Analog Communication Unit2 Vtu

ANALOG COMMUNICATION (VTU) - 10EC53
UNIT - 2
AMPLITUDE MODULATION: Introduction AM: Time-Domain description, Frequency
Domain description. Generation of AM wave: square law modulator, switching modulator.
Detection of AM waves: square law detector, envelop detector. Double side band suppressed
carrier modulation (DSBSC): Time-Domain description, Frequency-Domain representation,
Generation of DSBSC waves: balanced modulator, ring modulator. Coherent detection of
DSBSC modulated waves, Costas loop.
TEXT BOOKS:
1. Communication Systems, Simon Haykins, 5thEdition, John Willey, India Pvt. Ltd, 2009.
2. An Introduction to Analog and Digital Communication, Simon Haykins, John Wiley India
Pvt. Ltd., 2008.
Special Thanks To:
Faculty(Chronological): Arunkumar G (STJIT), Prof Praveen Chitti (JGI), Raviteja B
(GMIT), Somesh HB (REVA ITM)
BY:
RAGHUDATHESH G P
Asst Prof
ECE Dept, GMIT
Davangere 577004
Cell: +917411459249
Mail: [email protected]
Quotes:
1. Live as if you were to die tomorrow learn as if you were live forever.
2. Commitment leads to action. Action brings your dream closer.
3. Success is moving from failure to failure without losing enthusiasm.
4. Attachment is the root cause of all misery. Possessiveness is nourishment for the ego.
5. I have failed over and over again that is why I succeed.
6. Train your mind to develop a taste for the good and the godly, not for money or material
gains.
Amplitude Modulation Raghudathesh G P Asst Professor
ECE Dept, GMIT [email protected] Page No - 1
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AMPLITUDE MODULATION
Communication:
Communication is exchange of information between 2 points i.e., means of conveying
the information from one point to other. The point from where the information is transmitted is
called transmitter and the point where the information is received is called receiver.
Basic Block Diagram of a Communication System:

The information source produces the information which will be in the form of voice,
video and text. This information stored is electrical in nature (transmitter converts non-
electrical signal into electrical one).
The O/P of the information source is fed to the transmitter where a process called
modulation is carried out in which the information signal is superimposed on the carrier
signal, the modulation is then sent through the channel to the destination.
The channel is medium through which the information signal travels. The communication
through the channel may be wired or wireless communication.
If the information signal flows through wire or transmission lines, the communication
system is said to be line or wired communication system. In line communication the
transmitter and receiver are connected through cables.
Ex: Telephony, Telegraphy.
If the input signal flows through the open space in the form of electromagnetic or radio
waves it is called wireless or radio communication.
Ex: TV, Radio, Mobile.
Maximum amount of noise interfere with the information signal in the channel; Noise is
some unwanted electromagnetic energy that interfere with information signal and tries to
corrupt it, due to noise the quality of information transmission will degrade. Once the
noise is added it cannot be separated from the information.
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The noise can be either natural (lighting & radiating from sun & stars) or man made
(ignitions, welding, electric motion).Even though noise cannot be completely eliminated,
its effect can be reduced by using various techniques.
The output of channel is then given to receiver where a process called demodulation or
detection is carried to extract the information signal from modulated carrier. The
information signal is then fed to the output devices, Such as loud speaker, monitor &
printer etc.

Classification of Communication System:

Baseband Communication and Modulation:
Based on the method used for signal transmission we can categories the communication
systems as:
1. Baseband transmission systems.
2. Communication systems using modulation.

Baseband Signals:
The information or the input signal to a communication system can be analog (sound,
picture) or it can be digital (computer data). The electrical equivalent of the original information
signal is known as the baseband signal.

Baseband Transmission System:
In systems like baseband transmission systems, the baseband signals (original
information signals) are directly transmitted.
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Ex.: 1. telephone networks where the sound signal converted into the electrical signal is placed
directly on the telephone lines for transmission (local calls).
2. Computer data transmission over the coaxial cables in the computer networks.
Thus the baseband transmission is the transmission of the original information signal as it is.

Limitations of Baseband Transmission:
1. The baseband transmission cannot be used with certain mediums.
2. Ex.: it cannot be used for the radio transmission where the medium is free space. This is
because the voice signal (in the electrical form) cannot travel long distance in air. It gets
suppressed after a short distance.
3. Thus, for the radio communication of baseband signals a technique called modulation is
used.

Modulation:
Definition: Modulation is a process by which certain characteristics of a carrier (high
frequency signal) are varied instantaneously in accordance with the
modulating/message/information signal (narrow band signal).
The 3 characteristics of a carrier are:
1. Amplitude.
2. Frequency.
3. Phase.
One of the above characteristics is varies in accordance with the modulating signal.
Message/information signal is referred to as the modulating signal and the result of
modulation process is referred to as modulated signal.
Note: All the information is contained in the varying characteristics of the carrier but
carrier itself does not contain any information.
The baseband signal will modify the amplitude or frequency or phase of the carrier in the
process of modulation. Depending on which parameter of the carrier is changed the
modulation techniques are classified as follows :
1. Amplitude Modulation [AM]: Amplitude of the carrier is varied in accordance
with the instantaneous amplitude of the baseband signal keeping its frequency and
phase constant.
2. Frequency Modulation [FM]: Frequency of the carrier is varied in accordance
with the instantaneous amplitude of the baseband signal keeping the amplitude
and phase constant.
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3. Phase Modulation [PM]: Phase of the carrier is modified in accordance with the
instantaneous amplitude of the baseband signal keeping the amplitude and
frequency constant.

Need/Necessity/Reason/Advantage of Modulation:
The low frequency signal such as voice, video and text cannot be directly transmitted
using antenna because these low frequency signals are heavily attenuated in the space
and are corrupted by noise. So the message signals are always transmitted using a
technique called modulation.
In the process of modulation, the baseband signal is "translated" i.e. shifted from low
frequency to high frequency.
The modulation process has the following advantages:
1. Reduction in the height of antenna
2. Avoids mixing of signals
3. Increases the range of communication
4. Multiplexing is possible
5. Improves quality of reception.

1. Reduction in height of antenna:
For the transmission of radio signals, the antenna height must be a multiple of ().
Here is the wavelength. .
where :
c is velocity of light and
f = the frequency of the signal to be transmitted.
The minimum antenna height required to transmit a baseband signal of f = 10 kHz is
calculated as follows :

The antenna of this height is practically impossible to install.
Now consider a modulated signal at f = 1MHz. The minimum antenna height is given by,

This antenna can be easily installed practically. Thus modulation reduces the height of
the antenna.

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2. Avoids mixing of signals:
If the baseband sound signals are transmitted without using the modulation by more than
one transmitter, then all the signals will be in the same frequency range i.e. 0 to 20 kHz.
Therefore all the signals get mixed together and a receiver cannot separate them from
each other. So if each baseband sound signal is used to modulate a different carrier then
they will occupy different slots in the frequency domain (different channels). This is as
shown in Figure below. Thus modulation avoids mixing of signals.

3. Increases the range of communication:
The frequency of baseband signals is low, and the low frequency signals can't travel a
long distance when they are transmitted. They get heavily attenuated (suppressed).
The attenuation reduces with increase in frequency of the transmitted signals, and they
travel longer distance.
The modulation process increases the frequency of the signal to be transmitted. Hence it
increases the range of communication.

