No.

01-332

In The
Supreme Court of the United States
----------------

BOARD OF EDUCATION OF IND. SCHOOL DIST.

NO. 92 OF POTTAWATOMIE COUNTY, et al.,
Petitioners,

v.

LINDSAY EARLS, et al., etc.,

Respondents.

---------------
On Writ of Certiorari
to the United States Court of Appeals
for the Tenth Circuit
---------------
BRIEF AMICUS CURIAE OF
NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF CRIMINAL DEFENSE LAWYERS,
NATIONAL ORGANIZATION FOR THE REFORM OF MARIJUANA LAWS,
THE CATO INSTITUTE, AND
COMMON SENSE FOR DRUG POLICY IN SUPPORT OF RESPONDENTS
---------------

JOHN WESLEY HALL, JR.* DONNA M. SHEA, Legal TIMOTHY LYNCH

523 West Third St. Director THE CATO INSTITUTE
Little Rock, AR 72201 NORML FOUNDATION 1000 Mass. Ave., NW
(501) 371-9131 1001 Conn. Ave., NW Washington, DC 20001
Counsel for NACDL Washington, DC 20036 (202) 842-0200
(202) 483-8751
LISA B. KEMLER KEVIN B. ZEESE, President
108 N. Alfred St. MICHAEL D. CUTLER COMMON SENSE FOR DRUG
Alexandria, VA 22314 46 Kenwood St. POLICY
(703) 684-8000 Brookline, MA 02446 1327 Harvard, NW (lower)
Counsel for NACDL (617) 738-1722 Washington, DC 20009
Counsel for NORML (202) 299-9780
* Counsel of Record
 i
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Table of Authorities ..........................................................................................................................

Interest of Amici Curiae ....................................................................................................................

Summary of the Argument................................................................................................................

Argument...........................................................................................................................................

SUSPICIONLESS URINE TESTING OF NON-ATHLETE STUDENTS “DOES

NOT FIT WITHIN THE CLOSELY GUARDED CATEGORY OF
CONSTITUTIONALLY PERMISSIBLE SUSPICIONLESS SEARCHES” AND
THUS VIOLATES THE FOURTH AMENDMENT. ..........................................................
A. Our historical constitutional heritage is based on and incorporates a right
of privacy–“the right to be let alone” .......................................................................
B. The requirement of individualized suspicion vs. special needs in urine
testing
C. Vernonia applied .......................................................................................................
1. The “nature of the privacy interest” ..................................................
2. “Character of the intrusion” is significant.........................................
3. “Nature and immediacy of the governmental concern . . . and the
efficacy of this means for meeting it” ...........................................................
a. The “drug problem” at Tecumseh is virtually non-existent .............
b. The testing program here is both over- and under-inclusive ............
c. This testing program is not swift enough to justify
dispensing with individualized suspicion under T.L.O.....................

d.
This drug testing program sets a poor example for the
students..............................................................................................
D. Reasonableness—the ultimate question in any warrantless search...........................

Conclusion.........................................................................................................................................
 ii
TABLE OF AUTHORITIES

CASES:

Bartnick v. Vopper, 121 S.Ct. 1753 (2001).......................................................................................

Bond v. United States, 529 U.S. 334 (2000) .....................................................................................

Boyd v. United States, 116 U.S. 616 (1886)......................................................................................

California Bankers Assn. v. Shultz, 416 U.S. 21 (1974) ...................................................................

Chandler v. Miller, 520 U.S. 304 (1997) ..........................................................................................

City of Indianapolis v. Edmond, 531 U.S. 32 (2000) .......................................................................

Davis v. Mississippi, 394 U.S. 721 (1969) .......................................................................................

Delaware v. Prouse, 440 U.S. 648 (1979) .......................................................................................

Donovan v. Dewey, 452 U.S. 594 (1981)..........................................................................................

Earls v. Bd. of Education of Tecumseh Public School Dist., 242 F.3d 1264 (10th Cir. 2001) .........

Eisenstadt v. Baird, 405 U.S. 438 (1972)..........................................................................................

Entick v. Carrington, 19 How. St. Tr. 1029, 95 Eng. Rep. 807 (K.B. 1765)....................................

Ferguson v. City of Charleston, 121 S.Ct. 1281 (2001) ...................................................................

Griffin v. Wisconsin, 483 U.S. 868 (1987) .......................................................................................

Hill v. Colorado, 530 U.S. 703 (2000) .............................................................................................

Hurtado v. California, 110 U.S. 516 (1884) .....................................................................................

Katz v. United States, 389 U.S. 347 (1967).......................................................................................

Kyllo v. United States, 121 S.Ct. 2038 (2001) ..................................................................................

Marcus v. Search Warrant of Property, 367 U.S. 717 (1961) ..........................................................

Michigan Dept. of State Police v. Sitz, 496 U.S. 444 (1990) ............................................................
 iii
Minnesota v. Olson, 485 U.S. 91 (1990)...........................................................................................

National Treasury Employees Union v. Von Raab, 489 U.S. 656 (1989) ........................................

National Treasury Employees Union v. Von Raab, 816 F. 2d 170 (5th Cir. 1987) ..........................

New Jersey v. T.L.O., 469 U.S. 325 (1985).......................................................................................

Olmstead v. United States, 277 U.S. 438 (1928)...............................................................................

O’Connor v. Ortega, 480 U.S. 709 (1987)........................................................................................

Poe v. Ullman, 367 U.S. 497 (1961) ................................................................................................

Rakas v. Illinois, 439 U.S. 128 (1978) ..............................................................................................

