EC 8751 – OPTICAL COMMUNICATION

UNIT IV OPTICAL RECEIVER, MEASUREMENTS AND COUPLING

Fundamental receiver operation-preamplifiers-digital signal transmission-error sources-Front end

amplifiers-digital receiver performance-probability of error-receiver sensitivity-quantum limit.
Optical power measurement-attenuation measurement-dispersion measurement- Fiber Numerical
Aperture Measurements- Fiber cut- off Wave length Measurements- Fiber diameter measurements-
Source to Fiber Power Launching-Lensing Schemes for Coupling Management-Fiber to Fiber Joints-
LED Coupling to Single Mode Fibers-Fiber SplicingOptical Fiber connectors.

FUNDAMENTALS OF RECEIVER OPERATION:

 The function of the optical transmitter is to convert the electric signal to an optical
signal.
 The transmitted signal is a two-level binary stream consisting of either a 0 (absence of
light pulse) or 1 (presence of light pulse) in a timeslot of duration T b.
 As the optical signal propagates along the fiber , it gets attenuated and distorted.

Fig. Signal path through an optical data link

Mrs.D.Padmapriya, Assoc.Prof./ECE Panimalar Engineering College

 Fig. Basic sections of an optical receiver

 Upon reaching the end of the fiber, the receiver converts the optical signal back to an
electrical signal. The basic components of an optical receiver is shown below.
 The PIN or APD produces an electric current that is proportional to the received
power level.
 Since the electric current thus produced is very weak, a front-end amplifier is used to
boost up the signal.
 After amplification, the signal passes through a low-pass filter to reduce the noise that
is outside the signal bandwidth.
 To reduce the effect of ISI and to reshape the pulses, equalizer is used.
 The sampling circuit samples the signal level at the midpoint of each time slot.
 The decision circuit compares it with a certain reference voltage known as the
threshold level.
 If the received signal level is greater than the threshold level, 1 is said to have been
received and if it is below the threshold , 0 is said to have been received.
 The clock recovery or timing recovery circuit generates a periodic clock signal with a
periodicity equal to the bit interval which helps the receiver to know about the bit
boundaries.

RECEIVER SENSITIVITY
Optical communication systems use a BER value to specify the performance
requirements for a particular transmission link application. To achieve a desired BER at a
given data rate, a specific minimum average optical power level must arrive at the
photodetector. The value of this minimum power level is called the receiver sensitivity.

PREAMPLIFIER:
The bandwidth, BER, noise and sensitivity of optical receiver are determined
by preamplifier stage. Preamplifier circuit must be designed with the aim of optimizing these
characteristics. Commonly used preamplifier in optical communication receiver are
1. Low – impedance preamplifier (LZ)
2. High – impedance preamplifier (HZ)
3. Transimpedance preamplifier (TZ)

Mrs.D.Padmapriya, Assoc.Prof./ECE Panimalar Engineering College

 1. LOW – IMPEDANCE PREAMPLIFIER (LZ):

In low-impedance preamplifier, the photodiode is configured into low – impedance

amplifier. The bias resister Rb is used to match the amplifier impedance. Rb along with the
input capacitance of amplifier decides the bandwidth of amplifier. The total preamplifier load
resistance RL = RaRb / (Ra + Rb) is the parallel combination of Ra and Rb. The value of the
bias resistor, in conjunction with the amplifier input capacitance, is such that the preamplifier
bandwidth is equal to or greater than the signal bandwidth. Low – impedance preamplifier
can operate over a wide bandwidth but they have poor receiver sensitivity. Therefore the low
– impedance amplifiers are used where sensitivity is of not prime concern.

2. HIGH– IMPEDANCE PREAMPLIFIER (HZ):

In high – impedance preamplifier the objective is to minimize the noise from all sources.
This can be achieved by –

- Reducing input capacitance by selecting proper devices.

- Selecting detectors with low dark currents.
- Minimizing thermal noise of biasing resistors.
- Using high impedance amplifier with large R b .

Mrs.D.Padmapriya, Assoc.Prof./ECE Panimalar Engineering College

 The high impedance amplifier impedance amplifier uses FET or a BJT. As the high
impedance circuit has large RC time constant, the bandwidth is reduced. The above figure
shows the equivalent circuit of high input pre-amplifier.

High-input impedance preamplifiers are most sensitive and find applications in long –
wavelength, long haul routes. The high sensitivity is due to the use of a high input resistance
(typically > 1 MΩ), which results in exceptionally low thermal noise. The combination of
high resistance and receiver input capacitance, results in very low BW, typically < 30 kHz,
and this causes integration of the received signal. A differentiating, equalizing or
compensation network at the receiver output corrects for this integration

3.TRANS IMPEDANCE PREAMPLIFIER (TZ) :

The drawbacks of high input impedance are eliminated in trans impedance
preamplifier. A negative feedback is introduced by a feedback resistor R f to increase the
bandwidth of open loop preamplifier with an equivalent thermal noise current if(t) shunting
the input. An equivalent circuit of trans impedance preamplifier is shown below.
ea(t) = Equivalent series voltage noise source
ia(t) = Equivalent shunt current noise.
Rin = Ra ║Ca.
R f = Feedback resistor.
if(t) = Equivalent thermal noise current.

Although the resulting receiver is often not as sensitive as the integrating front end design,
this type of preamplifier does not exhibit a high dynamic range and is usually cheaper to
produce.

Mrs.D.Padmapriya, Assoc.Prof./ECE Panimalar Engineering College

QUANTUM LIMIT
The minimum received power level required for a specific BER of digital system is
known as Quantum limit.
ERROR SOURCES:

 Errors in the detection mechanism can arise from various noises and disturbances
associated with the signal detection system.
 The two most common examples of the spontaneous fluctuations are shot noise and
thermal noise.
 Shot noise arises in electronic devices because of the discrete nature of current flow
in the device.
 Thermal noise arises from the random motion of electrons in a conductor.
 The random arrival rate of signal photons produces a quantum (or shot) noise at the
photo detector. This noise depends on the signal level.
 This noise is of particular importance for PIN receivers that have large optical input
levels and for APD receivers.
 When using an APD, an additional shot noise arises from the statistical nature of the
multiplication process. This noise level increases with increasing avalanche gain M.