4. Multiplexing is possible:
Multiplexing means two or more signals can be transmitted over the same
communication channel simultaneously. This is possible only with modulation.
The multiplexing allows the same channel to be used by many signals.
Ex.:
1. Many TV channels can use the same frequency range, without getting mixed with
each other.
2. Many radio stations broadcast the signals in same band simultaneously.

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5. Improves quality of reception:
With frequency modulation (FM), and the digital communication techniques like PCM,
the effect of noise is reduced to a great extent. This improves quality of reception.

6. Allows adjustments in the bandwidth:
Bandwidth of a modulated signal may be made smaller or larger than the original signal.

7. Reduction in power requirement can be achieved.

Classification of Modulation System:
Various types of practically used modulation systems are as follows:

Amplitude Modulation:
Definition: Amplitude of the carrier is varied in accordance with the instantaneous
amplitude of the baseband/modulating signal keeping its frequency and phase constant.
Ex.: A.M. is used in radio and picture transmission in T.V etc.
For sinusoidal message signal and carrier signal the amplitude modulated signal is as
shown in the figure below

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Some of the important observation in the above figure:
1. The frequency of the sinusoidal carrier is much higher than that of the modulating
signal.

2. In AM the instantaneous amplitude of the sinusoidal high frequency carrier is
changed in proportion to the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal. This is
the principle of AM.
3. The time domain display of AM signal is as shown in Figure above. This AM signal
is transmitted by a transmitter. The information in the AM signal is contained in
the amplitude variations of the carrier of the envelope shown by dotted lines in
Figure above.
4. In the above figure the frequency and phase of the carrier remain constant.
5. Now let the AM waveform for m(t) be a square wave as shown below. Here, the
principal of AM remains same with the non sinusoidal modulating signal.

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Time Domain Description of AM:
Let the instantaneous modulating signal be represented by m(t). This is the modulating
signal of arbitrary shape which may or may not be a sine wave.
Consider a sinusoidal carrier signal/wave be represented as,

--------------------- (1)
Here
A
c
= Peak amplitude of the carrier
f
c
= Carrier frequency in Hz, and

The standard form of AM wave is represented as,

-------------- (2)

In the above expression "k
a
" is a constant which is called as the modulation index or
amplitude sensitivity of the modulator.
In the Equation (2), the term
is called as the instantaneous amplitude

of the modulated wave and it is denoted by a(t). It is also called as the envelope of the
AM wave.

------------------------------ (3)

The second term in Equation (2) is
which shows the frequency of AM wave

s(t) is same as the carrier frequency f
c
and the shape of AM wave is sinusoidal.

Percentage Modulation:
Definition: The maximum absolute value of
multiplied by 100 is referred to as

the percentage modulation.
Depending on the value of
, there are two possible cases:

Case I: Linear modulation:
Here
for all the values of t, thus
will always be
non-negative.

Removing the mod sign, expression for the envelope is given as,

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for all (t) ------------------------ (4)

For this case the percentage modulation will be less than or equal to 100%.
This type of modulation is known as linear amplitude modulation.
The Amplitude modulated waveforms for this case are as shown below

Case II: Over modulation:
Here
for some values of t.

Expression for the envelope for this case is given as,

As
envelop will reverse the phase sometimes, as shown in the

figure below.
For this case the percentage modulation will be greater than 100%.
Overmodulation introduces a distortion. Thus it should be avoided.

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Important Observations:
The envelope of the AM wave has exactly the same shape and has one-to-one
correspondence with the message signal if the percentage modulation is less than or equal
to 100 %.
No such correspondence is observed when the percentage modulation is greater than 100
%. Thus envelope distortion takes place and the AM wave is said to be overmodulated.
Due to above reason the shape of the AM wave envelope should be same as that of the
modulating signal because this reduces the complexity of the demodulator circuit to a
great extent.
The above condition can achieved if the following 2 conditions are satisfied:
1. The percentage modulation should be less than 100 % to avoid the envelope
distortion.
2. The message bandwidth "W" of the modulating signal should be small as
compared to carrier frequency f
c
which will help to visualize the envelope a(t)
satisfactorily.

Frequency Domain Description (Frequency Spectrum of AM Wave):
Below equation defines the equation for standard AM wave s(t) as a function of time.

---------------------- (1)

To develop the frequency description of the above AM wave, we will take the Fourier
transform of both side of the equation (1).
Let S(f) denotes the Fourier transform of s(t).
Let M(f) denotes the Fourier transform of the message signal m(t); here M(f) is the
message spectrum.
Thus,

---------------------- (2)

As
and

Thus we get,
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-------- (3)
Here,
= Left shifted weighted delta function Shifted delta functions
= Right shifted weighted delta function
= M(f) shifted left by f

c
Shifted version of spectrum M(f)
= M(f) shifted right by f

c

We can plot the spectrum of AM wave from Equation (3) as shown in Figure (A) below.

Here we select the triangular shape of the spectrum M(f) which is arbitrary. We can
choose any other shape. Above figure (A) shows the double sided spectrum of AM wave,
but note that the negative frequencies are imaginary, and used for mathematical
convenience. The single sided spectrum of an AM wave is shown in Figure (B) below

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Spectral Description:
Figure (A) shows the spectrum of modulating signal M(f) and the double sided
spectrum of the AM wave. Negative frequency spectrum does not actually exist.
Figure (B) shows the single sided spectrum of AM wave.
Upper side band: The portion of the AM wave spectrum lying above the carrier
frequency is called as upper sideband or USB. The frequency components
corresponding to USB range from to , as shown in Figure (B)
Lower side band: The portion of AM wave spectrum which extends below the
carrier frequency f
c
is called as the lower sideband LSB. The frequency
components corresponding to LSB;.range from to , as shown in
Figure (B)
Highest and Lowest Frequencies: From Figure (B) it is evident that the highest
frequency in the spectrum of an AM wave is equal to .

----------------------- (4)

And the lowest frequency in the spectrum is equal to
----------------------- (5)

Transmission Bandwidth (B):
The transmission bandwidth of an AM wave is defined as the difference between the
highest and lowest frequency components present in the spectrum.

Single-Tone Modulation:
Consider a modulating wave/signal m(t) consists of a single tone or only one frequency
component f
m
. Thus,

-------------------------- (1)
Here,
A
m
= Amplitude of the modulating wave.
f
m
= Modulating frequency.
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In this case we need to find time and frequency domain characteristics of the resulting
AM wave.
Time Domain Description:
Equation for the generalized AM signal is

----------------------- (2)

Putting in equation (2) we get,

---------------- (3)
Here,
---------------- (4)

Equation (4) represents the time domain description of the single tone modulation.
Here, = modulation index/depth/factor.
Figure below shows the time domain description of the single tone modulation.