Rowan v. U.S. Post Office Dept., 397 U.S. 728 (1970).....................................................................

Skinner v. Railway Labor Executives’ Assn., 489 U.S. 602 (1989) .................................................

Stanley v. Georgia, 394 U.S. 557 (1969) ..........................................................................................

Tehan v. United States ex rel. Shott, 382 U.S. 406 (1966)................................................................

Trinidad School Dist. No. 1 v. Lopez, 963 P.2d 1095 (Colo.1998)...................................................

Union Pac. Ry. Co. v. Botsford, 141 U.S. 251 (1891) ......................................................................

United States v. Chadwick, 433 U.S. 1 (1977)..................................................................................

United States v. Jacobsen, 466 U.S. 109 (1984) ...............................................................................

United States v. Morton Salt Co., 338 U.S. 632 (1950) ....................................................................

Vernonia School District 47J v. Acton, 515 U.S. 646 (1995) ..........................................................

Wilkes v. Wood, 19 How. St. Tr. 1153, 98 Eng. Rep. 489 (K.B. 1763) ............................................

Winston v. Lee, 470 U.S. 753 (1985) ................................................................................................

CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS:
 iv
First Amendment...............................................................................................................................

Fourth Amendment ...........................................................................................................................

Fifth Amendment ..............................................................................................................................

Fourteenth Amendment.....................................................................................................................

RULES:

S.Ct. Rule 29.6 ..................................................................................................................................

S.Ct. Rule 37.6 ..................................................................................................................................

OTHER AUTHORITIES:

2 LEGAL PAPERS OF JOHN ADAMS 106-47 (1965) .............................................................................

THOMAS COOLEY, CONSTITUTIONAL LIMITATIONS ..........................................................................

3 WILLIAM J. CUDDIHY, THE FOURTH AMENDMENT: ORIGINS AND ORIGINAL MEANING,

602-1791 at 1402-03 (1990)..................................................................................................

Griswold, The Right to Be Let Alone, 55 NW.U.L.REV. 216 (1960).................................................

LANDYNSKI, SEARCH AND SEIZURE AND THE SUPREME COURT ch. 1 (1966) ....................................

LASSON, THE HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE FOURTH AMENDMENT TO THE

CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES ch. 1–3 (1937).........................................................

Ralph D. Mawdsley & Charles J. Russo, Random Drug Testing and Extracurricular
Activities, 159 EDUC. L. REP. 1 (2002) .................................................................................

James M. McCray, Urine Trouble! Extending Constitutionality to Mandatory Suspicion-

less Drug Testing of Students in Extracurricular Activities, 53 VAND. L. REV. 387
(2000) ....................................................................................................................................

Joanna Raby, Reclaiming Our Public Schools: A Proposal for School-Wide Testing, 21
CARDOZO L. REV. 999 (1999)
 v
Prosser, Privacy, 48 CALIF.L.REV. 391 (1960) .................................................................................

Warren & Brandeis, The Right to Privacy, 4 HARV.L.REV. 193 (1890)...........................................

 1
INTEREST OF AMICI CURIAE

All four of the amici curiae are nonpartisan organizations that oppose and have taken

public stands against suspicionless drug testing. Their members are deeply concerned that the

“war on drugs” has become a war on personal privacy and the Fourth Amendment. These

groups have diverse backgrounds and constituencies which are allied in this common cause:

The National Association of Criminal Defense Lawyers (NACDL; www.nacdl.org) is the

preeminent bar organization advancing the mission of the nation’s criminal defense lawyers to

ensure justice and due process for persons accused of crime. Founded in 1958, NACDL has

more than 10,000 lawyer members and 80 state and local affiliate organizations with 28,000

lawyer members committed to preserving the Bill of Rights. The American Bar Association

recognizes NACDL as an affiliate organization on its House of Delegates. NACDL promotes

study and research in the field of criminal law. In furtherance of its objectives over the past

decade, NACDL annually files approximately ten amicus briefs with this Court on criminal

justice and personal privacy issues.

The National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws (NORML;

www.norml.org) was organized in 1970, and participates in the public policy debate over

marijuana policy for the tens of millions of adult Americas who use marijuana responsibly.

NORML lobbies for the rights of marijuana users and other taxpayers and voters who oppose

current prohibition policies. NORML has thousands of financial supporters from every state. It

also has a grassroots political network of more than 18,000 volunteer activists, including 60 state

and local affiliated organizations, who oppose the criminal prohibition of marijuana.
 2
Accordingly, they also oppose indiscriminate testing of individuals for drugs by the government.

NORML has filed amicus briefs in this Court on personal privacy issues in drug cases.

The Cato Institute (www.cato.org), organized in 1977, is a nonpartisan public policy

research foundation dedicated to individual liberty, free markets, and limited constitutional

government. Cato Institute scholars have published several books, policy papers, articles, and

law review articles on how “prohibition on certain drugs has effected direct repercussions on

domestic . . . policy, criminal justice, public safety, personal liberty, health care, and countless

other spheres of society.” The Cato Institute has filed several amicus briefs in this Court.

Common Sense for Drug Policy (www.csdp.org) is an educational organization that

focuses on providing the public and policy makers with accurate information in an effort to

develop more effective drug policies. Common Sense believes that drug abuse should be primar-

ily treated as a public health issue rather than a law enforcement issue.

