sir Patrick Sheehy

Chairman, BAT Industries plc

United Kingdom Shareholders

Association

Mr J J L G Sheffield
Chairman, Norcros plc
Mr Peter Small
Crescent Management Selection

Professor Gerald Vinten

Luton University College of Higher
Education

Society of Labour Lawyers

South Western Electricity plc

Lord Watkinson

Stoy Hayward

Lord Weir
Chairman, The Weir Group plc

Mr C M Stuart
Swiss Bank Corporation
Mr Allen Sykes

Mr F Williams
The Hon Geoffrey Wilson
Chairman, Delta plc
Mr N S Wilson
Mr Ralph Windle

The Committee is also grateful to all those who provided assistance at earlier
stages of its work. A full list of names was published in the Committees draft
report.

RELEVANT PUBLISHED STATEMENTS

Relevant published statements

The following published documents were among those drawn to the Committees
attention:
Chartered Institute of Management Accountants: Corporate Reporting -The
Management Interface (1990); Non-Executive Directors -Their Value to
Management (1992); A Framework for Internal Control (1992)
Financial Reporting Council: The State of Financial Reporting -a Review
(November 199 I)
Institute of Business Ethics: Business Ethics and Company Codes -Current Best
Practice in the United Kingdom (1992)
Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales: The Changing Role of
the Non-Executive Director (May 1991); Audit Committees (April 1992)
Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales and Institute of
Chartered Accountants of Scotland: The Future Shape of Company Reports
(1991)
Institute of Chartered Accountants in Ireland: Report of the Financial Reporting
Commission (January 1992)
Institute of Chartered Accountants of Scotland: Corporate Governance Directors Responsibilities for Financial Statements (February 1992)
Institute of Chartered Secretaries & Administrators: Duties of the Company
Secretary (1992)
Institute of Directors: Guidelines for Directors (1990)
Institutional Shareholders Committee: The Role and Duties of Directors - A
Statement of Best Practice (April 1991); The Role and Responsibilities of
Institutional Shareholders in the UK (December 1991)
PRO NED: Code of Recommended Practice on Non-Executive Directors (April
1987); Remuneration Committees (January 1992); Research into the Role
of the Non-Executive Director (sponsored jointly with the London Stock
Exchange, published July 1992); 10th Annual Review (September 1992).