 Thermal noises arising from the detector load resistor and from the amplifier
electronics tend to dominate in applications with low SNR when a PIN photodiode is
used.
 When an APD is used in low-optical-signal level applications, the optimum avalanche
gain is determined by a design tradeoff between the thermal noise and the gain-
dependent quantum noise.
 The primary photocurrent generated by the photodiode is a time-varying Poisson
process.

Mrs.D.Padmapriya, Assoc.Prof./ECE Panimalar Engineering College

  If the detector is illuminated by an optical signal P(t), then the average number of
electron-hole pairs generated in a time t is
  E
N 
h 0
P(t ) 
h

where,
 is the detector quantum efficiency, h is the photon energy, and E is the energy received
in a time interval  .
 The actual number of electron-hole pairs n that are generated fluctuates from the
average according to the Poisson distribution

where,
Pr(n) is the probability that n electrons are emitted in an interval 

 For a detector with a mean avalanche gain M and an ionization rate ratio k, the
excess noise factor F(M) for electron injection is

Mrs.D.Padmapriya, Assoc.Prof./ECE Panimalar Engineering College

where,
The factor x ranges between 0 and 1.0 depending on the photodiode material.
 A further error source is attributed to intersymbol interference (ISI), which results
from pulse spreading in the optical fiber.
 The fraction of energy remaining in the appropriate time slot is designated by  , so
that 1-  is the fraction of energy that has spread into adjacent time slots.

RECEIVER CONFIGURATION

Mrs.D.Padmapriya, Assoc.Prof./ECE Panimalar Engineering College

Expession for Mean Output current from Photodiode

Mrs.D.Padmapriya, Assoc.Prof./ECE Panimalar Engineering College

DIGITAL RECEIVER PERFORMANCE:

The equalizer signal is compared with a threshold level to determine the presence
of a pulse. The comparison is done on time slot basis.

PROBABILITY OF ERROR:

BER:

Bit error rate is defined as the ratio of number of errors occurring over a time interval to
the number of pulses transmitted during the interval.

Ne Ne
BER  
Nt Bt

1
Where B  is the bit rate.
Tb

 Typical error rates for optical fiber communication ranges from 10-9 to 10-12.
 This error rate depends on the SNR at the receiver.
 To compute BER at the receiver ,probability distribution function of the signal at the
equalize output should be known.
 Noise power for logic 0 ≠ noise power for logic 1.
CONDITIONAL PDF:

 y
P   is the probability that the output voltage is ‘y’ when ‘x’ was transmitted.
x

 y  y
 The functions p   and p   are conditional PDF
1 0
V
 y
 P1 V    P 1 dy  (1) is the Probability that output voltage <threshold when logic


‘1’ is sent.

 y
 P0 V    P dy  (2) is the Probability that output voltage >threshold when logic
v 0
‘0’ is sent.
 If the threshold voltage is vth , then
Pe  aP1 Vth   bP0 Vth 
Where ‘a’ and ‘b’ are the probabilities that either a ‘1’ or ‘0’ occurs respectively and
are determined by a priori distribution of the data.
 The probability that measured sample s(t 1) falls in the range s to s+ds is
( s m)2
1
f s ds  e 2 2
ds  (3)
 2

Mrs.D.Padmapriya, Assoc.Prof./ECE Panimalar Engineering College

 f ( S )  PDF ; 2  noise variance.
Mean of Gaussian output for ’1’=bon.
Mean of Gaussian output for ’0’=boff.
variance of Gaussian output for ’1’=  on2 .
variance of Gaussian output for ’0’=  off
2
.
Probability of error PO(V)=equalizer output voltage between vth and ∞.

 
 y
P0 Vth   vthP 0 dy  v f 0  y dy
th

1

  (v  boff ) 2 
P0 Vth    exp  2 off2  dv  (4)
 off 2 vth  

Probability of error P1(V)=equalizer output voltage between -∞ and vth.

vth v
 y
th

P1 Vth    P dy   f 1  y dy

 
1 

vth
1   (bon  v) 2 
P1 Vth    exp  2 on2 dv  (5)
 on 2 
From (4)
1

  (v  boff ) 2 
Pe  P0 Vth    exp  2 off2  dv
 off 2 vth  

v
Vth=
2
(v  boff ) 2
Let  y2
2 2 off

Mrs.D.Padmapriya, Assoc.Prof./ECE Panimalar Engineering College

 (v  boff ) 2  2 off
2
y2
v  boff   off 2 y

d v  boff   off 2dy 
when
(v  boff )  , y  
v
whenv  boff  vth 
2
v
  off 2 y
2
v v
y or
2 2 off 2 2

1

2
Pe  e  y  2dy
v  2
2 2


1
e
 y2
 dy
 v
2 2

 

1 2 
e
2
y
Pe   dy  (6)
2  v 
 2 2 

2 (Using standard result)
e
 y2
dy  erfc(u ),
 u

1  v 
Pe  erfc    (7 )
2  2 2 
erfc(u )  1  erf (u )
1  v 
Pe  1  erf     (8)
2  2 2  

MEASUREMENTS:

1.REFRACTIVE INDEX PROFILE MEASUREMENT:

 Refractive index profile of the fiber core is an important parameter that determines the
characteristics of optical fibers.
 Numerical aperture of the fiber, number of modes propagating within the core can be
determined from refractive index profile.

Mrs.D.Padmapriya, Assoc.Prof./ECE Panimalar Engineering College

INTERFEROMETRIC METHOD:

 It is widely used to determine the refractive index profiles of optical fibers.

 There are two methods used. They are
1.Transmitted light interferometer(Mach-Zender).
2.Reflected light interferometer(Michelson).
MACH-ZENDER METHOD:

 A sample slice of fiber is taken and both ends are polished to obtain smooth and
optically flat surface.
 Slab is immersed in index matching fluid and examined with interference microscope.
 Light from laser source is passed through beam splitter.
 The function of beam splitter is to split the incoming beam into transmitted beam and
reflected beam based on splitting ratio.