The parties have consented to the filing of this amici brief on behalf of the respondents

and the letter of consent is already filed with the Clerk.1

1
Pursuant to S.Ct. Rule 37.6, counsel certifies that no counsel for a party authored any
part of this brief. No person or entity other than amici made a monetary contribution to the
preparation or submission of the brief.
Pursuant to S.Ct. Rule 29.6, all four amici are nonprofit corporations. None has a parent
corporation, and none is a publicly held corporation, nor does a publicly held company own 10%
or more of their stock.
 3
SUMMARY OF THE ARGUMENT

Suspicionless urine testing of non-athlete students “does not fit without the closely

guarded category of constitutionally permissible suspicionless searches.” Chandler v. Miller,

520 U.S. 304, 309 (1997). While Vernonia School Dist. 47J v. Acton, 515 U.S. 646 (1995),

permits drug testing of student athletes, it cannot be read to permit drug testing of all students

involved in extracurricular activities because the justifications recognized by this Court in Ver-

nonia have no application to these other students.

Individualized suspicion of wrongdoing is normally required before a search may be

conducted. “Special needs” may justify dispensing with individualized suspicion in narrowly

drawn situations, if the privacy interest is minimal and the means of achieving it serves those

ends.

The privacy interest in one’s urine is significant. The students here are required to

urinate into a cup while a teacher listens outside the stall (girls) or behind them (boys) for sounds

of tampering. When it is produced, the teacher feels the cup for temperature of the urine and

holds it up to the light to examine it. The student has to produce a list of prescription

medications for the testing company to check for false positives. This is all still a significant

intrusion.

Students in these extracurricular activities cannot be compared to the student athletes in

Vernonia to determine whether they have a lesser expectation of privacy. Athletes use

communal locker rooms and showers, but the Athletic Team, Band, and Choir do not. Simply by

participating in after-school activities, these students cannot be said to have sacrificed their
 4
expectation of privacy that society expects and requires and then become subject to random drug

testing.

The selection of all students in any extracurricular activity has the vice of being both

over- and under-inclusive. The Academic Team is hardly a likely source of students who will be

drug abusers. If they were drug abusers, they would not perform well enough to be on the Aca-

demic Team in the first place. Because they are not involved in extracurricular activities, the

policy exempts students involved in all the science laboratories and any shop activities. A

student mixing potentially toxic chemicals, putting an engine in a car, or handling sharp metal or

an acetylene torch is more of a threat to him or herself or others if under the influence than

someone on the Academic Team.

Reasonableness is the ultimate question in any warrantless search. This testing program

is unreasonable because it singles out students for testing who are more likely not to be a threat

of being drug abusers and leaves untested those who more logically should be tested. Therefore,

this test is not narrowly drawn to satisfy any governmental interest, so it fails under Vernonia.
 5
ARGUMENT

SUSPICIONLESS URINE TESTING OF NON-ATHLETE STUDENTS “DOES

NOT FIT WITHIN THE CLOSELY GUARDED CATEGORY OF

CONSTITUTIONALLY PERMISSIBLE SUSPICIONLESS SEARCHES” AND THUS

VIOLATES THE FOURTH AMENDMENT.

This case involves the tension between the liberty of the individual to be free from a

suspicionless drug testing search and the petitioner school district’s asserted justification of

protection of our children from drugs under the “special needs” exception. Both interests are

weighty in their own right, but, in the end, after conducting a “context specific” inquiry, the need

to protect all school children from drugs cannot overcome the constitutional need for

individualized suspicion for a drug test.

The justification for testing of student athletes has no application to testing students in

any extracurricular activity the school chooses. Without individualized suspicion, all public

school students could ultimately be subjected to drug searches to test their urine, and that is not

faithful to our societal understandings of what we expect from our government and the history of

the Fourth Amendment.

A. Our historical constitutional heritage is based on and incorporates a right of

privacy–“the right to be let alone”

 6
The desire to be free from arbitrary governmental interference into our personal property

and our personal doings was one of the main reasons, as an English Colony, we declared our

independence and fought the American Revolution. The full history of the struggle against

government-issued writs of assistance to search for smuggled goods or controversial writings has

been recounted elsewhere, and it will not be repeated here.2 Suffice it to say that, by 1765, writs

of assistance and general warrants both in England and here created great resentment among the

colonists and English subjects. First in Wilkes v. Wood, 19 How. St. Tr. 1153, 98 Eng. Rep. 489

(K.B. 1763), and shortly thereafter in Entick v. Carrington, 19 How. St. Tr. 1029, 95 Eng. Rep.

807 (K.B. 1765), English government officers executing general warrants for unnamed persons

and papers were held liable in trespass, and the judgments in those cases were widely circulated

and applauded, both there and here for their expressions of limits on the unrestrained powers of

government over individual privacy. See Boyd v. United States, 116 U.S. 616, 627-28 (1886);

Marcus v. Search Warrant of Property, 367 U.S. 717, 724-29 (1961).

The abuses of government in the two decades prior to the Declaration of Independence

and the American Revolution were obviously still fresh on the drafters’ minds when the

Constitutional Convention met. When the Constitution was sent to the states and adopted in

1789, it was only with the understanding that a Bill of Rights would shortly follow. The whole

point of the adoption of the Fourth Amendment was to free Americans from a history of

seriously ingrained distrust of government officials conducting warrantless and “unreasonable

2
Unrestrained search and seizure was one of the causes of the American Revolution.
LASSON, THE HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE FOURTH AMENDMENT TO THE CONSTITUTION
OF THE UNITED STATES ch. 1–3 (1937), and LANDYNSKI, SEARCH AND SEIZURE AND THE
SUPREME COURT ch. 1 (1966). The colonial experience with the law of search and seizure is also
recounted in 2 LEGAL PAPERS OF JOHN ADAMS 106-47 (1965).
 7
searches.” 3 WILLIAM J. CUDDIHY, THE FOURTH AMENDMENT: ORIGINS AND ORIGINAL

MEANING, 602-1791 at 1402-03 (1990).