Frequency Spectrum of the Single Tone AM Wave:
The frequency spectrum of AM wave tells us about which frequency components are
present in the AM wave and what their amplitudes are. Consider the equation,

---------- (1)

--------- (2)

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But
thus equation (2) becomes,

------- (3)

Applying Fourier transform on both sides we get,

---------------- (4)

Figure below shows the double sided spectrum of single tone AM wave

Modulation Index:
In AM wave the modulation index () is defined as the ratio of amplitudes of the
modulating and carrier waves and is given as below,

-------------- (1)
When
the modulation index has values between 0 and 1 and no distortion

is introduced in the AM wave.
If
then is greater than 1 it will distort the shape of AM signal. The distortion
is called as "over modulation."
The modulation index is also called as modulation factor, modulation depth, modulation
coefficient or degree of modulation.
Modulation index is expressed as percentage it is called as "percentage modulation".

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------------------- (2)

Modulation Index Calculation Using the AM Wave:

To calculate modulation index "", we must represent A
m
and A
c
in terms of A
max
and
A
min
.
From the figure we can write,

----------------------- (1)
------------------------ (2)
Putting (1) in (2) we get,

Putting the value of A
m
and A
c
we get,

--------------------- (3)

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Total Transmitted Power in single Tone AM:
In reality, the AM wave s( t ) is a voltage or current wave.
An AM wave consists of carrier and two sidebands thus an AM wave will contain more
power than the power contained by an unmodulated carrier.
The amplitudes of the two sidebands are dependent on the modulation index . Hence
the power contained in the sidebands depends on the value of . Hence the total power in
an AM wave is a function of the value of modulation index .
Total power in an AM wave is given by,

------------------------------- (1)
Here,
A
carrier
= rms value of the carrier.
A
USB
= rms value of the USB sideband.
A
LSB
= rms value of the LSB sideband.
R = characteristic resistance of antenna in which the total power is dissipated.

Carrier Power (P
c
):

------------------------ (2)

Here A
c
= Peak carrier Amplitude.

Power in Two Sidebands:

Peak amplitude of each sideband is
thus,
------------------- (3)

From equation (2) we have,

---------------------- (4)

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Total Power:

----------------------------- (5)

---------------------------- (6)

Equation above tells us about the relation between the total power of AM wave and the
power contents of an unmodulated carrier.
With increase in the value of "", total power also increases.
P
t
will be maximum for = 1 and it will be 1.5 P
e
.

Modulation Index in terms of P
t
and P
c
:
Consider the Equation

--------------------------- (1)

Modulation Index in terms of I
t
and I
c
:
The total power P
t
of an AM wave can be expressed in terms of currents I
t
which is rms
current for AM wave and R be the characteristic impedance of an antenna through which
these currents flow. Then,

------------------------ (1)

The carrier power P
c
of an AM wave can be expressed in terms of currents I
c
which is
rms current for unmodulated carrier and R be the characteristic impedance of an antenna
through which these currents flow. Then,

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---------------------- (2)

Equation (1) Equation (2) we get,

----------------------- (3)

We know that,
, Thus

----------------------- (4)

---------------------- (5)

Modulation index in terms of currents:

-------------------- (6)

Transmission Efficiency:

Transmission efficiency of an AM wave is the ratio of the transmitted power which
contains information (i.e. the total sideband power) to the total transmitted power.

------------------------ (1)

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The percentage transmission efficiency is,

------------------------ (2)

Multitone Modulation or Modulation by Several Sinewaves:
Let us consider two modulating signal,

The total modulating signal will be the sum of these two in the time domain.

------------------------- (1)

Equation for AM modulated wave is,

---------------------- (2)

Substituting equation (1) in (2) we get,

[1+
] cos2
cos2
cos2

But
thus,

cos2
----------------- (3)

The Equation (3) shows that in the AM wave along with carrier there are four sideband
components.

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There are two USB components at frequencies ( f
c
+f
1
) and (f
c
+ f
2
) and two LSB
components at frequencies (f
c
-f
1
) and (f
c
-f
2
). The frequency spectrum of AM wave is as
shown in Figure below
Thus for every modulating signal two sidebands are produced. The amplitude of the
sidebands is proportional to the corresponding modulation index.

Total Power in Multitone AM Wave:

------------------ (1)
We know that

Thus, from above equations we can write as,

--------------------- (2)
Extending the concept to the AM wave with n number of modulating signals with
modulating indices
1
,
2..,
n
the total power is given by,

------------------ (3)

Effective Modulation Index (
t
):
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Total Power transmitted is,

------------------- (A)

For the AM wave with two modulating signals let us assume that the effective
modulation index is
t
. Therefore substitute
t
for in Equation (A) we get,

------------------------- (1)

Comparing equation (1) and equation (3) of previous derivation we get,

------------------ (2)

Bandwidth with several modulating signals:
Looking into the spectrum of AM wave shown in Figure below. As there are 2
modulating signals, the bandwidth of Multitone AM wave is given by,

-------------------- (1)

Transmission Efficiency ():

---------------------- (1)

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--------------------- (2)

Let
, Then

= 0.333

Thus, only 33.333% of power is used and 66.66% is present in carriers.

Problems:

1. A modulating signal 10 sin (2 x 10
3
t) is used to modulate a carrier signal 20 sin (2 x 10
4
t).
Find the modulation index, percentage modulation, frequencies of the sideband components and
their amplitudes. What is the bandwidth of the modulated signal?
Solution:
The modulating signal
---------------- (1)
Here A
m
=10 v, f
m
=10
3
Hz = 1kHz.

The carrier signal,
---------------------- (2)
Here A
c
=20 v, fc=10
4
Hz = 10 kHz.

Modulation Index:

Percentage Modulation:

Frequencies of the Sideband Components:
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Upper Sideband:

Lower Sideband:

Amplitudes of the Sideband Components:

Amplitude of sidebands (USB & LSB)

Bandwidth:

Bandwidth

2. A 10kW carrier wave is amplitude modulated at 80% depth of modulation by a sinusoidal
modulating signal. Calculate the sideband power, total power and the transmission efficiency of
the AM wave.
Solution:
Given: P
c
= 10 kW, = 0.8
Sideband power:

Total Side Band power

Total Power:

Transmission Efficiency:

3. A transmitter transmits 10 kW of power without modulation and 12 kW after amplitude
modulation. What is the modulation index?
Solution:
Given: P
t
= 12 kW, P
c
= 10 kW
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4. The antenna current of an AM transmitter is 8 Amp. When only carrier is transmitted, but
increases to 9 Amp, when the carrier is modulated by a single sine wave. Find the percent
modulation. Find the total antenna current if the modulation index is changed to 0.9
Solution:
Given: I
c
= 8 Amp, I
t
= 9 Amp

When modulation index is changed to 0.9 then,

5. A transmitter radiates 10 kW power with the carrier unmodulated and 10.5 kW, when the
carrier is modulated by one sinusoidal signal. Calculate the modulation index. If another
modulating signal corresponding to 30% modulation is transmitted simultaneously determine the
total radiated power.
Solution:
Given P
c
= 10 kW, P
t
= 10.5 kW and
2
= 0.3
Modulation index due to 1
st
signal:

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Total modulation index:

Total radiated Power:

6. The antenna current of an AM transmitter is 10 Amp when it is modulated to a depth of 30%
by an audio signal. It is increased to 11 Amp when another signal modulates the carrier. What
will be the modulation index due to second wave?
Solution:
Given: I
t1
= 10 Amp, m1 = 0.3, I
t2
= 11 Amp

Modulation index due to second wave:

Also,

7. The carrier wave is represented by the equation, . Draw the wave form of an
AM wave for = 0.5.
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Solution:
Given: , = 0.5
Thus, to draw the AM wave form 1
st
we have to find the amplitudes of carrier, modulating
signal, maximum and minimum amplitudes of AM wave.