 Two mirrors M1 & M2 are used, one for reflecting the transmitted beam towards fiber
slab and the other for reflecting the reflected beam from the beam splitter, to be
viewed through the microscope.
 Optical rays from M1, are passed through the fiber slab.
1
 Since refractive index is inversely proportional to density (   ) of the
density
material, as the density of the fiber core material varies, light traces different paths of
different wavelengths.
 This is observed through an electronic microscope.
 Phase of the incident light through M2 is compared with the phase of emerging light
from the slab via M1.
 Interference fringe pattern is observed through microscope.
 Fringe displacement(q), if any due to variation in density of the core material is noted.
 Refractive index difference is given by,
q
n  ------(1)
x

Mrs.D.Padmapriya, Assoc.Prof./ECE Panimalar Engineering College

 where, q=fringe shift.
 =incident optical wavelength.
x=thickness of the fiber slab.
 n =refractive index difference.
 Graph is plotted with core radius along x-axis &  n along y axis.
 The values of  n is obtained from equation(1).
 And from the graph it is noted that the profile of the sample is graded-index profile.

GRAPH

ADVANTAGES:

 Accurate measurement.
 Detailed knowledge on refractive index profile.

DISADVANTAGES:

 Time required to prepare slab is more.

 Computation is tedious.

NEAR FIELD SCANNING METHOD:

 Near field scanning method determines refractive index profile from intensity
distribution.
 Lambertain source(LED or Tungsten filament source) is used to execute all guided
modes.
 Light rays from Lambertain source is coupled into the fiber.

Mrs.D.Padmapriya, Assoc.Prof./ECE Panimalar Engineering College

  The objective lens used in the experimental setup magnifies the image of incoming
optical rays & couples it to the fiber.
 The rays from output end of the fiber is then passed to a chopper via another objective
lens.
 Chopper is used to cut the light rays into smaller parts, So that a small portion of it
can be fed to the photo detector.
 Photo detector used here is mounted transversely, so that maximum power is detected
along the core axis and the power slightly decreases as the light rays move at radius
‘r’ away from the core axis.
 Output from photo detector is amplified by the combination of optical chopper
&lock-in-amplifier .
 Near field optical power density at core axis is expressed as P D(0).
 Near field optical power density at radius ‘r’ from core axis is expressed as P D(r).
 This is plotted using XY recorder.
 The refractive index can be calculated using the equation given below
PD r   n12 r   n22 
 C (r , z )  2 2
PD (0)  n1 0  n2 
where,
PD(r)=optical power density at radius ‘r’ from core axis.
PD(0)=optical power density at core axis.

n1(0) = refractive index of fiber core axis.

n1(r)=refractive index at distance ‘r’ from core axis.
n2=refractive index of cladding.
 Correction factor C(r,z) is incorporated to compensate any leaky modes present in
short test fiber.

Mrs.D.Padmapriya, Assoc.Prof./ECE Panimalar Engineering College

 GRAPH

ADVANTAGES:

 Straight forward method.

 Rapid technique.

DISADVANTAGES:

 Implementing correction factor C(r,z) is time consuming.

 Mode coupling differential mode attenuation can lead to error in measurements.

END REFLECTION METHOD:

Refractive index at any point in cross section of optical fiber is related to reflected
power from fiber surface at that point , based on Fresnel reflection formula.

Fraction of light reflected at air fiber interface is

Mrs.D.Padmapriya, Assoc.Prof./ECE Panimalar Engineering College

 2
 n 1
r  (Reflected optical power)/(In cident optical power)   1 
 n1  1 

where,

n1=Refractive index at point on fiber surface .

PROCEDURE:


 Laser beam is directed through a polarizer and plate to prevent feedback of
4
reflected optical power.

 Circularly polarized light from plate is filtered and expanded to provide suitable
4
spot size.
 The function of beam splitter is to split the incoming beam into transmitted beam &
reflected beam based on splitting ratio.
 Reflected beams are used for measurements through PIN diodes , and lock in
amplifier.
 Reflected power is monitored as function of position on X-Y recorder.
 Reflections from another end unobserved face are minimized by using index matching
gel.

DISADVANTAGES:

 Fiber alignment is necessary.

 Fiber end face should be perfectly flat ,else it can cause reflections.

2.MEASUREMENT OF NUMERICAL APERTURE:

 The numerical aperture is an important optical fiber parameter which determines the
light gathering capability of optical fiber.
 This in turn can be need to determine normalized frequency and number of modes
propagating within the fiber.
 The numerical aperture(NA) is given by
NA  Sin a  n12  n22 for step index fiber and

NA  Sin a  n12 (r )  n22 for graded index fiber, since ‘n’ increases radically.

TRIGNOMETRIC METHOD FOR STEP-INDEX FIBER:

The experimental setup for calculating numerical aperture(NA) or step index fiber
using trigonometric method is shown.

Mrs.D.Padmapriya, Assoc.Prof./ECE Panimalar Engineering College

  Numerical aperture(NA) is measured by calculating far-field angle.
 Light from source is coupled into the optical fiber.
 Lens is need to couple laser beam into the core medium.
 Fiber is placed in such a manner that core is at the focal point of the lens.
 Light at the output end of the fiber is made to fall on white screen.
 The white screen is adjusted to be positioned at a distance ‘D’ from the output end of
 2 
the fiber, so that far-field pattern    of output is obtained on the screen.
 d 
 The maximum optical intensity pattern on the screen'A' can be measured using vernier
calliper using ‘A’ & ’D’.
 Numerical aperture is calculated using the equation given below
A
2 A
NA  Sin  a  
 2 A 2  4 D 2  2
1 1
 A  2
   D 
2

 2  

FAR-FIELD RADIATION PATTERN USING SCANNING PHOTO DETECTOR

AND ROTATING EDGE METHOD FOR GRADED –INDEX FIBER:

The experimental setup for calculating NA for graded-Index fiber is shown below

 The fiber under test is placed in a fiber holder which is fixed in the rotating stage.