This history was, of course, part of the intellectual matrix within which our own constitu-

tional fabric was shaped. The Bill of Rights was fashioned against the background of

knowledge that unrestricted power of search and seizure could also be an instrument of

stifling liberty of expression.

Marcus, 367 U.S. at 729.

There is a basic right to privacy in this nation, “the right to be let alone,” and it runs

throughout our law of individual liberty. Whatever its original, pre-Constitutional source, be it

in the common law3 or the law of torts,4 government must recognize that certain privacy rights

are beyond its reach.

The phrase “the right to be let alone” was first used in a tort case, quoting Judge Cool-

ey’s5 torts treatise, Union Pac. Ry. Co. v. Botsford, 141 U.S. 251 (1891), where the railroad

sought a physical examination of an injured passenger. This Court affirmed the lower court’s

3
See Union Pac. Ry. Co. v. Botsford, infra; Poe v. Ullman, 367 U.S. 497, 521 & n.12
(1961) (DOUGLAS, J., dissenting) (“The notion of privacy is not drawn from the blue. [n.12: The
right ‘to be let alone’ had many common-law overtones.] It emanates from the totality of the
constitutional scheme under which we live.”) & 543 (HARLAN, J., dissenting) (in addition, it
protects against “arbitrary impositions and purposeless restraints” by government (quoting Hur-
tado v. California, 110 U.S. 516, 632 (1884))).
4
See generally Warren & Brandeis, The Right to Privacy, 4 HARV.L.REV. 193 (1890);
Prosser, Privacy, 48 CALIF.L.REV. 391 (1960); Griswold, The Right to Be Let Alone, 55
NW.U.L.REV. 216 (1960).
5
Cooley was also the author of THOMAS COOLEY, CONSTITUTIONAL LIMITATIONS which
was first published in 1868 and went through at least six editions.
 8
refusal to permit the examination of her body so the railroad could separately evaluate the

seriousness of her injury:

No right is held more sacred, or is more carefully guarded by the common law, than the

right of every individual to the possession and control of his own person, free from all

restraint or interference of others, unless by clear and unquestionable authority of law.

As well said by Judge Cooley: “The right to one’s person may be said to be a right of

complete immunity; to be let alone.” Cooley, Torts, 29.

Union Pac. Ry., 141 U.S. at 251.

The phrase “the right to be let alone” was truly memorialized in Justice BRANDEIS’s

famous dissent 74 years ago in Olmstead v. United States, 277 U.S. 438, 478 (1928):

The makers of our Constitution undertook to secure conditions favorable to the pursuit of

happiness. They recognized the significance of man’s spiritual nature, of his feelings and

of his intellect. They knew that only a part of the pain, pleasure and satisfactions of life

are to be found in material things. They sought to protect Americans in their beliefs, their

thoughts, their emotions and their sensations. They conferred, as against the

Government, the right to be let alone–the most comprehensive of rights and the right

most valued by civilized men. To protect that right, every unjustifiable intrusion by the

Government upon the privacy of the individual, whatever the means employed, must be

deemed a violation of the Fourth Amendment.

 9
(emphasis added)

While the “right to be let alone” originally emerged in this Court’s cases in a dissent, the

existence of a constitutional right “to be let alone” is now well accepted. The Court has

repeatedly cited Olmstead and considered “the right to be let alone” as a part, not only of the

Fourth Amendment,6 but also the First,7 Fifth,8 and Fourteenth9 Amendments and a general right

of privacy.10 Many state and federal courts have used the phrase as well.11

The “right to be let alone” is now so substantial and ingrained into the Fourth Amend-

ment that it has been found to outweigh even the weightiest of governmental interests: The

interest in procuring evidence to prosecute a violent crime. In Winston v. Lee, 470 U.S. 753,

765-66 (1985), the Court denied the government the ability to obtain evidence by forced major

surgery on the body of the accused to remove a bullet, even where the search would certainly

produce evidence of a violent crime:

The Fourth Amendment protects “expectations of privacy,” see Katz v. United States, 389

U.S. 347 (1967)–the individual’s legitimate expectations that in certain places and at

certain times he has “the right to be let alone–the most comprehensive of rights and the

6
California Bankers Assn. v. Shultz, 416 U.S. 21, 65 (1974); Winston v. Lee, 470 U.S.
753, 758-59 (1985). See Katz v. United States, 389 U.S. 347, 350-51 & n.6 (1967).
7
Stanley v. Georgia, 394 U.S. 557, 564 (1969); Rowan v. U.S. Post Office Dept., 397
U.S. 728, 736 (1970). See also note 10, infra.
8
Tehan v. United States ex rel. Shott, 382 U.S. 406, 416 (1966). See United States v.
Morton Salt Co., 338 U.S. 632, 651-52 (1950).
9
Eisenstadt v. Baird, 405 U.S. 438, 453-54 n.10 (1972).
10
Bartnick v. Vopper, 121 S.Ct. 1753, 1766 (2001) (BREYER with O’CONNOR, JJ.,
concurring); Hill v. Colorado, 530 U.S. 703, 716-17 (2000) (unwilling listener has a right to
avoid “unwanted communication” or “unwelcome speech”; includes right of free passage into an
abortion clinic).
11
A Westlaw® search reveals 1,031 cases using the phrase.
 10
right most valued by civilized men.” Olmstead v. United States, 277 U.S. 438, 478

(1928) (BRANDEIS, J., dissenting). Putting to one side the procedural protections of the

warrant requirement, the Fourth Amendment generally protects the “security” of

“persons, houses, papers, and effects” against official intrusions up to the point where the

community’s need for evidence surmounts a specified standard, ordinarily “probable

cause.” Beyond this point, it is ordinarily justifiable for the community to demand that

the individual give up some part of his interest in privacy and security to advance the

community’s vital interests in law enforcement; such a search is generally “reasonable”

in the Amendment’s terms.