Amplitude of carrier (A
c
):
From given equation A
c
= 10 v

Amplitude of Modulating Signal (A
m
):
Equation for modulation index is,

Maximum and Minimum Amplitudes of AM Wave:

Wave form of an AM wave for = 0.5 as below:

8. The carrier amplitude after AM varies between 4 v and 1 v. Calculate depth of modulation.
Solution:
Given: A
max
= 4 v, A
min
= 1 v

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9. The antenna current of AM broadcast transmitter modulates to the depth of 40% by an audio
sine wave of 11 Amp. It is increased to 12 Amp as a result of simultaneous modulation by
another audio sinewave. What is the modulation index due to the second wave?
Solution:
Given:
1
=0.4, I
t1
=11 Amp, I
t2
=12 Amp.

Calculating the value of Carrier current (I
c
):

Calculating Total Modulation index (
t
):

Calculating Modulation index (
2
):

10. A certain transmitter radiates 10 kW with carrier unmodulated and 12 kW when the carrier is
sinusoidaliy modulated. Calculate the modulation index. If another sinewave corresponding to
50% modulation is transmitted simultaneously determine the total radiated power.
Solution:
Given: P
c
= 10 kW, P
t
= 12kW,
2
=0.5

Modulation index m
1
is given by:
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Calculate the total modulation index
t
:

New transmitted power is:

11. A multitone modulating signal has the following time-domain form:

a. Given the time-domain expression for the conventional AM wave.
b. Draw the amplitude spectrum for the AM wave obtained in part (a). Also find the
minimum transmission bandwidth.
Solution:
Time-domain expression for the conventional AM wave:

Substituting the expression of m (t) in the above equation,

We know that

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Applying Fourier transform on both sides,

Amplitude Spectrum of AM Wave is as shown below

Minimum transmission bandwidth:

12. Consider the message signal volts and the carrier wave
Volts.
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a. Give the time-domain expression for the resulting conventional AM wave for 75%
modulation.
b. Find the power developed across a load of 100 due to this AM wave.
c. Sketch to scale resulting AM wave for 75% modulation.
d. Sketch the Spectrum of the Wave.
Solution:
Given: message signal volts
Carrier wave volts
Modulation index = 0.75

a. time-domain expression for the conventional AM wave is:

But

---------------- (1)

b. the power developed across a load of 100 :
Expanding the equation (1), we get

Expression for total power:

Here

c. Sketch of AM Wave:

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d. Spectrum of the Wave:
Time-domain expression for the AM wave is

--------- (2)
Taking Fourier transform on both sides for equation (2)

Spectrum:

13. An audio frequency signal 10sin2 (500)t is used to amplitude modulate a carrier of
50sin2(10
5
)t. Consider modulation index as 0.2. Determine
a. Sideband frequencies
b. Amplitude of each sideband
c. Bandwidth required
Solution:
Sideband frequencies:
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Amplitude of each sideband:

Bandwidth required:

14. Am amplitude modulated signal represented by

v.
Determine the following:
a. Modulation index corresponding to each frequency
b. Various frequency components present
c. Sketch the line frequency spectrum
d. Bandwidth
Solution:
Given:

-------- (1)
Rearranging the equation (1) we get

----------- (2)
Equation for the modulation due to two sine is given by

----------- (3)
Comparing equation (1) and (2), we get

Modulation index corresponding to each frequency:
1
=0.5,
2
=0.2

Various frequency components present:
f
c
=1 MHz, f
1
=1 KHz, f
2
= 2 kHz

Line frequency spectrum:
Consider equation (1)

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Applying Fourier transform on both sides to the above equation we get

Bandwidth:

Generation of AM Waves:
The circuit that generates the AM waves is called as amplitude modulator.
There are two modulator circuits namely:
1. Square law modulator
2. Switching modulator
Both of these circuits use a nonlinear element like diode for their implementation.
The above two circuits are used for low power modulation purpose.
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Square law modulator:

A square law modulator circuit is as shown in Figure above. It consists of the following 3
essential components:
1. A summer circuit for summing carrier source and modulating signal
2. A nonlinear device
3. A bandpass filter
The summer circuit is implemented by connecting modulating signal m(t) and carrier
signal c(t) in series with each other

---------------- (1)

Their sum V
1
(t) is applied at the input of the nonlinear device, such as diode, transistor
etc. The I/O relation for nonlinear device follows square law if the input to the non-linear
device is a low level signal. Thus, square law is given as follows,

-------------------- (2)
Here,
a
1
, a
2
= device constant
V
2
(t) = output of nonlinear device
V
1
(t) = input to the system
We use a single tuned or double tuned transformer as a band pass filter.
Mathematical expression:
Putting equation (2) in equation (1)

----------- (3)
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Rearranging the terms we get,

In the above equation there are 3 frequency components:
Two terms centered around carrier frequency f
c
. They are
.
Component frequency greater than f
c.
They are
.
Component frequency lower than f
c.
They are
.
The require term is centered around f
c
and components having frequency greater than and
less than f
c
are unwanted terms.
By passing the signal through a bandpass filter which is tuned to f
c
we can select the
unwanted term and can be eliminated.
Thus, output of the bandpass filter is,

Rearranging the above equation we get,

------------ (4)
Expression for standard AM wave is,

------------ (5)
Comparing the equations (4) and (5) we get,

Thus square law modulator produces an AM Wave.

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Switching Modulator:

The switching modulator is as shown in the figure above.
Diode is used in the above circuit. It is assumed to be ideal i.e, when the input voltage is
greater than zero the device is closed and offers zero impedance. When input voltage is
less than or equal to zero volts the device is open and offers infinite impedance.
The circuit exploits the switching characteristics of the diode i.e, modulation is
produces by switching on and off the diode.
Let m(t) be the message signal and c(t)=A
c
cos2f
c
t be the carrier wave.
It is assumed that the amplitude of the carrier is much larger than that of the message
signal i.e., m(t)<<c(t), and c(t) decides the status of the diode thus the input to the diode
is,

------------ (1)

As m(t)<<c(t), the non-linear characteristics of the diode can be replaced by a equivalent
linear time varying operation as shown below

The output of the diode can be represented as,

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Thus the output of the diode varies between zero and V
1
(t) at the rate of the carrier
frequency,

The turning on and off the diode can be modeled as a rectangular train of pulses g
p
(t)
where amplitude being one and frequency is f
c
as shown below

Mathematically the diode output can be represented as

-------- (2)

g
p
(t) can be represented using Fourier series as,

------- (3)

Substituting equation (1) and (3) in (2)

The odd harmonics components are unwanted and are removed by passing them through
band pass filter. Thus, expanding the summation for n=1 we get

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The above equation contains higher order frequencies, lower order frequencies f
c

frequency terms. By passing the signal through a band pass filter we get the f
c
term.
Thus, output of switching modulator is

------------ (4)

Rearranging the terms we get,

--------------- (5)

Expression for standard AM wave is,

------------ (6)

Comparing the equations (5) and (6) we get,

In this wave AM wave is generated using switching modulator.