Mrs.D.Padmapriya, Assoc.Prof./ECE Panimalar Engineering College

  The output end of the fiber is positioned on the rotating stage with its far end parallel
to the plane of the photo detector input.
 The photo detector is placed 10 to 20 cm from the fiber and is positioned in order to
obtain maximum signal with rotation (i.e) 0 .
 Output power is observed and plotted as a function of angle.
 Reference signal from optical fiber is given to Lock-in-amplifier and the output of
photo detector is also fed to Lock-in-amplifier.
 The Lock-in-amplifier only amplifies the wavelength that matches with the
wavelength of reference light signal.
 The angle at which the photodetector detects maximum signal power is measured as
acceptance angle.
 NA is calculated using the equation NA  sin a x 

3.FIBER DIAMETER MEASUREMENT:

The fiber outer diameter is measured using fiber image projection (shadow method) as
shown below,

 Laser beam from the He-Ne laser source is collimated using two lenses G1 & G2.
 It is then reflected from two mirrors M1 & M2.
 The mirror M2 is fixed to a galvanometer which makes it to rotate through a small
angle at a constant angular velocity.
d
 The mirror velocity is noted by means of galvanometer.
dt
 The reflected light from mirror M2 is focused in the plane of the fiber by a lens and
the shadow is made to fall on photo detector.
ds
 The velocity of the fiber shadow is noted as which is directly proportional to the
dt
mirror velocity.

Mrs.D.Padmapriya, Assoc.Prof./ECE Panimalar Engineering College

 ds d
l
dt dt
Where ‘l’ is the distance between the mirror and the photo detector.
d
is the mirror velocity.
dt
ds
is the shadow velocity.
dt
 The sweep circuit in the set up is used to generate saw tooth signal which when given
to galvanometer makes the pointer to deflect.
 The output electrical pulse from photo detector and reference electrical pulse from
pulse generator are given to op-amp summing amplifier.
 The summing amplifier amplifies the output pulses from the photo-detector according
to the reference pulses from pulse generator.
 The width of the pulse is calculated using time interval detector.
 The electrical pulse width w e of the shadow is related to the fiber outer diameter d0 as
given below
ds
d0= we
dt
The fiber outer diameter thus determined is then recorded on the printer.

CORE DIAMETER:

 The technique used for determining the refractive Index profile can be used to
measure the core diameter.
 But for graded index fiber, it is difficult because the refractive index varies radially.
 Core diameter measurement is also possible from the near field pattern of a suitably
illuminated all guided modes excited fiber.
 The measurements may be taken using a microscope equipped with a micrometer
eyepiece.

4.FIBER CUTT-OFF WAVELENGTH MEASUREMENT:

 Multimode fiber has many cut-off wavelengths because the number of bound
propagating modes is usually large.
 The number of guided modes is given by,
2
 a 
M g    n12  n22 
 
Where,
a=core radius.
n1=core refractive index

Mrs.D.Padmapriya, Assoc.Prof./ECE Panimalar Engineering College

 n2=cladding refractive index.
 The cut-off wavelength of a LP11 mode is the maximum wavelength for which the
mode is guided by the fiber.

 The configurations for single turn and split mandrell is shown below.
 In the bending-reference technique the power PS   transmitted through the fiber
sample is measured as a function of wavelength.
 PS   corresponds to total power.
 The smaller transmitted power Pb   is measured.
 Pb   corresponds to the fundamental mode power.
 The bend attenuation ab   ,which is the difference between total power and
fundamental power is calculated as
P  
ab    10 log 10 S
Pb  

 A graph is plotted with wavelength along x-axis and bend attenuation along y-axis.
 The effective cut-off wavelength ce is determined from the graph, which is the
longest wavelength at which bend attenuation ab   equals 0.1dB.

Mrs.D.Padmapriya, Assoc.Prof./ECE Panimalar Engineering College

5. DISPERSION MEASUREMENT:

When light pulses travel along a fiber, the width of the pulses get broadened.
This broadening of pulses is called dispersion. This is because the light pulses spread as
they propagate along the length of the fiber. It causes overlapping of pulses leading to
Intersymbol Interference(ISI) which limits information carrying capacity of fiber.

TIME DOMAIN DISPERSION MEASUREMENT:

Any system needs certain input to give corresponding output. Consider a fiber
optic cable as a system with impulse  t  at input.

T
2
Pout t    P t   h d
in
T
2

Pout(t)= h(t) * Pin(t)

The impulse signal has negligible pulse width. If that impulse signal is given
as input to fiber optic cable, due to dispersive effect, the pulse gets broadened in time
domain and impulse response h(t) is obtained as shown. This is called time domain
dispersion which is measured in picoseconds or nanoseconds.

The experimental setup is shown

below:

 Narrow optical pulse is injected into one end of the fiber and broadened output is detected
at the other end.
 The power emitted from laser source varies for different modes. To make it uniform
mode scrambler is used.
 One end of the fiber under test is connected to mode scrambler and other end is connected
to optical sampling oscilloscope which has inbuilt APD detector.
 The width of the optical pulse is measured.

Mrs.D.Padmapriya, Assoc.Prof./ECE Panimalar Engineering College

 Then test fiber is replaced with short reference fiber which is lesser in length than test
fiber and the width of the pulse is measured.
 The relative pulse amplitude for different pulse width parameter are measured.
 Variable delay is used to adjust the difference in delay between test fiber and short
reference fiber.
FREQUENCY DOMAIN FREQUENCY MEASUREMENT

 Optical signal is coupled through a mode scrambler to the test fiber.

 At the output, photo detector measures Pout(f).
 Input Pin(f) is then measured by replacing test fiber with a short reference fiber.
 Output spectrum and input spectrum are compared using a spectrum analyser.
P f 
F ht   H  f   out
Pin  f 
 As modulation frequency increases, the output-optical power level decreases.
 Optical bandwidth or fiber bandwidth is defined as the lowest frequency at which H(f)
reduces to 0.5.

6. FIBER ATTENUATION MEASUREMENTS:

 Fiber attenuation measurement techniques are used to determine the total fiber
attenuation loss due to both absorption losses and scattering losses.