But, the Court held that this compelled surgical intrusion for evidence implicated expectations of

privacy and personal security to such a degree that the intrusion was constitutionally

unreasonable under the Fourth Amendment even though it certainly would produce evidence of a

violent crime. Id. at 758-59. The government’s almost always compelling need to obtain vital

evidence to enforce the criminal law and prosecute a violent criminal constitutionally had to give

way to the personal dignity of the individual because the magnitude of the search made it

“unreasonable” under the Fourth Amendment.

The “right to be let alone,” this “most comprehensive of rights and the right most valued

by civilized men,” is incorporated into our Fourth Amendment jurisprudence, and it prohibits

this virtually indiscriminate urine testing program that the petitioners have implemented. Thus,

we turn to the Fourth Amendment analysis.

B. The requirement of individualized suspicion vs. special needs in urine testing

 11

To be reasonable under the Fourth Amendment, a search ordinarily must be based on

individualized suspicion of wrongdoing. See Vernonia, 515 U.S., at 652-653. But

particularized exceptions to the main rule are sometimes based on “special needs, beyond

the normal need for law enforcement.” Skinner, 489 U.S., at 691 (internal quotation

marks omitted). When such “special needs”–concerns other than crime detection–are

alleged in justification of a Fourth Amendment intrusion, courts must undertake a context

specific inquiry, examining closely the competing private and public interests advanced

by the parties. See Von Raab, 489 U.S., at 665-666; see also id., at 668. As Skinner

stated, “In limited circumstances, where the privacy interests implicated by the search are

minimal, and where an important governmental interest furthered by the intrusion would

be placed in jeopardy by a requirement of individualized suspicion, a search may be rea-

sonable despite the absence of such suspicion.” 489 U.S., at 624.

Chandler v. Miller, 520 U.S. 304, 313-14 (1997).

This Court has sustained compulsory urine testing under the special needs exception in

Skinner v. Railway Labor Executives’ Assn., 489 U.S. 602 (1989) (testing of those involved in

accidents or who violate certain rules), National Treasury Employees Union v. Von Raab, 489

U.S. 656 (1989) (testing permitted of Customs officers who carried firearms was reasonable;

tests of others not reasonable because of no government interest), and Vernonia School District

47J v. Acton, 515 U.S. 646 (1995) (testing permitted of student athletes). It struck down

compulsory urine testing in Chandler (testing of certain candidates for office unreasonable) and
 12
Ferguson v. City of Charleston, 121 S.Ct. 1281 (2001) (neonatal urine testing unreasonable

where results were shared with law enforcement).

This case involves Tecumseh School’s effort to test persons involved in extracurricular

activities by extending Vernonia beyond its reach. In this “context specific inquiry,” amici

submit that petitioners present no “special needs” for their program. The requirements of

Vernonia that permitted suspicionless urine testing of student athletes on a true showing of need

are simply nonexistent in this case.

C. Vernonia applied

Vernonia gives three factors to test the constitutionality of a drug testing policy: (1) the

“nature of the privacy interest upon which the search here at issue intrudes,” 515 U.S. at 654; (2)

“the character of the intrusion that is complained of,” id. at 658; and (3) the “nature and

immediacy of the governmental concern at issue here, and the efficacy of this means for meeting

it,” id. at 660. Petitioners’ argument must fail if it cannot satisfy any one of the three Vernonia

factors. While the Tenth Circuit found only the third factor weighed heavily in favor of the

school children, amici submit that the other two factors also weigh in their favor, and this Court

should affirm.

1. The “nature of the privacy interest”

The Court of Appeals found that students applying to extracurricular activities had “a

somewhat lesser privacy expectation” than other students. Earls v. Bd. of Education of Tecum-

seh Public School Dist., 242 F.3d 1264, 1276 (10th Cir. 2001). Amici disagree with this
 13
conclusion because there is indeed a significant privacy interest involved in the act of urination

of non-student athletes, notwithstanding the Tenth Circuit’s application of Vernonia.

There can be no doubt that we all have a reasonable expectation of privacy in our urine,

particularly when it is taken from us on demand by government. Ferguson v. City of Charleston,

121 S.Ct. at 1287; Vernonia, 515 U.S. at 652; Skinner, 489 U.S. at 617. In Von Raab, 489 U.S.

at 617, this Court said:

Unlike the blood-testing procedure at issue in Schmerber, the procedures prescribed by

the FRA regulations for collecting and testing urine samples do not entail a surgical

intrusion into the body. It is not disputed, however, that chemical analysis of urine, like

that of blood, can reveal a host of private medical facts about an employee, including

whether he or she is epileptic, pregnant, or diabetic. Nor can it be disputed that the

process of collecting the sample to be tested, which may in some cases involve visual or

aural monitoring of the act of urination, itself implicates privacy interests. As the Court of

Appeals for the Fifth Circuit has stated:

“There are few activities in our society more personal or private than the passing

of urine. Most people describe it by euphemisms if they talk about it at all. It is a

function traditionally performed without public observation; indeed, its

performance in public is generally prohibited by law as well as social custom.”

National Treasury Employees Union v. Von Raab, 816 F. 2d 170, 175 (CA5 1987).