Detection of AM Waves:
The process of detection or demodulation is a method of recovering the message signal
from a received modulated wave/signal.
The process of detection is exactly opposite to that of modulation and is as shown in the
figure.

Standard AM can be demodulated using following methods:
1. Square law detector
2. Envelope detector
Square law detector:
Square law demodulator utilizes a square law modulator for the purpose of the
demodulation.
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It contains two parts:
1. Non Linear Device (NLD).
2. Low pass filter.
The output of the non linear device can be represented as

----------------- (1)
Where
V
1
(t) = input of NLD (amplitude modulated wave).
V
1
(t) = A
c
(1+k
a
m(t))cos2f
c
t

Substituting V
1
(t) in equation (1) we get

Out these terms the only desired term is
which is due to the
term
due which it is termed as square law detector.
The only desired term is obtained by passing the above signal through a low pass filter
we get,

------------------- (2)

Distortion in the detector output:
Another term which passes through the low pass filter to the load is
.
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This term is an unwanted signal and will give rise to the signal distortion. The ratio of
desired signal to the undesired one is given as follows,

--------------- (3)
We should maximize the ratio in order to minimize the distortion. We can achieve this by
choosing |
| small as compared to unity for all value of t. but if
is small then the

AM wave is weak.

Envelope Detector:
It is a simple and very efficient device which is suitable for the detection of a narrowband
AM signal. A narrowband AM signal is one in which the carrier frequency f
c
is much
higher as compared to the bandwidth of the modulating signal.
An envelope detector produces an output signal that follows the envelope of the input
AM signal exactly.
The envelope detector is used in all the commercial AM radio receivers.
The circuit diagram of the envelope detector is shown in Figure below. It consists of a
diode and an RC filter.

Operation Logic:
The standard AM wave is applied at the input of the detector.
During the +ve half cycle of the input:
The detector diode is forward biased.
The filter capacitor C connected across the load resistance R charges to almost
the peak value of the input voltage.
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As soon as the capacitor charges to the peak value, the diode stops
conducting.
The capacitor will discharge through R between the positive peaks as shown
in the Figure below.
During the -ve half cycle of the input:
The diode is reverse biased
The capacitor will discharge through R.
Waveform Description:
The input-output waveforms for the envelope detector are shown in Figure below. It
shows the charging/discharging of the filter capacitor and the approximate output
voltage.

It can be seen from these waveforms, that the envelope of the AM wave is being
recovered successfully.
Design Criteria:
1. Fast charging
2. Slow Discharging
The capacitor charges through D and R
s
when the diode is on and it discharges through R
when the diode is off.
Fast charging:
The charging time constant R
s
C should be short as compared to the carrier period
--------------- (1)
Slow Discharging:
The discharging time constant RC should be long enough so that the capacitor discharges
slowly through the load resistance R.
This time constant should not be too long which will not allow the capacitor voltage to
discharge at the maximum rate of change of the envelope.
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--------------- (2)
Here W = Maximum modulating frequency

Distortions in the Detector Output:
There are two types of distortions which can occur in the detector output. They are:
1. Diagonal clipping
2. Negative peak clipping

Diagonal clipping:

This type of distortion occurs when discharge time constant
is too large.
If the discharge time is too long then the detection circuit cannot follow the fast charge in
the envelop, resulting in a portion in the ve half cycle lossed or clipped as shown in the
above figure.

Negative peak clipping:

This type of distortion occurs due to a fact that the modulation index on the output side of
the detector is greater than that on its input side.
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Thus, at higher depths of modulation of the transmitted signal,the overmodulation (more
than 100% modulation) may take place at the output of the detector.
The negative peak clipping will take place as a result of this overmodulation as shown in
Figure above.
Solution:
The distortion in envelop detector can be avoided by selecting the right values of
charging time constant
and discharging time constant
.

Advantages of AM:
1. AM transmitters are less complex.
2. AM receivers are simple, detection is easy.
3. AM receivers are cost effective.
4. AM waves can travel a long distance.
5. Low bandwidth.

Disadvantages of AM (DSBFC):
The AM signal is also called as "Double Sideband Full Carrier (DSBFC)" signal. The two main
disadvantages of this technique are:
1. Power wastage takes place.
2. AM needs larger bandwidth.
3. AM wave gets affected due to noise.

These are explained as follows:
The carrier signal in the DSBFC system does not convey any information. The
information is contained in the two sidebands only. But the sidebands are images of each
other and hence both of them contain the same information. Thus all the information can
be conveyed by only one sideband.

Power wastage due to DSBFC transmission:
The total power transmitted by an AM wave is given by

------------------ (1)

-------------- (2)
Out of the three terms in Equation (1), carrier component does not contain any
information and one sideband is redundant. So out of the total power
the
wasted power is given by:
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Bandwidth requirement of DSBFC:
The BW of DSBFC system is 2f
m
. This is due to the simultaneous transmission of both
the sidebands, out of which only one is sufficient to convey all the information. Thus the
BW of DSBFC is "double" than actually required. Therefore DSBFC is a "bandwidth
inefficient" system.

Effect of Noise:
When the AM wave travels from the transmitter to receiver over a communication
channel, noise gets added to it.
The noise will change the amplitude of the envelope of AM in a random manner. As the
information is contained in the amplitude variations of the AM wave, the noise will
contaminate the information contents in the AM. Hence the performance of AM is very
poor in presence of noise.

Applications of AM:
1. Radio broadcasting.
2. Picture transmission in a TV system.

Problems:

15. using the message signal
, obtain the expression for AM wave when the

percentage modulations are
a. 50%
b. 100%
c. 125%
Also sketch the modulated AM wave for the above percentage modulation.
Solution:
Time domain expression for the AM wave is

------------- (1)

Modulation index for the above equation is

------------- (2)

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Given
----------------- (3)

To determine maximum value of m(t), we should differentiate the equation (3) and equate it to
zero thus,

Putting the value t in equation (3) we get,

Putting the value in equation (2) we get,

Putting the value
in equation (1) we get,

---------------- (4)

Case 1: 50% =0.5 thus,

Case 2: 100% =1 thus,

Case 3: 125% =1.25 thus,

Sketching the AM wave:
We will prepare a table for m(t) which contains the value of m(t) for different values of t

Thus,
t 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
m(t) 0 0.192 0.345 0.44 0.49 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.235 0.192
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Thus, maximum value of m(t)=0.5

Now let us calculate A
c
for different values of :
We know that
but here A
m
= 0.5

For =0.5,

For =1,

For =1.25,

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16. A 250 W carrier of 1000 kHz is simultaneously modulated by sinusoidal signals of 2 kHz, 6
kHz and 8 kHz with modulation indices of 35 %, 55 % and 75 respectively. What are the
frequencies present in the modulated wave, Effective modulation index and what is the radiated
power?
Solution:
Given: P
c
= 250 W, f
c
= 1000 kHz, f
ml
= 2 kHz, f
m2
= 6 kHz, f
m3
= 8 kHz, m
1
= 0.35, m
2
= 0.55,
m
3
= 0.75.
Frequencies present in the modulated wave:
The modulated wave consists of the following frequency components:
Carrier f
c
= 1000 kHz.
Sidebands of f
m1
i.e. f
c
+ f
m1
= 1002 kHz and f
c
- f
m1
= 998 kHz.
Sidebands of f
m2
i.e. f
c
+ f
m2
= 1006 kHz and f
c
- f
m2
= 994 kHz.
Sidebands of f
m3
i.e. f
c
+ f
m3
= 1008 kHz and f
c
- f
m3
= 992 kHz.
Effective modulation index:

Radiated power:

17. An AF signal 20 sin (2 x500 t) is used to amplitude modulate a carrier of 50 sin ( 2 x 10
5

t ). Calculate :
a. Modulation index
b. Sideband frequencies
c. Amplitude of each sideband frequency
d. Bandwidth required
e. Total power delivered into a load of 600 .
Solution:
Given: Modulating signal: x ( t ) = 20 sin ( 2 x 500 t ) A
m
=20v, f
m
=500 Hz.
Carrier signal : c ( t) = 50 sin (2 x 105 t ) A
c
=50, f
c
= 10
5
Hz= 100 kHz.