 The common techniques used are

1. Cut-back method
2. Insertion loss method.

Mrs.D.Padmapriya, Assoc.Prof./ECE Panimalar Engineering College

CUT-BACK METHOD:

 The experimental setup for measurement of overall attenuation is shown below.

 Light from white light source is focused to a lens and chopper and is given to lock-
in-amplifier.
 Monochromator is used to select the required wavelength at which attenuation is
measured.
 Microscopic objective lens is used to filter the light before being passed into the
fiber.
 Mode scrambling device is usually attached to the fiber to get uniform distribution of
power.
 Mode stripper is employed so that only the fundamental mode is allowed to
propagate along the fiber.
 The optical fiber power is detected using PIN or avalanche photodiode at the
receiver.
 Photo detector surface is usually index matched to the fiber output end face using
epoxy resin or index matching gel.
 Finally the electrical output from the photo detector is fed to lock-in-amplifier, the
output of which is recorded.
 The lock-in-amplifier performs phase-sensitive detection.
 To find the transmission loss, the optical power is first measured at the output or far
end of the fiber.
 The fiber is cut-off a few meters from the source and the output power at this end is
measured without distributing the input condition.
 Attenuation ‘α’ in decibels per kilometre is expressed as

Mrs.D.Padmapriya, Assoc.Prof./ECE Panimalar Engineering College

 10 p
 dB  log 10 01
L1  L2 p02

Where,

L1=Original length of the fiber.

L2=cut back length of the fiber.

P01=output power at near end.

P02=output power at far end.

INSERTION LOSS METHOD:

 Cut-back method cannot be used for cables with connectors. Hence insertion loss
method is used. This is less-accurate than cut back method.

 The launch and detector couplings are made through connectors.

 In case of multimode fibers, a mode scrambler is used to ensure that fiber core
contains equilibrium mode distribution.
 In case of single mode fibers, cladding mode stripper is used to allow only
fundamental mode to propagate along the fiber.
 The connector of short length launching fiber is attached to the connector of the
receiving system and the launch power level P1   is recorded.
 Next the cable assembly to be tested is connected between the launching and
receiving systems and the received power level P2   is recorded.
 Attenuation in decibels is calculated as
p  
A  10 log 1
p2  

Mrs.D.Padmapriya, Assoc.Prof./ECE Panimalar Engineering College

POWER LAUNCHING AND COUPLING

Source to Fiber Power Launching

Source Output Pattern

Mrs.D.Padmapriya, Assoc.Prof./ECE Panimalar Engineering College

Mrs.D.Padmapriya, Assoc.Prof./ECE Panimalar Engineering College
Lensing Schemes
• Lensing Schemes are used to improve the optical source to fiber coupling efficiency.
• Several Possible lensing schemes are:

1. Rounded end fiber

2. Non imaging Microsphere (small glass sphere in contact with both the fiber and source)
3. Imaging sphere ( a larger spherical lens used to image the source on the core area of the
fiber end)
4. Cylindrical lens (generally formed from a short section of fiber)
5. Spherical surfaced LED and spherical ended fiber
6. Taper ended fiber

Fiber Alignment and Joint loss:

 When the two jointed fiber ends care smooth and perpendicular to the fiber axes and
the two fiber axes perfectly aligned, a small portion of light may be reflected back
into the transmitting fiber causing attenuation at the joint. This phenomenon is known
as Fresnel reflection.
2
n n
Fresnel formula r =  1 
 n1  n 
Where r – fraction of light reflected
n1- Core refract index
n – refractive index of medium

Mrs.D.Padmapriya, Assoc.Prof./ECE Panimalar Engineering College

 loss in decibels is due to Fresnel reflection at a single interface is given by,
LOSSfres = -10log10 (1-r)
 Fresnel reflection may give a significant loss at a fiber joint.
 The effect of Fresnel reflection at a fiber – fiber connection can be reduced to a very
low level through the use of an index matching fluid has the same refractive index as
the fiber core, losses due to Fresnel reflection are eradicated.

 There are inherent connection problems when jointing fibers

- Different core and cladding diameters.
- Different numerical apertures and/or relative refractive index differences.
- Different refractive index profiles.
- Fiber faults.
 The losses caused by the above factors together with those of Fresnel reflection are
usually referred to as intrinsic joint losses.
 Misalignment may occur in 3 ways
- The separation between the fibers.
- The offset perpendicular to the fiber core axes.
- The angle between the core axes.
 Optical losses due to 3 types of misalignment:
- depend upon the fiber type.
- Core diameter.
- Distribution of the optical power b/w propagating modes.
 Various types of misalignment
1. Longitudinal misalignment
2. Lateral misalignment
3. Angular misalignment.
 Lateral misalignment gives significantly greater losses per unit displacement than the
longitudinal alignment.
 The effect of an index matching fluid in the fiber gap causes increased losses with
angular misalignment.

Mrs.D.Padmapriya, Assoc.Prof./ECE Panimalar Engineering College

Fig. Insertion loss characteristics for jointed optical fibers with various types of
misalignment.

Multimode fiber joints:

 Lateral misalignment reduces the overlap region between the two fiber cores.
 The lateral coupling efficiency for two similar step index fibers

2 
16n1 / n  1 
2
 1  y   y  y  
 lat  . .2 cos      1    
1  n1 / n4    2a   a   2a  

Where n1 – Core refractive index
n - refractive index of medium
g - lateral offset of the fiber core axes
a - fiber core radius.
 Lateral misalignment loss in dB
LOSSlat = -10log10ηlat dB
 Lateral misalignment loss in multimode graded index fibers assuming a uniform
distribution of optical power throughout all guided was calculated by Gloge formula.
 Lateral misalignment loss was dependent on the refractive index gradient α for small
lateral offset.