Because it is clear that the collection and testing of urine intrudes upon expectations of
 14
privacy that society has long recognized as reasonable, the Federal Courts of Appeals

have concluded unanimously, and we agree, that these intrusions must be deemed search-

es under the Fourth Amendment.

It is also a “seizure.” Id. at 617 & n. 4, citing United States v. Jacobsen, 466 U.S. 109, 113

(1984).

The passing of urine into a cup and then handing it over to a school official may be not

much more of an invasion of privacy than what a student athlete endures part and parcel of

“going out for the team,” including “communal undress” and having a preseason physical which

includes a urine test. Vernonia, 515 U.S. at 657. It is, however, a far greater invasion of privacy

to one who does not willingly subject him or herself to such communal activities. How does it

remotely follow that one who joins the Academic Team, Band, Choir, or FHA at Tecumseh has

voluntarily engaged in a communal activity that lessens his or her expectation of privacy? It

does not. It is completely illogical. Petitioners bear the burden of showing a justification, and,

to satisfy Fourth Amendment reasonableness, it must be logical and not the strained and tenuous

justification they proffer.

Our use of public bathrooms does not lessen our expectation of privacy at all. Unless one

is homebound, he or she will have to use bathrooms larger than their bathroom at home when

away from home, and other people may be in there, too. While it is true that others in a public

bathroom can hear us urinate, they are certainly not listening to make sure we are not seeking to

deposit bogus urine in a urinal or toilet. Moreover, they are not trying to force us to urinate on

cue into a cup while listening for tampering and then take that urine from us to feel its
 15
temperature through the side of the cup then hold it up to the light to examine its color and

converse or make light of it in the process, as happened here.

Even though we do not commonly experience government looking and listening to

discern the temperature, quality, and quantity of our excretion, our expectation of privacy in the

act of excretion is an “expectation . . . that society is prepared to recognize as ‘reasonable.’”

Katz v. United States, 389 U.S. 347, 361 (1967) (HARLAN, J., concurring). Our “understandings

that are recognized and permitted by society”; Minnesota v. Olson, 485 U.S. 91, 99-100 (1990),

quoting Rakas v. Illinois, 439 U.S. 128, 144 n.12 (1978); dictate that the act of urination be and

remain private unless there is a compelling governmental need to overcome that privacy.

We may expect our luggage on a bus or airplane will be handled by others who might

push it aside or move it, but our societal expectation is that we do not expect it to be handled by a

government agent seeking to “search” it by feeling it to discover the contents. Bond v. United

States, 529 U.S. 334, 338-39 (2000). Similarly, while heat escapes from our home, societal

expectations protect us from the police using a thermal imager without a warrant to discover

what we are doing inside our own homes. Kyllo v. United States, 121 S.Ct. 2038, 2043 (2001).

If our luggage on public transportation is protected, a fortiori, why is not the private act

of excretion in a public bathroom? Amici submit that Bond requires that petitioners’ position be

rejected under the first Vernonia factor. To state, without reasoned analysis, that non-athletes

have no reasonable expectation of privacy in their act of urination because of their participation

in group activities distorts both reality and the basis of Vernonia beyond all its limits. How is it

that any group activity of the Academic Team, Band, Choir, and FHA somehow makes the act of

urination no longer private? On a road trip they still use the bathroom alone, unlike the athletes

with their communal locker rooms and showers.

 16
Students cannot have reasonably been said to have sacrificed their privacy to that degree

by attending public school. The nature of petitioners’ argument is that if the Court approves

Tecumseh’s urine testing program, it will be expanded to all students in any extracurricular

activity, just as some commentators have sought,12 and then to all students, as others have

sought.13 Such end results are neither acceptable nor reasonable under Fourth Amendment

reasonableness and Vernonia.

School children are required by the law in every state to attend school through a certain

minimum age. Higher education is, however, a privilege, and entry into one’s school of choice is

often highly-competitive, requiring more than just good grades. Accordingly, many students

must engage in extracurricular activities to get into the college they want,14 as did Miss Earls

getting into Dartmouth. If students in virtually any extra-curricular activity may be drug tested,

the school effectively only drug tests the college-bound; i.e., the mediocre and unambitious

students, the slackers (those supposedly most at risk to use drugs), would be the only ones

exempt from such a search. That is a curious result: Tecumseh penalizes excellence by drug

testing those who desire to better themselves and immunizes those students who have no

ambition and no desire to go to a non-state supported college. Students need only avoid

extracurricular activities to avoid detection as a drug user, and they would get neither drug

12
James M. McCray, Urine Trouble! Extending Constitutionality to Mandatory
Suspicionless Drug Testing of Students in Extracurricular Activities, 53 VAND. L. REV. 387, 426
(2000); Ralph D. Mawdsley & Charles J. Russo, Random Drug Testing and Extracurricular
Activities, 159 EDUC. L. REP. 1, 15 (2002).
13
See Joanna Raby, Reclaiming Our Public Schools: A Proposal for School-Wide
Testing, 21 CARDOZO L. REV. 999, 1024-28 (1999) (Vernonia supports school-wide urine
testing).
14
Trinidad School Dist. No. 1 v. Lopez, 963 P.2d 1095, 1109 (Colo.1998), quoted by the
Court of Appeals below, 242 F.2d at 1276.
 17
education nor treatment. Thus, it is reasonableness turned inside out and stood on its head.

What is worse, it explains itself as bad policy.

2. “Character of the intrusion” is significant

The Court of Appeals found the character of the intrusion is no different here than in

Vernonia, 515 U.S. at 660: “the invasion of privacy is not significant.” 242 F.3d at 1276.