Modulation index ():
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Sideband frequencies:
Upper sideband f
USB
= f
c
+ f
m
= 100.5 kHz,
Lower sideband f
LSB
= f
c
-f
m
= 99.5 kHz.

Amplitude of each sideband:

Bandwidth required:

Total power delivered into a load of 600 :

18. A carrier wave c(t) = 4 sin (2 x500x10
3
t) is amplitude modulated by an audio wave x(t) =
0.2 sin 3 [ ( 2 x 500 t )] + 0.1 sin 5 [ ( 2 x 500 t) ]. Determine the upper and lower sidebands
and sketch the complete spectrum of the modulated wave. Estimate the total power in the
sidebands.
Solution:
Given:
(i) The carrier is, c ( t ) = 4 sin (2 x 500 x 103 t )
A
c
= 4, f
c
= 500 x 10
3
Hz.
(ii) The modulating signal is, x ( t) = 0.2 sin 3 [ 2 x 500t ] + 0.1 sin 5 [ 2 x 500t ]
Thus, it consists of two sinewaves. The peak amplitude of the first sinewave is "0.2" and its
frequency is f
ml
= 1500 Hz. The peak amplitude of the second sinewave is 0.1" and its
frequency f
m2
= 2500 Hz.

(a) USB and LSB of the AM signal:
The USB and LSB corresponding to first modulating signal are at,
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USB
1
= (f
c
+ f
ml
) = 500 kHz + 1.5 kHz = 501.5 kHz.
LSB
1
= (f
c
- f
ml
) = 500 kHz - 1.5 kHz = 498.5 kHz.

The USB and LSB corresponding to the second modulating signal are at,
USB
2
= (f
c
+ f
m2
) = 500 kHz + 2.5 kHz = 502.5 kHz
LSB2 = (f
c
- f
m2
) = 500 kHz- 2.5 kHz = 497.5 kHz

(b) Modulation index of individual modulating signals:
Modulation index for the first signal,

Modulation index for the second signal,

(c) Sideband amplitudes:
Amplitudes of USB
1
and LSB
1
will be:

Amplitudes of USB
2
and LSB
2
will be:

(d) Complete spectrum of AM signal:

(e) Total power in the sidebands:

Here,
t
= total modulation index thus,

Also carrier power,
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Thus, total power in the sidebands

19. The rms antenna current of AM transmitter increases by 15% over its unmodulated value,
when sinusoidal modulation by 1 kHz is applied. Determine the modulation index.
Solution:
Let I
t
= rms antenna current of modulated signal.
I
c
= rms antenna current of unmodulated signal.
Thus,

We have,

20. In AM signal, power in upper sideband is 500 W for 100 % modulation. Determine the
power in carrier.
Solution:
Given: P
USB
= 500 W, = 1
Thus,

21. An AM transmitter radiates 9 kW of carrier power and delivers at its output 10.124 kW of
power. What is the depth of modulation? If the same carrier is modulated with a sinewave of 40
% modulation then find the total transmitted power. Now if both the signals simultaneously
modulate this carrier then what is the resultant transmitted power?
Solution:
Given: P
c
= 9 kW, P
t
= 10.124 kW

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Calculate depth of modulation ():

Total transmitted power for =0.4:

P
t
when both signals modulate simultaneously:
Total modulation index is,

The total transmitted power,

22. A complex modulating waveform consisting of a sine wave of amplitude 3V and frequency
1000 Hz plus a cosine wave of amplitude 5V and frequency 3000 Hz, amplitude modulates a
carrier of 500 kHz and 10V peak. Plot the spectrum of modulated wave and determine the
average power when the modulated wave is fed into a 50 load.
Solution:
Given: A
m1
= 3V, A
m2
= 5V, A
c
= 10V
f
m1
= 1 kHz, f
m2
= 3kHz, f
c
= 500kHz and R
L
= 50

Plotting the spectrum of modulated waveform:
The spectrum of AM signal consists of three frequency components namely the carrier, upper
sideband and lower sideband.
The frequencies of these components are:
Carrier

Upper sidebands
and
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Lower sidebands
and

The modulation indices of the two signals are,

The amplitudes of the upper and lower sidebands are given by,
Amplitudes of USB
1
and LSB
1
is:

Amplitudes of USB
2
and LSB
2
is:

The complete spectrum is as shown below,

To calculate the average power dissipated in the load:

Also,

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23. An AM signal with a carrier of 1 kW has 200 Watts in each sideband. What is the percentage
of modulation?
Solution:
Given: P
c
= 1000 W, P
USB
= P
LSB
= 200 W

24. A sinusoidal carrier V
c
=100cos(2x10
5
t) is amplitude modulated by a sinusoidal voltage
V
m
=50cos(2x10
3
t) upto a modulation depth of 50 %. Calculate the amplitude and frequency of
each sideband and the rms voltage of the modulated carrier.
Solution:
Given: A
c
= 100 V, A
m
= 50 V, = 0.5, f
c
= 100 kHz, f
m
= 1 kHz
Sideband frequencies f
USB
= 101 kHz
f
LSB
= 99 kHz

Amplitude of each sideband =

rms voltage of the modulated carrier:

------ (1)
Let
----- (2)
Here A
AM
= RMS value of modulated carrier

----- (3)
Putting (2) and (3) in (1)

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25. A sinusoidal carrier has amplitude of 10 V and frequency 30 kHz. It is amplitude modulated
by a sinusoidal voltage of amplitude 3V and frequency 1 kHz. Modulated voltage is developed
across a 50 resistance.
a. Determine the modulation index.
b. Write the equation for modulated wave.
c. Plot the modulated wave showing maxima and minima of waveform.
d. Draw the spectrum of modulated wave.
e. Calculate the total average power.
f. Calculate the power carried by the sidebands.
Solution:
Given: A
c
= 10 V, A
m
= 3 V, f
c
= 30 kHz, f
m
= 1 kHz, R
L
= 50

a. equation for modulated wave:

b. Thus Equation is given as,

c. Plot the modulated wave showing maxima and minima of waveform:

d. spectrum of modulated wave:
Sideband frequencies

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Amplitude of each sideband =

e. total average power:

f. power carried by the sidebands:

26. For an AM DSBFC envelope with +V
max
= 20 V and +V
min
= 4 V, determine the following:
a. Peak amplitude of the carrier
b. Modulation coefficient and percentage modulation
c. Peak amplitude of the upper and lower side frequencies
Solution:
Given: Type of modulation: AM (DSBFC), Envelope: + Vmax = 20 V, + Vmin = 4 V

a. Peak amplitude of the carrier:
The peak amplitude of the modulating signal is,

The peak amplitude of the carrier is,
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b. Modulation coefficient and percentage modulation:

c. Peak amplitude of the upper and lower side frequencies:

Peak amplitude of USB or LSB =

27. Suppose nonlinear devices are available for which the output current i
o
, input voltage v
i
, are
related by
where a
l
and a
3
are constants. Explain how these devices could be
used to produce a DSBSC wave.
Solution:
Given:

Let
, thus i
0
becomes,

------------- (1)

As,
and

Thus,
------------ (2)
Taking Fourier transforms on both sides of the above equations we get,

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Spectrum Plotting

Double Side Band Suppressed Carrier (DSB-SC):
Definition:
Type of amplitude modulation in which the carrier is suppressed/removed before
transmission.
OR
Type of transmission where only two sidebands are transmitted without the carrier.