2  y    2 
Lt     for 0  y  0.2a
  a    1 
 Lateral coupling efficiency  lat  1  Lt
8
 For graded index fiber, If α = 2, Lt   y / a   0.85 y / a  .
3

Mrs.D.Padmapriya, Assoc.Prof./ECE Panimalar Engineering College

  Lateral misalignment loss if both guided & leaky modes are included means
 y
Lt  0.75 
a
 Lateral misalignment loss for step index fibers,
 y
If guided modes only, then Lt  0.64 
a
 y
If both guided & leaky modes, then Lt  0.5 
a
 Angular misalignment losses at joins in multimode step index fibers
Loss ang  10 log 10  ang
Where angular coupling efficiency,
16n1 / n 
 n 
2
 ang  1  
1  n1 / n 4
 n1 2 
 Loss caused due to fiber core diameters
  a2 
2

 10 log 10   (dB)a2  a1 
LossCD    a1  
 
0.(dB).a2  a1 
Intrinsic coupling losses at fiber joints

 When the transmitting fiber has higher numerical aperture than the receiving fiber,
then some of the light rays will fall outside the acceptance angle of the receiving fiber
and therefore they will not be coupled through the joint.
 Loss caused by a mismatch of numerical apertures ,
  NA2 
2

 10 log 10   (dB); NA2  NA1

For both step graded index fibers Loss NA    NA1 

0(dB); NA2  NA1
 Loss caused by mismatch in refractive index profiles,
     2 
 10 log 10  2 1  (dB); 2  1
Loss RI    
 1 2  2  

0(dB); 2  1
 Due to these 3 parameter, intrinsic losses obtained at multimode fiber – fiber joints is
given by,
 a 2 NA2 2  2 1  2
(dB);a2  a1 ; NA2  NA1 ; 2   1
 10 log 10
Lossint   a 1 NA1 2 1  2  2
0(dB);   ; NA  NA ;  
 a 2 a1 2 1 2 1

Mrs.D.Padmapriya, Assoc.Prof./ECE Panimalar Engineering College

Single mode fiber joints

 Loss occurred in the absence of angular misalignment, with lateral offset y is

2
 y
Tt  2.17  dB.
 

Where spot size m  


a 0.65  1.619v 1.5  2.879v 6 
2
2
 n1v 
 Insertion loss, Ta  2.17  dB.
 aNA 
due to angular misalignment

Fiber splicing
 Permanent joint between two fiber – fiber splice.
 Process of joining two fibers is called as splicing.
 Create long optical links.
 No need of frequent connection and disconnection.
 Factors to be considered
(i) Geometrical difference b/w two fibers.
(ii) Fiber misalignments at the joint.
(iii) Mechanical strength of the splice.

Splicing techniques
(i) Fusion splice.
(ii) V-Groove mechanical splice.
(iii) Elastic tube splice.
 Before splicing or connecting the fiber, fiber end face propagation
preparation is the first step.
 Fiber end must to be
- Flat
- ┴r to the fiber axis
- Smooth
 Initial techniques used are
- Sawing
Grinding 
-  - require lab to this. → Refer page no. 16 – (1).
Polishing 

Influences on fusion process

1. Self – centering effect: Tendency of the fiber to form a homogenous joint.
2. Core Eccentricity – Process of alignment
Core position the fiber
with respect to thecores.
center

Mrs.D.Padmapriya, Assoc.Prof./ECE Panimalar Engineering College

Splicing of Optical Fibers
Definition: Splicing of optical fibers is a technique used to join two optical
fibers. This technique is used in optical fiber communication, in order to form
long optical links for better as well as long-distance optical signal
transmission. Splicers are basically couplers that form a connection between
two fibers or fiber bundles.

At the time of splicing two optical fibers, the geometry of the fibers, their
proper alignment and mechanical strength must be taken into consideration.

Splicing Techniques of Optical Fiber

There exist basically three techniques for splicing the optical fibers. These are
as follows:

Fusion splicing
Splicing any fiber by making use of the fusion technique provides a
permanent (long-lasting) contact between the two fibers. In the fusion
splicing, the two fibers are thermally joined together. In this particular
technique, an electrical instrument is necessarily used, that acts as an electric arc
so as to form a thermal connection between the two.
First, the two fibers are aligned and butted in the way of their connection, this
alignment is done in a fiber holder.

After this, the electric arc comes into action as when it gets switched on then it
produces some energy, that heats the butt joint. The heating effect melts the
ends of the fiber and then the two gets bonded together.

After the two forms a bond then their junction is covered with either
polyethylene jacket or plastic coating so as to protect the joint.

The figure below shows the fusion splicing of the optical fiber:

By making use of fusion splicing technique, the splice generated losses are very
less. The loss range lies between 0.05 to 0.10 dB, both in case of single mode as
well as multimode optical fibers. The technique that provides this amount of
losses is very practical and useful. As only very little portion of transmitted
power gets lost.

However, when fusion splicing is done, then the supply of heat that is to be
provided must be in adequate amount. This is so because sometimes excess heat
can generate fragile (delicate) joint.
Mechanical splicing
The following two category comes under mechanical splicing:

V-Grooved Splicing

In this splicing technique, initially a V-shaped substrate is taken and the two
fiber ends are butted in the groove. Once the two gets placed inside the groove
in proper alignment then they are bonded by an adhesive or index matching gel.
This adhesive provides proper grip to the connection.

The V substrate can be either composed of plastic, silicon, ceramic or any

metal.

The figure below shows the V-groove optical fiber technique:

However, the fiber losses are more in case of this technique as compared to the
fusion technique. Also, these losses majorly depend on the core and cladding
diameter as well as core position with respect to the centre.

It is to be noted here that the two fibers do not form a continuous smooth
connection as in the previously discussed case. Also, the joint is semi-
permanent.
 Elastic-Tube Splicing

It is a technique of splicing the fiber with the help of the elastic tube and
majorly finds its application in case of the multimode optical fiber. The fiber
loss, in this case, is almost similar to that of the fusion technique. However, the
need for equipment and skill is somewhat less than the fusion splicing
technique.

The figure below shows the elastic tube splicing technique:

Basically, the elastic material is rubber, inside which a small hole is present.
The diameter of this hole is somewhat less than the diameter of the fiber to be
spliced. Also, tapering is done at the ends of both the fibers in order to allow
easy insertion inside the tube.