Amici submit that this, too, is incorrect. As stated above, the invasion of privacy

contemplated here is more significant and embarrassing than the student athletes in Vernonia.

Add to it the fact that students are summoned from class for testing rather than tested during their

normal athletic training amongst each other, and attention is called to the fact they are being

tested. They are stigmatized by being called out because being singled out by the school is an

anathema to many teenagers. This is no small matter; they have “a right to be let alone” unless

the government can show a weighty justification.

3. “Nature and immediacy of the governmental concern . . . and the

efficacy of this means for meeting it”

The Court of Appeals found on this factor that the Tecumseh drug testing policy failed to

satisfy Vernonia, and it held the Tecumseh policy failed. 242 F.3d at 1276-79. This is correct

for multiple reasons beyond what respondents will argue:

a. The “drug problem” at Tecumseh is virtually non-existent

 18

One critical basis for the holding in Vernonia was the trial court’s finding that an

“epidemic” of drug abuse existed there and there was “rebellion” “particularly [of] those

involved in interscholastic athletics.” Id. at 662-63. This case, however, involves a school

district with virtually no drug problem to address before the testing program was adopted. To

the date of the summary judgment, only 3 students of 500 over the testing years (nearly 800

students in school every year) had tested positive: 0.6% of those tested. That is hardly the

“epidemic” found in Vernonia. Rather, this situation is more like the “lack of a concrete danger”

found in Chandler v. Miller, 520 U.S. at 319.

Real numbers would “shore up an assertion of special need for a suspicionless search

program.” Id. Here, there are no real numbers. Tecumseh has the good fortune to have virtually

no drug problem, but they want to create one to justify their drug testing program and as a mere

symbol to the school district’s commitment to drug-free after school activities. That alone

should make it constitutionally suspect under Chandler.

b. The testing program here is both over- and under-inclusive

At what point is there a “drug problem” under Vernonia? What percentage of those who

have ever used drugs versus those who are currently using drugs is relevant? And what

percentage is permissible and over what span of years? 5%? 1%? 0.6%? 0.01%? At what

point do the indiscretions of few, a number so small that can be counted on one hand out of the

nearly 1500 students15 that must have passed through Tecumseh during this program, justify

15
And, if that many students passed through, three positive tests is 0.2% of the whole
number.
 19
government’s ability to drug test practically everybody? Id. Because a small number of the

general population commit crime, government has no power to treat all of us as criminals and

search us for crime prevention; see City of Indianapolis v. Edmond, 531 U.S. 32, 44 (2000)

(general roadblocks unconstitutional); or to seek to prove us guilty by fingerprinting without

individualized suspicion. Davis v. Mississippi, 394 U.S. 721 (1969) (dragnet for fingerprints

unconstitutional). But, that is what this drug testing program really is.

The selection of students to be drug tested is both over- and under-inclusive and deprives

the testing program of any opportunity to truly serve the school district’s true interests in

combating (future) drug abuse in students. Accordingly, it fails to satisfy Fourth Amendment

reasonableness.

Tecumseh requires non-athletes involved in the Academic Team, Band, Choir, Show

Choir, Color Guard, Future Farmers of America (FFA), and Future Homemakers of America

(FHA) to submit to drug testing as a condition of participation for safety reasons.16 It does not,

however, require students involved in laboratory classes in chemistry, biology, or physics be

tested, nor does it require testing of students in shop classes or driver education. The school

board was concerned about the dangers to students having to handle and wrestle large animals

while under the influence, but it expresses no concern with students having to handle and wrestle

with, for example, saws and drills, an acetylene torch to weld or cut metal, red hot or sharp

metals, an automobile engine being installed in a car or a car being placed on jacks for repair,

wielding a scalpel in biology or handling acid in chemistry, or learning to drive a car with no

experience. We must conclude that because Tecumseh decided to test students in extracurricular

16
How the Academic Team, Band, or Choir are at risk of injury will never be explained.
 20
activities, the school board felt that testing those in extracurricular activities would be approved

by the courts after Vernonia.17

Amici submit that drug testing the Academic Team is counterintuitive. If student drug

usage is so insidious and destructive that it causes students to have with lower grades and poor

performance, then drug usage by members of the Academic Team would readily show up in their

performance and they would be dropped from the team. Every reason petitioners cite concerning

deficient academic performance by drug users excludes the Academic Team by definition from

any need to be drug tested. Thus, the Academic Team is tested, but apparently only for Vernon-

ian cover because application to any extracurricular activity triggers drug testing under this

policy.

Just because some people drive drunk, government does not have the power to stop every

car to look for drunk drivers. Michigan Dept. of State Police v. Sitz, 496 U.S. 444, 454 (1990),

quoting Delaware v. Prouse, 440 U.S. 648, 661 (1979) (traffic stop to look at driver’s license

was unconstitutional; “‘standardless and unconstrained discretion is the evil the Court has

discerned when in previous cases it has insisted that the discretion of the official in the field be

circumscribed, at least to some extent.’”). A drunk driver on the streets, however, is a far greater

threat to others than a student who might have done drugs at some undefined time in the past

who tests positive but is not under the influence. One can see a drunk driver by the way he

drives, and that gives officers individualized suspicion to stop the vehicle for further

investigation. That is individualized suspicion by definition. Tecumseh tests a large group of

students with no suspicion or legal justification whatsoever.