Time-Domain description:
Let m(t) be the message signal band limited to W Hz. C(t)=A
c
cos2f
c
t be the carrier
wave. Then DSB-SC modulated wave can represent by,

---------------- (1)
The DSB-SC waveform undergoes a phase reversal at the zero crossing point of the
message signal and thus the envelop of DSB-SC is completely different from that of
DSB-FC as shown below.

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Frequency Domain Description:
DSB-SC modulated wave in time domain is given as,

Applying Fourier transform on both-sides of the equation,

----------- (1)
The above expression represent the frequency spectrum of the DSB-SC signal as shown
below.

From the above spectrum we can clearly see that the DSB-SC comprises only two side
bands and there is no carrier wave.
The upperside band is located from f
c
to f
c
+W.
The lowerside band is located from f
c
to f
c
-W.
The highest frequency component f
H
in DSC-SC modulated wave is given by,

The lowest frequency component f
L
in DSC-SC modulated wave is given by,

Transmission Bandwidth of the DSB-SC modulation is given as follows,

Thus, the bandwidth required for DSB-SC wave is same as the standard wave.

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Note:
DSB-SC modulated wave can be generated simply multiplying m(t) and c(t) using a
multiplier circuit as shown below

The product of the modulator circuit is the DSB-SC modulated wave. This multiplier
circuit is also known as Product modulator.

Single Tone DSB-SC Modulation:
In single tone DSB-SC modulation, the message signal m ( t) will be a sinusoidal signal
and it is represented as,

----------- (1)
Here A
m
= amplitude and f
m
= frequency of the modulating signal

Time Domain Description:
The DSB-SC modulated wave is obtained by,

This is the time domain representation/description of the single tone DSB-SC wave. The
figure below shows the DSB-SC modulated wave.

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The time domain representation/description of the single tone DSB-SC wave is

Applying Fourier transform on both-sides of the equation,

This is the spectrum of .DSB-SC modulated wave, which contains the delta functions at
frequencies (
) and (
) as shown in Figure below.

The spectrum shows that the DSB-SC wave consists only of the two sidebands (USB and
LSB) at frequencies (
) and (
) respectively.

Transmitted Power (P
t
):

Transmission Efficiency ():

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Power Saving:
Due to the suppression of carrier, a lot of power saving takes place in DSB-SC. At 100%
modulation, = 1 the percent power saving is given by (P
c
/1.5 P
c
) i.e. 66.66% shown as
below
The total power in AM wave,

At 100 % depth of modulation = 1,

At 50 % depth of modulation = 0.5,

Transmission bandwidth:
The transmission bandwidth of DSB-FC with a single tone modulation is 2f
m
where f
m
is
the frequency of the modulating signal. Thus transmission bandwidth of DSB-SC is same
as that of the standard AM wave.

Differentiate between DSB-FC and DSB-SC signals:
The time domain displays of DSB-FC signal with = 100 % and DSB-SC signal look
exactly the same. The only difference between them is that in the time domain display of
DSB-SC the carrier undergoes 180
0
phase shift. This is how we can identify the DSB-SC.

Generation of DSB-SC Waves:
There are two forms of product modulators to Generation of DSB-SC namely:
1. Balanced modulators
2. Ring modulator

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Balanced Modulator (BM):

The block diagram of a balanced modulator (BM) is shown in Figure above. It consists of
two standard amplitude modulators arranged in the balanced configuration, so as to
suppress the carrier completely.
Both the standard amplitude modulators are fed from a common carrier wave
Both the standard amplitude modulators are fed with a same message signal but with a
phase reversal as shown in Figure.
The outputs of the standard AM modulators are fed to a summer circuit to get the
difference of two standard AM waves and this is the DSB-SC modulated wave.
Let s
1
(t) represent the output of the modulator with a no-phase reversal message signal as
input.

------------ (1)

Let s
2
(t) represent the output of the modulator with a phase reversal message signal as
input.

------------ (2)

The difference of summer circuit is

------------ (3)
The above equation is the DSB-SC modulated wave.
Taking Fourier transform on both sides for equation (3) we get,

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-------------- (4)
Spectrum of above equation is as shown below,

Ring Modulator:

Figure above shows the circuit diagram of a diode ring modulator.
It consists of
1. Four diodes or Diode Bridge.
2. An audio frequency transformer T
1

3. An RF transformer T
2

T
1
and T
2
are selected in such a way that they are balanced.
The diode bridge consists of 4 diodes D
1
to D
4
connected in series back to back forming a
ring structure thus, the name Ring modulator.
The carrier signal is assumed to be a square wave with frequency f
c
and it is connected
between the center taps of the two transformers.
A
c
is greater than A
m
so that the switching of the diodes is dependent upon only on the
carrier wave c (t).
The DSB-SC output is obtained at the secondary of the RF transformer T2.
Operation of the circuit:
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During +ve half cycle of c(t):
Diodes D1 and D2 are turned on while the diodes D3 and D4 are turned off.
Thus, m(t) is multiplies by +1 (amplitude of c(t)). Thus,

During -ve half cycle of c(t):
Diodes D1 and D2 are turned off while the diodes D3 and D4 are turned on.
Thus, m(t) is multiplies by -1 (amplitude of c(t)). Thus,

Waveforms are as shown below,

Time domain Description:
Using Fourier series, c(t) can be represented as,

Expanding the above equation we get,

Generic equation for DSB-SC is,

Thus,
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Time domain expression for DSB-SC wave using ring modulator is,

Taking Fourier transform on both sides for equation we get,

Its spectrum is as shown below,

From the spectrum it is clear that to obtain DSB-SC wave the output of the ring
modulator has to passed to the bandpass filter with the centre frequency of f
c
Hz and
bandwidth of 2W Hz.