So, when the fiber with a slightly larger diameter than the hole is inserted inside
the hole then, it eventually gets expanded as a symmetrical force is exerted by
the material on the fiber.

Due to this symmetricity, proper alignment between the two fibers is achieved.
In this method, different diameters of fiber can be spliced as here the fiber
moves according to the axis of the tube.

Advantages of fiber splicing

1. It allows long-distance optical signal transmission.

2. Less reflection at the time of signal transmission.
3. Splicing provides almost permanent connection of the two fibers.
 Disadvantages of fiber splicing

1. Sometimes the fiber losses are very much higher than the acceptable limits.
2. Splicing increases, the overall cost of the optical fiber communication system.

Splicing basically provides permanent or semi-permanent joints. Also,

sometimes the two fibers are joint on a temporary basis. So, connecting the two
optical fibers temporarily is done by connectors.

Optical fiber connectors

Optical fiber connectors are mechanical devices that are placed at the end of a
fiber cable, allowing it to be connected to telecommunication equipment such as
another cable, a receiver or a light source. They align the core of microscopic
fibers together so light pulses can travel through them and allow
communication. These devices make temporary links, which means they can be
easily joined and detached.

Optical fiber connectors are used in premises installations, inside and outside
plant applications, in CATV and telephony systems to join cables and
equipment where a connect/disconnect capability is needed. Connectors are
considered the weakest link in a fiber optic system, because they mark a spot in
which signal power can be lost. So for optical fiber systems to have an
outstanding performance, well designed connectors, good terminations and an
installer with skills are needed.

There are several types of optical fiber connectors and they are all integrated by
three main mechanisms:
- The ferrule: This is the most important component of fiber optic connectors
because it holds, protects and aligns the glass fiber. Ferrules are usually made of
ceramic, high-quality plastic or metal. Of all those materials, zirconia ferrules
are the ones that offer the highest performance and durability after several
mating cycles.
- Coupling mechanism: It keeps the connector in place when it is joined to
another device. It could be push-pull or bayonet style.
- Connector body: Is the structure that holds the ferrule, the coupling
mechanism and the boot. It is made of plastic or metal.
Connectors’ end-face
The connectors’ end-face determines what the return loss, also known as back
reflection, of a fiber optic cable will be.
Return loss is the loss of power that happens when light returns from the fiber to
the light source device due to discontinuities or airs gaps caused in the ferrule’s
end-face. It is measured in decibels.

Ferrules are polished in different ways, which classifies connectors as:

- PC (Physical Contact): PC connectors are polished with a slight curvature,
which reduces the air gaps between fibers. These connectors’ back reflection is
between 30dB and 40dB.
- UPC (Ultra Physical Contact): UPC connectors also have a convex end-face,
but have a finer surface finish. Their return loss goes from -40dB from -55dB,
which makes them reliable for transmitting TV and data signals.
- APC (Angled Physical Contact): APC connectors have an 8° angle cut in their
ferrules, which makes connections between optical fibers even tighter. Industry
standards indicate that APC connectors back reflection is -60dB.
Single-mode and multimode connectors
Optical fiber connectors can also be categorized as single-mode and multimode,
and there are several differences between each other.
For starters, single-mode connector’s bodies and boots are blue, while
multimode’s are beige and APC connectors’ green. Then there’s size: single-
mode fiber connectors have 126 microns openings, while multi-mode
connectors are 127/128 microns.
And the key differences: single-mode connectors have a higher price, but also
higher data transmission rates. They offer lower distortion as well as reduced
attenuation when compared with multimode connectors.

Optical fiber connector’s types

Hundreds of types of optical connectors have been created over the course of
the years by telecommunication companies, but not all of them acquired great
popularity in the marketplace. Connectors that prevailed comply with TIA Fiber
Optic Connector Intermateability Standards (FOCIS), the specifications
manufacturers need to follow to assure their connectors will be intermateable
with other manufacturer’s connector.

SC (Standard Connector)
The SC was created in the mid-eighties by the Japanese telecommunication
company Nippon Telegraph and Telephone, but it wasn’t widely used at the
beginning because it was considered highly expensive. ST connector has a
typical connection loss of 0.25 dB and is rated for 1000 connect-disconnect
cycles. SC connector aligns fibers with precision due to its 2.5mm spring-
loaded ceramic ferrule, which uses a push-pull joining system that has given it
the name of “Set and Click” and “Stab and Click” connector. It was initially
used in Gigabit Internet applications, but was replaced by smaller connectors. It
is currently used with single mode and multimode cables in CATV applications
and telephony environments.
FOCIS-3: TIA-604-3

LC (Lucent Connector)
The LC, also known as Little Connector, was created by Lucent Technologies
and is widely used in single mode applications because it has an excellent
performance and it can be simply terminated with any adhesive. It has a
1.25mm ceramic ferrule that uses push-pull mechanism and has a typical
insertion loss of 0.10 dB. LC connector smallsize reduces space needed for
patch panels in 50% compared with SC or ST connectors, thus it is used in high
density telecommunication applications such as racks and panels, FTTH,
premises distribution, Local Area Networks, Data processing networks and
CATV. It can be used with both single mode and multimode cables, but is
favored for single mode fiber applications.
FOCIS-10: TIA-604-10.

ST (Straight Tip)
The ST was created and licensed by AT&T and is still one of the most popular
connectors used in networking applications. It has an insertion loss of about
0.25 dB and holds the fiber with a ceramic, spring-loaded 2.5mm ferrule that
stays in place with a half-twist bayonet mount, which has made common for
technicians to also call them “Set and Twist”, “Stab and Twist” or “Single
Twist” connector. ST connector is used in both long and short distance
applications such a campuses or corporate network environments and military
applications. It can be easily attached and detached due to its flexibility and is
rated for roughly 500 mating cycles.
FOCIS-2: TIA-604-2

FC (Ferrule Connector)
Designed by Nippon Telephone and Telegraph (NTT), the FC is a 2.5mm
zirconia ceramic ferrule, which stays in place with a screw-on nut mechanism. It
is available for both single and multimode fiber, but it’s widely used in single
mode applications and in high-speed optical fiber communication networks. It is
also used in high-vibration environments due to its threaded body. Its insertion
loss is of 0.3 dB.