17
See McCray, note 12, supra (Vernonia permits drug testing of anyone involved in any
extracurricular activities).
 21
Under Chandler’s “context specific inquiry,” the policy here fails to include others who

are more of a risk to themselves or others if under the influence of mind-altering substances at

school. And, at the same time, the policy includes those who could not be under the influence or

they would not possibly be in the covered group (e.g., the Academic Team). The third factor of

Vernonia, 515 U.S. at 606, the “nature and immediacy of the governmental concern at issue here,

and the efficacy of this means for meeting it,” must consider the overbreadth of this program.

Therefore, the program is constitutionally unreasonable because of its sweep alone.

c. This testing program is not swift enough to justify dispensing

with individualized suspicion under T.L.O.

One premise of applying the “special needs” exception to students in New Jersey v.

T.L.O., 469 U.S. 325 (1985), is that a warrant requirement “would unduly interfere with the

maintenance of the swift and informal disciplinary procedures needed in the schools.” Id., 469

U.S. at 340. This urine testing program is not swift—the urine sample is sent to a drug

laboratory in Tulsa for testing, and it is tested differently a second time if it tests positive.

J.A.70. An officer may require an hour or two to get a warrant, but it presumably takes one

business day for the mail to go between Tecumseh and Tulsa, a little over 100 miles. Therefore,

if the test is performed upon the sample immediately upon receipt and the results are mailed back

from the lab, the results would not be revealed for a minimum of two days—hardly the kind of

swift response contemplated by T.L.O. See Griffin v. Wisconsin, 483 U.S. 868, 876 (1987).

d. This drug testing program sets a poor example for the students
 22

The Tecumseh testing program creates a poor example for the students. When a testing

program is enforced against so many people without individualized suspicion, they learn that

individual liberty is meaningless. Students also see this testing program as largely symbolic, and

the school district loses credibility. “For good or for ill, [our Government] teaches the whole

people by its example.” Olmstead, 277 U.S. at 485.

Experience should teach us to be most on our guard to protect liberty when the

Government’s purposes are beneficent. Men born to freedom are naturally alert to repel

invasion of their liberty by evil-minded rulers. The greatest dangers to liberty lurk in

insidious encroachment by men of zeal, well-meaning but without understanding.

Id. at 479, quoted in Van Raab, 489 U.S. at 687 (SCALIA, J., dissenting).

Those who lose because of the lack of understanding that begot the present exercise in

symbolism are not just the Customs Service employees, whose dignity is thus offended,

but all of us–who suffer a coarsening of our national manners that ultimately give the

Fourth Amendment its content, and who become subject to the administration of federal

officials whose respect for our privacy can hardly be greater than the small respect they

have been taught to have for their own.

Van Raab, 489 U.S. at 698 (SCALIA, J., dissenting).

 23
D. Reasonableness—the ultimate question in any warrantless search

The ultimate Fourth Amendment question, as always, is “reasonableness.”

[T]he Fourth Amendment does not proscribe all searches and seizures, but only those that

are unreasonable. . . . What is reasonable, of course, “depends on all of the

circumstances surrounding the search or seizure and the nature of the search or seizure

itself.” . . . Thus, the permissibility of a particular practice “is judged by balancing its

intrusion on the individual’s Fourth Amendment interests against its promotion of

legitimate governmental interests.”

Skinner, 489 U.S. at 618, quoting Prouse, 440 U.S. at 654, quoted in Vernonia, 515 U.S. at 652.

This Court has long held that the “fundamental inquiry in considering Fourth Amendment issues

is whether or not a search or seizure is reasonable under all the circumstances.” United States v.

Chadwick, 433 U.S. 1, 9 (1977).18

Amici submit that the testing program employed by Tecumseh does not “fit within the

closely guarded category of constitutionally permissible suspicionless searches” (Chandler, 520

U.S. at 309) because the testing program is both over- and under-inclusive. It is not narrowly

drawn with a view toward limiting the number of students subject to testing to those who truly

18
Accord: Griffin v. Wisconsin, 483 U.S. at 873; O’Connor v. Ortega, 480 U.S. 709,
719 (1987); Donovan v. Dewey, 452 U.S. 594, 602 (1981); Delaware v. Prouse, 440 U.S. at
653-54.
 24
19
require it. As the Court of Appeals pointed out, if it permitted this drug test, “schools could

test all of their students simply as a condition of attending school.” 242 F.3d at 1278.

That is what school districts want, but this form of suspicionless and standardless testing

does not satisfy the “special needs” exception for warrantless searches of the person. Therefore,

it is unreasonable under the Fourth Amendment.

CONCLUSION

The judgment of the Court of Appeals should be affirmed.

Respectfully submitted,

19
Amici do not agree that suspicionless urine testing of high school students is
constitutional. Nevertheless, we are governed by Vernonia, so we operate within its holding.
 25
JOHN WESLEY HALL, JR.*
523 West Third St.
Little Rock, AR 72201
(501) 371-9131
Counsel for NACDL

LISA B. KEMLER
108 N. Alfred St.
Alexandria, VA 22314
(703) 684-8000
Counsel for NACDL

* Counsel of Record

DONNA M. SHEA, Legal

Director
NORML FOUNDATION
1001 Conn. Ave., NW
Washington, DC 20036
(202) 483-8751

MICHAEL D. CUTLER
46 Kenwood St.
Brookline, MA 02446
(617) 738-1722
Counsel for NORML

TIMOTHY LYNCH
THE CATO INSTITUTE
1000 Mass. Ave., NW
Washington, DC 20001
(202) 842-0200

KEVIN B. ZEESE, President

COMMON SENSE FOR DRUG
POLICY
1327 Harvard, NW (lower)
Washington, DC 20009
(202) 299-9780
26