The coherent detector for the DSB-SC signal:

V
o
(t)
DSB-SC signal s(t) m(t)

c(t)=cos(2f
c
t)

Product Modulator
Local Oscillator
Low Pass Filter
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The coherent detector for the DSB-SC signal is shown in Figure above. The DSB-SC
wave s (t) is applied to a product modulator in which it is multiplied with the locally
generated carrier cos (2f
e
t).
Here the locally generated carrier is exactly coherent or synchronized in both frequency
and phase, with the original carrier wave c (t) used, to generate the DSB-SC wave. This
method of detection is therefore called as coherent detection or synchronous detection.
The output of the product modulator is applied to the low pass filter which eliminates all
the unwanted frequency components and produces the message signal as proved below.
Analysis of Coherent Detection:
Let the output of the local oscillator be given by,

--------- (1)

Thus its amplitude is 1 (unity), frequency is f
c
and the phase difference is arbitrary
equal to equation (1). This phase difference has been measured with respect to the
original carrier c (t) at the DSB-SC generator.
Hence the output of the product modulator is given by,

--------- (2)
Here,

c'(t) = Local carrier = cos (2
t +)
Thus,

---------- (3)

------- (4)

Equation (4) shows that the output of product modulator i.e. m (t) consists of two terms.
The first one represents the message signal m (t) with an amplitude of
. So this
is the wanted term. The second term is an unwanted one.
Signal m (t) is then passed through a low pass filter. Which allows only the first term to
pass through and will reject the second term. Hence the filter output is given by,

--------- (5)
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Thus output voltage of the coherent demodulator is proportional only to the message
signal m (t) if the phase error cos is constant.

Effect of Phase Error on the Demodulated Output:
Consider the expression for the output of coherent detector,

In this expression represents the phase error and the amplitude of demodulated output is
.
Hence the amplitude of demodulated output is maximum and equal to
when = 0 &
the amplitude is zero when = 90
0
or /2 radians. This effect is called as the
quadrature null effect of the coherent detector. Here "quadrature" term represents the
phase difference of 90
0
or /2 radians.
In other words the phase error attenuates the demodulator output.
In practice the phase error varies randomly with time due to the random variations taking
place in the communication channel.
So cos will vary randomly and the detector output also will vary in a random manner.
This is undesirable.
Hence circuitry must be provided in the detector to keep the locally generated carrier c'(t)
in perfect synchronism, in both frequency and phase, with the original carrier c (t).

Costas Loop:

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Costas loop is a method of obtaining a practical synchronous receiver system suitable for
demodulating DSB-SC waves as shown in the figure above.
The receiver consists of two coherent detectors supplied with the same DSB-SC
modulated wave but with separate carrier waves which are 90
0
apart from each other.
The detector in the upper point is referred to as the in-phase channel or I-channel and
lower part is referred to as quadrature channel or Q-channel.
These two detectors are coupled together to form a ve feedback system designed in such
a manner as to maintain the phase of the local oscillator in synchronous with the carrier
wave of transmitter.
Operation of Circuit:
Case I:
When the local oscillator signal is in phase with the carrier wave A
c
cos2f
c
t
(used at the transmitter end) the I channel output will be

But When =0 then cos=1 Thus,

The Q channel output will be,

But When =0 then sin = 0 Thus,

Case II:
When the local oscillator phase changes by a small angle then the Q-
channel modulates an output which is proportional to .
The output of Q and I channels are combined in the phase discriminator. The
phase discriminator consists of a multiplier and low pass filter which
generates a DC signal, which is then applied to the voltage controlled
oscillator.
This DC voltage rectifies the phase difference to produce the DSB-SC wave.

Formulas:

DSB-FC:
AM Equation:

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Question Bank VTU
1. Define Demodulation. Explain the envelop detection method for AM wave with circuit
diagram and waveforms. December 2008 (6 M), July 2013 (08 M)
2. Explain the generation of DSBSC using ring modulator. December 2008 (6 M), July
2013 (08 M)
3. Consider a message signal m(t) with a spectrum shown below. The message bandwidth
w=1 kHz. This signal is applied to a product modulator, together with a carrier wave A
c

cos(2f
c
t), producing the DSBSC modulated signal S(t). The modulated signal is next
applied to a coherent detector. Assuming perfect synchronism between the carrier waves
in the modulator and detector. Determine the spectrum of the detector output when:
a. fc= 1.25 kHz
b. fc= 0.75 kHz

What is the lowest carrier frequency for which each component of the modulated signal
S(t) is uniquely determined by m(t). December 2008 (6 M)
4. Define standard form of amplitude modulation and explain the time and frequency
domain expression of AM wave. June 2009 (6 M)
5. Explain with the help of a neat sketch, how a square law modulator is used to generate
AM with relevant equations and spectrum. June 2009 (8 M), June 2014 (8 M)
December 2012
6. A carrier wave
volts is amplitude modulated by an audio wave

volts. Determine the upper and lower
sideband and sketch the complete spectrum of the modulated wave. Estimate the total
power in the sideband. June 2009 (6 M)
7. Show that a square law can be used for the detection of an AM wave. May 2010 (6 M)
8. Consider the message signal volts and the carrier wave
Volts.
a. Find the power developed across a load of 100 due to this AM wave.
b. Sketch to scale resulting AM wave for 75% modulation. May 2010 (6 M)
9. Explain the method of obtaining a practical synchronous receiving system with DSBSC
modulated waves using costas loop. May 2010 (8 M), December 2012 (08 M)June 2014
(8 M)
10. An audio frequency signal is used to amplitude modulate a carrier of

. Assume modulation index as 0.5 find:

a. Side band frequencies.
b. Amplitude of each side band.
c. Bandwidth required.
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d. Total power delivered to a load 100 June 2014 (06 M)
11. Explain the operation of coherent detection of DSBSC modulating wave and show that
the overall output
. December 2012 (06 M)

12. Consider a signal and the carrier wave
13. Write an expression for the resulting AM wave for 75% modulation in time domain.
a. Draw the spectrum of AM wave.
b. Sketch the resulting wave for 75% modulation. December 2012 (06 M)
14. An AM wave is given by
is applied to the
system, show below.

Assume that the message signal m(t) is limited to the |W|f
c
and that the carrier frequency
fc> 2W show that m(t) can be obtained from the square-rooter output V
3
(t).
December 2012 (06 M)
15. What is the significance of DSBSC modulation? Explain with time domain description.
June 2013 (04 M).
16. Using the message signal
.Determine and sketch the modulated wave for

AM whose % modulation are i) 50% ii) 100% iii) 125% December 2013 (05 M)
17. What do you mean by coherent detection? What is quadratude null effect? December
2013 (04 M)

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Analog Communication Unit2 Vtu

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What are the different types of modulation techniques discussed?

What are the different types of modulation techniques discussed?

How is an AM wave generated using a square law modulator?

How is an AM wave generated using a square law modulator?

ANALOG COMMUNICATION (VTU) - 10EC53

is called as the instantaneous amplitude

which shows the frequency of AM wave

multiplied by 100 is referred to as

, there are two possible cases:

for all the values of t, thus

for all (t) ------------------------ (4)

for some values of t.

envelop will reverse the phase sometimes, as shown in the

= Left shifted weighted delta function Shifted delta functions

= Right shifted weighted delta function

= M(f) shifted left by f

= M(f) shifted right by f

thus equation (2) becomes,

the modulation index has values between 0 and 1 and no distortion

which is due to the

| small as compared to unity for all value of t. but if

is small then the

and discharging time constant

, obtain the expression for AM wave when the

in equation (1) we get,

) as shown in Figure below.

volts is amplitude modulated by an audio wave

. Assume modulation index as 0.5 find:

. December 2012 (06 M)

.Determine and sketch the modulated wave for

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