MTRJ (Mechanical Transfer-Registered Jack)

MTRJ is duplex connector, meaning it holds two fibers at the same time. Its
body and ferrule are made of plastic and it has male and female versions that
stay in place with pins. MTRJ only works with multimode optical fiber.

MPO (Multi-fiber Push-on)

Is a multi-fiber connector that brings together from 12 to 24 fibers in a single
rectangular ferrule and is used for building 40Gb to 100Gb optical parallel
connections. It comes in UPC and APC versions. A male MPO connector has
two pins on its ferrule tip, while females has two holes. Its typical insertion lost
is 0.25dB.
 other optical fiber.The last part of the definition is included so as not to confuse
multi-fiber connectors with a branching component, such as a coupler. The latter
joins one optical fiber to two or more other optical fibers.Multi-fiber optical
connectors are designed to be used wherever quick and/or repetitive connects and
disconnects of a group of fibers are needed. Applications include
telecommunications companies’ Central Offices (COs), installations on customer
premises, and Outside Plant (OSP) applications.The multi-fiber optical connector
can be used in the creation of a low-cost switch for use in fiber optical testing.
Another application is in cables delivered to a user with preterminated multi-fiber
jumpers. This would reduce the need for field splicing, which could greatly
reduce the number of hours necessary for placing an optical fiber cable in a
telecommunications network. This, in turn, would result in savings for the
installer of such cable.

Definition of Return Loss In technical terms, RL is the ratio of the light

reflected back from a device under test, Pout, to the light launched into that
device, Pin, usually expressed as a negative number in dB. RL = 10
log10(Pout/Pin) where is the reflected power and is the incident, or input, power.
Sources of loss include reflections and scattering along the fiber network. A
typical RL value for an Angled Physical Contact (APC) connector is about -
55dB, while the RL from an open flat polish to air is typically about -14dB. High
RL is a large concern in high bitrate digital or analog single mode systems and is
also an indication of a potential failure point, or compromise, in any optical
network. UNIVERSITY QUESTIONS
PART – A
1. Define Quantum limit (Q). (May-June 2013) (R)
2. What are the error sources in fiber optic receiver? (May-June 2013, Nov-Dec 2012)
(R)
3. Define BER. (Nov-Dec 2016, April-May 2015) (R)
4. What is Cut-back method? (Nov-Dec 2016) (R)
5. List any two advantages of trans-impedance amplifiers. (Apr-May 2015) (U)
6. State the significance of maintaining the fiber outer diameter constant.(Nov-Dec
2014) (R)
7. Draw and describe the operation of fiber optic receiver. (Nov-Dec 2015) (U)
8. Mention few fiber diameter measurement techniques. (Nov-Dec 2015) (R)
9. A digital fiber optic link operating at 1310 nm, requires a maximum BER of 10 -8.
Calculate the required average photons per pulse. (Nov- Dec 2013) (U)
10. The photo detector output in a cutback attenuation set up is 3.3V at the far end of the
fiber. After cutting the fiber at the near end, 5 m from the far end, photo detector
output read was 3.92 V. What is the attenuation of fiber in dB/km? (Nov-Dec 2013) (U)
11. Define receiver sensitivity. (Nov-Dec 2017) (R)
12. Draw the generic structure of Transimpedance amplifier. (Nov-Dec 2017) (R)

Mrs.D.Padmapriya, Assoc.Prof./ECE Panimalar Engineering College

 13. Give some possible lensing schemes to improve optical source to fiber coupling
efficiency. (Nov-Dec 2012) (R)

Part – B
1. Explain the different methods employed in measuring the attenuation in optical fiber
with neat block diagram. (Nov-Dec 2016) (U)
2. What are the performance measures of a digital receiver? Derive an expression for bit
error rate of a digital receiver. (Nov-Dec 2016,Nov-Dec 2015) (AZ)
3. Explain how attenuation and dispersion measurements could be done. (Nov-Dec
2015, Nov-Dec 2013, Nov-Dec 2017) (U)
4. With a typical experimental arrangement, brief the measurement process of diameter
of the fiber. (Apr-May 2018) (U)
5. Draw the three types of front end optical amplifiers (preamplifiers) and
explain. (May-June 2013, Nov-Dec 2012, Nov-Dec 2013) (U)
6. Explain with a neat block diagram, the measurement of
a. Numerical aperture and acceptance angle. (Nov-Dec 2014, Nov-Dec 2017)
(U)
b. Refractive index profile. (Nov-Dec 2012, Nov-Dec 2014) (U)
7. With schematic diagram, explain the blocks and their functions of an optical
receiver. (Apr-May 2015, Nov-Dec 2014) (U)
8. A digital fibre optic link operationg at 850nm requires a maximum BER of
. Find the quantum limit in terms of the quantum efficiency of the
detector and the energy of the incident photon. (Apr-May 2015) (E)
9. Write detailed notes on the following. (May-June 2013) (U)
i. Fibre refractive index profile measurement.
ii. Fibre cut of wavelength measurement.
10. Write notes on cut-off wavelength measurement. (Nov-Dec 2012) (U)
11. Discuss the different structures of receiver in the optical fiber communication with
neat diagram. (Apr-May 2018) (U)
12. What is fiber splicing? Discuss about fusion splicing and mechanical splicing. (Nov-
Dec 2016, Apr-May 2018) (U)
13. Illustrate the different lensing schemes available to improve the power coupling
efficiency. (Apr-May 2018) (U)
14. What are the different types of fiber splices and misalignments. (R)
15. Describe the various types of fiber connectors and couplers. (May-June 2013) (U)
16. Explain fiber alignment and joint losses. (May-June 2013) (U)
17. Describe various fiber splicing techniques with their diagrams. (May-June 2013)
(U)
18. Describe the three types of fiber misalignment that contribute to insertion loss at an
optical fiber joint. (Nov-Dec 2014) (U)

Mrs.D.Padmapriya, Assoc.Prof./ECE Panimalar Engineering College